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THE GOLDEN BOOK OF
CheJm:ll.s1try Exper:ll.Jmen1ts
How to Set Up a Home Laboratory-
Over 200 Simple Experiments
BY ROBERT BRENT
ILLUSTRATED BY HARRY LAZARUS
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GOLDEN PRESS ~ NEW YORK
Used by Chem.:lsts
Add, 8 co mpound
t hat releases hydrogen ions in sol ut ion.
AlIo}- , a ma teri al ma de up 0)"combining
t wo or mor e met al s.
breaking do wn a compo und
into 1"'-0 or more substa nces .
Anh)'drous , free Crom wa ter.
Atom: t he smalles t uni t or a n clement
that Ca ll en te r in to the making of a
che mical compound.
Atomic weight : the weigh t of an a tom
compa red wi t h t he weight of an oxy gen
at om set at 16.
Ba"e: a compound conta ini ng th e hy-
droxide group ( OH).
Catal p ;! : a subs tance t hat helps i n a
che mical reaction without it.-;eIr bein g
changed.
Chemical change : a change of a sub-
sta nce into anot her sub stance having
differen t propert ies.
Chemhlr)': II branch of scie nce dea ling
with the compositions of substa nces and
the changes that can be made i n t hem.
Com b ust i o n : burni ng ; a che mica l
cha nge that produces bea t a nd ligh t .
Com pou ml , a subs t ance consist ing of
t wo or more different kinds of atoms in
defini te proportions b)' weigh!.
Cry.stal: a solid i n whi ch atoms or mole -
cul es are ar ra nged i n a defini te pa tt ern,
Density , t he weigh t of a liq uid or a
solid in grams pe r cm
S
or mi llil ite r.
Di stillate: a liqui d th at has be en tu rned
int o ,-apor and again cooled into a liquid.
Di stillation : th e process of pr oduci ng
a di stillat e.
Ductile: ca pable of be ing drawn out into
a wire.
Elect rol ysis , breaking down a subs tance
b)' passi ng an electric current through i t .
Electeofyte s a substa nce t ha t , when in
a sol ution or wh en melted , will conduct
an electric curr ent.
Element : a subs ta nce t hat con ta ins onl y
one kin d of a to ms .
Equation' a complete descri pt ion of a
che mical read ion h y t he usc of symbol s,
formul as, and signs .
E,'aporation: the changi ng of a su b-
sta nce into vepor , al so the process of rc-
movi ng wa ter b)' hea lin g.
Filtrate: a liquid obtained b)' filtrat ion.
Filtration: the proce ss of st raini ng a
liquid from a sol id t hrough po rous mate-
rial, usuall y filt er pa per.
Formula : a gro up of symbols an d num-
be rs giving t he composi tio n of a com-
pound .
1I )'drate: a compound cont aining loosel y
bo und wa ter of hyd rat ion ( wa ter of
crys talliza ti on) that can be driven off
b)" heat ing.
H)dro."ide ; a compound that contains
the hydroxyl (OH ) radica l.
Ion : an electrically charged atom or
group of a toms ( radical) .
.'\l alleahle: ca pable of being h ammered
or rolled in to a thi n shee t.
-'latter: a n)-tiIing t hat take s lip spa ce
a nd has weight .
-'Ictal: an eleme nt t ha t is a good co n-
du ct or of clect ri "i t )-. hilS luster, an d
whose oxide Corms a ba se wi th wa ter,
--'tetalluid: an element t hat has proper-
of both met al s and no nmetals.
:\lhtllre: a mi ngli ng of subs tances not
co mbine d ch emicall y.
-'Iolecular t he sum of the
atomic ...-ei gh ts of th e a to ms that mak e
up a molecule of 6 co mpo un d .
:\Ioleculc : the smalles t u ni t of a co m-
pound t ha t caa exist i n the Cree sta te.
::'Ii"eutrali2ation: th e reacti on of an acid
and a b ase to gi ve a salt and wa ter .
Xonmctab a n ele me nt th at is a poor
conductor of elec t ri cit y, does no t have
lust er, a nd whose oxide form s a n acid
whe n combined wit h wa ter.
Organic chemistry: t he chernisfry uf
t he ca rbon compo unds .
O."id"t i un: t he process h)" wh ich 8 sub_
sta nce combines wi th oxygen.
P recipitat e : a n insol uble solid Corm ed
in a sol ution b )' chem ical reaction .
Radi cal: a group of a tom s t ha t be ha' -e
chemica ll y a s a sing le atom.
Rea ction: a chemical change.
Reduction: remo val of oxygen : t he op-
poslte of oxidation.
Sa lt : com po und (ot her th an water )
Icrrned b )' t he react ion of a n acid a nd
a base.
Sa t u ra t ed sol u ti on : a sol ution t hat
contains t he maxi mum a mount or sol ute
under the co ndi tions .
Soi li b ili t ): th e number or grams of a
sol ute needed to mak e II sa t urated so-
lu tion in 100 grams of solvent,
Sol u t e : tbe subs tance dissolved in a
sol vent.
Solution: a non-set tling mixture of a
solute in a soh ' en t.
Soh e n t : a liqu id in whi ch a sol ut e is
d is.."Oh -cd .
S u h li m a t i o n : a p roce ss b y whi ch a !'OJ-
ill is t urned into va po r and 81?ai n cooled
into a sol id wi thout passing through a
liquid st age.
S u b scri p t : a small numeral indi cating
t he numbe r of atoms of a certa in ele me nt
i n t he formula of a compound .
Su bst a nce : any specific ki nd of maHer
whe t he r element , t'Ompo und, or mi xture.
Sp n hul : a lett er or t wo letters repre-
sen ting one a tom of an cl ement.
S)' lIthesi ;;: t he making u p of a co m-
pound fro m si mpler co mpounds or f rom
elements ; t he opposi te of anal ysis.
Valence: t he number of hy d rogen a toms
which one a tom of a n elemen t can dis-
place oc wit h which it can unite.
2
copper
o
lin
Fe
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Contents
-: .-- -
\HUT CHD IISTRY IS
\\' ORDS USED BY C HEm51'S _......... ....
T HE hlPORTneE OF CII.," STRL __ __ __ __ __ __ _ -I
C HEUlSTS OF THE P .\ST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
YOUR LABORATORY
FOR C UElliSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
SElTI:'\G UP YOUR Hosre L.-\ BOR U ORY . _ 10
2\1.-\KI:"i G ApP.\R.nu s FOR .. _. _ 12
ScIE:\iIFiC :\1E.-\SUREME::\ iS . . _. 14
CORRECT LUJOR..-\TOR'i TECH:oiIQUES. _ . . . 1 6
TilE SCI ENTIFIC APPROACH
:\ I ft. F AR.\D.-\Y' S C .\;m LE . . . . . .... _. . . . . . . . 18
You - SClE. ...,.ISTI . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . .
ELEllE."\'TS, Coneouxos, axn .:\I LXTURF.5 .. ... . 22
WATER AND GASES
W ATER - OUR :\I OST htPORTA..'\'T CmlPOl;::"O 2-l
OXyG. - T HE BHE.-\TH OF L WE 26
I1TDROGE:"i - LIGHTEST OF ALL. _ . . ... .. . . 28
C_,"BOX DlOxlOE___________________________ 30
X ITnOGE:-i .-\.. "\'"0 I TS Coasouxos _.. 32
C HLORI;'liE - FRIE;'Ii D 1.... ....m F OE . .. ... .. .. .. . . 3-t
CIIDIICAL
C HEmc.\L SnORTIU.:"'-O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
THE PERIODIC T ABLE OF THE . . . . . 38

.' XD P OTASSJU:'\! . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 58
C .UCIL")I- FOR BUlLDI:"G... . . . . ...... .. . 60
Let 's CO\ IPARE Two . .. . . ....... . . 62
- t x ABUl'i O...........CE .. . . .... . . . . . 6-t
:\h:"'-G.\ XESE- OF ;\1.,:...- ". COLOAS .. . . . 66
WE L" 'E IX _'- AGE OF Ie ox 68
COPPEA - Y ESTEAo .n -, Toner -:0
SILYEA - O:"'-E OF THE ":\"OBLE" :\h:r.-\Ls . 72
ABOUT
Y.U"'iCES xxu F OAUUL.-\S... . . . . .. .. ... .. -:1
ORGANIC
C .\ RBO:'i - Er.eusxr OF .. \ \1 1LL1O:" CmIP01J:'i"Ds. 76
Tne C UEm STRY OF C .'RBO:" CO:'>IPOU:,\"])S . . . . . 78
T HE FOAU1.1"-S OF' C .'RBO:S CO:'>IPOU:...-OS . . . 80
A LoT OF' H YDROC.\ ABO:sS .. . ...... ...... 82
C.lliBOHymUTES - S WEET .' XD B L \.... .....D 8-t
:\1.,::,\ ""\, KI:"'-DS 01" ALCOHOLS . .. . . . . . . . . .. . 88
C...auoxvt.rc A CIDs . .. . .. ... ... .. .. . .. ... .. 90
F .\TS .\ :"'- 0 OILSFOA E :'iERGL 92
SoAP axn SOW .\hKL......G.. . . . . . . .. . 9-t
P ROTEI:'iS-THE Booy- BUlLDDOG FOODS . . . . 96
Cciaoro...L DISPERSIO:xS .. . . . . . .. .. ... . 100
l"\.'TljRlI.L .\ :"'- 0 A RTI F'lCH L FIBERS . ... . . . . 102
P L.-\s TI CS - A \ IODER. -x G U..'iT . . .. . . . . . 10-t
ACIDS. BASES. AND SALTS
Tue OF SOLUTIO;'IiS. . . . . . . . . . .. . . 40
WOR..lil:"'-G WITH A CIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
W ORKJ :"'- G WITH B.\SES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -t3
SALTS - CIIl'JIIC.u.s OF \I A:"'- '" U SES. . . . ... . 46

10 0l:"'- E - YIOLET OA Bnowxs . . . . . . ..... . . -t8
S l."LFlJR A;'Ii D ITs CO.\IPOU",,"DS 50
S ILICO:'; - Tne You STEP ox 5l
BORO:" - F L"TUlI E HOCKET-POWEA ELE:'>I El'iT? . 56

WORKI :" G OUT C HEmc.' L EQU.\ TIO:"S .. . . ... . 106
THE FUTURE OF CHE.\ IISTRY
W H.-\T' S AIIE...U> L..... C HEl llSTRY? . . . . . . . 109
WHERE TO GET CITE:'>I1c-u-<; .\ :"'- 0 EQU1P:'oIE;'IiT . . 110
Cosmox C UEm c .\LS ax0 THEIR FO"-"I UL\ s .... 111
I :sDEx .... . ... . . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . 112
3
I
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EVERY HOME KITCHEN IS A CHEMICAL LABORATORY .-: . ,
CooKINC AND CLEANING ARECHEMICAL PROCESSES.
I
.s:-T="......
The Importance of Chemistry
THERE IS HARDLY 8 boy or a girl ulive who is not
keenly interested in finding out about things. And
t hat' s exactly what chemistry.. is: FINDING OUT
ABUUT THINGS - finding out what things are
made of and what changes they undergo.
'\\n at Any thing! EWT)" t hing!
Take a look around )"OU. AU the things you see-
and lots of things you can't see - have to do with
t he science of chemistr y.
Let's start wit h yourself. The air you breathe is
a mixture of chemi cal substances and the process of
breathing is a chemical reacti on. The foods ) "OU eat
arc aU chemical products and the ways In which
your body turns th em into muscles and bones and
ner ves and bruin cells aTC some of the greatest of all
chemical mysteries.
The clot hes you wear, t he books you read, the
medicine you take, t he house in which ) -OU live -
all these are products of chemistr y. So is the famil y
car - the metal in it , the rubber on which it rolls.
th e gas t hat moves it.
Nat ure itself is a t remendous chemical laborat ory.
Everyt hing in nature is forever passing through
chemical changes. Here on eart h, plants and animals
"' - .9-_1
PURI FICATION OF WATER
CHEMISTRY PROVI DES fUEL FOR
All KINDS OFTRANSPORTATION.
INSEa SPRAYS MEAN
HEALTHIER LI VESTOCK.

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4
a

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o '
UNITED STATES IS THE WORLD'S
LEADING PRODUCER Of STEEl.
.. ..
o 0
D:
i
ATOMI C ENERGY FOR
THE fUTURE
OIL IS THE BASIS fOR COUNTlESS CHEMICAL PRODUa S.
I
5
'::'";:..
. -.
-- "- :
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PAPER AND PRINTERS'
INK ARE MADE WITH
HElP Of CHEMISTRY.
grow, die , and deca y: rocks crac k and cr umble under
the influence of air and water. In th e universe, new
stars are formed, ot hers fade. The sun that gin's us
heat and light and energy is a flaming furnace of
chemical processes that will eventually burn itself
out, billions of years from now.
Chemistry is one of the most import ant of all sci-
ences (or human welfare.
Chemist ry means the difference bet ween poverty
and starva tion and t he abundant life. The pr oper
use of chemistry makes it possible for farmers to feed
t he world's ever-Increasing population. for engineers
to develop new means of transportat ion and com-
mu nicati on that will bring the peoples of the world
closer together. for doctors t o cure t he diseases of
mankind. for manufact urers to produce the t hou-
sands of it ems t hat are necessary for better and
richer li ving.
And t his is only the beginning,
Wi t hin recent years, scient ists have succeeded in
penet rati ng into the inner most secrets of chemical
subst ances and have begun to make use of the t re-
mendous force t ha t lies hidden in them. This atomic
power opens up amazing possibilities for t he futur e.
You will live in a world in whi ch chemi stry will
become eve r more important . To understand t hat

world it is necessary to understand the truths and
laws on which modern chemist ry is based and to learn .. ..
how chemists of the past unraveled them.
This book will help you get thi s insight - not
alone b )' your rea ding it . but also b ) ' your conscien- "_'._; .. ..
tiously doing the experiments descr ibed and learning
what each of them has to tell you.
II
A u-\ Jt
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\'#1' ';;' :,.,,;::::.;?-- r::
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.- l ' ..' . ' .... ... "C
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....- .<; .. -,' .? ,.: ' ........./.,.,
0- L\::' ..' I . - -, 1;' .
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se-;
Chemists of the Past
care about what happened or why it happened. It
was only about 2,500 years ago that phil osophers
began to wonder about what things were made of
and what happened when a thing changed into some-
thing else.
Around 400 B. C. , in Greece, a thinker by the name
of Empedocles came up with an idea that seemed to
make sense. He explained that everything in the
world was made from just four things which he
called " elements" : fire. water, air, and earth. Think
of that burning st ick mentioned above. It gave off
flre c-c so. obviously, the st ick had to contain fire.
It sizzled - which meant there was water in it. It
smoked - and smoke would be some kind of air. It
left ashes - and ashes are earth, as certainly every-
one should know.
Everyo ne - except another Greek, Democritus.
born around the time when Empedocles died. He
had a different notion - that all matter was made
up of tiny particles whi ch he cal led alamos - some-
thing that cannot he cut further.
But Demoeritus didn't get w ry far with his idea.
The greatest Greek philosopher of the day, Aristotle,
held out for the four elements. And becau se of his
great reputation thi s fal se idea governed the thinking
of scient ists for two th ousand years - because no
one dared suggest that he kn ew better than th e great
Arist otle!
sublimate
o
o
;\1....Ny years ago, an early ancestor of
yours pushed a sti ck into the hot lava flowing from
an erupting volcano. The st ick burst into fire. He
held it up as a torch. It gave off light and heat and
finally turned into ashes.
This ancient man might be considered the world ' s
first chemi st. He had actually taken a subst ance
called wood and had, by a chemical process called
combustion or burning, turned it into something else.
The di scover y of the use of fire was the first great
step leading toward modern chemistry. Fire n-ade it
possible to turn raw foodstuffs into edible meal s, to
bake shaped cia )" into pottery, to make glass, to
drive metals out of their ores.
For thousands of years people were chiefly inter-
ested in the results of what they did - they didn't

SYMBOlS USED BY ALCHEMISTS
.JL
/
BRONZE-AGE MAN WAS ONE PARACHSUS TOLD HIS PU
Of THE EARLIEST CHEMISTS. PIlS TO USE EXPERIMENTS.
DEMOCRlTUS INSI STED THAT BOYLE INVESTIGATED GASES
MAITER CONSISTS Of ATOMS . AND BROKE OLD TRADITIONS.
6
In the meantime', scientis ts of Arabia began work
in a subject t hey called alc-hemy - from Arabic ai,
the. and kimia , pour ing together. They mixed things
and boiled and di sfillr-d and ext rac ted in the hope,
some day, of finding a wa y of making GOLD! They
di scovered a great number of things not previously
known, developed many sound laborator y methods,
and gave t he science of che mistry its name - hut
t he)' neve r created t he slightest speck of gold. Nei -
t her did a great number of European alchemists.
For hundreds of ):ears chemistry made little bead-
wa)". Then, in 1525. a Swiss doctor and scient ist
spoke up. He ha d t he imposing name of Theophras-
t us Bombast us Peracelsus von Hohenheim. He chal-
lenged his st udents to tear up t heir books with the
old theori es that had been developed through reason-
ing only and to find out for themselves through er-
perimenls whether a scientific t heory was right or
wrong. But only a few peopl e paid attention t o him.
More t han a hundred years passed before an Eng-
l ishman, Robert Boyle, in 1661. succeeded in killing
ofT the old idea of the four elements. He did it h)"
estahlishing that there are man)' elements - sub-
sta nces t ha t cannot he formed b)' other substances
and cannot be broken int o other substances.
Anot her hundred years went b)' . Then , at the t ime
of the American Revolution. the day finally dawned
for modern chemist ry.
- .
ASwede. Karl Scheele. and an Englishman, J oseph
Priestley, discovered oxygen. and a Frenchman, An-
toine Laurent Lavoisi er , explai ned t he t rue nature
of burning lind made up the first scientific listing of
all known elements - twent y-eight at the ti me.
Within a few years, more elements were found.
With t he help of electricity, an English chemist ,
Humphry Davy, in a single year bro ugh t to light
six new met al s - among them sodium, potassium,
calcium, and magnesium.
Twenty years later, in 1828, anot her important
break-through occurred. A Gennan chemist, Fried-
rich Wohl er, working in his laboratory produced a
chemical, urea, that had never before been ma de
out si de the body of a li ving ani mal.
More and more t hings were happening. New ele-
ments were di scovered. new chemi cal s crea ted. The
advances in chemist ry grea tly influenced industr y,
agricul tu re and medicine.
And t hen. in 1898, the Polish-born ~ l a r i e Curie
and her French husband, Pierre, discovered the "mir-
acl e element." radium, This opened up a whole new
age in chemist r y.
Wit hi n t he last fifty years, chemistry has moved
forward wit h giant steps. Bu t not a single one of
these steps would have been possible wit hout t he
dedicated work of the chemists of the past who laid
the foundation on whi ch modern chemist ry rest s.
._-"
PRIESTLEY USED HEAT Of DAVY BROUGHT ELECTRICITY
SUN TO PRODUCE OXYGEN. INTO CHEMICAL RESEARCH.
LAVOISIER GAVE THE RIGHT MARIE CURIE AND HER HUS-
EXPLANATION OF BURNING. BAND DISCOVERED RADIUM.
7
REGULAR LABORATORY WARE
watch
glon
wire gauze with
asbestos center
-
/'
"
"
beakers
-;;
,
h
,
"t
,
,
<,
~ :
"
~
graduated cylinders
Florence
f1a5k
- -
evaporati ng
dish
utility d amp
funnel
filter paper
crucible ond lid
8
clay-stem triangle
ring support
support
sland
El][Uiprncl1lf for Cheoostry
IMPROVISED EQUIPMENT FOR HOME LAB
olive jar
2 oz.
water
gloss
I '
'-- -- --;-'--"
,
, ,
':'
"
mayonnai se "
ior 4Dz. ~ ~
=
screwtcp con
1 pint
Soxa of the greatest di scoveri es in chemistry were
made by scient ists who had no special equipment
but simply used whatever was at hand.
In your home lab experiments it will pay you
t o follow th e example of thf'sf' ('arly chr-mists. Put
your imagination to work. Use whatever suita ble
equipment you can find around the house (as sug-
gested in column to the right) and h u ~ .. only what is
absolutely necessary (as shown below). Some items
may he purchased in a local drugstore or scientific
suppf .. shop. If not , ) ' OU ca n buy them from one of
the suppliers listed. on page 11O.
Lat er on - i f you Teall)" get excited about chem-
ist ry - you rna)' want to use your pocket money for
some of the lab equi pment shown on page 8.
LABORATORY WARE FOR HOME LAB
(
(
plestle
funnel
cus tard cup
:';::/EF,\
" ~
~ ,
ink bott le
olcohol burner
stands made
of clothes
hanger wire
rubber tubing
JI." inside diameter
test t ubes, Pyrex
16 mm x1 50 mm
rubber sto ppers
numb ers 00 to 6
med icine
dropper",,, ,,-/,
glass tubing
5 mm ou tside diameter
tria ngular file
wide-mouth
bo ttle, .4 oz .
'-.-/
red ond
bl ue
litmus
poper
o
9
--
./
IN A REGULAR LAB,
EVERYTHING HAS ITS
PLACE AND IS NEAR
AT HAND. AIM TO
KEEP YOUR OWN LAB
AS WEl l ORGANIZED.
Setting U p Your H om.e L abor at or y
BOX TO HOLD HOME
l AB CA N BE MADE
f ROM PLYWOOD. KEEP
BOX l OCKED WHEN
NOT I N USEAS A PRO
TEOION fORYOUNG
ER CHILDREN.
wastepoper ,":.r L-'-
basket
siph on
bo ttle
1
plast ic
pail fo r '-__--'
waste
IT I S possible t hat you may be permitted to work.
at t he kitchen table when t his is not in use. But it
is far better if you haw a place where you will not
be disturbed and where ~ ..ou can st ore your equip-
ment - a corn er in your room, or in th e basement
or t he garage.
These are the things you' ll need in your lab:
Work 'Tnble, An old, st urdy table will do. Cover
it with a plastic t op t o protect th e wood.
Water Su pply. If you have a faucet nearby,
fine. Otherwise, make a siphon boule (page 11).
Waste Di sposal. If you can dump your waste
directly into t he kitchen drain (;\,OT into t he sink),
you are all right. If not , collect it in a plast ic pail
to be thrown out when you're finished.
Source of Heat. I n t he regular laboratory, spe-
cial gas burners are used . In t he home lab, you can
usc a burner for denatured alcohol. Have a shallow
metal pan under t he burner for fire safety .
St orage. If th ere' s no one around t o di st urb your
chemicals and equipment , an open shelf is OK.
Otherwise, use a box t hat can be locked up.
Con t ai ners. Keep chemicals in glass jars and
bottles. LABEL THE:\ l ALL CLEARLY.
St a nds. Xl ake your own t est tube st and as well
as stands for holding glassware for heating.
10
REGULAR LAB STANO fOR
TEST TUBES CAN BE PRO-
DUCED FROM STRIPS Of
1f.l-INCH WOOO_ souow
PATTERNS BelOW TO MAKE
TWO SIDES AND THREE
HORIZONTAL PIECES. DRILL
HOLES. ASSEMBLE WITH
THIN TACKS.
make 2 of these-cut
ane along dotted line
7%"
YOU CAN MAKE A SIMPLE TEST TUBE
STANO fROM A SALT BOX_ CUT OUT
SIDE AND USE CUT-OUT SECTION TO
KEEP TEST TUBES LINED UP STRAIGHT.
0
0
=
0
c
=

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= >
=
=
=
y,
c
-'
c
0
0

3" I
1+---' -
I...
A
t
t
8"
: make 2
1of 1
cui lipstick
contoiner al
dotted line
use half
of Thermos ffrjJ ....c.. '.-. .
bottle cork : .:
6 .... . ..
M <:.-. t=:::J
If YOU DO NOT
HAVE RUNNING
WATER IN YOUR
LAB, MAKE SIPHON
fROM A I-GAllON
BOTTLE. START
SIPHON BY BLOW-
ING THROUGH
l-SHAPED GLASS
TUBE. SPRING
CLOTHES PIN
REGULATES
WATER now,
I+-- 3
112"

MAKE AN ALCOHOl BURNER FROM INK
BOTTLE, THERMOS BOTTLE CORK, AND LIP-
STICKCONTAINER. BUYWICK AT A HARD_
WARE STORE.
t
1
/
,
,
I
J"
STRIP Of THIN CARDBOARD MAKES I
AN ADEQUATE TEST TUBE HOlDER. IF
YOU LIKE, YOU CAN MAKE A HOlDER
FROM CLOTHES HANGER WIRE AS
SHOWN HERE.
t
4"
USE A PAIR Of PLIERS FOR MAKING
THESE STANDS FROMCLOTHES HANGER
WIRE. ALSO MAKE THE FUNNel STAND
IllUSTRATED ON PAGE 9.
t
11
9om

- --+1
I
7 om
i i
,
.
,
.
"
No. 5
_ ' <E- 5 cm'_-+l
t
E
u

:
i1
E
u

,
1

E
u

No. 5
f iRST DECIDE ON
APPARATUS YOU
Will NEED. THEN
fIGUREOUT SIZES
Of PARTS. THESE
ARE THE PARTS
FOR THE SAFETY
GAS GENERATOR
ON PAGE 29.
It ,
t
Making Apparatus for Experiments
.\IOST of you r chemical experiments you will perform
in t est t ubes and jars. But occa sionally you will need
an appa ra tus - a device consisting of bottles and
stoppers. glass and rubber t ubing.
A good chemist t akes prid e in his apparatus. H('
makes it wit h great ca re - not just for looks but .
more impor tant , for safel y. An apparat us t ha t leaks
flammable gas can be very dan gerous.
Before you star t t o put an apparatus t oget her.
make a simple drawing of it so that you will know
wha t it will consist of. Th!'D get c ut the various parts
you will need to put it together.
To make an appara tus, you nero t o know how to
cut a glass tube. how to bend it , and how to draw
it to a jet point . Sre page 13.
It is wise to use glass t ubes of one diameter a ni)' ,
wit h rubber t ubing to fit. Glass t ubes of an outside
di amet er of 6 millimet ers lit snugly into t he holes in
t he usual rubbe r stoppers. Rubber t ubing of an in-
side di ameter of fits UH r the 6mm glass t ubes.
To det er mine t he right size stoppers to use in t he
bot tl es of your appara tus. measure th e mouths of
the bottles against the stoppers shown below in
ac t ual size. Order stoppers number. Keep a selec-
tio n of different sizes on hand.
F(,II"w the "a fpl y prp('llulillll S 011 pa .C' '' In.
15 mm 17 mm 19 mm 20 mm
2.4 mm 26 mm
27 mm
=
0=
=
No. 00 No. 0 No.1 No. 2 No.3 No.4 No.5
10 mm
Il,..
13 mm 14 mm
16 mm
18 mm
20 "1m
THESE AU THE ACTUAL SIZES OF RUBBER STOPPERS. BY
MEASURING THEM AGAINST YOUR lAB WARE YOU Wi ll
KNOW WHICH TO ORDER. No. 0 FITS THE 16 mm TEST
TUBE. No.5 f iTS .4-0l. WIDE.MOUnt BOTItE.
12
fire glaze lip
~ -,- -
~ - -
ROUND THE ROUGH EDGES OF CUT
TUBE BY ROTATING IN flAME. THIS
IS CAllED " f i RE GlAZING."
MAKING JET POINT
<- ->
he al for aboul 1 Vz inches
FIRE GLAZING
CUT EDGES
. _ ~ -....
---
use triangular file
push thumb s a way from you
CUnlNG GLASS TUBES
thumbs under mark
MAKE SINGLESCRATCH WITH fI LE-DO NOT " SAW:'
HOLDTUBE WITH BOTHHANDS, THUMBS BElOWMARK.
SNAP TUBE JNTO TWO PJECES WITH A QUICK JERK.
1 HEAT SECTION OF TUBE EVENLY WHERE YOU WANT
TO fORM JETPOINT, BY ROll iNG IT IN THE flAME.
WHEN SOFT, PUll SLOWLY. CUT APART WHEN HARD.
IF HEATED TOO
MUCH, THE TUBE
WIll f LATTEN
OR " BUCKLE,"
t
100 hoi here
100 hot he r;
POOR BEND ~
POOR BEND bend qui ckly
,
BENDING GLASS TUBES
~ : : . .
""""....... H' AT THAT PART Q1D
TU BE EVE NL Y (( _
WHEREYOU WANT TO
BEND IT, fOR ABOUT
TWO INCHES, BYROLL-
ING AND MOVING
THE TUBE BACK
AND fORTH.
WHEN GLASS IS
FT, REMOVE fROM
FlAME_ BEND QUICK ""-
lY. HOlD UNTIL THE
GLASS HARDENS.
13

V
-
( .' .....
Scicntihc M casUJrcm.ents
1:-; SCIE:'iCE, the met ric system is preferred oyer our usual sys -
tem. lt is much easier to work wit h when once you have learned
it - for inst ead of dividi ng or mult iplying by 12 or 32 or 16
to go from one unit t o the next , you simply move t he decimal
point. Ju st remember t hese two things:
1. That the names of t he basic units are meter for lengths,
liter for volumes, grams for weight s - abbreviated to m, I,
and g (wit hout a peri od al ter them).
2. That 1000 of a kind are called ki lo; 100, hekto; 10. deca:
1/ 10 is called dccl : 1/100, ccnt i ; 1/ 1000, milli.
METRIC UNITS OF LENGTH
1000 met ers [m] = 1 kilometer lkml
1 meter 1m) = 100 0 millimete rs (mml
1 met er 1m) =39.37 inches
2.540 ce nt imet ers {em] = 1 inch
METRIC UNITS OF VOLUME
1 liter (II =10 00 cubic cen ti mete rs
( c m ~ or ccl
lite r {I! = 10 00 milliliters (mil
1 liter (I) =1.06 qu a rts (liquid)
0.946 liter (I! =1 q uort (liquid!
METRIC UNITS OF WEIGHT
100 0 groms {gl =1 kilogr a m {kgJ
1 g ram {gl =10 00 milligra ms lmgl
1 g ram (gJ =0.035 ounces ovoird u-
pais
28 .350 gram s (gJ =1 oun ce a voir-
dupois
cubic centimele r
em' =1,c=
milliliter =
ml
Ma king a Model
of a Cubic
Ce ntimeter
BOTTOM LINE Of FIGURE
TO THE RIGHT IS I DECI-
METER (1 dmJ OR 10 CEN-
TIMETERS PO em) OR 100
MILLIMETERS (100 11'111'1).
FRONT SURFACEOF f IGURE
IS 1 SQUARE DECIMETER (1
dm'l OR 100 SQUARE CEN-
TIMETERS It 00 em'l.
VOlUMEOF WHOl Ef iGURE
IS I CUBIC DECIMETER (1
dm' l OR 1000 CUBIC CEN.
Tl METERS (1000 (m' OR
1000 eel all. 1000 ann.
LITERS 11 000 11'111all. I lITER
(I I). 1 r WATER WEIGHS
1 KILOGRAM (1 kg }.
~
~
---
1 cubic decimeter = 1 liter = 1000 cubic; ce nlimele n = 1000 millilileu
I'I I I I , I lI I I I ' I 11 I I I I I I I 1I I ' I I I 'j
ce nti meter
ruler
inch
ruler
.d
m
USE PATTERN BElOW
TO MAKE BEAM WITH
TONGUE ATTACHED.
CUT CAREFUllY WITH
MAKE THETWO PANS FOR
THE HAND BAlANCE FROM
TOP AND BOTTOM Of A
FROZEN JUICE CAN OPEN
MAKING A HAND BALANCE
~
.
.
CAN AT SIDE. CUT THE
TIN SNIPS. FOLD BEAM
PANS WITH TIN SNIPS.
a ~
LENGTHWISE. PUNCH
HOLES WITH NAIl.
FOR MANY ex-
)
.".
PERIMENTS YOU
jf-
NEED TO WEIGH YOU CAN USE COINS TO
CHEMICALS. f OR
GD
WEIGH 2.5 s. 59. 7.5 g. 10 s.
r-
-- ~ 2.5 9
THIS, MAKE A
--
ETC. FOR SMAllER WEIGHTS, 10
HAND BALANCE.
CUTA TIN STRIPTO WEIGH THE
rider
~ E Q
SAME AS A NICKEl. THEN CUT
9
~
=
5
IT IN FOUR 1 9 AND TWO .5 9
WEIGHTS.
8
.I
11 I 1
" ~ I
7

"
- I

1
6
,
Go.
MAKING A GRADUATE
Scotch
5
A GRADUATE 1$ USED FOR
MEASURING LIQUIDS.
lope

ASSEMBLE BALANCE
....:!
3
AS SHOWN . IF
Il
YOUR 6- TEST TUBE HOlDS
BEAM DOES NOT
22 ml. YOU CAN USE IT FOR
BALANCE HOR ) ROUGH MEASUREMENTS:
2
ION TAll Y. PUT TUBE NOT QUITE f Ull IS 20 ,
SMAll -erose- CUT ml, NOT QUITE HALf FUll 10
1
fROM TIN CAN mi. fOR SMAllER AMOUNTS,
7
OV ER ONE ARM OF COpy THE RULER TO THE
,
THE BEAM.

RIGHT AND ATTACH IT TO

,
THE SIDE OF A TEST TUBE

WI TH SCOTCH TAPE fOR

read a t botto
c ~
(JI. :5}
s
MEASURING ",I's.
of hollow
{called minisc
0 pallern for bar and 0
la ngue for hond balance 0
.-.._--------------- - - - - - ----- -- - - -- - - - - - - ---- --- - ----- - - - - ------ - --------- -- _.-----
0 0
0
\ \ ~
,
;
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
0
,
,
,

0
,
0

,
,

,
,
,
paltern for support for hand balance

, ,
t paper clip
fF="':l>
t tack

15
PLACE USED EQUIPMENT TO THE
S DE FOR CLEANING WHEN EXPERI
MENT IS COMPLETED.
I,
'--
4 MAKE
NOTES OF
YOUR
FINDINGS,
SET O UT A LL THE
EQUIPMENT AND THE
CHEMICALS YOU NEED
.-, "; :.
L READ INSTRUOIONS lL
'" REFUllY BEFORESTART.
l' ING EXPERIMENT. ..,;
\
\ " %l

Correct Lahoratory Techniques

l x YOUR home laborator y, t hree consider ations are
of t he greates t importance: SAFET Y, X1::..\TXES5.
and E..\:,,\CTXESS.
SAFhiY - AU the expe riments in this book are
safe when done in the correct laboratory way as
shown on these pages.
Treat chemicals wit h respect . Never taste any-
thing unl ess specifically told to do so. If there an'
younger children in t he Family. lock up your chem-
icals whe n you are not working wit h them.
Protec t your clctbes with a pla st ic apron.
Be careful with fire, Wh en you use your al cohol
burner, have a metal pan under it for safet y.
:\"EATXESS - Gel the habi t of lining up eq uip-
ment and chemicals you need on one side and placing
uSN.! items on t he opposite sid.. - keeping the space
Is-tween them r-l ear for rour experiments.
Pul chemicals away and clr-an glassware as S(MlO
as you have finished an exper iment .
E..'\. .\ CT:'IESS - Label all be t t les and jars con-
taining chemicals dearly and correctl y.
Where amounts of chemica ls are not given. use
the smallest amount t hat will tell yOIl what you want
to know.
Observe the chemical rea ctions carefully and make
complete not es of them as you go along.
PLAYSAFE WHEN YOU PUT A CLASS TUBE IN A STOPPER.
PROTEO YOUR HANDS BY WRAPPING TOWel AROUND
THEM. MOI STEN GLASS TUBE AND STOPPER WI TH WATER,
THEN PUSH THETUBEINTO THE STOPPERWI TH A SCREW.
DRIVER MOTION.
WHEN YOU MAKE AN APPARATUS FOR A CHEMICAL EX.
PERIMENT. MAKESURETHAT All CONNEOIONS ARE AIR.
TICHT, USE THE RIGHT SIZE STOPPER FOR MOUTH OF
CONTAINER, GLASS TUBES THAT FIT SNUGLY INTO THE
STOPPER HOlES, AND TIGHT-FITTING RUBBER TUBING.
16
DO NOT BRING TEST
TUBE UP TO YOUR
NOSE fOR SMELti NG.
INSTEAD, WAfT THE
ODORS TOWARD YOU
WITH YOUR HAND.
USE A GLASS ROD TO
DIRECT THE STREAM
WHEN POURING A uo.
UIO FROM ON E CON-
TAINER TO ANOTHER.
TRAINED CHEMISTS NEVER PUT
STOPPER OF BOTTLE ON DESK-
THEY KEEP IT IN ONE HAND.
1 TAKE STOPPER OFF BOTTLE
WITH YOUR LEFT HAND.
U\ KEEP STOPPER IN THE LEFT
HX'NO WHilE YOU POUR FROM
THE BOTTlE IN YOUR RIGHT,
WITH THE LABEL f ACIN G UP.
THEN REPLACE THE STOPPER.
0_ , 0
~ . -,
2
)
WHEN HEATING A SOLID IN A TEST TUBE,
PLACE THE TUBE IN A STAND AND MOVE
THE FLAME OF YOUR BURNER BACK AND
FORTH TO HEAT THE CONTENTS EVENLY.
IN WEIGHING OUT A DRY
CHEMICAL, PLACE EQUAL-
SIZED TISSUE PAPERS ON
EACH PAN OF THE SCALE.
ROl L JAR BETWEEN fiN-
GERS OR TAP IT GENTlY
WITH YOURINDEX FINGER.
YOU HAVE
THE RIGHT
CHEMICAl.
MAKE IT A HABIT
TO READ A LABEl
\
-,
,
,
v,
,
, -;;,
..
USE A TESTTUBE BRUSH FORCLEANING TEST
TUBES. RINSE IN COLO WATER.
WHENHEATING A tl QUIO IN A TEST
TUBE, HOLD TUBE WITH A HOLDER.
KEEP THE TUBE MOVING. DO NOT
HEAT BOTTOM OF TUBE-CON_
TENTS MAY "BUMP" AND SQUIRT
OUT. NEVER POINT MOUTH OF TEST
TUBE TOWARD YOURSel F OR TO-
WARD ANYONE eus.
17

,:1"
Mr. Faraday's Candle
MAKE A GAS WORKS
FROM A CANDLE BY
HOLDING A GLASS
TUBE, DRAWN TO A
POINT, IN THE FlAME
AND LIGHTING THE
VAPORS AT THE END
OF TUBE.
Ix TIIE wint er of 1859, :'.li chael Faraday , a great
Brit ish scient ist. gave a number of lectures for young
people. The talks dealt with one subject only : th e
features or " phenomena" of - a candle!
" There is not a law," Faraday t old his listeners.
" under whi ch any part of t his universe is governed
which does not come into play and is touched upon
in t hese phenomen a, There is no better, there is no
more open door by which ) "OU can enter into th e
st udy of natural philosoph y th an b)" considering the
phenomena of a candle." He then set out to prove
his point by light ing a candle and demons trat ing all
the processes invol ved.
In burning a candle ) "011 sta r t with a SOLID sub-
stance t hat t urns, first , into a LIQUID, then into a
GAS (or, more correc tly, into a gas-like vapor). The
melt ed candle grease is held in a level posit ion b)'
GRAVITY yet seems to defy gra vity by rising in t he
wick by a force called CAPI LLARY ACTIOX I n
burning. th e candle produces EiXERGY in the form
of LI GHT and HEAT. At th e same time, it goes
into CHE:\ IICAL REACTIO.:\S t hat reveal what
it is made of.
As you enter th e stu dy of chemistry, )- OU can do
no better t han t o repeat for yourself some of t he
experiments that :\Ir. Faraday demonstrated t o his
)'oung audi ence.
YOU CAN ACTUALLY LEAD
THE VAPORS FROMA BURN-
ING CANDLE THROUGH A
BENT GLASS TUBE INTO A
WATER GLASS. IF LEFT
ALONE, WHITISH VAPORS
CONDENSE INTO A SOLID.
BLOW OUT THE CANDLE, THEN
QUICKLY BRING A LIGHTED
MATCH INTO THE VAPORS.
CANDLE IS AGAIN IGNITED.
YOU CAN PROVE IN SEVERAL
WAYS THAT THE FlAME OF A
CANDLECONSISTSOF BURNING
PARAFFIN VAPORS.
CANDLE flAME IS BURNING VAPOR
PLACEA BURNING CANDlE IN THESUN AND CATCH
THE SHADOW ON A PIECE OF WHITE PAPER. YOU
WILL DISCOVER THAT IT IS THE BRI GHTEST PART
OF THE FLAMETHAT CASTS THE DARKEST SHADOW_
18
CANDLE CONTAINS
HYDROGEN
A CANDLE FORMS WATER WHEN IT BURNS. ONLY
HYDROGEN BURNI NG IN OXYGEN FORMS WATER.
HOlD A COLD GLASS FOR A fEW MOMENTSOVER
BURNING CANDLE. DEW FORMS ON THE INSIDE.
S BY WIPING FINGER INSIDE THE GLASS YOU CAN
M KE DEW flOW TOGETHER INTO WATER DROPS.
l .;;::-."g... ,$
CRUSH A fEW ICE CUBES
AND SPRINKLE THEM WITH
SALT. WRAP IN ALUMINUM
FOIL HOlD OVER BURNING
CANDLE. WATER DROPSWILL
FORM ON THE OUTSIDE OF
THE FOIL
LIQUID
SOLID
WHAT YOU FOUND OUT
HEAT
11,000 C)
, water
""-- vapor
(H.D)
LIGHT
11 cendte-
powe rl
19
1 PLACE fUNNEL OVER flAME. HOlD
HTED MATCH IN HOT AIR f ROM fLAME.
MATCH GOES OUT IN THIS AIR.
!2 PLACE TEST TUBE OVER FUNNEL AND
UECT HOT AIR. POUR LIME WATER INTO
TUBE AND SHAKE. LIME WATER GETS
CLOUDY FROM CARBON DIOXIDE.
WHAT PART Of THE
flAME IS HOTTEST? "" \ ,
TO f iND OUT, PUSH
PIECE OF CARDBOARD SIDEWAYS INTO flAME.
OUTSIDE OF FlAME SCORCHES A SOOTY RING.
1
PLACE PIECE OF WIRE
SCREENING OVER
f lAME, SCREENING
COOlS THE f lAME
AND SOOT FORMS.
THESOOT IS CARBON.
I
.. ..
', . ,
. \ '
\",
ANOTHER
TO SHOW THAT i. ,
CANDLE CON
TAINS CARBON I
IS TO PROVE
THAT CARBON
DI OX IDE I S
FORMED WHEN
CANDLE BURNS.
CANDLE CONTAINS CARBON
00
, "
~ .. \ . ':.
--/'" ... .."
-;..---
You-Scientisf!
IN 1896. a young Poli sh chemist , .Marie Curie. and
her French hu sband. Pierre. decided to find out why
a cer tain uranium ore called pitchbl end e gave off
ra ys th at were much stronger t han the uranium con-
lent of th e ore could explain.
They secured a whol e ton of powde red are from
a mine in northern Bohemia and set to work. First
the powder had to be boil ed with strong acids to
ext ract the myste rious substance hidden in it. Then
the solution had to be filt ered and boiled down.
What remained had La be purified by various proc-
esses whi ch the Curies had to invent themselves.
Aft er t wo years of back-breaking work t hey reach-
ed their goal. One night they went to t he shed in
which they had been working. They opened t he door
and stepped in without putting on t he lights. All
around th em, the containers that held the solut ions
of the new substa nce glowed in t he dark! They had
di scovered a new element - rad ium - a million
t imes more act ive than uranium.
op e n e nd
place in funnel
fiLTRATION l - THE LIQUID 15 PROB-
ABLY STI LL MURKY. TO CLEAR IT, IT
NEEDS TO BE FI LTERED BY LETTING IT
RUN THROUGH FILTER PAPER I PAPER
TOWELING WILL DOl.
_ i .
r
,_ .!
.,---
DECANTATION-LET DIRT-MIXED
SALT SOlUTION STAND UNTIl MOST
OF THEDIRTHAS SETTLED. THEN POUR
OFF THE LIQUID. THIS PROCESS IS
CAllED ""DECANTATION.""
SOLUTION-STlR WATER INTO THE
MIXTURE OF SALT AND DIRT. THEWA-
TER WILLDISSOLVETHESAtT BUT NOT
THE DIRT. YOU NOW HAVE THE SALT
IN " WATERY SOLUTION:"
20
Why t ell again the storv of t he diseoverv of
radi uma Because it contains all the features tha t
show the nature of the true scientist .
Curiosity first. The Curies were curious about th e
mystery that lay in that greyish-black powder. They
became obsessed wit h a desire t o find out - not in
the hope of gaining money or fame but to est ablish
a scient ific t ruth.
Before starting th eir work, the Curies gathered all
the known fact s abou t the mat eri al wit h which th ey
were to work. To thi s knowledge they added their
own imagination, figuring out the method t he)" had
to use t o arrive at the resul t they were seeki ng.
For th e next two years they lit erall y slaved in the
dr afty shed th at was th eir laborator y.
Aft er they had made their discovery, the Curies
made their meth od of extracting radium known to
the world so that ot her scient ists could check and
test wha t they had done.
As an example of the scient ific meth od the Curies
used, let us follow in their footsteps - but wit h a
much simpler problem:
1 MIX THOROUGHLY ONE TABLESPOON OF DIRT AND
ONE TEASPOON OF ORDINARY TABLE SALT. NOW DE-
CIDETHAT YOU WANT TO EXTRACT THE SALT FROMTHIS
MIXTURE AS EARNESTlY AS THE CURIES DECIDED TO EX-
TRACT THE MYSTERIOUS SUBSTANCE FROM PITCHBLENDE
- WITH THE EXCEPTION THAT YOU KNOW WHAT YOU
ARE AFTER.
.2 GET THE FACTS TOGETHER. DIRT IS "DI RTY," SALT IS
WHITE. DIRT PARTICLES AREOFMANY DIFFERENT SHAPES,
SALT CONSISTSOF TINY CUBES. DIRTDOES NOT DISSOlVE
IN WATER, SALT DOES.
3 NEXT FIGURE OUT A SUITABLE WAY OF SEPARATING
THE TWO SUBSTANCES. ON THE BASl S OF WHAT YOU
KNOW YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO SEPARATE THEM WITH
A PAIR OF TINY TWEEZERS-BUT IT WOULD PROBABLY
TAKE YOU A YEAR TO DO IT. OR YOU COULD DISSOlVE
THESALT IN WATER AND SEPARATETHE SOlUTI ON FROM
THE INSOlUBLE DIRT.
4 YOU DECIDE ON THE SECOND WAY, USING THE
STEPS SHOWN ON THE BOTIOM OF THESE PAGES. IN
DOING THIS, YOU DO WHAT THE CURI ES DID IN EX-
TRACTING RADIUM AND LEARN, IN THE PROCESS, THE
IMPORTANT LABORATORY TECHNIQUES OF SOlUTION,
DECANTATION, FILTRATION, EVAPORATION, AND CRYS-
TALLIZATION.
S FINALLY, YOU CHECK THE RESULT. THE WHITE SUB.
STANCE LEFT AFTER EVAPORATION SHOULD BE SALT-
BUT IS IT? IT LOOKS LIKE SALT. IT TASTES LIKE SALT. BY
CHEMICAL TESTS YOU CAN PROVE THAT IT IS SALT.
\

>

= - - - ~ - . ~ . ~
By using the same procedure in all other experi-
ment s in thi s book you are learnin g the meth ods
th at real scient ists follow in their work - you are
becoming a scientis t yourself.
FILTRATION 2-FOlD FILTER PAPER
AS SHOWN ON OPPOSITE PAGE AND
FITIT IN FUNNEL POUR LIQUID ONTO
FIlTER PAPER. CLEARED LIQU I D I S
CALLED .. FILTRATE."
EVAPORATION-THE FILTRATE CON-
TAINS THE SALT. THE SALT CAN NOW
BE FREED BY REMOVING THE WATER
BY BOILING IT AWAY. THISIS KNOWN
AS "EVAPORATION. "
CRYSTALLIZATION_AS WATER IS
REMOVED, THERE IS TOO UTILE OF
IT LEFT FOR THE SALT TO STAY IN
SOlUllON. THE SALT MAKES ITS AP-
PEARANCE AS TINY CRYSTALS.
21
Element s, C ompounds, and Mixtures
I N ALL your experiments in chemistry, )"OU will he
dealing wit h " matter."
Mauer is anyt hing tha t takes up room and has
weight (or "mass" ). An iron bar is matter - it takes
up room and is heavy, as you YeT)' well know. Water
is matte r ---.. it takes up room when )"OU fill a pail
with it . and a full pail weighs plenty. The air around
)"OU is matter - it takes up lots of room; it may not
seem very heavy, yet the ea rt h' s atmosphere presses
down on every square inch of your body with a
weight of almost fifteen pounds.
Matter has three dist inct forms. Iron. for in-
stance, is a SOLID. Water is a LIQUI D. Air has
t he form of a GAS.
I f ~ i O U should t ake iro n and divide it again and
again until ) 'O U couldn ' t divide it any fur ther, ever y
t in)' particle would st ill be iron. A t hing t hat consists
of one kind of matter ani)' is called an ELE:\ IEl\'T.
Take water, on t he other hand. You will learn t o
break water up into t wo kinds of matter - each of
them an element . A thing in which two or more ele-
ment s art" combined chemically is called a CO.:\f-
POUJXD_In a compound the proportions of t he dif-
ferent elements that make it up ar e always exact ly
the sarne.
Air also consists of different kinds of matter, but
they are not romhinr-d chemically - they are simply
mixed together. When you make a .:\IIXTURE. you
can mix t he ingredients together in any proporti ons
that suit you.

MAKING A COMPOUND
MI X TOGETHER 2 9 OF flOWERS Of SULf UR
AND 3.5 9 OF I RON f iLINGS. PLACE MIXTURE
IN A DAMAGED TEST TUBE. HEAT. SHORTLY
A CHEMICAL REACTION TAKES PLACE.
THE MIXTURE GLOWS AND BLACK
I RON SULf I DE f ORMS. THI S
CANNOT BE SEPARATED
INTO SULFUR AND IRON
AS IN PREVIOUS
TESTS.
POWDEREDSULFURANDIRON CAN BE MI XED
TOGETHER IN ANY PROPORTIONS AND
AGAIN SEPARATED.
DRAG A MAGNET THROUGH THE SULFUR-I RON MIXTURE.
THE MAGNET Will PICK UP THE I RON PARTICLES.
2 POUR HYDROCHLORIC ACID ON SOME Of THE MIXTURE
IN A TEST TUBE. IRON DISSOlVES, SULfUR DOES NOT.
22
TWO ELEMENTS AND A MIXTURE
ELEMENTS ARE SUBSTANCES THAT CONSIST OF ONE METALS, METALLOIDS {METAL. lIKEl, NONMETALS. SEV
KIND OF MAn ER ONLY. THEY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO ERAL OF THE NONMETALS ARE GASES.
METALS METALLOIDS NONMETALS


";' 'fIi!:

,. n"' - ' 1
siver copper
antimony

silicon

COMPOUNDS-INORGANIC. ALL COMPOUNDS
CONSIST OF TWO OR MORE ELEMENTS. INORGANI C
COMPOUNDS IWITH A FEW EXCEPTIONS} ARE THOSE
THAT DO NOT CONTAIN THE ELEMENT CARBON.
ACIDS BASES SALTS OTHERS
WA,
ANIMALSI WERECALLED "ORGANIC." TODAY ORGAN
IC CHEMISTRY COVERS THE CARBON COMPOUNDS.
fi'I
8
ItTOI<)
t Oillf
ACID

.-

SUlFURIC
soc
CARBON COMPOUND5-0RGANIC. ORIGINALLY,
COMPOUNDS MADE BY LIVING THINGS IPLANTS AND
HYDROCARBONS, ALCOHOLS, ORGANIC ACIDS, ETC.
A
L
'0
H
o
,
CASOLiNE i
,
MIXTURES CAN CONSIST OF ELEMENTS OR COM-
POUNDS. SOME MIXTURES ARE COARSE. SOME (COL-
LOIDSI CONTAIN TINY PARTICLES. STILL OTHERS ISO-
LUTI ONS) ARE OF SAME STRUCTURE THROUGHOUT,
GRAINY MIXTURES
COLLOIDS SOLUTIONS
rock
c:;;;;;;,

4} ""'" __
ink ".;- :--;;.

. i N '
egg while
23
o
WATER CVCLE
Water-Our Most Illlpor tant COlllpound
YES. W.-\TER is the most important or all chemical
compounds. Wit hout it , there would he no lire - all
human beings and all animals would t hirst to deat h.
and all plant life would wilt and die.
Fortunately, water is also the most common com-
pound in t he world. Almost t hree quarters of t he
eart h's surface is covered by water. This water is
forever traveling. I t is turned int o invisible vapor
by evaporat ion (rom oceans and lakes and growing
thi ngs. Whe n cooled. the vapor forms douds of tiny
water drops. Furt her cooling makes the drops fall
to eart h as ra in or snow tha t fill up rivers and lakes
an d oceans an d cont inue t he water cycle.
Chemists usc nature' s mct hod to produce chem-
Icallv pure water. They t urn ordi nary tap wate r in-
to steam by boiling. then turn the steam bac k into
wat er by cooling. This process is called distillation
and the water is called distilled water.
warm
wal er
~ '---'
PLACE I TEASPOON DRY BAKING
POWDER IN SMAll JAR. ATTACH WIRE TO
CANDLE. LIGHT CANDLE AND LOWER IT
INTO JAR. CANDLE GOES ON BURNING.
NOW POUR WARM WATER ON THE
BAKING POWDER. A CHEMICAL REACTION
MAKES THE POWDER FOAM. THE GAS RE
LEASED IS CARBON DIOXIDE. IT MAKES
CANDlE flAME fLICKER AND GO OUT.
WATER AS A CATALYST
WATER HELPS BRING ABOUT MANY
CHEMICAL REACTIONS WITHOUT IT
SELF ENTERING INTO THEM. A SUB.
STANCE THAT ACTS THIS WAY IS
CALLED A CATALYST.
1 DROP 1 TABLE.
SPOON WASHING
SODA IN 112 GLASS
Of CO LD WATER.
STIR. PART Of THE
SODA DISSOLVES
SLOWLY.
REPEAT WI TH
HOT WATER. SODA
DISSOLVES QUICKLY.
HOT WATER IS USU
ALLY fASTER THAN
COLD fOR PREPAR-
ING A SOLUTION.
...
hot wcter
2
rc---"
cold wa ter
WATER AS A SOLVENT
THE MOST IMPORTANTFUNO ION OF WATER IN
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS IS AS A SOlVENT-
THAT IS, A LIQUID IN WHICH CHEMICALS MAY
BE DiSSOLVED. FIND OUT BY AN EASY EXPERI-
MENT WHETHER HEATING THE WATER HELPS IN
DISSOLVING A CHEMICAL.
TEST FOR
OXYGEN
.,
lope
,

-. ::;:
"
AS SOON AS CONNECTION IS MADE. AIR BUBBLES
BEGIN TO COLLECT IN THE TWO TEST TUBES--
ABOUT TWICE AS FAST IN ONE AS IN THE OTHER.
1 OPEN UP B"TTERY C"SE CAREFUllY WITH"
C"N OPENER " NO CLEAN THE l lNC CASING.
2 SCRAPECARBON ROD CLEAN WITH DULL kNifE.
3 ORY OUT THE MOIST BLACK POWDER. WHICH
IS MOSTlY MANGANESE OIOXIDE. STORE IN J" R.
THROWREMAINING P"RTSOF THE B" TTERY AWAY.
Performing the Electrolysis
SLIP THE TOP OF A CARBON el ECTRODE UP
I TO EACH OF THE TWO TEST TU8ES.
2 BIND THREE-OR, BETIER, FOUR- FLASHLIGHT
BATIERIES TOGETHER WITH ADHESIVE TAPE, TOP
OF ONE TOUCHING BOTIOM OF THE NEXT.
3 WITH ADHESIVE TAPE FASTEN THE BARED END
OF THE WIRE LEADING FROM ONE CARBON ROO
ELECTRODE TO THE TOP OF THE FIRST BAn ERY.
,'4 TAPE THE BARED END OF THE WIRE FROM THE
OTHER elECTRODE TO BonOM OF LAST BAnERY.
MATERIALS fOR EXPERIMENTS
AN ORDINARY FLASHLIGHT BATTERY WILL GIVE
YOU MATERIALS YOU NEED FOR EXPERIMENTS
ON THIS AND SEVERAL FOLLOWING PAGES.

broom-
slraw I 2 1 WHEN SECOND TUBE IS fULL
OF GAS, CLOSEITSMOUTH WITH
. 6
1
:
1
_ YOUR THUMB. LIFTTHE TUBE OUT
OF THEWATER WI TH MOUTH UP.
. . 2 LIGHT A BROOMSTRAW.
BLOW OUT THE FlAME. BRING
THE GLOWING END DOWN IN
THE TEST TUBE. GlOWING EM.
BER BURSTS INTO BRIGHT FlAME.
THIS IS TEST FOR OXYGEN.
"
0

.c
.
0
._.
-
-
0
0
0

0 "
0

"
0

,

TEST FOR
HYDROGEN
bared wire
. -;.. insclcted wire

3 BI N D ELECTRI -
CI AN' S TAPE FI RMLY
AROUND CARBON
RODS SO THAT NO
WIRE IS EXPOSED.
tape

3
"
WITH YOUR THUMB, CLOSETHEMOUTH OF THE TEST
BE FIRST FILLED WITH GAS. LIFT THE TUBE OUT OF THE
WATER, MOUTH DOWN.
2 BRING LIGHTED MATCH TO THEMOUTH OF THE TUBE.
CONTENTS BURN WITH A SOFT " POPI" THIS IS THE TEST
FOR HYDROGEN.
.'
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
ELEORICITY CAN BEUSED TO BREAK WATER APART
INTO THE TWO ELEMENTS O F W HICH IT CONSISTS
- THE GASES HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN.
YOU CAN GET THE REQUIREDElECTRICITY FROM THREE
OR FOUR ORDINARY FLASHLIGHT BAnERIES. YOU WILL
ALSO NEED TWO PIECES OF INSULATED COPPER WIRE
AND TWO " el ECTRODES" MADE FROM CARBON RODS.
Se"ing up Electrolysis
WATER IS A POOR CONDUC-
TOROFELECTRICITY- SO YOU
DISSOLVE 1 TABLESPOON OF
WASHING SODA IN 1 PINT OF
WATER AND Fill A WATER
GLASS AND TWO TEST TUBES
WITH THIS SOLUTION. THEN
SET UP THE APPARATUS AS
SHOWN AT RIGHT.

Making Electrodes
1 SCORE THEMIDDLEOF THE
r CARBON ROD FROM AN OLD
"l.3. . flASHLIGHT BAnERY. USING
A FILE. BREAK THE ROO INTO
rod TWO PIECES.
2 BARE THE WIRE FOR r
AT EACH END OF TWO 18"
LENGTHSOF INSULATED WIRE.
TIE ONE BARED WIREAROUND
2 END OF EACH OF CARBON
ROO HALVES.
OXYGEN
AIR-21 %OXYGEN
\
..
-
IT'S A LONG STEP fROM THE DIS
COVERY OF OXYGEN IN 1772 TO
ITS PRESENT-DAY USE IN INDUS
TRY AND HOSPITALS, AIRPLANES
AND SPACESHIPS, AND FORSEND
ING SATelLITES INTO ORBIT.
Hydr ogen peroxide contains 2 parts of
hydrogen to every 2 parts of oxygen. How
would you write it in cbemlcellengua ge)
You're perfectly right !
H
2
0
2
becomes water (H
2
0 ) and gives
off oxygen (0) when you t hrow a catalyst
into it. For a catalyst , you can use t he
manganese dioxide from an old flashlight
battery (page 25).

. . 00 X Y G Ii: N
Eleme n t 8 .

OXYGEN _ _ Atomic wt" 16.
Colorle n, odorlen
gos , support ing
combullion (burn-
ing). 1.1 weight of
err. Slightly soluble
in woler-3 vol -
umes in 100 vol -
umes ot 20 C. Ox-
yg en is the most
common element on
Oxygen-The Breath of Life
I F YOU could hold your breath for a few
minutes so that no air could get int o your
lungs, you would die.
For t housands of years, people have
known that no human being can live
without air . But it was not until Karl
Scheele. a Swedish chemist , in 1772, and
J oseph Priestley. an Englishman, in 1774,
discovered and described oxygen that
people knew t hat it is t he oxygen in t he
air that is import an t to life.
Bot h of th ese scientists discovered t ha t
things burn more fiercely in pure oxygen
than the y do in the mixture of oxygen
and ot her gases ra iled "air."
In t he lab, oxygen is produced by driv-
ing it out of certain oxygen-containing
compounds. A good one to use in t he
home lab is hydrogen peroxide. You can
get it at a drug store in a 3% solution.
Hydrogen peroxide is related to wat er,
Water. as you know. consists of 2 parts
of hydrogen to 1 part of oxygen. You
could writ e i t : Hydrogen 2-0x)'gen I.
Tha t's pretty much what chemists do -
except that t hey abbreviate the names to
initials, use small numbers, and don't
bot her about th e number L Th e formula
becomes H
2
0 .
26
MAKING A SMALL AMOUNT
Of OXYGEN
fILL JAR % fULL OF 3 Y. HYDROGEN PER-
OXIDE. ADD PINCH Of MANGANESE 01.
OXIDE FROM FLASHliGHT SAnERY ISEE
PAGE 251. TEST fOR OXYGEN WITH
GLOWING BROOMSTRAY/, EMBER GLOWS
BRIGHTER AND MAY SURST INTO FLAME.
o
, . ~
~ .
. ,
,if Il l
'"
/ .i
,.
.J'
:.
2
\)
o
o
o
o
MAKING OXYGEN IN
THE HOME LAB
THE ATMOSPHERE CONTAINS OXYGEN
;c- ~ . : : : , 1 fASTEN A SMALL CANDLE TO MIDDLE Of
PIE PLATE WITH CANDLE DRIPPINGS. fILL PIE
PLATE WITH WATER. LIGHT CANDLE. PLACE
AN EMPTY JAR. OVER CANDLE.
.2 A MOMENT LATER,
CANDLE GOES OUT.
WATER RISES IN JAR TO
REPLACE OXYGEN USED.
oxyge n is slightly
heavier than air
-so keep mouth
of jar up
~ .
" SRIDGE" fOR. "PNEUMAT
IC TROUGH" MADE fR.OM
2Yz STRIP Of TIN CAN.
MANY MATERIALS BURN IN OXYGEN
1 ATIACH TUFT Of STEel WOOL TO WIRE. HEAT
TO RED HEAT OVER ALCOHOL BURNER. LOWER INTO
JAR OF OXYGEN. IRON SURSTS I NTO flAME.
2 PLACE SMALL PIECE OF SULFUR. IN CROOK OF
BENT STRIP OF TIN CUT FROM CAN. IGNITE SULFUR.
WITH MATCH. LOWER. INTO JAR. OF OXYGEN. SUL-
FUR SURNS WITH A BRILLIANT, BLUE LIGHT.
27
1 TO COLLECT OXYGEN, YOU NEED A "PNEUMATICTROUGH."
THIS IS A DEEP, WATER- FILlED TRAY WITH METAL "SRIDGE:'
:2 FIT som e WITH STOPPER WITH L. SHAPED GLASSTUBE AND
RUSSER TUBE LONG ENOUGH TO REACH HOlE OF SRIDGE.
3 Fill Bon LE V ~ FUll OF 3Y. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, ADD
Va TEASPOON Of MANGANESE DIOXIDE. PUT THE STOPPER IN.
!II fill JARWITH WATERAND PLACE IT UPSIDE DOWN ON THE
BRIDGE IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE OXYGEN BUSBLES INTO IT
AND nus IT BY fORCING OUT AND REPLACING THE WATER
5 WHEN JAR IS fULL OF OXYGEN, SLIDE A GLASS PLATE UN-
DER OPENING (OR PUT STOPPER IN IT)- TURN JAR RIGHT SIDE
UP-QUICKLY, TO PREVENT THE OXYGEN FROM ESCAPING.
..
-, ,.,.'
~
. , .
'.. ....
r----- '"
of All
HnlROGE.'"\ is the lightest element in existence - YJ. ..
the weight of air. For this reason 0 0 1' of its early
uses was for filling balloons. The first man-carrying
gas balloon was sent up by the Frenchman. Jacques
Charles. in I i83. The danger of using an explosive
gas for . this purpose was demonstrated in 1937 in
the Hindenburg disaster, when th e hydrogen-filled
Zeppelin dirigible exploded on arriving at Lakehurst,
New Jersey, after a trip across the Atlantic Ocean.
Thirty-six people lost their lives.
Hydrogen is one of the most important of all the
elements. It is found in all living things - your own
body is approximately 10 per cent hydrogen. Water.
as you know, is part hydrogen. So is the food you
eat, the milk you drink, the clothes you wear, and
such common, everyday things as gasoline and fuel
oil and cooking gas.
In the home lab , )'OU can make hydrogen by add-
ing st rips of zinc from a flashlight battery to hydro-
chloric acid which consists of hydrogen (II) and
another gas called chlorine (CI). The zinc forms a
compound (ZoCl
1
) with th e chlorine and sets the
hydrogen free (III) '
HENRY CAVENDISH, WHO DIS-
COVERED HYDROGEN IN 1766,
HAD NO IDEA OF THE ASTON-
ISHING FORCE OF HYDROGEN
WHEN RELEASED IN A BOMB.
HYDROGEN IS liGHTEST
GAS KNOWN
) FIll A POP BOnlE 1 J ~ FUll OF HAlF-
AND-HALF MIXTURE OF HYDROCHLORIC
ACID AND WATER. DROPIN HALFA DOZEN
ZINC STRIPS. LET NO flAME COME NEARI
2 FIT BALLOON ON MOUTH OF BOTTLE.
3 WHEN BAllOON IS INflATED, TIE
OPENING WITH STRING AND REMOVE
FROM BOnLE. IF PERMITTED, BAllOON
Will RISE TO CEILING INDOORS. OUT.
DOORS, IT WILL SOAR UP IN THE SKY.
HYDROGEN FORMS WATER WHEN IT BURNS
1 Fill TEST TUBE 3,4 FUll OF HYDRO- CHlORIC ACID. ADO A COUPLE
OF ZINC STRIPS. BUBBLES OF HYDROGEN FORM IMMEDIATELY.
2 CLOSE TEST TUBE WITH RUBBER STOPPER WITH GLASS TUBE
DRAWN TO JET POINT. COVER APPAIIATUS WITH A TOWEL.
3 PLACE EMPTY TEST TUBE OVER GLASS TUBE. AFTER 1 MINUTE,
TEST THIS TUBE FOR HYDROGEN WITH LIGHTED MATCH. IF TUBE lJ
" BARKS, " PUT IT BACK. AFTER ANOTHER MINUTE, TRY AGAIN. WHEN
SOFT " POP" TELLS YOU GAS IS PURE, LIGHT JET.
4 HOLD A COLO GLASS OVER HYDROGEN FLAME. DEW COVERING
THE INSIDE OF THE GLASS SHOWS THAT WATER IS FORMING.
If
b 0 <> 0 ~
. ' ..
1
28
,
f
J
7.
.,
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
C-
i
!
WHEN YOU KNOW FROM TESTING SAM.
PlES OF GAS COLLECTED IN TEST TUBES
THAT HYDROGEN IS PURE. fILL SMAll JAR
WITH IT. 11FT JAR OUT Of WATER, MOUTH
DOWN. BRING liGHTED CANDLE UP INTO
JAR. HYDROGEN BURNS AT MOUTH O f
JAR. CANDLE GOES OUT.
/--.2JSET UP PNEUMATIC TROUGH AS ON PAGE
, \
A
PLACE , - LAYER OF SMAll PEBBLES ON BOTTOM
OF BOTTLE 8 . DROP ZINC STRIPS ON TOP OF PEBBLES.
FIT STOPPERS AND TUBES AIRTIGHT.
5 POUR ACID FROM BOTTLE A INTO BOTTLE B,
OR FORCE IT OVER BY BLOWING IN TUBE C.
6 CLOSE TUBE OF BOTTLE A WITH CLOTHESPIN.
7 AS SOON AS HYDROGEN STARTS TO BUBBLE UP THROUGH WATER
IN PNEUMATIC TROUGH, COll ECT SOME IN WATERflllED TEST TUBE.
WHEN FUll Of GAS. TEST IT AS DESCRIBEDAT BOTTOM OF PAGE. WHEN
HYDROGEN IS PURE, BUBBLE IT INTO UPSIDE-DOWN, WATER-fIllED JARS_
8 WHEN YOU HAVE MADE THE EXPERIMENTS YOU WANT, CHANGE
SPRING CLOTHESPIN f ROM RUBBER TUBE OF BOTTLE A TO RUBBER TUBE
OF BOTTLE B. HYDROGEN FORCES ACID fROM BOTTLE B BACK INTO A.
WHEN ACI D NO l ONGER. TOUCHES ZINC, REACTION STOPS.

FILL BOTTLE A
% FULL OF MiX-
TURE Of EQUAL .11,
PARTS Of HYDRO-
CHLOR I C ACID
AND WATER.
,LATING JAPE WITH HYDROGIN
IN MIXTURES WITH AIR, HYDROGEN IS HIGHLY
EXPLOSIVE. FOLLOW SAFETY RULES BELOW.
MAKE ONLY SMALL AMOUNTS OF HYDRO
GEN IN THE HOME LAB. A 4-0 1. GENERATOR
BOTTLE WILL GIVE YOU ALL THE HYDROGEN
YOU NEED. MAKEALL CONNECTIONS AIRTiGHT.
TEST HYDROGEN FORPURITYBYCOLLECTING
A TEST TUBEFULL OF IT AND BRINGING A LIGHT-
ED MATCH TO MOUTH OF TUBE, AS SHOWN
ON PAGE 25. HYDROGEN MIXED WITH AIR EX
PLODES WITH A SHARP " BARK." PURE HYDRO
GEN BURNS WITH A QUI ET " POP."
KEEP FlAME AWAY FROM YOUR MAIN GEN
ERATOR BOrnE.
IGNITE HYDROGEN ONLY f ROM TEST TUBE
GENERATOR DESCRIBED ON OPPOSITE PAGE,
AND THEN ONLY AFTER YOU HAVE TESTED IT
FOR PURITY.
I MAKE THE SAFETY GAS GENER
ATOR DESCRIBED ON PAGE 12.
MAKING HYDROGEN IN THE LAB
H
HYDROGEN
El e men t 1 .
Af . wt . 1.00B
Colorless. ederless
ond co mbUltible
gal. Highl y expl e-
live in mllllures
wi th oir , 1/1 4
we i gh t o f a ir .
Slig hrly soluble in
wa fe r- l .B vol-
umes in 100 vol-
umes 01 20 C.
29
3
.~
. /'
. , . ' / HOLDSTOPPER FI RM
~ - _ ; l Y IN PLACE WITH TWO
FINGERS. TURN BOnlE
UPSIDEDOWN. THECO,
FORMED BY MIXING
f1
VI NEGAR AND SODA
" DRIVES WATER OUT IN
c:::::... ~ POWERFUL JET.
= ~
... .
MAKING A FIRE EXTINGUISHER MODEL
PUSH A SHORT GlASS TUBE
ITH A JET TIP INTO A RUBBER
STOPPER. WRAP BICARBONATE OF
SODA IN A SHEET OF TOILET TISSUE.
ATTACH SODA PACKAGE TO TUBE
WITH A RUBBER BAND.
Carbon Dioxide
You H.-\'f"E already learned in experimenti ng with a
burning candle t hat when somet hing containing car-
bon burns in the air, a gas, carbon dioxide (CO,),
is formed. This is one of t he most important gases
for human life. The reason is t hat green plan ts, in
sunlight , ar e able t o take t he carbo n out of the car-
bon dioxide in th e air and, by combining it with
oxygen and hydrogen from water and with various
minerals in th e soil, produce all t he vegetable matter
that humans and animals eat.
You cannot see t he CO
2
in the ai r - but you can
see it when it has been cooled and compressed into
a solid block of " dry ice." Wb en dlssolved in wat er
(H
2
0), carbon dioxide (CO,) Corms a weak acid
(H,CO,) . You know the taste or t his acid from soda
wat er - the bubbles are CO
2
being set free.
Carbonic acid combines with man)' metals to
make "car bonat es." You can dri ve the CO, out or
most carbonat es with the help or a weak acid - even
with vinegar , which is diluted acet ic acid.
.'
2
TAKE IN
c.uOON
DIOXIDE
Fill BOTTLE HALF FULL OF MIXTURE OF I PART VINE
R AND 1 PART WATER. PUT IN THE STOPPER.
LIQUID CARBON DIOX-
IDE IS USED IN FIRE EX-
TINGUISHERS.
_ -c- -
-
-- --
-- - -
PLANTS
-
"
s
' ~
owe
0"
OXYGEN
-...... _- ~ - CARBON DIOXIDE CYCLE
CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
CONTAIN SOlUTION OF BAKING ., _
SODA AND A BOTTLE OF SUL-
FURIC ACID. WHEN TURNED UP
SIDEDOWN, THECHEMICALS MIX
AND FORM CARBON DIOXIDE
WHICH FORCES OUT THEWATER.
rti
30
,
MAKING
LIME
WATER
~ STIR 1 TEASPOON OF
HYDRATED LIME INTO
1 PINT Of WATER.
LET STAND UNTI L tiME SINKS TO THE
B TTOM. f i LTER LIQUID INTO A BOTTLE.
CLOSE BOTTLE TIGHTLY.
FEATURES OF CARBON DIOXIDE
COl IS HEAVI ER THAN AIR AND
DOES NOT SUPPORT BURNING.
YOU CAN PROVE BOTH POINTS;
2
CO
CARaON
2DIOXIDE
Co mpound .
Moleculo r wI U .
Colo rless, odo tleu
go s. Does nol burn.
DOIl5 nol su ppo rl
combustion (burning).
1.5 29 weight of a ir.
f airly soluble in we -
tet_SS vol ume s in
100 volumes 0 1 20 C.
PLACE 1 TEASPOON OF BAKING SODA IN A PITCHER. POUR
A SMAll AMOUNT OF WHITE VINEGAR OVER THE SODA.
2 HANG A liGHTED CANDLE IN A JAR BY A WIRE. POUR THE
RBCN DIOXIDE FORMED IN THE PITCHER INTO THE JAR THE
WAY YOU WOULD POUR WATER. WHEN THE CARBON DIOXIDE
REACHES THE TOP OF THE CANDLE, THE flAME GOES OUT.
BURNING PRODUCES CARBON DIOXIDE
HANG BURNING CANDlE IN JAR CONTAINING A
fEW ml liME WATER. COVER TOP WI TH A GlASS
PLATE. WHEN CANDlE HAS GONE OUT, SHAKE
LIME WATER UP WITH THE AIR. MILKINESS PROVES
THAT CO. HAS BEEN PRODUCED.
IN LABORATORY. CARBON DIOXIDE IS USUALLY MADE
FROM MARBLE CHIPS AND DILUTED HYDROCHLORIC
ACI D 11 PART ACID TO I PART WATERI. PLACE CHIPS
ON TOP OF PEBBLES IN YOUR GAS GENERATOR, THEN
PROCEED AS FOR MAKING HYDROGEN (PAGE 291.
,
BREATHING PRODUCES CO.
BREATHE THROUGH GLASS TUBE INTO
LIME WATER IN TEST TUBE. LIME WATER
GETS MILKY. THIS SHOWS THAT BREATH-
ING IS A BURNING PRocesS.
.. ' ,II
FROM MARBLE MAKING CO.
31
N
NITROGEN
Ele menl7.
At .wl. 14.0GB.
ColorleH, ederless
gos. Doer; not burn.
Does not support
combusti on (burn.
ing)..967 weight
of eir, Slightly sol-
uble in water-I .S
volumes in 100
vets, at 20C.

,. EON

XENO"
IlElIU.....
Al SO, cc-. Il, O
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
IN A WELl .VENTIlATED
ROOM , HE AT EQ UAL
AMOUNTS OF SALTPETER
AND SODI UM BISULFATE
IN DRY TEST TUBE. IN A
MOMENT. A BROWN GAS
FORMS. IT IS NITROGEN
DIOXIDE. DO NOT INHALE
-oASIS VERY IRRITATING.
,
21% OXYGEN
78% NITROGEN
NITROGEN FROM THE ATMOSPHERE

REPEAT CANDLE-BURNING EXPERIMENT ON PAGE 27.
UNUSED GAS IS ALMOST ALL NITROGEN-WITH SMALL
PERCENTAGE OF RARE GASES AND CARBON DIOXIDE.
NITROGEN GOES INTO
BOTH FERTILIZERS AND
EXPLOSIVES.
('::-

j \ 'J ,"/f DRYAMMONIA GAS JS USED INTH E
'\ (,x; I', /17,: _LA' GE-SCALE PRODUCTION OF ICE.
,-t I I \)
N i r-ogen and Its Compounds
....:.:... , , '\: - , .' t") / '. . ,
x ) ' WHEX YOU burn anything in t he ai r, only about one-
" - '" , ' \, "'. '\'\ ' y-.-?.../
- -- fift h of the air goes int o chemical combi nation with
----..' __".. " .- - - - . . . what you are burning. The rest (except for a small
-"'- . fract ion) does not enter int o t he process. I t is a gas
called ni trogen (1\") - the mos t abundant free ele-
ment on earth.
I % RARE GASES :" Nitrogen is what you mi ght call a " la zy" element.
It does 110 1 help in burni ng II OT does it burn if you
t r y to ignite it. It is only at high temperat ures and
under great pressures t hat a chemist can make ni-
t rogen combine wit h anot her element . hydrogen. t o
for m ammoni a gas (X II
J
) . from which other nit rogen
compounds can be made .
Yet. in na t ure, ti ny bact eria on the roots of cer-
ta in plants can t ake nit rogen from t he air and make
it combine with oxygen and minerals in t he soil into
" nitrat es." And that is of t remendous import ance t o
all of us - for all plants need nit rat es if t hey are to
t hrive. If plan ts do not gel nitrates naturall y. the
farmer must add t hem to his soil in the form of some
ki nd of fer tilizer.
You will 110t have much sati sfact ion out of wor k-
ing with nit rogen itself, but you will find it inter -
est ing to deal with some of its compounds - espe-
cially wit h ammonia gas C\ llJ). You will also wa nt
to ha ve a look at one of the half dozen combinat ions
nit rogen makes with oxygen , t he brown gas called
nitrogen dioxide (i'iO:) .
32
.,
' - "
ydrochlori
acid
'''-'''
~ ~ :
r
~
. 1,1
, ,
. ,
,' , . .
: ,. , I
4 -n-
"
2

1
1
~ . - ..
THE AMMONIA FOUNTAIN
AMMONIA'S EXTRAORDINARY SOLUBILITY CAN BE
SHOWN IN A SPECTACULAR DEMONSTRATION.
1 MAKE UP APPARATUS AS SHOWN IN ILLUSTRATION.
Fil l IT WITH WATER. ADD 5 DROPS OF PHENOlPHTHAL
EIN SOLUTION.
FILL DRY, EMPTY BOITlE WITH AMMONIA FROM
GENERATOR CAN. KEEPING BOTTLE UPSIDE DOWN.
PLACE IT f iRMLY ON TOP STOPPER Of APPARATUS.
3' BLOW INTO LSHAPED GLASSTUBE TO DRIVE A FEW
DROPS OF WATER UP INTO THE UPPER BOTTLE.
4 SUDDENLY. WATER SPURTS FROM LOWER BOITLE
UP INTO UPPER BOITLE IN A FOUNTAIN THAT TURNS
PINK AS AMMONIA REACTS ON PHENOlPHTHALEI N.
THE WHITE SMOKE
MYSTERY
MOISTEN INS IDE Of
II. WITH SMAll AMOUNT
OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
POUR EXCESS ACID BACK
INTO ITS BOITL E. COVER
JAR WI TH SQUARE OF
CARDBOARD.
2 Fill ANOTHERJARWITH AMMONIA. PLACE
UPSIDE DOWN ON CARDBOARD.
HOLD ON TO AMMONIAf lllED JAR AND
P II CARDBOARD AWAY. IMMEDIATELY. BOTH
JARS Fill WI TH " SMOKE" OF TINY AMMONIUM
CHLORIDE CRYSTALS.
MOIST, RED
LITMUS PAPER
TURNS BLUE
IN AMMONIA.
SOLUBILITY OF
AMMONIA
REMOVE A fi llED
TEST TUBE fROM
GAS GENERATOR
CAN, MO UTH
DOWN. C LOSE
MOUTH Of TUBE
WITHTHUMB. OPEN
TUBE UNDER WA
TER. AMMONIADIS
SOLVES EASilY.
WATER RUSHES IN
AND nus TUBE.
PRODUCING AMMONIA
SIMPLEST WAY OF PRODUCING
AMMONIA IS TO GET IT FROM iTS
SOLUTION AS HOUSEHOLD AM-
MONIA.
FILL PINT CAN ONEQUARTER FUll OF
HOUSEHOLD AMMONIA. FIT STOPPER
WITH 6- GLASS ruat IN OPENING.
PLACE TEST TUBE OVER GLASS TUBE.
HEAT CAN OVER LOW flAME. TEST
TUSE IS FUll Of AMMONIA WHEN
MOIST, RED lITMUS PAPER HELD AT
ITS MOUTH TURNS BLUE.
NH
AMMONIA
3Compound.
Molec ular
we ight 17. Color-
less ga l with
slrong, penetrat ing
odor.596 we igh t
of a ir. Highly 101-
uble in watel-
70,000 '1oh. in 100
'loIs. 01 20C.
MAKING AMMONIA FROM
SAL AMMONIAC
1 ON A PIECE Of PAPER, MIX 1 PART Of SAL AMMO-
NI AC WI TH 2 PARTS OF HYDRATED LIME. ADD A fEW
DROPS OF WATER. DROP MIXTURE INTO A TEST TUBE.
PROVIDE TUBE WITH STOPPER AND L-SHAPED GLASS
TUBE. THEN HEAT OVER lOW FlAME.
COLLECT AMMONIA IN DRY TEST TUBE. TEST IT WITH
1I MUS PAPER AND fOR SOLUBILITY.
33
CI
CHLORINE
Element I ?
Atom ic wI.
35. 457. Green-
ish-ye llow, suffo-
ca ting gas. Com-
bi ne s a c ti ve l y
with many ele-
menu. 2.5 weight
of a ir. Fairly sol-
ubl e in waler-
226 vels. in 100
volumes at 20C.
Chlorine- Friend and Foe
C HLORG\""E I S a gas of great importance. " ' e wouldn' t
be certain of safe drinki ng water in our cit ies if it
weren't for chlorine - a small amount of it in t he
water kills t he dangerous germs that may lurk in it .
Chlorine is also used extensively in bleaching;
Chlorine is a friendly gas when it is used correctly.
But it is dangerous when used improperly because
it affects th e lungs. As a "poison gas" it caused many
casualt ies in World War I.
You can produce chlorine as a greenish-yellow gas
by dri ving it out of one of its compounds - hydro-
chloric acid (IICn, which consists of hydrogen (H)
and chlorine (Cl), or a common laundry bleach
(" Clorox" or ot hers), which is a solut ion of sodi um
hypochlori te (NaCIO).
Have a bottle of diluted household ammonia (90%
water, 10% household ammoni a) on hand. Sniff this
if you get t oo strong a whiff of chlorine.
NOTE: Perform these e x pe riments eut-ef-deers or be -
fore an open window. Be careful not to breathe fumes .
. .--
,'.
CHLORINE FROM
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
~ t ~ ~
"
1 Put .5 9 (Va TEASPOON) MANGANESE DIOXIDE INTO
TEST TUBE. ADD 3 ml (Va TEST TUBE) UNDILUTED HYDRO
CHlORIC ACID. HEAT GENTLY. CHLORINE FORMS. WAFT
A UTILE CAREFULLY TOWARD YOU FOR A SNIFF.
TEST GAS BY HOLDING MOISTENED STARCH-IODIDE
PAPER AT MOUTH OF TUBE. PAPER TURNS BLUE.
CORN
STARCH
MAKING TEST PAPER
FOR CHLORINE
MIX .5 9 ( l , ~ TEASPOON) STARCH WITH 30 ml
WAT ER. BRING TO BOIL. DISSOlVE IN MIXTURE
A SMALL AMOUNT OF POTASSIUM IODIDE (AS
MUCH AS TWO GRAINS OF RICE). DIP STRIPS
OF FILTER PAPER IN MIXTURE; THEN DRY THEM.
34
, .
.r ) ,')
U

d ' JJ "-
,,/I '1\\\\\
C
, ,
CHLORINE HAS
GREAT USE IN
BLEACHING COT-
TON AND LINEN "';;;=,; p"
AND WO OD
PULP. YET IT IS
NOT THE CHLO-
RINE THAT PER-
FORM S T HE
BLEACHING.
TO SHOW THE SOLUBILITYOf CHLORINE,
POUR A SMALLAMOUNT OF WATER INTO
A CHLORINE FIllED BOITLE. CLOSE THE
BOTTl E MOUTH WITH YOUR PALM.
SHAKE. THE CHLORINE DISSOlVES AND
THE BonLE STI CKS TO YOUR PALM FROM
THE SUCTION CREATED.
1 FILL A BonLE WI TH CHLORINE GAS. HANG
IN IT (FROM A CORK OR fROM A PIECE OF CARD-
BOARD) A STRIPOFDRY, BRIGHTlY COLORED COT
TON CLOTH. NOTHING HAPPENS. COLOR OF
CLOTH IS NOT AffECTED.
MOISTEN THE CLOTH AND AGAIN HANG IT
IN THE CHLORINE. SOON THE COlORS fADE-
ONLY TRULY " FAST" COLORS REMAIN. CHLORINE,
IN CONTACT WITH WATER, COMBINES WITH THE
HYDROGEN AND lIBERATES OXYGEN. THE LIB-
ERATED OXYGEN DOES THE BLEACHING.
NOTE, EACH TIME YOU Rt
MOVE THE GASCOLlECT
ING BOrnE I fOR EXPERI
MENT, CONNECT BOTILES
A. AND C TO PREVENT
CHLORINE FROM GmJNG
OUT E ROOM.
TAKE STOPPER OUT
OF BonLE A. DROP IN
'h TEASPOON SODIUM
BISULFATE (SANI. FLUSHj .
REPLACE THE STOPPER.
3 CHL O RI NE GAS
FORMS AND FILLS a.
LYE WATER IN BOT-
Tl E C ABSORBS EXCESS
OF CHLORINE GAS.
WHEN REAOION SLOW S
ADD MORE SODIUM BISULFATE
EXPERIMENTS WITH CHLORINE
<A-
1(11 , .
'')
'-.. .
"= :

...------
Sani
Flush
,
.-
MAKING CHLORINE IN THE HOME LAB
MAKE APPARATUS SHOWN AT
RIGHT. POUR 1 INCH Of LIQUI D
BLEACH (CLOROX) INTO BonLE A.
BonLE a IS EMPTY. Bon LE C HAS
WATER IN WHICH % TEASPOON LYE
IS DISSOlVED.
"
FASTEN A SMALL WAD OF
STEel WOOL TO A PIECE Of
WIRE. HEAT IT WITH A MATCH
AND LOWER IT INTO CHLO_
RINE.fI LLED BonLE. A HEAVY
BROWN SMOKE OF I RON
CHLORIDE POURS OUT.
LOWER A BURNING CANDlE INTO
A BOTTlE OF CHLORINE GAS. A
DENSE SMOKE OF CARBON IS
FORMED. THE CHLORINE COMBINES
WI TH THEHYDROGEN OF THECAN
DlE AND SETS THE CARBON [N IT
FREE AS SOOT.
CHLORINE W ILL COMBINE
DIRECTlY WITH SEVERAL _ ';/ ?:
METALS. IRON ACTUALLY
<-
BURNS IN CHLORINE GASI

CHLORINE REACTS
VIGOROUSLY WITH
MOST OTHER ELE
MENTS. IT [S PAR
TICULARLY ACTIVE
WITH HYDROGEN
AND MANY HYDRO
GEN COMPOUNDS.
...
35
SO FAR YOU have experimented with oxyge n and
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and nit rogen, and chlorine;
you have al so separated water into the two ele-
ments of which it consists, and ha ve combined the
t wo elements iro n and sulfur into a chemical com-
pound. In laki ng notes of your experiments you are
cer tain to have learned that it is much qu icker to
write " H" than " hydrogen," and easier to write
"C0
2
" than " carbon dioxide." Before long, it will
seem the simplest and most logical thing in the world
to use t hese abbreviations of the names of the dif-
ferent elements rather than the full names.
Yet it took chemi sts hundreds of years before the y
settled on this uniform method of writing out their
chemical formulas.
In the early da ys of chemistry no one bothered to
do much writ ing about it. But it became necessary
for the alchemi sts t o wr ite down their experiments
- how else could they retrace their steps in case they
act uall y hit upon the gold they were seekingc They
invented a whole line of complicated symbols that
only they could understand.
As chemists delved deeper and deeper int o the
mysteries of matter it became more and more im-
portant for them to write out their experiments in
such a way that all other chemists would know what
the)' were trying to explain.
The first to invent a usable system was J ohn Dal-
ton, an English scienti st. The inventi on was almost
forced upon him.
In hi s st udy of chemist ry he had become convinced
that all chemical reac t ions could be expl ai ned in
terms of the t iniest possible part of one element re-
acting wit h the tiniest possible part of another. These
particles he called "atoms." The smallest possibl e
part of the compound that resulted he called a " com-
pound atom"- t oday we call it a "molecule. "
To explain his " at omic t heory" Dalton made use
of circl es, each with a marking to indicate a specific
element. These circles ser ved to explain Dalton's
theory but they were too difficul t to work with to
show complicated.chemical react ions.
.ASwedish chemist , Jons Jakob Berzelius, worked
out a simpler system - the same system scientists
use today.
For hi s symbols he took the first letter of the Latin
name of each element - C for " carbo," S Cor "sul-
fur ." Wh ere t wo names start ed with the same letter,
he added a small letter to one of the symbols t o
Chemical Shorthand
C
corbo
(corb
on)
JONS JAKOB BER-
zeuusDEVELOPED
THE SYSTEM USED
TODAY,IN WHICH
THE NAMES Of
ELEMENTS ARE
ABBREVIATED.
""
aurum
(gold\
H
hYdrogenium
8 magnesium
ammonia
o
hydrogen
THE ALCHEMISTS USED FANCIFUL FIGURES TO
REPRESENT THE CHEMICALS WITH WHICH THEY
WORKED.
/
carbon dioxide
sulfur
oxygen
E9
0 0])
,
, ,
JOHN DAltON SUGGeSTED
MARKED CIRCLESTO INDICATE L t b E ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ;
DIFFERENT ElEMENTS. [
36
If YOU COUlD SLOW DOWN AN ENLARGED CARBON
ATOM YOU MIGHT SEE TWO Of ITS ElEQRONS TRAVel-
ING AROUND THE NUCLEUS IN AN "INNER SHEll " AND
FOUR MORE WHIRliNG AROUND IN AN " OUTER SHelL"
IF YOU COULD HAlT AN ENLARGED CARBON ATOM
COMPLETELY, IT WOULD lOOK A lOT liKE OUR SOLAR
SYSTEM, WITH A " SUN" (PROTONS AND NEUTRONS) IN
THE CENTER AND "PLANETS" (ELECTRONS) AROUND IT.
AN ATOM MIGHT lOOK LIKE A BAll SUCH AS THIS If
YOU ENLARGED IT A BilliON TIMES. THE " SHELl" IS
NOT SOLID-IT CONSISTS Of ElECTRONS MOVING SO
fAST THAT THE'( SEEM TO FORM A SOLID SHEll .
distinguish t he two elements from each other - he
used Ca for " calcium," for instance, to distingui sh
it from carbon (C) .
But Berzeli us went an important step fur t her.
B ~ ; t hen the French chemist, J oseph Louis Proust,
had discovered t hat whenever clemente form com-
pounds these are always of a wry definite compo-
sit ion - th e " Law of Definit e Composition." Water
molecules, for example, always conta in th e same
number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. And Dalton
had found that when two elements combine in dif-
ferent ways they do th is in simple proportions - the
" Law of Multiple Proportions. " One atom of carbon
and one atom of oxyge n make carbon monoxide; one
atom of carbon and t wo atoms of oxygen make car-
bon dioxide.
To describe t hese things in a simple way Berzellus
made each of his symbols stand not only for a specific
element but also for its rela tive weight as compared
to t he weight of other elements-e-fts "atomic weight."
To show the compositio n of a compound he simply
put toget her the symbols for t he elements into a
"formula"- CO.lI CI, FeS, and so on." CO" then not
onl y meant that one atom of ca rbon and one a tom
of oxygen combine to make one molecule of carbon
monoxide. hut also t hat 12 weight units of carbon
(l2 being the atomic weight of carbon) combine with
16 weight un its of oxygen (16 being the atomic weight
of oxygen) to form 28weight units of t he compound
car bon monoxide .
WhE'n a compound contained severa l atoms of the
same element Berzelius indi cated this by placing a
number in front of the symbol. It was later found
necessary to change th is to a smaller number , called
a "subscript ," placed at the lower right or the sym-
bol - H
20
, CO
2

In recent years it has been necessar y to change

Dalton' s idea of an atom as being th e smallest in-
divisible parl of an element . Nowadays we have
machines. such as th e cyclotron, th at ca n bombard,
or "smas h" atoms into st ill smaller parte-cneutrons.
and electri cal ly charged protons and electrons. Ac-
cording to today's atomic t heory protons and neu-
trons form the nucleus of the atom and elect rons
whirl around the nucleus with such tremendous
speed t hat they seem to form a " shell" around it.
But even with our new idea of an a tom, Dalton' s
main th eory is st ill useful for expla ining cbemicul re-
actions, and Berzelius' method is still the simplest
"short hand" method any scienti st has ever devised
for writing them down.
37
F R O ~ TIlE earliest t imes people have tried to explai n
what " matter" was made of. :\105t early philos-
ophers agreed that "matter" was made up of what
t hey called " elements:' But t heir idea of an " ele-
ment " was quite different from wha t we mean b ~ ,
that word today.
The early Greek philosophers thought the ent ire
uni verse was composed of only four basic substances:
fire, eart h, water, and air. This explanation made
sense at the time and was not seriously challenged
for many cent uries.
The old Romans actually knew nine of the sub-
sta nces we call elements today. They called them,
of course, by their Latin names (t he same we use
today in chemi cal symbols): carbo (car bon - C),
sulf ur (5) , aurum (gold - Au), argentum (silver c-
FO R MORE THAN A THO USAND YEARS PHILO SO PHERS
INSISTED THAT All SUBSTANCES WERE MADE UP OF FOUR
elEMENTS: FIRE THAT WAS DRY AND HOT. EARTH THAT WAS
HOT AND MOIST. WATER THAT WAS MOIST AND COlO.
AIR THAT WAS COlO AND DRY. WE KNOW BETTER NOWI
THE MODERN PICTURE OF AN ATOM HAS A NU
(lEUS IN THE CENTER. CONSISTING OF PRO-
TONS {pi AND NEUTRONS (n). WITH ELECTiONS
II A I A
H 1
Hydr ogen
1.008
o
~
IN RINGS AROUND IT.
H.
2 LI 3

Helium lithium Beryllium
4.003 6 .940 9.0 13
N. 10 No 11
M.
12
'HE
PERIODIC TABLE
0'
'H E
ELEMENTS
Neon Sodium Magnesium
20.183 22.991 24 .32
III A IV A V A VI A VII A ,
A 18
K 19 Co 20 5,
21 n 22
y
23
C, 2. M. 25 f. 20
Argon Potas sium Ca lcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chramium Mongone5e Iron
39.944
39. ,
40.08 44.96 47.9 50.95 5 2.01 54.94 55. 85
K,
30
Rb 37
5,
3. Y 39
Z,
'0
Nb
.,
M.
'2
"
.3 R.

Krypton Rubidium Stront ium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technet ium Ruthenium
83.8 85.-48 87.63 88 .92 91 .22 92.91 95.95 99 10 1.1
x. 5. C. 55
'0
50
57.71 HI 72 To 73 W 7.
R.
75 O. 70
Xenon (e5ium
Barium lonthonons Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten
Rhenium Osmium
13 1.3 132.91 137.36 178.50 180.95 183.86 186.22 190.2
R. . 0
F,
. 7 Ra .. 89-103
o ALKAliNE
Radon Francium Rad ium Actinon,
o INERT
I
IALKALI
EARTH
222 223 226.05 GASES METALS
METAlS
La 57
C. 5.
P,
59 Nd 00 Pm 01 5m 02
ROWS RUNNING FROM LEFT TO
Lanthanum
Cerium
, .... ltOdy",iu'"
Neodymium Promethium Samarium
RIGHT ARE CALLED PERIODS . COl- 13B.92
140.13
1AO.92 U4.27
,<5
150.35
UMNS RUNNING FROM TOP TO
BOnOM ARE CAllED GROU PS. THE ...
Ac 89 Tb 90 Po 91 U 92
Np 93 P. 9.
ELEMENTS WITHIN A GROU P HAVE
Actinium Thor ium Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Pluton ium
MANY TRAITS IN COMMON.
227 232.05 231 238.07
237 2.2
2
1
3
4
5
7

38
chlori ne
Ag), ferrum (iron - Fe), cuprum (copper - Cu},
stannum (lin - Sn), plumbum [lead - Ph), hydrar-
gyrcun (mercur v-c-Hg).
B)' 1800, thirty-four elements bad been discovered.
Wit hin t he next ten years, t hirteen more had been
added and had been gh..en made-up Latin names -
among them natrium (sodi um - Na), kalium (potas-
sium - K ), and aluminium (al uminum - AI). By
the beginning of the twentieth cent ury, eighty-four
elements were known.
Today the number has reached 102 - th e last len
man-made, produced by splitting the atoms of other
clements. Wit hin a shor t time, Element 103 will
probably be discovered .
In t his table you will find list ed the 102 elements
that are known today. Each ele-ment is described b)'
its chemical symbol , its atomic number, its full name,
and its atomic weight .
A YOUNG ENGLISH SCIEN
TIST, HENRYMOSELEY, PER-
fECTED THE PERIODIC TA-
BLE. HE DISCOVERED THE
lAW Of ATOMIC NUMBERS
AND ARRANGED THE ElE
MENTS ACCORDING TO
THE ELECTRIC CHARGE
fO UND IN THE NUCLEUS.
MANY SCIENTISTS HAD .... . - . .. ...._ ..."
NOTICED THAT If YOU liNE
UPTHE ELEMENTS ACCORD-
ING TO ATOMIC WEIGHTS,
CERTAIN CHEMICAL TRAJTS
OCCUR PERIODICAllY. THE
RUSSIAN SCIENTIST, DMI -
TRI MENDELEEff. ON THIS
BASIS DISCOVERED THE PE_
RIODIC lAW AND DEVEL
OPED THE PERIODIC TABLE.
magnesium
VII B VI B V B IV B III B
THE NUMBER Of PROTONS IN AN ATOM IS ITS
ATOMIC NUMBER. AN ATOM ALWAYS HAS THE
B 5 C

H 7 0 B F 9
SAME NUMBER Of PROTONS AND ELECTRONS.
Boron unbon Nitrogen Oxygen f luorine
HYDROGEN IS THE SIMPLEST Of ALL ATOMS.
10.82 12.011 14.008 I. 19
AI 13 51 14 P 15 5 I. CI 17
Aluminum Silicon Phosphor us Sulfur Chlorine
VIII
I
I B II B
26. 98 28.09 30 .975 32.066 35."'57
C. 27 HI 2B Cu 29 Zn 30 Gu 31
G. 32 A. 33 5. 34
B,
35
Cobolt Nickel Copper Zinc Ga llium Ge rmani um Arsenic Selenium
Bromine
58.94 58 .71 63.54
65.38 69.72 72 .6 74.91 78 .96
79 .916
Rh 45 Pd 4.
A.
47 Cd 4B In 49 5n 50 5b 51 T. 52 I .3
Rhodium Pa lla dium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin
Antimony Tellurium Iodine
102.9 1 106.4 107.88 112.41 114.82 118 .7 121.76 127.6 1 126.91
I,
77 Pt 7B Au 79 H. BO T'
Bl Pb B2 BI B3 P. B4 AI B5
Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium lea d Bismuth Polonium Astat ine
192.2 195.09 197 200.61 204.39 207.21 209 210 210
RARE
I
IHEAVY
o METAL.
I
INON
I
,1EARTH
I
IUNSTABLE
, METAtS l OIDS METALS elEMENTS
METALS
Eu .3 Gd .4 Tb .5 Dy

H.
'7
E,
.B Tm .9 Yb 70 Lu 71
Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
152 157. 26 158 .93 162.51
16.4 .94 167.27 168.94 173 .04 174 .99
Am 95 Cm 9. Bk 97
Cf 9. E 99 Fm 100
M y 101 H. 102
1 103
Americium Curium Berkelium
Cal ifornium Einsleinium fe rmium Mende levium Nobelium
'"
247 249 249 254 25. 25. 251
39
.-
F R O ~ THE earli est day s. scient ists experimenti ng
with chemist ry have worked with solut ions. The
liquid they used (or making a solution (usuall y
water) they called the " solvent." The chemical dis-
solved was t he " solute."
When chemists began to use elect ricit y as one of
their tools, t hey discovered that different solut ions
behaved in different ways . The solution in water of
a great number of chemicals - sugar among th em
- did not let electricity pass t hrough. They were
" non-conductors." Some chemi cals, on t he other
band, conducted electri cit y very easily. They were
good conductors - "electrolytes."
In 1874 a Swedish scientist named. Svan te Arrhe-
nius developed a th eory to help explai n the mysteri-
ous beha...tier of solutions. He was only 25 years
old at the t ime.
His idea was that when a chemi cal that condu cts
electricit y is dissolved in water, each molecule is
broken up - "dissociated" - into electrically char-
ged atoms or groups of atoms. These atoms or groups
of atoms Arrhenius called " ions" from a Greek word
that means "to wander." His new t heory came
to be called. "Arrheni us' theory of ionizati on. "
When table salt (sodi um chloride. NaCl), for in-
stance. is dissolved in water, it ionizes into positively
charged sodium ions (1'\8+) and negatively charged
chlori ne ions (Cl -j . These ions " wander" about in
all directions until an electric curre nt is applied. to the
soluti on. When that happens, the negative ions rush
to t he positive pole. the posit ive ions to the negat ive
pole. It is th e ions t hat cond uct t he current through
the solut ion,
The reason th at non-conduct ors do not conduct
elect rici ty is t hat they do not dissociate into ions.
Arrhenius' theory of ionizat ion helped explain a
great number of things th at have puzzled. chemists.
His t heory has been modified somewhat oyer the
years but in most respects holds true today.
. : - ~ _ .
nSTING CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLUTiONS
SET UP THE SAME APPARATUS
AS ON PAGE 25. ADD FLASH-
LIGHT BULB TO END OF ONE
WI RE. TRY DIFFERENT SOlU
TIONS IN GLASS. SOME CON.
oucr ElECTRICITY AND BULB
LIGHTS UP, OTHERS DO NOT
AND THE BULB DOES NOT
LIGHT UP,
<C__
The lVlysferies of Solutions
SVANTE ARRHENIUS DEVELOPED THEORY TO EX-
PLAIN HOW SOlUTIONS CONDUCT El ECTRICITY.
I
\
.
I ;/ "
,/
IN HIS EARLY EXPERIMENTS, SVANTE
ARRHENIUS USED A SIMPLE SETUP.
YOU CAN EASILY REPEAT SOMEOF HIS
EXPERIMENTS IN YOUR OWN LAB,
USING FLASHLIGHT BATTERI ES.

MAN Y CHEMICAL S
FORM CRYSTALS OF
DI STINCT SHAPES.
FeSO."7H
J
O
MAKING SOLUTIONS
MAKE 50 ml GRADUATE FIRST: MEASURE 50 ml WATER
INTO A NARROW JAR, USING 10 ml TEST TUBE GRADU-
ATESHOWN ON PAGE 15. MAKEA MARK AT 50 ml LEVEl.
lOY. 11 0 PER CENT) SOLUTION: MEASURE 040 ml WA-
TER INTO A CUSTARD CUP. ADD 5 9 OF THE CHEMICAL.
STIR. (TO MAKE IT DISSOlVE QUICKER, YOU MAY WANT
TO HEAT THE WATER SLIGHTlY.) POUR SOlUTION INTO
50 ml GRADUATE. ADD WATER TO THE 50 ml MARK.
2 % SOLUTION: MEASURE ml WATER INTO CUSTARD
CUP. ADD 1 9 OF THE CHEMICAL STIR TO DISSOlVE.
POUR INTO 50 ml GRADUATE. ADD WATER TO 50 mi.
CRYSTALLIZATION
YOU CAN FOllOW
CRYSTALLIZATION OF
MgSO . IN TEST TUBE,
HEAT MIXTURE OF
5 ml WATER AND 1
TEASPOON EPSOM
SALT UNTIL SALT DIS
SOLVES. POUR HOT
SO LUTI O N OVER
PA NE OF GL A SS
CLEANED WITH DE.
TERGENT. CRYSTALS
MAKE NEEDLE-LIKE
NETWORK.

:r POUR 20 ml WATER OF ROOM

TEMPERATURE INTO A CUSTARD
CUP. ADD 6 9 SALTPETER (POTAS-
SIUM NITRATE). STIR. All THESALT
PETER DISSOlVES.
SOLUTION HAS LOWER
FREEZING POINT THAN
THE SOLVENT USED.
IN TRAY WITH INDIVIDUAL
ICE CUBE CUPS, POUR WATER
INTO EACH CUP. IN ONE, DIS
SOlVE 1 PINCH OF SALT, IN
NEXT 2 PINCHES. AND SOON.
LEAVE ONE WITHOUT SALT.
PLACEIN FREEZING COMPART-
MENT. CUPS LEAST SALTED
fREEZE FIRST.
SOLUTION HAS HIGHER BOI LING
POINT THAN THE SOLVENT USED.
WITH (ANDY THERMOMETER,
DETERMINE AT WHAT POINT
WATER BOILS. ADD 1 PINCH
OF SALT. WHAT IS BOILING
POINT NOW? ADO MORE
SALT. READ AGAIN.

r<--

SAlT

2 ADD 3 9 MORE SALTPETER.
STIR. SOME OF THE ADDED SALT.
PETER DOES NOT DISSOLVE. CLEAR
LIQUID IS SATURATED AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE. (AT 20 C.. 6.3 g
KNO
J
MAKES SATURATED SOLU-
TION IN 20 ml WATER.)
PLACE CUSTARD CUPOVER ALCOHOL BURNER. ADD 10 9 MORE SALT
PETER. SOON All SALTPETER I S DISSOLVED. AT HIGHER TEMPERATURES
IT TAKES MORE SOLUTE TO MAKE A SATURATED SOlUTION. (AT BOlliNG,
20 ml HJO DISSOLVES II SALTPETER.)
TAKE SOlUTION OFF FIRE. AS IT COOLS, MUCH OF THE SALTPETER
COMES OUT AS CRYSTALS BY SLOW CRYSTALLIZATION. LIQUID IS AGAIN
A SOLUTION SATURATED AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.
SATURATED SOLUTIONS
A SATURATED SOLUTION I S ONE
IN WHI CH NO MORE OF THE
CHEMICAL WILL GO IN SOLU
TION AT THAT PARTICULAR TEM-
PERATURE.
BEHAVIOR OF SOLUTIONS
'. . .. -
41
HOW DO YOU KNOW AN ACID?
Working" Tith Acids
HOME-MADE INDICATORS
ACI DS have many t raits in common. They taste
sour. They change t he color of certain plan t sub-
stances- which arc called " indicat ors." They con-
tain hydrogen (II) that can he replaced by a metal.
They neutralize bases.
But what i an acid ? Earlier, t he " acidic" t rai ts
were used to define an acid. But with the modern
understandi ng of t he at om, a different definition is
used. You will remember that th e nucleus of an atom
contai ns positively charged protons. Acids in solu-
tion liberate protons as ions (H+) . And so we say
t hat an acid is a subs tance that will give up - or
"dona te" - protons to another substa nce. Acids are
" proton donors." The foremost acids used in industry
are sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
I
) , nit ric acid (Hl\ OI) , and
hydroc hlor ic acid (He l) .
The first two - sulfuric acid and nitric acid -
should NEYER be used in th e home lab . The)' are
much too DANGEROUS. The)" destroy the skin and
might blind you if you got them in the eyes . (Wher-
ever a chemical experiment would ordinarily call for
sulfuric acid, this book uses sodium acid sulfate-
sodi um bisulfate, "Sam-Flush" : wherever
(CONTINUED ON PAGE 4-1 )
ADD .5 ml HYDRO-
CHLORIC ACID TO 15
ml WATER. DROP .5
DROPS Of MIXTURE IN
GLASS OF WATER. DIP
FINGER IN THIS HIGH-
l Y DILUTED AC ID.
TASTE DROP ON FIN.
GER TIP.
ACIDS TASTE SOUR.
lWPP.O-
CHt.OR
AUt>
2 ACIDS ACT WITH
INDICATORS.
PLACE DROP O F DILUTED HYDRO
CHlORIC ACID ON STRIP OF BLUE
lITMUS PAPER. THE COlOR CHANGES
TO RED.
CUT UP OR GRATE A
RED CABBAGE LEAf .
DROP IN HOT WATER.
STEEP FOR Y2 HOUR.
POUR OFf LIQUI D. USE
AS INDICATOR.
MANY flOWERS AND FRUITS CONTAIN COLORING
MATTERWHICH YOU CAN EXTRACT WITH HOT WATER
AND USE AS AN INDICATOR FOR ACIDS AND BASES.
e lderberries
<h"'A"eJ

I
I : t
violet blueberrie s .
.-.'
".
.'
ACIDS ACT
METALS.
ACIDS NEUTRALIZE
BASES.
PLACE A STRI P Of ZINC IN
A TEST TUBE. POUR A FEW
ml HYDROCHLORIC ACID
ON IT. ZINC DISSOlVES,
Sm lNG THE HYDROGEN
OF ACI D FREE.
COLOR 2 mi l YE SOLUTION
I TH A DROP Of PHENOL.
PHTHALEIN SOlUTION.
2 POUR lNTO .5 ml HYDROCHLORIC
10. THE PINK COLOR DISAPPEARS.
42
Working Bases
HOW DO YOU KNOW A BASE?
DISSOLVE 5 9 (I TEA-
SPOON) LYE IN 50 ml
W A TER. DROP 5
DROPS OF SOLUTION
IN GLASSOF WATER.
DIP FINGER IN THIS
HIGHLY DIL UTED
BASE. TASTE DROP
ON f INGER TIP.
BASES TASTE BRACKISH.
BASES ACT WitH
INDICATORS.
NoOH
10 ,"/ .
PLACE DROP Of LYE SOLUTION ON
RED LITMUS PAPER. THE COLOR IN-
STANTLY CHANGES TO BLUE.
LABO RATORY INDICATORS
BASES taste brackish. They change the color of
"indicators.' T he)' contai n a combi na t ion of oxygen
and ..drogcn atoms called "hydroxyl " (OI l) . They
neutralize aci ds.
But wha t is a When a base is dissolved in
water it liber ates negat ively charged hydroxyl ions
(0 1-1-). \\'1(, 0 a base is neutralized. these ions take
on - or "acccpt't-c- pos itively charged proto ns from
another subs tance. A base is a substance t hat will
accept and combine with protons from anot her sub-
stance. Bases art" " proton accepto rs." The most im-
portant bases are s odium hydroxide (vlye,"
ammoni um hydroxide ("' ammonia," :"1I
40
H). and
calcium hydroxide (vsteked lime," Ca (OH) J.
The first of these - sodium hydroxide - is used
in many households to clean sluggish drains and to
keep sinks from Slopping up (" Drano")' l"SE IT
WITH GRE:\T CARE in your experime nts. Do
nol lauch lye' flukes wit h your fingers and do not
get th e solution on your skin - it di ssolves the natu-
r al oil. It is particularly danger ous t o get I)-{' in
your eves. If ) -OU get lye on you, dilut e it quickly
wi t h LOTS OF WATER.
(CO:-;TI NUED 0:-; PAGE -IS)
ADD TINY LUMP OF f AT
TO 5 ml LYE SOLUTION.
HEAT GENTLY. fAT DIS
SOLVES TO fORM SOAP.
ACT WITH BASES
fAT.
1 TO 2 ml DILUTED HCI ADD
A SINGLE DROP OF PHENOL-
PHTHALEIN SOLUTION.
POUR INTO 5 ml LYE SOLUTION .
EMIXTURE TURNS A BRILLIANT PINK.
!I BASES NeUTRALIZE
ACIDS .
pHYDRION PAPER
IS MORE EXAa
INDICATOR fOR
ACIDS AND BASES.
WHITE PHENOLPHTHALEIN
TURNS PINK WITH BASES.
GET SMALL AMOUNT f ROM
DRUG STORE. DISSOLVE A
PINCH (O.05 9) IN 50 ml
DENATURED ALCOHOL.
UTMUS PAPER I S MOST
COMMONLY USED INDICA-
TOR. AN ACID TURNS BLUE
LITMUS RED. BASES TURN
RED lITMUS BLUE.
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS CONTAINING ACIDS
. .
,.
. . -
TOMATO ORANGE
. - ' -
L IME
' .

SET UP APPARATUS AS SHOW N.

INTO TEST TUBE A DROP MI XTURE
Of '14 TEASPOON TABLE SALT AND
If} TEASPOON SODIUM BISULFATE.
HEAT. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE PRO
DUCED TURNS MOISTENED BLUE UT-
MUS REO. ADO 2 ml WATER TO TEST
TUBE B. SHAKE. RESULT IS WEAK
HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
IS NEUTRAL WITH pH7. THE LOWER THE NUMBER BE-
l OW 7, THE MORE ACID THE SOlUTI ON. THE HIGHER
Acids-C ontinued.
nitric add would be called for. t his book produces
it in a mixture of a nitrate, Kl\" OJ' and sodium bi -
sulfate.)
Hydrochloric add is used in man y households un-
der the name of " muriat ic acid." Whe never you use
hydrochloric acid in 8 11 experiment: VSE IT WITH
GREAT CARE. If any of it gets on you. di lut e it
quickly with LOTS OF WATER. Or neutralize it
with bicar bonate of soda (but not if in the eyes}.
blue litmus turns
red from odd.
A
IGNI TE A SULFUR CANDLE l OR A
TINY HEAP OF flOWERS Of SUL
FURl ON A PIECE Of TIN. HOLD
MOISTENED BLUE lITMUS PAPER
OVER flAME. SULFUROUS ACID
FORMED TURNS IT RED.
ACID FROM A SALT
SALT
ACID FROM
ALLIe
OXIDE
pH SYSTEM IS A WAY OF DESCRIBING THE RELATIVE
ACIDITY OR ALKALINITY Of A SOlUTION. PURE WATER
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
1 SULFURIC ACID
8 ] l3
LITMUS
SALI VA
BORIC ACID MILK
I re
RED CABBAGE
PHENOLPHTHALEIN
y
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS CONTAINING BASES

..,

,
,I
LIME
SCOURING
EJ
\
PQWOER
MMONIA
Bases-Contin1UleJ.
You can also neutralize it with vinegar (but not it
in the eyes) .
Ammonia is a common household cleaning liquid,
Ammonia should also be handled with care and
should be washed olT quickly ir you get it on you.
Alsowatch )'our nose when you work with ammonia.
It has a very strong smell.
Calcium hydrox ide is a whit e powder. You will
use it in a great number or experi ments.
BASE FROM
METALLIC OXIDE
\'---'-'-"-'":-, PLACE A LUMP OF LIME (QUICKLIME.
CALCIUM OXIDE) IN A CUSTARD CUP.
ADD AS MUCH LUKEWARM WATER AS
IT WILL A8S0R8, liME HEATS UP. GIVES
OfF STEAM. CRUM8lES INTO POWDER.
OF SLAKED liME (CALCIUM HYDROXIDE).
BASE fROM A SALT
IN A CUSTARD CUP, DISSOLVE 1
TEASPOON SAL SODA (WASHING
SODA. SODIUM CAR80NATE) IN
50 ml WATER. HEAT SLI GHTLY. ADO
SLAKED LIME MIXED WITH WATER.
STIR. CHEMICAL REACTION PRO
DUCES SODIUM HYDROXIDE AND
CALCIUM CAR80NATE. filTER.
CLEAR UQUlD CONTAINS THE SO
DIUM HYDROXIDE (LYEI. THE,cAL
CIUM CAR80NATE IS HELD 8ACK
8Y THE FILTER.
re d litmus turns
blue from bole.

\ ' - " OJ.
\
1/
rIc
) Q

THE NUM8ER A80VE 7. THE MORE ALKAliNE THE SO-
LUTION. WHEN YOU KNOW AT WHAT pH AN INDICATOR
CHANGES COLOR, YOU CAN DETERMINE THE ACIDITY
OR ALKALINITY OF THE SOLUTION YOU ARE TESTING.
- SEA WATER I BORAX
r-BICARBONATE OF SODA

MILK OF MAGNESIA
AMMONIA
Lt
LIME WATER
RED CABBAGE I
p
Salts- Chenilcals of Many Uses
e
WHAT H.U'P E.. ... s when you neutralize an acid with a
base or a base wit h an a d d ~ The hydrogen atoms
(H+ ions) of the add combine wit h th e h)"droxyl
groups (0 11- ions) of the base to form water, and
the metal atoms of the base combine with what re-
mains of the acid to form a salt. Or simply:
BASE plus ACID turns int o
WATER plus SALT
This. for example, is what happens when you neu-
tralize sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid :
' . OlI + lID - Hall +
The result is water and sodium chloride - ord inary
t abl e salt which has given its name to other sub-
stances of a similar na ture.
Of all the sal ts used in industry, tabl e salt (XaCI)
and washing soda (1'\a, CO
I
) are of greates t impor-
tance" Xu merc us other chemi cal s are produced from
them. Our wa)' of life would be completely disrupted
if our country' s industry did not have enough of
these two sal ts.
:\I an y other salts are necessary for our well-being.
You'll probably find at least hal f a dozen different
sal ts used dail y in your home - in cooking and
baking, in gardening, for cleani ng.
In your chemica l experiments you'll be working
with two classes of salts : normal salls (such as .l'\aCI,
l'\ a,C0
1
KI ) which contain no free hydrogen or
hydroxyl ions, and acid salls (such as 1\aHS0
1
,
l"aHC0
1
) which contain replaceabl e hydrogen.
Some of t hese salts dissolve easily in water - all
t he nit rates (salts of nitric acid) and most of t he
chlorides (sal ts of hydrochloric acid). .:'I Ian)" sal ts,
on the other hand, are insolub le - most of t he car-
bonates (salts of carbonic acid) and most sulfides
(sal ts of hydrosulfuric acid).
....-'
3
V
6
TO DETERMINE THE UNKNOWN STRENGTH
OF A BASE, THE CHEMIST DROPS INTO IT
FROMA LONG TUBE-A BURffiE-AS MUCH
ACID Of KNOWN STRENGTH AS IS NECES
SARY TO NEUTRALIZE IT. BY CHECKING ACID
USEe HE FIGURES STRENGTH OF BASE.
1 FOR A TRY AT TITRATION, MIX A
FEW ml OF HOUSEHOLD AMMONIA
WITH 40 ml WATER. ADD A DROP OF
PHENOLPHTHALEIN. THIS Will COLOR
THE MIXTURE A DEEP PI NK.
2 POUR 10 ml DILUTED HYDROCHLORIC
to INTO MEASURING TUBE. POUR SOME
OF THIS ACID INTO THE AMMONIA UNTIL
COLOR HAS AtMQST VANISHED.
~ PICK UP A FEW ro l
OF THE MEASURED
j .# ACIDINAN EYE CROP-
PER (PIPETTE) . DROP
ACID SLOWLY INTO
THE AMMONIA MIX-
TURE UNTIL COLOR IS
COMPLETELY GONE.
RETURN ACID NOT
USEe TO MEASURING
TUBE. YO U NOW
KNOW HOW MANY
ml ACID YOU HAD TO
USE TO NEUTRALIZE
THE AMMONIA.
NEUTRALIZATION IS USED
EXTENSIVELY IN CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS IN A TECHNIQUE
CALLED TITRATION.
HOW THE NAMES OF SALTS ARE MADE UP
fORMULA AND fORMULA AND
THE ACID NAME OF ACID NAME Of SALT
SUl f URIC ACID H, SO. HYDROGEN SUlfATE Na, SO. SODIUM SULFATE
NITRIC ACID HNO. HYDROGEN NITRATE NaNO. SODIUM NITRATE
CARBONIC ACID H.CO, HYDROGEN CARBONATENa,CO, SODIUM CARBONATE
ACETIC ACID HC,H.O. HYDROGEN ACETATE NaC, H,O. SODIUM ACETATE
HYDROCHLORIC ACID HCI HYDROGEN CHLORIDE NoCI SODIUM CHLORIDE
HYDROSULfURIC ACID H,S HYDROGEN SULFIDE Na,S SODIUM SULFIDE
SUlfUROUS ACID H.SO, HYDROGEN SUl fi TE Na,SO, SODIUM SULfITE
NITROUS ACID HNO, HYDROGEN NI TRITE NaNO, SODIUM NI TRITE
CHl OROUS ACID HCID , HYDROGEN CHlORITE NaCIO, SODIUM CHLORI TE
REMEMBER: -Ie ACIDS fORM -ATE SALTS;
HYDRO. -Ie ACIDS FORM . IOE SAlTS; -OU5 ACIDS FORM IYE SAlTS
. _ . _ . = : . - - - ~
46
8ani
Flush
"...-.... .
CJ
SAL'f
EPSOM
SALT
-, ..-..
HOUSEHOLD ITEMS CONTAINING SALTS
DIFFERENT WAYS OF PRODUCING SALTS
SALT FROM
METAL AND
ACID
DROP zu-c STRIPS
I NTO A TEST TUBE.
POUR IN A COUPLE
Of ml HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. THE ZINC DIS-
PLACES THE HYDRO-
GEN OF THE ACID TO
FORM A SALT IlnCI
1
1
WITH THE CHLORINE.
SALT FROM METAL
OXIDE AND ACID
PLACE 1 TEASPOON CALCI UM
OX IDE (QUI CKLIME) IN A
GLASS. ADD HYDROCHLORIC
ACID WHilE STIRRING. THE
QU ICKliME DISSOLVES IN THE
ACID, fORMING CALCiUM
CHLORIDE AND WATER.
base and a salt to form a new base and a new salt :
Ca (OH)2 + Na , -- 2;\' aOH + G8
A salt and an acid ofte n form another salt and
anot her acid :
1 DISSOLVE 5 9 EP-
SOM SALTS (MAGNESI-
UM SULFATE) IN 20 ml.
WATER. BRING TO BOIL
DISSOlVE 5 9 SODA
IN 20 ml WARM WATER.
POUR INTO HOT EPSOM
SALT SOlUTION.
3 FILTER THE MI LKY
MIXTURE. THE FILTRATE
CONTAINS SODIUM SUl-
FATE. MAGNESIUM CAR-
SONATEIS RETAINED SY
FILTER.
J,..
~
3
CaCO
l
+ 2H
a + H
2
CO
l
(H
2
0 + CO
2
)
Two soluble sal ts ma y also form t wo other salts-
one of the m insoluble:
Na + .:\1
TWO SALTS fROM
TWO OTHER SALTS
~
Q ) ~
DROP PI ECES OF CHALK, MARBLE, OR OYS-
TER SHEllS (ALL OF THEM CALCIUM CAR-
BONATES) IN A fEW ml HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. RESULT IS CALCIUM CHLORIDE AND
CARBON IC ACID (WHICH BREAKS UP INTO
CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER).
SALT FROM ANOTHER
SALT AND ACID
THERE ARE many ways of producing a salt in ad-
diti on to neut ralizat ion.
When you made iron sulfide direct ly from th e t wo
elements iron and sulfur, you prod uced a sal t :
Fe +
'When you caused zinc metal to react with hydro-
chloric acid. you made a salt:
Zn +2 n 2 + H2
When you made sodi um hydroxide, you used a
47
everything wit h which it comes in contac t with a
brown stain that won't come off in washing. Tha t 's
why it is advisable to have sodium t hiosulfate-
photographer' s fixing sal t , "h)"po" - ar ound when
you work with iodine. Hypo in solut ion forms a
colorl ess compound with iodine.
Iodine-Violet 0][' Brown?
I ODI:O;"E I S an interesting element to experime nt with.
It is easily dri ven out DCits compounds as beauti ful.
vi olet fumes t hat t urn into greyish- black, metal lic-
lookin g crystals on cooling. These crystals ca n be
further purified b)" t urning t hem into vapor aga in.
and agai n cooling t hem into crystal form. This proc-
ess is called " sublimation."
You are proba bly famili ar wit h th e 2% alcoholic
solut ion of iodine known as " t inct ure of iodine." It
is found in almost every home medicine cabinet and
is used as a disinfectant for wounds. Iodine has many
other uses - in photography and in the preparation
of various medi cines and dyes.
Iodine has the bad habi t of staining pract ically
IODIZED
SALT

IODIN
".
I
I O D I N E
Ele me nt 5 3 .
At.wt. 126.9 1.
G rClyblClck crys-
tols of CI peculior
odor. Sublimes with
violet celer, Com.
bine s directly with
me tols o nd non -
me tcls . It hc s 0
deni ity of 4.9 .
8. careful not to breathe fume s,
DROP HAt F A DOl EN ICE CUBES
o A JAR. ADD A lITIlE WATER.
PLACE JAR AS A uo ON TOP Of
CUSTARD CUP. THE ViOl ET f UMES
SETn E ON BOTTOM OF JA R AS
GRAYISHBLAC K, SHINY IODINE
CRYSTALS.
~ _..
SCRAPE IODINE CRYSTALS O FF BOTIOM OF JAR.
KEEP THEM IN SMAll, TIGHTlY CLOSED BOTIlE
"
MAKING IODINE
IN A PYREX CUSTARD CUP
TOGETHER 2 g POTASSIUM
IODIDE, 2 g MANGANESE DIOX
IDE,.4 9 SOOrUM BI SULFATE. HEAT
MIXTURE GENTlY. SOON VIO LET
FUMES EMERGE.
SOLUBILITY OF IODINE
Wi th brown
color in
alcohol.
salullon In
ca rbon tet -
rach lor ide.
wat er If yau
add pota s-
sium iodide.
dissolves
when put in
plai n wa ter.
/j
:
. .
.

: :




L-..--, .._-
...-
1=
Ii=.
=
~
II
L--. , .
...
--
;oJ hardly any
Iodine iodine iodine
iodine dissolves in makes violet dissol ves
..'
TO TEST SOLUBILITY Of
IODINE, DROP A fEW CRYS-
TALS IN EACHOF fOUR TEST
TUBES. ADD SOLVENT AND
SHAKE TUBE.
1
THE CHLORIN E IN
LIQUID BLEACH ALSO
FREES IODINE. ADD
A COUPLE OF DROPS
TO SOLUTION OF A
FEW POTASSIUM
IODIDE CRYSTALS IN
10 ml WATER.
. ' -. ...
A
o o.
IODINE FREED BY CHLORINE
--
MIX A FEW CRYSTALS lAS
MUCH AS A PEA} OF P0-
TASSIUM IODIDE WITH V.
TEASPOON SODIUM BISUL-
FATE. PLACE STRIPS Of
WETTED lITMUS PAPER AT
THEMOUTH OF TUBE. HEAT
GENTlY. IODINE IS RE-
LEASED. ALSO HYDROGEN
IODIDE-AN ACID THAT
TURNS BLUE t1TMUS RED.
MAKING
IODIDE
DISSOLVE A FEW CRYSTALS OF
POTASSIUM IODIDE AND A FEW
GR.AINS OF SODIUM BISULFATE
I N 5 ml WATER. ADD HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE. SHAKE . THE FREE
IODINE COlORS LIQUID BROWN.
SET UPAPPARATUS AS DESCRI BED ON PAGE 35 WI TH THIS
EXCEPTION: IN BOTTLE I , MAKE SOLUTION OF lh g P0-
TASSIUM IODIDE IN 40 ml WATER. AS CHLORINE BUBBLES
THROUGH THIS SOLUTION IT TURNS BROWN FROM THE
FREED IODINE. WITH MORE CHLORINE IT CLEARS AGAIN
WHEN COLORLESS IODIC ACID FORMS.
IODINE BY OXIDATiON
PAINT PAPER WITH IODINE. DISSOLVE A FEW CRYSTALS OF SODIUM
THIOSULFATE ("HYPO") IN WATER. PAINT WITH THIS SOLUTION OVER
THE BROWN COLOR. YOU WILL GET WHITE LETTERS AS HYPO fORMS
COlORLESS COMPOUND WITH IODINE.
RlMOVING
IODINE STAIN
...
r
1=::1
STARCH TEST FOR
IODINE
SHAKE UP A PINCH OF STARCH WITH
COLD WATER IN A TEST TUBE. ADD TO
HOT WATER. BRING TO A BOIL. COOl .
POUR DROP OF MIXTURE INTO 10 mt
WATER. ADD DROP OF IODINE SOLU-
PlE:'::::=::::::::::!!! TION. BRIGHT BLUE COlOR RESULTS.
49
Sulfur and Its COInpounds
S
SULFUR
El e me nt 16 .
At omi c wt.:
3 2. 066. Densit y :
2.07. Yellow crys-
tals . Insolubl e in
wo le r . Melts 01
119 C. Boils 0 1
4"" C. Burns in
a ir wit h blue flame.
flowers of sulfur
sulfur ca ndl e
I N THE old days, sulfur was called "brimstone"
(" burni ng stone" - from an old word. brennen, to
burn). Whcn it burned with a blue flame and a suf-
focating smell, peopl e were certai n that th e devil
himself was aro und.
Unt il fai rly recentl y. most sulfur came from the
volcanic Italian island of Sicily. But t oday. America
produces most of t he world' s sulfur. About a hun-
dred years ago, big deposits were found in Loui siana.
several hundred feet underground. The problem of
getti ng it up was solved in 189-1 in a very clever way
by a young German emigrant , Herman Frasch. He
piped superheated wate r underground t o melt the
sulfur, th en forced th e melted sulfur to th e t op wit h
compressed ai r.
Sulfur itse lf is used for many purposes. By a proc-
ess called " vulcanizat ion" it turns st icky. gummy
raw rubber into elast ic rubber usable for automobile
tires and ot her rubber products. Sulfur also goes
into such things as matches and gunpowder and
medical preparations.
But by far th e grea test use of sulfur is in the prep-
aration of sulfuric acid This acid enters
into t he (CONTI NUED ON PAGE 52)
SULfUR CAN USUALLY BE BOUGHT IN THREE DiffERENT
fORMS: AS STICK SULFUR. SULFUR CANDLES. AND AS A
POWDER [flOWERS Of SULfUR). UNDER MICROSCOPE,
SULfUR POWDER PROVES TO BE RHOMBIC CRYSTALS.
SOME
SULFUR
USES
MOST OF OUR SUL
FUR IS PRODUCED
BY DRI VING IT OUT
...--::,::: ;., . 0 F THE GROUNO
IN MELTED FORMBY
- - - '" ...- __ A PROCESS INVENT
ED BY HERMAN .. -....
-c-.
_..
50
o.
PRECIPITATED
SULFUR
!
DISSOLVE A fEW CRYS
TALS Of HYPO ISODIUM
THIOSULfATE) IN V2
TEST TUBE WATER. ADD
I DRO P Of HY DRO
CHLORIC ACID. SOON
UQUI D TURNS MilKY Of
EXCEEDINGLY f iNE PAR
TICLES Of SULfUR.
j
'I
HEAT Ih TEST TUBE FUll Of
FLOWERS Of SULFUR TIll IT IS
MElTED WITH LIGHT COlOR.
POUR MELTED SULFUR INTO A DRY FJLTER. AS SOON
AS CRUST fORMS ON TOP, OPEN UP FILTER PAPER.
YOU Will SEe THAT SULfUR HAS FORMED TINY
NEEDlElIKE CRYSTALS.
MAKING MONOCLINIC
CRYSTALS OF SULFUR
-.
2 HEAT THE THICK
ENED SUtfUR fURTHER
UNTl t IT nows fREE-
tY AGAIN. THEN POUR
THE DARK ftUI D INTO
COLDWATER. IT TURNS
INTO A PLASTICMASS.
IN A f EW DAYS THIS
AGAIN BECOMES YEt-
LOW SULfUR.
,
1 MAKE A MOLD FROM A NICKEL BY ATIACHING
A WALLOF SCOTCH TAPE AROUNDTHEEDGEOF IT.
f ill TEST TUBE 1JJ FULL OF flOWERS OF SUl
f R. MELTGENTLY HIGH ABOVE fLAME. POUR INTO
MOlD. WHEN COOLED YOU HAVEA PERFECT CAST.
.
,
0"
""'.
WHEN YOU MELT SULFUR, IT
GOES THROUGH FOUR STAGES:
1. IT FIRST MELTS INTOAWATERY,
STRAWCOlORED LIQUID.
2. IT NEXT BECOMES SlOW-FlOW-
ING, CARAMEL.BROWN.
3. ITTURNS AlMOST SOliD.
.t. IT BECOMES LIQUIDAGAIN AND
BOILS WITH YELlOW VAPOR.
= .'
.
PLASTIC SULFUR
1 MElT 'h rear
TU Be POWDERED
SULf UR. CONTI NUE
HEATING. SOON IT
NO LONGER FtOWS.
YOU CAN TURNTUBE
UPSIDEDOWN WITH-
O UT ANYTH ING
COMING OUT.
51
1 ATTACH WIRE TO SMALL BOTTLE CAP. FILL THE BOTTLE CAP
HALF FULL OF SULFUR POWDER. LIGHT THE SULFUR.
-2 LOWER BURNING SULFUR INTO A JAR. JAR FILLS WITH FUMES
OF SULFUR DIOXIDE. AFTER A fEW MOMENTS, COVER THE JAR
WITH GLASS PLATE TO EXTINGUISH SULfUR.
-,3 LIFT GLASS PLATE. DROP INTO JAR APPLE PEELINGS AND MOIS-
TEN ED. BRI GHT-COLORED flOWER. COVER AGAIN WITH GLASS
PLATE. IN A SHORT WHILE, COLORS HAVE BLEACHED.
I
Be careful not to breothe fumes.
SULFUR
DIOXIDE
FOR
BLEACHING
production - directly or indirect ly - of practicall y
eve ry manufact ured article we use today. It is used
in refining gasoline, in making steel an d paper . fiber s
and films. plastics and explosives, and thousands of
other chemicals.
Sulfur Di oxide - The first step in making sulfuric
acid from sulfur is t o burn the s ulfur.
Wh en burn ing in t he air. each atom of sulfur takes
on two atoms of oxygen to make one molecule of
sulfur dioxide gas (50
2
) ,
By a special , complicated process. sulfur di oxide
can be forced to take on another oxygen at om and
form sulfur t rioxide (50
s)
. Wi t h water, this makes
sulfur ic acid :
H,O+ SOs --
Hydeogen sulfur compounds haw
unpleasant . penetrati ng smells. Some of these com-
pounds have ver y complex molecu les - j ust imagine
a skunk producing a chemical with this formula:
CH
sC
H,CH,CH
2S
H! The s mell of r otten eggs. on
t he ot her hand, comes from the simple compound
hydrogen sulfide (H, S) .
Hydrogen sulfide is used in chemical analysis to
det ermine what metals are found in a cer tai n sub-
stance. It combines with metal s into salts (sulfides)
that can be distinguished from each other by t heir
colors and by t he wa)- they r ead with acids and
ot her chemicals.
1JlUuJr-Co:urbnued
SO
SUlfUR
2
Molecular wt. 64 .
Colorl ess gas with
a choki ng od o r.
Does not burn nor
suppor t c om bus-
l i on. 2.2 weight of
ai r. Hi ghly soluble
in wote r-3,937
yah. i n 100 veh.
01 20 C.
DISSOLVE 'h TEA-
SPOON HYPO {SO-
DIUM THI O SUL .
FATE) IN 40 ml WA-
TER. ADD A fEW ml
HYDRO CHL ORI C
ACID. SULFUR DI-
OXIDE AND PRECIP.
ITATE Of SUlfUR
RESULT.
LIGHT SUl fU R IN BOTTLE CAP. lOW-
ER BURNING SULfUR INTO JAR.
WHEN JAR IS f Ull Of f UMES. RE-
MOVE SULfUR. ADD A f EW ml WA_
TER. SHAKE. AS SO. DISSOLVES IN
WATER IT FORMS A WEAK ACID-
(' SULFUROUS ACID, H.SO
z
TEST FOR
ACID WITH BLUE LITMUS PAPER.
MAKING
SULFUROUS
ACID
SULFUR
DIOXIDE
FROM
A SALT ;
i
t
<-
52
NOTE: Perform these experiments outofdoors or be
fore an open window. Ie careful not to breathe fumes.
il PUT STOPPER WITH GLASS TUBE
WITH JET POINT IN TEST TUBE IN
WHICH YOU MAKE HIS. MOiSTEN A
SILVER COIN. HOLD IT IN HIS STREAM
ING OUT OF JET. IT TURNS BLACK
FROM SILVER SULFIDE.
1-=
--: <, .
,.:,: - :-" ."
- - J i.l
- .
AFTER A FEWMOMENTS.
IGNITE HIS AT JET TIP. IT
BURNS WITH SOl SMELL.
3, HOlD COlD GLASS PLATE IN
HIS FlAME. BECAUSEOF INCOM-
PLETE COMBUSTION. SULFUR IS
SET FREE. YOU CAN ACTUAllY
"DRAW" WITH THE HIS f lAME.
DROP INTO A DRY TEST TUBE
TEASPOON POWDERED SUl FUR AND A
LUMP OF CANDLE WAX AS LARGE AS
A PEA. SETUP APPARATUS AS SHOWN .
MAKE SOlUTION IN TEST TUBE OF
CHEMICAL YOU WANT TO ANALYZE.
LEAD GlASS TUBE INTOTHESOlUTION.
HEAT TEST TUBEWITH SULFUR MIX
TURE. HYDRO GEN SUL FIDE BUBBLES
INTO TEST SOLUTION. IF THIS CON
TAINS SALT OF ONE OF THE HEAVY
METALS, A PRECIPITATE WILL FORM.
" ':':)-' .
, >
HYDROGEN SUlfiDE
HAS SMELL O F
ROITEN EGGS
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
IS AN IMPORTANT LAB
TO OL FOR CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE FROM FeS
MAKE IRON SULFIDE AS DESCRIB ED
ON PAGE 22. BREAK THE TEST TUBE
liN A PAPER BAG}. CRUSH THE feS
WITH A HAMMER. DROP SMAll PIECES
IN ANOTHER TEST TUBE. BY ADDING
HYDROCHLORIC ACI D YOU MAKE HIS.
EXPERIMENTS
WITH HIS
HS
HYDRO.
2
pound . Mole cula r
wi. 34, Colorl ess
ga s wi th odor of
rotten eggs. Burns
with a blue flame
10 form SOl ' 1. 17
weight of ai r. f air
ly soluble in wcter
-25Bveb. in 100
vors. at 20 C.
THE COlOR OF THE SULFJDE FORMED WHEN YOU LEAD HIS
INTO A SOLUTION CONTAINING A SALT OF A HEAVY METAL
WILL HELP TElL YOU WHAT METAL IS FOUND IN THE SALT.
o
o
o
o
- 0
00
M.S
Z.S CoS CdS
--
53
MAKING CEMENT

, :
..
-.
"
.. .
-.'
..... .. ..
..,
. .
>
, ,
\ .
>
----' ..
* "
J! , I

\
',
Element U .
Atom ic wt . :
28 .09. Density :
2.4. Dork"llroy me-
lalliclooking crys-
lois or brownish
powder. Burns in
ollygen. Forms
obout 27 '"/. of lhe
eerth's crust.
I
I IIU
,-
"
Sitcon- T he Elem.enf 'You Sfejp On
SILlCO:-; (from t he Latin silez. flint ) is the second
most abundant element on earth - after oxygen.
Whet her you are walking on sand or clay, rock or
cement, almost half of what you're stepping on is
silicon.
Silicon is found in nature in combinat ion with
..gen (mostly the dioxide, SiD,) and in different
silicates (sal ts of vari ous silicic acids) .
With few excepti ons, silicon compounds are in-
soluble in water. And t hat is a good thing for all of
us. The glass of our windows and the glasses Crom
which we drink ar e silicates. So are th e glazes on
our cups and the ena mel on our bathtubs. Most
glass and many glazes are made b;y fusing together
sand (SiO:), limest one, and soda.
The silicates of sodi um a nd potassium dissolve in
water. A concentrated solution of sodi um silicate
(Na:SiO
s)
is sold in hardware stores under t he name
of waterglass. It is used as a glue, for firepr oofing
wood and for preservi ng eggs.
Wit hin recent Tears . chemists have developed a
whole line of new silicon compounds called silicones .
Some of t hem are ell -like. Some look like putty
("SiUy Putt),"). Still ot hers are rubber-like. Paper
and clot h can be made water-repellent b)' being
t reated wit h suitable silicones.
MINERALS AND PRECIOUS STONES
MANY ARE SlllCON OXIDES OR SlllCATES.
agate
MAKING
SILICON
DIOXIDE
PlACE SOME OF THE GEl ON A METAL
JARLID. HEAT. THESILICICAOD IH.SiO.l
GIVES UP WATER (H.O) AND TURNS
INTO A GRAYISH-WHITE POWDER Of
SILICON DIOXIDE (SiC.) .
"'OR
OlUlllt .
4CID
2
1
WATER Gl.l55
.. --- MAKING SILICIC ACI;:D -' ,
IN ONE GlASS, DILUTE 20 ml WATERGlASS WITH 20 ml WATER.
IN ANOTHER, MIX 10 ml HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND 10 Inl WATER.
POUR THE TWO MIXTURES AT ONE TIME INTO A THIRD GlASS.
jIJ STAND SPOON UPRIGHT IN THE MIXTURE WHlCH. ALMOST IMMEDI-
ATELY, TWINS INTO A JEllY I"GEt" SO SnFF THAT SPOON STANDS BY
ITSElf AND YOU CAN TURN THE GLASS UPSIDE DOWN.
a
_.
.'

1 IN A TEST TUBE, MI X 1 9 OF THE SILICON

DIOXIDE YOU MADE, 2 9 LYE INoOH), AND 5 ml
WATER. HEAT CAREfULLY. MOVING TUBE.
AFTER FILTERING, YOU WI LL HAVE A CLEAR
SOlUTION Of SODIUM SILICATE lNo.SiO. I.
1
MAKING
WATER.
GLASS
IN A PINT JAR, PLACE Y,.INCH LAYER
Of SAND. POUR ON TOP Of THIS A
MIXTURE OF EQUAL PARTS Of WATER.
GLASS AND WATER. PLACEIT IN A SPOT
WHERE IT WIll NOT BE DISTURBED.
DROP IN CRYSTALS OF VARIOUS SALTS
YOU MAY HAVE: IRON SULFATE. coe-
PER SULfATE. ALUM. EPSOM SALT. THE
CRYSTALS SEND UP "SHOOTS." IN A
f EW HOURS, YOURSJLlCATE " JUNGLE"
IS FULLY " GROWN."
"GROWING" A SILICON "JUNGLE"
-
SILICIC ACID ISSO WEAKTHAT CARBONI C
ACID (HleC,) DRIVES IT OUT OF
GLASS. MAKE THE COl BY POURING HY '
DROCHLORIC ACID OVER MARBLE CHIPS.
MAKING SILICATES
3 ADD A FEW DROPS TO THE
ATERGLASS TO GET PRECIPI
TATE Of COPPER SILICATE.

WEAKNESS OF
SILICIC ACID

t DILUTE 5 ml WATERGl ASS
{ o,SiQ.} WITH 5 ml WATER.
DISSOlVE SMAll CRYSTAL Of
COPPER SULFATE IN WATER.
55
" -v-
o
Rocket-Power ElcIllcnt?
LES.. C; THA:S A hundred ..ears ago, a mineral culled
borax. containing the element boron, was carted out
of Deat h Valley in Californ ia by t wenty-mule teams
- about the slowest t ransportati on you can think of.
Someday, boron may be put in zip-fuels for space
missiles - the fast est form of t ransportation imagi -
nabl e. Boron has the ability (as does carbon) to
combine with hydrogen in a number of ways. When
these boraues or boron hydrides burn. t hey develop a
tremendous amount of power..
Boron can be isolated as a hard. brownish-bl ack
powder . I ts carbon compound. boron carbide (B,C) .
is almos t as bard as diamond.
But you ar e probably more familia r wit h boron
IRON
COPPER
NICKEL
I \
\
\
BORAX BEAD TEST IN CHEMICAL AtotALYSI5 -; MAKE BLOWPIPE BY DRAW. . "
-.. -; INC GlASS TUBING INTO
.............. c-, POINT. ""
.. '- ?::;;>-::;_ =::--.;: EJ --

MElT N I) , ,W I N THE TIPOF
NICHROME FORM l ooP i: l.-;. -, THE fl AME, THE
I
GLASS TUBING POINT. ' . / IN THE TEST SAM
'.j ,.;?/ ACTUAl SIZE 2"is COl
CERTAIN METAL OXIDES, FUSED INTO A "BEAD"
OF MELTED BORAX, PRODUCE DISTINCT COLORS
BY WHICH TI-lE METALS CAN BE RECOGNIZED.
TO MAKE TEST, HEAT WIRE LOOP. DIP HOT LOOP IN
BORAX. HEAT TO FORM BEAD. TOUCH BEAD TO CHEM-.
ICAL TO BE TESTED. OXIDIZE THE CHEMICAL IN VERY
HOT fLAME GENERATED WITH Hel P Of A BLOWPIPE.
STUDY THE COlOR OF BEAD, HOT AND COOLED.
hoi cold hot cold
o 0 MANGANESE 0 0
o 0 COBALT 0 0
o CHROMIUM 0 0
56
t hrough t wo of its compounds which are found in
almost every household: bori c acid (H, BO,) , used as
a mild an tiseptic. and borax (sodium tetraborate.
Na,BtO;'lOII,O), used for cleaning purposes and as
a wat er softener.
Borax has a great number of uses outside the home.
It is used for soldering. for producing certain kinds
of soap. and for makin g other boron compounds.
T he glass indust ry uses large quant ities of borax
for makin g boron-alumi num-silicate glass. You know
this kind of glass by its t rade name, Pyrex. Kitchen
ut ensils and laboratory ware made of Pyrex glass
have the great advantage over ordi nary glass th at
the)' can be placed dir ectly on t he fire and do not
br eak so easily when they are subj ected to sudden
heati ng or cooling.
ADD" ml HY
OCHLORIC ACID
TO HOT BORAXSO-
LUTION. STIR. RE
MOVE fROM f iRE.
aORIC ACID CRYS
TALlI ZES OU T AS
SOLUTION COOLS.
HEAT BORIC ACID IN AN OlD
TEASPOON, IT GIVES Off WA
TERAND TURNS INTO SYRUPY
MASS Of MELTED aORIC OX.
IDE (B.O,I WHICH YOU CAN
DRAW INTO THREADS WITH
GLASS ROD.
SPREAD OUT f ILTER TO l ET
BORIC ACID CRYSTALS DRY. USE
fOR EXPERIMENTS ONLY.
1 / ~ 1 )
~ ij V POUR CONTENTS Of CUS-
~ - ' - ' - ( TAROCUPINTO A filTER. WHEN
f iLTRATE HAS RUN OFf, WASH
aORIC ACID REMAINING IN FIL
TER WITHA SMALL AMOUNT OF
COlD WATER TO REMOVE NaCI
ALSO fORMED IN THE PROCESS.
1 - ,\
"
I
DROP A FEW CRYSTALS OF BORIC
ACID IN A CUSTARD CUP. ADD A
COUPLE ml DENATURED ALCOHOL.
IGNITE. STIR WI TH GLASS ROD.
BORIC ACID GIVES GREEN EDGES
TO THE FLAMES,
TESTS FOR
BORIC ACID
YEllOW TURMERIC INDICATOR PA
PER TURNS BROWN WITH aORIC
ACID. YEllOW COLORING MAnER
IN TABLE MUSTARD IS TURMERIC.
TO MAKE TEST PAPER. DIP STRIPS
Of PAPER TOWELING IN MUSTARD.
WASH MUSTARD OfF. DRY STRIPS.
MAKING
BORIC OXIDE
MAKING BORIC ACID
IN A CUSTARD CUP. ADD
9 BORAX TO 15 ml WATER.
BRING TO BOIl. STIR UNTIL
BORAX IS DISSOlVED.
57
=c
!
,

en-
I
<i "

Ii

c
THE ACID CARBONATE {NaHCO. 1 IS MADE
BY LEADING CO, TO NORMAL CARBONATE
(Na, CO. I
I MAKE SATURATED SOlUTION BY SHAK-
ING 3 TEASPOONS WASHING SODA IN 30
ml COOL, BUT NOT COlD, WATER. FILTER IT.
2 SET UP APPARATUS FOR MAKING CO, AS
SHOWN ON PAGE 31. LEAD CO, INTO SODA
SOLUTION FOR 10 MINUTES. THEN SET ASIDE.
SHORTlY NaHCO. CRYSTALS APPEAR.
MAKING ACID SALT fR OM NORMAL SALT
Tue S.. \LTS of sodium and potassium have been used
for thousands of years in making soap and glass and
for a great number of other purposes.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most common sodl-
urn salt - it is t he chemical that makes ocean water
"salty." Plants growing in the ocean take up so
much of t he sodium t hat people along the seacoasts
of t he world used t o burn dri ed seaweed to secur e
"soda ash" (sodium carbonate, NatCOs). I nland
plants, on t he ot her hand, pick up potassium from
t he soil. Inland people boiled out wood ashes in large
pots to get " potash" (potassium carbonate, KleO
s
)
In 1807. the British scienti st, Humphry Dav")' ,
succeeded in isolating the metals found in these salts.
They prayed to be wax-soft and silvery. He called
t hem sodi um (from soda ash) and potassium (from
potash). These are still their Engli sh names. But in
chemi cal formulas they are referred t o as natrium
(Na) an d kalium (K) - from abbre....lations of t he
Arabic names of t he ashes : nairun and at qili (alkali).
SOdiUlll and P ot assiUlll
Na NATRIUM
SODIUM SULfATE IS PRODUCED
BY HEATING SODIUM ACID SUL-
f ATE WI TH SODIUM CHLORIDE.
1
II '\ I '
I :
\ Ii " :
,
\
":"', ,-, I
.' /
\
MAKING NORMAL SALT
FROM ACID SALT
2 POUR CLEAR UQUI D INTO LARGE PIE PLATE. PLACE
IN SUNNY WINDOW FOR WATER TO EVAPORATE SLOW-
LY. THE CRYSTALS FORMED WI LL BE MUCH LARGER.
IN A TEST TUBE, HEAT
A MIXTURE Of 2 9 SO
DlUM ACID SULFATE(SO.
DIUM BISULFATE) WITH
1 9 TABLE SALT (NoCI).
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE 1
IS SET FREE AND SODI-
UM SULFATE IS FORMED:
NoHS0
4
+ NaCl __
HCI + Na,S04
Elemen t 11 .
Atomic WI.:
22 .991. Densi ty:
0.97 . {English: So-
dium) Silve r-white
mel af , can be cut
with knife. Oxid ize,
" SALARY" COMES fROM SAURJUM i n c i r, Reacts with
- THE WAGES PAID IN SALT TO weter , Burns with
ROMAN SOLDIERS. yellow flClrne.
J
CRYSTALLIZING
closed SALT BY
end EVAPORATION
lube
/
1 DISSOLV E 19 9 TABLE
SA T (Noel) IN 50 ml HOT
WATER . BOil SOlUTION.
STIRRING WITH GLASS TUBe
WITH TOP END SEALED (TO
REDUCE "BUMPING"}. UNTIL
HALF THE WATER HAS BEEN
l EVAPORATED. SALT FORMS
fA:: FINE CRYSTALS.
l-W=
58
. !
7
/ I f
/!;

,
J
f
I . , I ,'II \l' I" I
PIONEER WOMEN MADE POTASH
FROM WOOD ASHES.
STI R UP SEVER"'l TE...
SPOONS Of FRESH WOOD
"'SHES WITH W...RM W...TER.
SKIM OFF WOOD REMAINS.
filTER THE MIXTURE OF
A HES AND WATER. COllECT
FILTRATE IN A CUSTARD CUP.
EVAPORATE MOST OF W"'TER.
THEN COOL TO PERMIT KICO
I
TO CRYST...l llZE OUT.
MAKING
POTASH
'- . ,.
.'
-
<sac,
_..... ....
s... u-
nTU

WHEN YOU HEAT PO-

TASSlUM NITRATE, IT
GI VES UP OXYGEN
AND BECOMES PO -
TASSIUM NITRITE:
2KNO.
2KN0
2
+ 0.
,,\.

>.. -:=-:
..-
,
I ,

I '
.. I \
i "II I ,
'I
I
"

THE COMPOUNDS Of CERTAIN METALS GIVE

DI STINCT COLORS TO A fLAME. DIP Ni -
CHR.OME WIRE IN Hel TO CLEAN IT. HEAT IT.
THEN DIP l OOP IN COMPOUND AN D HOlD
IN FlAME.
FLAME COLOR TEST FOR SODIUM AND POTASSIUM
HEAT 1J:z TEASPOON
SALTPETER AT BOT
TOMOFA TEST TUSE
UNTILITMELTS. DROP
I NTO THE TUBE A
PEA-SI ZE LUMP O F
SULFUR. IT BURNS
W ITH BRILLIANT BLUE
FLAME . DO SAME
EXPERIMENT WI TH
HEAD O f MATCH,
CHARCOAL BIT.
K
K A L I U M
El e me nt 1 9.
Ato mic wI.:
39. 100 . De nl il y:
0.87. (English: Po-
loni um) Silver-
while metal, so sofl
it con be cut with
knife. O.idiul in
a ir . Reads with wa-
te r, Burft$ with yio-
let Rome.
NITRATE TO
NITRITl
..<----- ---
SODIUM COMPOUNDS GIVE
THE FlAME A BRIGHT reuow-
RED COlOR. POTASSIUM COM-
POUNDS GIVE VIOLET FlAME.
-'-_7
TO SEE VIOlETCOlOROF PO-
TASSIUM IN MIXTURE WITH
No, US E BLUE G LASS TO
SCREEN OUT YELLOW OF No .
59
ST.-\I\"D UP STR_-\IGIIT. You can do it becau se your
bones cont ain calcium. Te ll a mason to put lip a
br ick house. He can do it wit h morta r cont aining
calcium. Tell a mast er builder to build a monument.
He will make it from marble - cal cium again. Tell
a hen to " go lay an egg: ' She can do it if she gets
enough calcium in her feed to make th e shell.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO
s)
is the star ting point
for most calcium compounds - and for other chemi-
cals as well. It is found in nature in cliffs and moun-
tain ranges in th e form of chalk and limest one and
marble. And it makes up th e shells of d ams and mus-
sels and billions of tiny sea creat ures.
Calcium carbonate is almost insoluble in water.
But if the water contains carbon dioxide. some goes
in solut ion as calci um bicarbonate (Ca(HCOsh).
This explains the formations in our famous limestone
caves. Rainwater containing carbon di oxide seeped
through the ground and dissolved a small amou nt
of limest one. In falling from th e cave ceiling and
drying, the drops gave up HsO and CO, and left
CaCO
s
behind. The minute deposit s of falling drops
during thousands of years created the st alact ites
hanging from th e roof of th e caws and the st alag-
mites rising from th e floor.
A widespread mineral called gyps um is the sul-
fate of calcium. In this. each molecule of sulfat e has
t wo molecules of water attached to it (CaSO. 2H,O).
When gypsum is heated, it loses three quarters of its
wat er and becomes plaster of Pari s (2CaSO, H,O).
When you mix plast er of Paris and water. it again
takes on th e f ull amount of H
2
0 and hardens into
a hydrate similar to the original gyps um.
The name of calcium was given t o t he met al hidden
in limestone by its discoverer, Humphry Davy. It
comes from calx, th e old Latin name for lime.
Calciurn- for Building
marble
STALACTITES AND STALAGMITES ARE
UNDERGROUND DEPOSITS OF CaCO .

-,
"-=------ \ ( '''\
\1'
f', . ' ., j
r
EA SHEllS, CORAL, LIMESTONE. --
MARBLE ARE All CALCIUM CARSONATE. --..
WHEN LIMESTONE IS HEATED IN KILNS, WHEN WATER IS ADDEOTO LUMPS Of QUICKLIME ICoOI.
IT lOSES CARBON DIOXIDE AND TURNS THEY CRUMBLE INTO A WHITISH POWDER OF SLAKED OR
INTO QUICKlIME-CAlCIUM OXIDE. HYDRATED liME (Ce{OH}.). (SEE ALSO PAGE 45.)
" THE WHITE CUFFS Of DOVER" CONSIST OF ALMOST
PURE CALCIUM CARBONATE IN THE FORM Of CHALK.
60
."'"
-"" '",
DISTILLED
WATER MAKES
LARGE
AMOUNT
OF FOAM.
dist illed
weter he re .::
-<:

-

ice cubes
in water
for cooling
HARD WATER
SOFTENED WITH
WASHING
SODA MAKES
fOAM.
DISTILliNG
WATER
rubber stopper
with glau t ube
can upside
down--boltom
removed
HARD TAP
WATER MAKES
VERY UTILE
fOAM.
.
,
water to be :.'.'
distilled is
in this con
IN THESCIENTIFIC l ABORATORY, All IMPURITIES ICAL.
CIUM CARBONATE AND SULFATE. AND OTHERSl MUST
BE REMOVED FROM WATER TO BE USED AS SOLVENT,
THIS IS DONE BY EVAPORATING THE WATER AND
CONDENSING THE STEAM. YOU CAN MAKE A DIS
TILLATION APPARATUS FROM TWO PINT SIZE CANS.
CASTING WITH PLASTER OF PARIS
PLASTER OF PARIS 12CeSO.'H, Oj IS USED
IN POUCE WORK FOR MAKING CASTS OF
TRACKS. MIX PLASTER WITH WATER UNTil
61
SOFT TAP
WATEl GIVES
fAIR AMOUNT
OF FOAM.

o
o
o
PRECIPITATED
CALCIUM
CARBONATE
1 WHEN MARBLE CH IPS
HAVE DISSOlVED IN ACID IN
BOTTLE B IN EXPERIMENT
ABOVE. POUR SOlUTION INTO
CUSTARD CUP, HEAT,
2 WHEN HOT. ADD SOLU-
TION Of 2 TEASPOONS
WASHING SODA IN 50 ml
WATER, YOU GET A HEAVY
WHITE PRECIPITATE Of CAL
CIUM CARBONATE.
<, '- TESTING HARDNESS OF WATER
MAKE TEST SOLU
nON B DISSOlVING
I iii SOAP FLAKES IN 20
ml DENATURED ALCO
HOL. FILTER.
2 FILL A SLENDER JAR
LF FULL OF WATER
TO BE TESTED. AOO 10
..__DROPS f. SQAI'; SOLU-
TION: CLOSE MOUTH
Of JAR, SHAKE VIGOR.
OUSLY. CHECK AMOUNT
OF FOAM.
2
SET UP GAS GENERATOR AS SHOWN ON PAGE
. BonLE A CONTAINS H'IbROCHLORIC ACIO. IN
BonLE a. PLACE MARBLE CHfps ON TOP Of PEBBLES.
POUR ACID ON MARBLE CHIPS TO MAKE CO.
LEAD THE CARBON DIOXIDE INTO UME WATER.
URNS MI LKY THROUGH FORMATION Of CeCO
J

CONTINUE LEADING CO, INTO MILKY SOlUTION,
KINESS DISAPPEARS. INSOlUBLE CeCO
J
HAS BEEN
TURNED INTO SOLUBLE CeIHCO.lz. THIS IS THE SUB.
STANCE THAT MAKES MOST HARD WATER " HARD."
MAKING " HARD" WATER
TAKE .-\ LOOK at the periodic t able of clements on
pages 38-3Q I n column IrA you find the metal mag-
nesium, in column lIB th e metal zinc. The fact that
the t wo families in which the)' are found bot h heve
t he Roman numeral II would indi cate t hat t hey are
related. But t he fact that t hey are in separat e " sub-
groups" would suggest t hat t he)' differ in cer ta in re-
spects . That is exactly the case.
In their compounds they are very mu ch alike. One
atom combines wit h one atom of oxygen to form the
oxide (MgO and ZnO), and one atom replaces two
atoms of hydrogen in forming a salt and
Znel" for instance). But in some of thei r reactions
t hey do not behave alike - as you will learn .
Before world War II, magnesium had little use
- mainly in flash photography beca use it burns wit h
a blinding, whi te light. But t he metal became im-
portant when lightweight planes were needed-
melted t ogether wit h other metals it forms an " alloy"
< .
"
"
"

HOLD 2-INCH PIECE OF MAGNESI UM RIB-
BON WITH A PAIR ,
OF PlIERS. IGNI TE IT. . \ J 4"'
IT BURNS W ITH A . I
'Rl LLlANT, FLAME. MIX ASHES :.: ., .:.., .... , CUT SLIVER OF ZINC.
(MgOI WITH WATER. I ,' HOlD IT IN FlAME. IT
TEST MIXTURE WITH BURNS WITH BLU ISH-
RED lITMUS PAPER. GREEN flAME TO ZINC

OXIDE. InD ISYEllOW

' J. WH EN HOT, WHITE
WHEN COOl.
;t Ii ,. s.
...-----,
-
IB
-
.


2
...-----,
-
-
11i-,]
,
-

.......
REPLACEMENT OF COPPER
:I DISSOlVE 4 9 COPPER SULfATE IN 40 ml WATER.
POUR HALf Of THE SOlUTION OVER STRIPS OF MAGNE-
SIUM, THE OTHER HALf OVER SLIVERS Of ZINC.
COPPER IS fORCED OUT AND Mg AND Zn GO INTO
OLUTION. If ENOUGH METAL IS USED, THE BLUE COlOR
DISAPPEARS. MgS0
4
AND ZnS0
4
ARE COlORLESS.

=
,
copper
wire
REACTION
WITH
ACIDS
."
BOTH METALS REACTWITli WEAK ACIDS, EVEN WITH
VINEGAR-Mg WITH COLD VINEGAR, Zn WITH HOT.
POUR SOlUTION OF 1 9 SODIUM BISULfATE IN 10
m WATER ON Mg AND In . Mg REACTS FAST, I n SLOWLY.
NOW TOUCH ZINC WITH A COPPER WIRE. REACTION
SPEEDS UP, CAUSED BY ELECTRI C PROCESS.
62
M
MAGNE-
g
S I U M
Element 12.
Atomic wt. : 2.4.32 .
Density: 1.75. Sil-
ve r -white me tal.
Ductile, mallea ble.
Reacts wi th bo iling
weter. Burns in ai r
with ve ry b rill ion t
white light .
Z
Z INC
nElement 30.
Ato mic wI. :
6 5 . 3 8 . Den iily :
7 . 1. Blu ish-whit e
meta l. Ductile and
mo tl eoble. Dii lils
when healed 10
bo iling. Can be
mo de 10 bu rn with
bluish flame.
that is light yet very st rong. Some magnesium com-
pounds are used in medicine : mi lk of magnesia (Mg
(0 1-1)2) and Epsom salt (MgSO{7H
2
0).
Zinc has been used for ages t o coat iron pails and
pipes to prevent them from rust ing - "gal vani zed
iron." Zinc is also a part of many alloys (German
silver and bra ss) and is import ant in t he making of
dry-cel l batteries.
fi
1/
1/
MAKING THE HYDROXIDES
MAKING THE CARBONATES
t DISSOLVE 2 9 EPSOM SALT {MAGNESIUM
SULFATE, MgS0
4
"7H.0} IN 20 ml WATER.
GET fROM HARDWARE STORE SMAll BOT.
TlE Of "TINNERS' flUI D." THIS IS A STRONG
SOLUTION OF I INC CHLORIDE. DILUTE 5ml OF
flUID WITH 15 ml WATER.
3 MAKE SOLUTION OF 5 9 WASHING SODA
(SODIUM CARBONATE) IN 50 ml WATER. ADD
SOMEOF THIS SOLUTION TO THEOTHER TWO.
IN BOTH JARS YOU WI LL GET A HEAVY WHITE
PRECIPITATE. IN THE Mg JAR, THIS IS NORMAL
MAGNESIUM CARBONATE (MgCO.I . IN I n JAR,
CO. IS SET fREEAND BASIC I INC CARBONATE
Il n(OH). ,lnCO . 1 RESULTS.
1 ADD SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOlUTION TO SOlUTION
OF MAGNESIUM SULFATE. WHITE Mg(OHh FORMS.
ADD SMAll AMOUNT OF NaOH SOLUTION TO DI
LUTED TINNERS' flUID {lnCl, I. In {OHh IS FORMED. ADD
MORE NaOH. PRECIPITATE DISSOLVES WI TH FORMATION
OF SODIUM IINCATE (Na,ln 0 ,1.
ADD AMMONIA (AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE) TO MAG
NESIUM SULFATE SOLUTION. AGAIN Mg(OHh FORMS.
ADD SMALL AMOUNT OF AMMONIA TO DILUTED TIN
NERS' FLUID. I n{OHh FORMS. ADD MORE. THE Zn(OH),
DISSOLVES, FORMING COMPOUND WITH NH, .
Zn AND Mg
WITH HaS /..\;3l7
1 SETUP HYDROGEN SUl f IDEAPPARATUS SHOWN ON PAGE 53 .
lEAD HYDROGEN SULfIDE (H.S) INTO DilUTED TlNNERS' flUI D
( nCI. l . YOU GET A WHITE PRECIPITATE Of InS.
3 lEAD H.S INTO SOLUTION OF EPSOM SALT (MgS0
41
. HERE
A SO YOU GET WHITE PRECIPITATE. BUT NOT Of MAGNESIUM
SUl f iDE. THIS REACTS WITH THE WATER TO MAKE Mg(OHI .
63
I HEAT WATER UNTI L IT IS SLIGHTlY MORE THAN LUKE
WARM. STIR INTO IT POTASSIUM ALUM OR AMMONIUM
ALUM UNTIL NO MORE DISSOLVES. POUR LIQUID Off
UNDISSOlVED ALUM. SET ASIDE TO COOl.
2 WHEN CRYSTALS HAVE fORMED, PICK OUT LARCEST
ONES. ADD TO SOlUTION AS MUCH MORE ALUM AS IS
REPRESENTED BY THE CRYSTALS YOU REMOVED. HEAT
CENTlY AGAIN UNTi l ALL IS DISSOlVED. COOl.
3 POUR COOLED SOLUTION INTO NARROW GLASS. TIE
THREAD TO LARGEST CRYSTAL VOU PICKED. HAN G THIS
IN SOlUTION FROM A PENCIl. PLACE IN QUI ET SPOT.
l ET THE CRYSTAL GROW fOR A WEEK OR MORE.
GROWING ALUM CRYSTALS
ITIS AL.\IOST impossibl e to imagine our world with-
out aluminum. Almost everyw here ) 'OU look you see
items made of this sil ver-white mel al - from the
pols in the kit chen to the airplanes over head.
Although aluminum is the most abundant metal
on ear t h, no one had eve r seen it until 1825 when a
Danish scient ist , Hans Christ ian ,0rsted, isolated it
from aluminum chloride (AIe l.). For a number of
years al uminum was so expensive that it was ron-
sidered in class wit h gold and silver, The solid alu mi-
num cap placed on t op or t he Washington Monument
in 188' was first put on public display so t ha t every-
one could have a look at such a grea t rarity. Two
A lum.ill.Ulu-ill. A hull.rlall.ce
.
..
-:
, .
1 CUT A LUMINUM
FOil IN SMAl l STRIPS.
DROP THEM IN A UTILE
DI LUTED HYDROCHLOR.
IC ACID. HYDROGEN IS
RELEASED; ALUMINUM
CHLORIDE IS FORMED.
DROP STRIPS OF
AlUMINUMFOlLIN 10-/.
NoOH SOLUTION. HY
OROGEN IS FREED AND
SODIUM A LUMINATE
[NoAIO. 1 IS fORMED.
H. C. .0RSTED O F DENMARK DISCOV
ERED ALUMINUM IN 1825. CHARLES
HALL OF THE UNITED STATES FOUND '
A CHEAP WAY OF PRODUCING IT
IN 1886.
DISSOLVING
-,
AI
ALUMINUM
Element 13 .
At omic wt .:
. -... -
26 .98 . Den u t y ,
2.70. Silve r-white
me lr;J1; d uctile, ma l-
lecble, a ble 10 take " , - . _..
o high po lish. Am.
photeric. Wi ll burn
in oxyg e n with
white fla me.
MAKE A SMAll AMOUNT
O f ALUMI NUM POWDER BY
FILING IT OFF AN OLD Al U
MINUM POT. SPRINKLE IN
FLAME TO MAKE SPARKS
Of BURNING ALUMINUM.
-..
--
- . -;
.... -- .
years lat er, a 22-;year-old American chemist, Charles
Hall, invented a way of producing aluminum
cheaply fr om aluminum oxide (AlzO
z
). Since then
alumi num has become one of the most popul ar of all
metals - mostl y because of its lightness.
The mineral bauxite (AlHO
z
, AI(OH)z) is our mai n
source of aluminum. But aluminum is also found in
nat ure as oxide and in many complex silicates. Clay,
for insta nce, is an aluminum silicate.
Two things about al uminum will interest you as a
chemist. One is th at aluminum is an " amphot eric"
element , which means t ha t it ca n form not only a
base (Al(OIl) s), but also an acid (HAlO
z
). The other
is that aluminum sulfate (AlZ(SOI)Z) has the abilit y
to combine with potassium sulfate and am-
moni um sulfate ((NH1hSOI) int o beaut iful cubic
crystals of double salts call ed " alums"- KAI
12H
z
O and NH
1
AI(SOl h 12H
1
0.
MAKING ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE
ALUM AND SODA
CLEARING
WATER
,
WITH
-
= ALUM 0"
.>\W

9
M1MO
NI!
02:
PO\W'REJ)

ALUM

" - ..

-
1
3
=
1 POUR WATER INTO A PINT JAR AND STIR INTO IT 1 TABLE-
SPOON EARTH FROM THE GARDEN OR FROM A FLOWER POT.
2 IN ANOTHER JAR, MAKE A SIMILAR MI XTURE. IN THIS, DIS-
SOl VE '14 TEASPOON ALUM. ADD 1 TEASPOON AMMONIA. DIRT
SETTLES FASTER IN THIS JAR THAN IN THE FIRST JAR.
1 TO 'I.e TEASPOON OF ALUM IN 20 ml
ATER, ADD TEASPOON SODA IN 20
, ml WATER. PRECIPITATE SHOULD BE CAR
1- BONATE.:..::.:..sUT IS IT?
G'l f iLTER THE PRECIPITATE. WASH IT RE-

BY SQUIRTING TER INTO IT

3 AFTER WASHING, BRI NG PRECIPITATE
INTO A TEST TUBE. ADD HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. NO CO
2
IS FORMED. THIS IS NOT
A CARBONATE. ALUMINUM HAS NO CAR-
BONATE. ALUM MAKES ALUMINUM HY
DROXIDE WITH SODA.
10 ml WATER. ADD A LITTLE 10/. NaOH
SOLUTION. YOU GET JELLYL1KE ALUMINUM
HYDROXIDE. THIS WILL DISSOlVE IN MORE
NaOH TO FORM SODIUM ALUMINATE.
AMMONI A ADDED TO ALUM SOlUTION
ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE. BUT THIS
DOES NOT DISSOLVE IN MORE AMMONI A.
-

F
I-

-
=

-- - -
=

=
<,
..---
----
-
-
=
..... "'...
-
G) DISSOlVE I 9 TEASPOON) ALUM IN
\
65
MANGANESE
DiOXIDE TO
MANGANESE
SULFATE
Semi
!f3,sh
!'l.tJ<6A.
.... 5<$
DIOXIP
1 IN A PYREX CUSTARD CUP, MIX 2 9 MANGANESE DIOXIDE, 6 9 SO-
lUM BISUlFATE, AND 10 ml WATER. HEAT MIXTURE GENTlY. IT WILL
BUBBLE VIGOROUSLY BECAUSE OXYGEN IS SET FREE.
2: AFTER A FEW MINUTES, ADD 30 ml WATER. FILTER. FILTRATE CON
TAINS MANGANESE SULFATE IMnSO.1 AND SODIUM SULFATE.
MANGANESE
SULFATE TO
MANGANESE
HYDROXIDE
3 INTO HALF OF THE MANGANESE SUL-
FATE SOLUTION YOU HAVE MADE. POUR
10 ,,/. SOLUTION OF NaOH UNTIL NO
MORE PRECIPITATE FORMS. WHITI SH
Mn(OHla OXIDIZES INTO BROWN MnOIOHJ.
M angan ese-Met al of M a n y Colors
:M ETALLIC has no use by itself. But add
up to 15 per cent of it to steel an d t he result is an
alloy - " manganese steel" - so hard that it is suit -
abl e for ma chine parts that arc exposed t o a lot of
rou gh wear.
The most common ore from which manganese is
extract ed goes under the name of "pyrolusite." This
is nothing but your old fri end manganese dioxide
(i\In02) whi ch you found in )our flashlight batter y
and have alread y used in a grea t number of your
chemical experi ments.
The compounds of manganese come in almost any
color you can think of: black and brown, white and
pink and red . violet and green. In working wit h
th ese compounds. your fingers and glassware ma y
get brown. You can get rid of this stain easily with
diluted hydrochl oric acid. Rinse thoroughly wit h
water afterwards.
EXPERIMENTS WITH POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
KMnO. WILL GI VE YOU AN IDEA OF SMALLNESS OF MOLECULE.
1 DISSOLVE '12 9 POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE IN 50 ml WA-
TER. THIS GIVES A SOlUTI ON OF 1 TO 100, OR 1/100.
DILUTE 5 ml OF THIS SOLUTION WITH 45 ml WATER. YOU
OW HAVE A SOLUTION OF 1 TO 1,000, OR 1/1 , 000.
AGAIN,.5 ml TO 45 ml WATER FORSOLUTION 1/10,000.
4 AGAIN, S ml TO 45 ml WATER FOR SOLUTION 1/100,000.
S AGAIN, 5 ml TO 45 ml WATER FOR SOLUTION 1/1 ,000,000.
COLOR YOU STill SEE IS CAUSED BY THE PRESENCE OF MORE
THAN 600,0 00, 000,0 00, 000 ,000 MOLECULES OF KMnO .
1
4

-
-
- ,-
.!'<::.:::

, ..
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
'"
0
0
,;
0
o'
o'
0
"-
0 0
<,
"-
"-
66
,'
REDUCING KMnO.
PLACE A FEW CRYS
TAtS OF POTASSIUM
PERMANGANATE ON
BOTTOM OF A TEST
TUBE. DROP A FEW
DROPS OF HYDRO-
CHLORI C ACID ON
THEM. THE KMn0
4
IS
REDUCED (THAT IS, IT
GIVES UPOXYGEN). IT
OXIDIZES HCI AND
SETS CHtORINE FREE.
Mn
MANGA.
N E 5 E
Element 25.
Atomic .....1. , 54.9.( .
Density, 7.4,(. su-
very-g ray metal
.....ith feddilih tinge .
Reach ..... ith .....cte r.
hli compoundli wilh
oxygen range f rom
boseli 10 adds.
6 SET UPAPPA US FORMAKING HY
OROGEN SULFIDE ISEE PAGE S3}. POUR
SOlUTION OF MnO. INTO TEST TUBE.
DilUTE IT IF NECESSARY. LEAD HIS INTO
IT. YOU GET MANGANESE SULFIDE.
MANGANESE
CHLORIDE TO
MANGANESE
SULFIDE
5
MANGANESE
CARBONATE
TO
MANGANESE
CHLORIDE
.'
5 lET MANGANESE CARBONATE
srme, POUR LIQUID Off PRECIPI -
TATE. ADD HYDROCHLORIC ACID BY
THE DROP UNTIl- DISSOLVED. RESULT
IS MANGANESE CHLORIDE IMnCl
a)
.
It
t
!
THEEXPERIMENTS ALONG THE
TOP OF THESE PAGES SHOW
HOW IT I S PO SSIBLE TO
MOVE FROM O NE COM
POUND TO ANOTHER.
MANGANESE SULFATE TO
MANGANESE CARBONATE
4 "INTO SECOND HALF Of
SOLUTION. POUR SOLUTION Of
.( 9 SODIUM CAR80NATE IN 10
ml WATER. WHITE PRECIPITATE
IS MnCO
DISSOLVE A FEW CRYS
TALS OF POTASS IUM
PERMANGANATE IN
WATER . ADD TINY
AMOUNT OF SODI UM
81SUIFATE ITO MAK E
SOLUTION SOURI . POUR
IN A UTILE HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE (HaO.) . COL-
OR DISAPPEARS AND
OXYGEN IS liB ERATED.
T
1 DISSOLVE I 9 SODIUM HYDROXIDE IN 50 ml WA-
TER. ADD A CRYSTAL OF POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
TO GIVE THE SOLUTION A liGHT REO COlOR.
~ POUR THE REO SOLUTION INTO A f ILTER. WATCH
E fiLTRATE. IT IS GREEN INSTEAD Of REO. PASSING
THROUGH FILTER PAPER HAS CAUSED KMn0
4
TO BE
REDUCED TO POTASSIUM MANGANATE (KaMnO.I.

2
.------
1 DISSOLVE A SMAll CRYSTAL Of IRON
SUlfATE (fERROUS SULFATE. FeSO.1 IN HALF
A TEST TUBE FULL OF WATER.
~ DISSOLVE A COUPLE OF KMn0
4
CRYSTALS
N HALF TEST TUBE OF WATER.
3 POUR PERMANGANATE INTO IRON SALT.
GREEN FERROUS SULFATE IS OXIDIZED TO
BROWN FERRIC SULfATE IFeaISO.}.I_
67
MAKING A
FERROUS SALT
POUR HYDROCHLO-
R C ACID OV ER STEEL
WOOl. HYDROGEN IS
SET f REE AS STEE L
WOOL DlSSOl VES. r n.
TER THE SOLUTION .
2 LIGHT -GREEN ru-
TRATE CONTAINS f ER-
ROUS CHLORIDE (FeCt. l.
A ge of 11'011
2
III all
IRO::\: has the pecu liar qual it y of bein g mag-
netic - t ha t is. of being attracted and influenced v
a Iorre called ma gnetism. If ) "011 should walk arou nd
your horne and touch different things with a mag-
net. you woul d be surprised a t the large number of
th>1II that would prow t o conta in iron . They would
range in size from the ca r in thf" garage and the re-
frigerator and stove in the kitchen to t he nail s in the
wall s and the nM'dl"s and pins in your mother's
sewing box.
TIlt' moment yun step outdoors and look around.
you will be even more amazed . Skyscrapers and
w, Liye
TEST FOR IRON SALTS
IN ONE TEST TUBE, DILUTE SOME f ERRIC
CHLORIDE SOlUTION WITH WATER.
IN ANOTHER, DILUTE SOME Of THE f ER-
ROUS CHLORIDE SOlUTION WITH = =;![IF=(j'!!'F''',>
TO EACH, ADD A f EW DROPS
f SOLUTION OF If. TEASPOON
POTASSIUM FERROCYANIDE IN
50 ml WATER. fERRIC SALT MAKES
A DEEP BLUE PRECIPITATE Of
PRUSSIAN BLUE. fERROUS SALT
MAKES LIGHT BLUE PRECIPITATE.
RUSTING OF IRON
MOISTEN A WAD O f fiNE STEEL
WOOL WITH VINEGAR (TO SPEED UP
ACTION). WEDGE IT IN BOTTOM OF
A GLASS. INVERT GLASS IN
PIE PLATE OF WATER. IN A
FEW DAYS, WATER HAS
RISEN IN GLASS. IRON HAS
REACTED WITH OXYGEN
AND MOISTURE TO FORM
RUST-{Fe
10
. I.3H
1
0 .
[,


MAKING A FERRIC SALT
A
SET UP APPARATUS FORMAKING CHLORINE
(SEE PAGE 35). INTO BOTTLE B POUR fER-
ROUSCHLORIDESOLUTION YOU HAVE JUST
MADE. THE CHLORINE TURNS THE GREEN
fERROUS CHLORIDE (FeCI.l INTO A BROWN
fERRIC CHLORIDE (f eCI,I.
TWO KINDS OF IRON COMPOUNDS
IRON FORMS TWO KINDS Of COMPOUNDS. IN FERROUS
SALTS, EACH IRON ATOM HAS REPLACED TWO HYDRO-
GEN ATOMS. IN f ERRIC SALTS, EACH IRON ATOM HAS
REPLACED THREE HYDROGEN ATOMS. GREEN fERROUS
SALTS EASILY OXIDIZE INTO RE[}.BROWN FERRIC SALTS.

"
"
"
:j
,
, '

' .
68
1 DI SSOlVE TEASPOON FER_
ROUS SULFATE IN 50 ml WATER.
ADD A FEW CRYSTALS Of SODI-
UM BISULfATE TO KEEP THE SO-
LUTION SOUR.
G: ADD HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
LIGHT-GREEN FER-
ROUS SULFATE SOLUTION TURNS
REDDI SH-BROW N. H.0
1
HAS OX-
I DI ZED FeS0
4
TO FERRIC SULFATE
IFe
2
(SO..I. I
10"/.
NaOH
-
I
2 I
'---.)
u
TO SOlUTION OF lh TEASPOON fERROUS SULFATE
I 50 ml WATER. AOD SOLUTION OF SODIUM HYDROX-
IDE. PURE f ERROUS HYDROXIDE IS WHITE. BECA USEO F IM-
PURITIES. YOU GET DIRTY-GREEN PRECIPITATE OF Fe{OH)
SOON OXIDIZING TO BROWN FERRIC HYDROXIDE.
2 TO ANOTHER PORTION OF FERROUS SULFATE SOLU-
r rON ADD SODIUM CARBONATE SOlUTION. PURE CAR.
BONATE MADE WITH NO OXYGEN PRESENT IS WHITE-
BUT YOU GET MUDDY, WHITISH-GREEN PRECIPITATE OF
FERROUS CARBONATE, EVENTUAllY TURNING INTO FER-
RIC HYDROXIDE.
FROM FERROUS
SALT TO ,. '"
FERRIC II I' -
, 0,..
--c...::::::::(=0vu'---

I I
,
( ..... - ....:;:-
.
IRON HYDROXIDES
AND CARBONATE
C + O, COt pl us heat
CO, + C- 2CO
Fe,O! + 3CO - ... 2Fe + :lCO
t
At t he same time, t he limestone combines with
various impurit ies to for m a glass-like compound
ca lled "slag." This is reman d whr- n th r- white-hot
iron is poured out in to mou lds and cooled into bars
of "pig iron."
The pi g iron is brittle br-cau so it contains d ose to
5 per cent carbon. To turn it into steel. t he carbon
must be burn ed out until only from .5 to 1.5 per cent
remains. This is done eit her by the Bessemer process
(named for an En glishman, Henr y Bessemer) or by
the open-hearth process. The finished st eel is molded
into " ingots" and ship ped t o manufact uri ng plants
all over t he country.
In chemical experiments . tlw must commonly wwd
iron compound is the iron sulfate (ferrous sulfate,
FeSO
I
7H,0) - also called " green vitriol " and
"copper as." Don't let the last name mislead you-
it has nothing La do with copper bu t comes from
an old French word, couperose,

- --- ' -. L :71 i '!i1, -. -"-
",',,; , ,."" ' " " , - = _ _
- 1 K.. 1'- 1 - \ -----....;;
.. .. . ...4 __---.....-..; .,-.-----:-
.J "--: .. __ -n.. _ " ,
- . -=, 0"" -3 -s..r. . / ' __

" ,- - I -

-:-- :. ..r-
bridges.
- all of t hese dep end on Iron (in till:' form uf steel) -cs ........ " ... _
for t heir existence, ':::, -II ' I
We are wry lucky t o han' , in America, not only --
'. -_.. - . .,..-- .;--
large amounts of iron ore but also large amounts of
(he coal from which La ma k e the coke that goes in to
iron production.
The iron is driven out of its ore (mostly FetO!)
in huge furnaces. Ea ch furn ace can make as much
as 1,000 tons of iron at one t ime from 2,000 ton s of
are. 1,000 ton s of coke , an d 500 ton s uf limestone.
A blast of hot air is forced through the mixture. The
coke burns wit h great heat to ca rbo n dioxide. This,
with more coke, forms carbon monoxide. and this.
in turn. reduces t he ir on oxide to metallic Iron . In
chr-mical language. this is what happens :
69
,
--- - -
wires). You will find copper in t he wir ing in your
own home and in every electrical gadget you use.
Copper makes t wo kinds of salts. In cuprous salts,
one copper ato m has taken the place of one hydrogen
at om ; in cupr ic salts. one copper a tom has taken t he
place of two hydrogen atoms. Cuprous salts (such
as cuprous chloride , CuCI) are colorless. whi le cupric
salts (s uch as cupric sulfat e. c usa are br ight
blue in color.

MOST IMPORTANT USE
OF COPPER TODAY IS
FOR ELECTRIC WIRING.
-- --,..--- \
C OPPEll IS O:\ E of t he few met al s found free in na-
tun' , T ha t is why it was used long before hist oric
t imes Cor weapons and ut ensils. The main trouble
wit h it was its soft ness. T his was r emedied when
some early coppers mit h discovered that COPPf'f and
t in (also found [n'(' in nature ) melted toget her formed
an alloy that was much ha rder t han either of the
t wo met al s. This all oy gave its name t o more than
two thousand years of human hist or y - the pe riod
called the " Bronze Age."
A great number of w{"upons from the Bronze Age
have br-en found in Gre tce. Wllen they were dug out
of the ground, th ey wer e r-ovr-n-d wi t h a green " rust."
This deposit was called verdi gris -c- Htcral ly " green
of Greec e" (from old French, cert de Grece)_It con-
slats of basic cupr ic carbonate - t he same compo und
you will see on a bro nze sta tue or a copper-dad
church spire exposed to wind and weat her.
Copp er becam e esp ecially va luable less than a
hundred years ago when a sat isfactory met hod for
producing 11 st eady flow of electricit y was inven ted .
After silver, copper is the best conductor of electrici-
ty. Today, th e most important usc for copper is for
elect rical pu rposes. It serves to bring the current
from the pl ace where it is produ ced to the pl ace
where it is to be used (alt hough, wit hi n recent years,
some aluminum has t aken its place for high-tension
THE GREEK AN D TROJAN WARRIORS FIGHTING BEFORE
THE GATES OF TROY USED SWORDS AND SHi ElDS OF
BRONZE- AN AllOY MADE UP OF COPPER AND TIN.
TOIla y
70
MAKING COPPER COMPOUNDS
f.
,
.
1J
I
I
I
!I
,
,
L-
"--'-' =
= = r.
'=
U.

0 6'1
/ .....
'-' p
.........
=
I
-;;I Q -9.,
,f
10,,/. SODI UM WITH AMMONIA . SODIUM CAR WITH HYDRO
SOLU- YOU'LL ALSO G ET BONATE SOLUTION GEN SULFIDE.
r'
:),

..
j -==-- )
"' :------...1...-
I

II
,
t.;;.
-"-
DISSOLVE 10 9 COP-
PER SULFATE IN 100
ml WATER. POUR 10
ml I NTO EACH OF
fOUR TEST TUBES.
TION PRECIPITATES
DIRTY-BLUE CUPRI C
H YDRO X ID E
(CuIOH1
J
l
Cu{OH1
J
BUT THIS DIS. GI VES BLUE-GREEN
SOLVES IN MORE AM. CUPRiC CARBON.
MONIA WITH DEEP BLUE ATE PRECIPI TATE.
COLOR.
BROWNISH-BLACK
PRECIPITATE O F
CUPRIC SULFIDE.
POUR A FEW DROPS OF THE HOT SOLU
t i ON INTO A LARGE AMOUNT OF WATER.
YOU GET A WHITE PRECIPITATE_WHEN YOU
DISSOLVED CUPRIC HYDROXIDE IN HCI. YOU
MADE CUPRIC CHLORIDE WHI CH I S SOLUBLE
IN WATER. BYTREATING THiS WITH METALLIC
COPPER, YOU GOT CUPROUS CHLORIDE. IN
SOLUBLE IN WATER_
REPLACEMENT
SERIES
POTASSIUM
SODIUM
CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM
ALUMINUM
ZINC
CHROMIUM
IRON
NICKEl
TiN
LEAD
COPPER
MERCURY
SILVER
PLATINUM
GOLD
C
COPPER
UElement 29.
Alom ic WI. :
63 .5.4. Den sity:
8.97. Soft meto l of
reddish color. Eos
j ly rolled ond
d rown into wire .
Ned to silver,is the
best conduct or of
e lectricity.
DROP SEVERAL CLEAN NAILS
INTO A SOLUTION OF COPPER SUL-
FATE. LEAVE FOR HALF AN HOUR.
NAILS ARE NOW COATED WITH
ALLIC COPPER AND THE SOLU-
TION CONTAINS FERROUS SULFATE.
METALS CAN BE ARRANG ED IN A
REPLACEMENT SERI ES. ANY METAL
IN THE SERIES WILL DRIVE OUT AN-
OTHER METAL BElOW IT AND TAKE
ITS PLACE I N THE SALT.
71
COPPER SULFATE IN
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
WATERFREE (ANHYDROUS)
CUPRIC SULFATE SHOWS IF
WATER IS PRESENT IN A
LIQUID BEING TESTED
CRUSH A FEW
CUPRI C SULFATE
CRYSTALS . HEAT
WHI LE STIRRING
, UNTIL THEY HAVE
_ TURNED I N TO A
WHITE POWDER.
SHAKE UP A lITILE ANHYDROUS
CUPRIC SULFATE WITH CARBON TET.
RACHLORIDE. NOTHING HAPPENS.
;I ADD ONE DROP O F WATER.
AKE. BLUE CRYSTALS FORM.
FROM CUPRIC
SALT TO
CUPROUS
SALT
1 LET CUPRIC HYDROXIDE l i N EX-
PERIMENT ON TOP OF PAGEl SET-
TlE. THEN POUR OFF LIQUID. ADD
HYDROCHLORIC ACID UNTIl ALL IS
DISSOLVED. ADD SMALL PIECES OF
WIRE. HEAT TO BOILING.
REMOVING TARNISH FROM SILVER
I LINE BOTTOM OF CUSTARD CUP WITH ALUMINUM
rol l. PLACE TARNISHED COIN ON FOIl. POUR CUP HALF
FUll OF WATER. ADD V. TEASPOON SODIUM CARBON-
ATE_ BOI L GENTlY. TARNISH VANISHES.
YOU CAN USE THIS METHOD FOR CLEANING SILVER.
WARE. PLACE SILVERTO BE CLEANED IN ALUMINUM TRAY.
ADD WATER AND SODA. BRING TO A BOIl. THE SILVER
BECOMES SHINY AGAIN.
SlLYER- LIKE COPPER and gold - is found free in
nature and was th erefore kn own to man long before
he learned to ext ract metals from th eir ores.
Pure silver has one drawback - it is al most as
soft as copper. That's why most silver is alloyed with
copper to make it harder. Sterling silver - a famous
alloy used for j ewelry - cont ains 7.5 parts copper to
92.5 par ts silver. Only Ko of Amer ican silver coins
is silver - the rest is copper.
When you t ak e a snapshot, you get yourself in-
volved in a series of complicated, chemica] pr ocesses
- all of th em hayi ng t o do with silver. It is hard
to believe that th e blacks and grays you see when
you look at a phot ograph are various concentra tions
of metallic silver.
l
Silver-One of the "Nohle" Metals
SILV ER IS MAtLEABlE-
THAT IS, IT CAN BE HAM-
MERED INTO ANY SHAPE
DESIRED. SILVER SMITHING
IS AN ANCIENT ART.
A
SILVER
gElement 47.
At omic wt.e
107.880. Densit)' :
10.54. Soft, while
metal with b right
lust er. Eosily hom-
mere d out and
drown into wire.
Besl known conduc-
tor of elect ricity.
~
' ~ . " . , . , ; .
I ~ "
t \ ~ I
I . ~ --_"
II ;+1 '\ L
TARNISHED SILVER
SILVER TARNISHES WHEN IT IS EX_'
POSED TO SULFUR. PLACE A FEW
CRYSTALS OF SODIUM THI OSULFATE
{" HYPO" l ON A SILVER COIN. HEAT
UNTIl HYPO MELTS. WASH. HYPO
HAS LEFT STAIN OF BROWN. BLACK
SILVER SULFIDE.
5 TO ANOTHER PART OF AgCI, ADD SODIUM
THIOSULFATE SOLUTION. AgCl DISSOlVES.
6 PLACE REMAINING AgCI IN THE SUN. IT TURNS
VIOLET FROMMETALLIC SILVER.
5
1 TO 5 ml SILVER NITRATE (AgNOJJ SOLUTION,
GET 5 9 SILVER NITRATE IN YOUR LOCAL ADD SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOlUTION. YOU GET
DRUG STORE. DISSOlVE IN 50 ml WATER. DARK-BROWN PRECIPITATE_NOT OF HYDROXIDE,
BUT OF SILVER OXIDE.
TO 5 ml AgNO. SOl UTION, ADD AMMONIA.
PRECIPITATE OF SILVER OXIDE DISSOlVES WHEN
YOU ADD MORE AMMONIA.
3 TO 5 ml AgNO. SOlUTION, ADD TABLE SALT
(NoCI) SOl UTION. CHEESELIKE PRECIPITATE IS SIL-
VER CHLORIDE (AgCl).
4 TO PART OF AgCI PRECIPITATE, ADD AMMONIA.
SI LVER CHLORIDE DISSOlVES.
2
SILVER
COMPOUNDS
72
I n making a photographic film, t he ma nufact urer
spreads an emulsion of gelatin that contains silver
bromide (AgBr) over a transparent sheet of cellul ose
aceta te. When the silver bromide is exposed to light ,
a certai n amount of it gives up metallic silver (AgBr
- Ago + Br). ~ I o r e of t his silver is brought out in
th e developing bath. When fully developed, the film
is placed in a fixing bath which removes all unexposed
silver bromide. After washi ng and drying, ~ i O U have
a phot ographi c nega tive in which the white parts
you phot ographed appea r black and th e black parts
appea r whit e.
To make a natural -looking pict ure, you place th e
negati ve on a piece of photographic paper and go
through a similar prccedure.es above, of exposing,
developing, fixing, washing. and drying.
MORE THAN 15 0
TONS Of Sil VER ARE
USED EACH YEAR IN
MAKING filM fOR
THE MOVIES.
PHOTOGRAPHY IN
VOlVES A WHOLE
SERIES Of CHEMI-
CAL PROCESSES.
-,
PHOTOGRAPHING WITHOUT A CAMERA
2 f IX THE lEAf PRINT IN A SO
LUTION Of 10 iii HYPO IN 100 ml
WATER. AFTER fiVE MINUTES,
WASH IN RUNNING WATER.
3 DRY THE PRINT
IN THE AIR ON TOP
OF NEWSPAPER .
WHEN DRY. FLATTBN
PRINT IN A BOOK.
73
1 f ROM A COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHER, GET A
f SHEETS OF " PRINTING OUT PAPER," A SLOW
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER. IN THE SHADE. PLACE SHEET
ON PIECE OF PLYWOOD. SENSITIZED SIDE UP. ON
TOP Of IT. LAY A lEAF AND A SHEET OF GLASS.
HOlD IN POSITION WITH SPRING CLOTHES PINS.
EXPOSE TO SUN UNTIl PAPER IS BLACKISH-ViOl ET.
TRACE EACH OF THE CIRCLES SHOWN ABOVE ONTO
CARDBOARD. PUNCH HOLES AS INDICATED. USE AS PAT-
TERNS FORCUTTING CIRCLES OF CONSTRUCTION BOARD.
,.
. ~
USING PATIERNS AT lEFT, CUT OUT SEVERAL CIRCLES
Of CONSTRUCTION BOARD IN VARIOUS COLORS.
PUNCH THE HOLES NECESSARY TO INDICATE VALENCES.
c B A
o
o
o
o
o
o
Valences and F or m u l as
As YOU HAVE st udied the chemical formulas in the
text, you will have not iced that one atom of hydro-
gen combines with one atom of chlorine (Hfll}, two
hyd rogen atoms wit h one atom of oxygen (HJO),
and three hydrogen atoms with one at om of nitrogen
(NIl,).
The capacity of one atom to hold on to other atoms
is called its valence (from Latin ealent ia, strength) .
No atom has a lower valence than the hydrogen
atom, so we use hydrogen as our sta rt ing point and
give it a valence of 1. Two hydrogen at oms combine
with one oxygen atom - that gin'S oxygen a val ence
of 2. Nitrogen has a valence of 3. Two oxygen a toms
combine with one carbon atom to make CO, . Car bon
ha s a valence of 4.
The char t on page 75 shows some of th e common
. . n . ~
~ Q
THESE DIAGRAMS SHOW WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU
BURN CARBON AND TEST FOR CO . ONE CARBON
ATOM IWITH FOUR POSITIVE VALENCES} COMBINES
WITH TWO ATOMS OF OXYGEN lEACH WITH TWO
NEGATIVE VALENCES} TO FORM ONE MOLECULE OF
CO. (ARROW POINTING UP INDICATES THAT THIS IS
A GAS). ONE MOLECULE CARBON DIOXIDE COMBINES
WITH ONE MOLECULE CALCIUM HYDROXIDE TO FORM
ONE MOLECULE OF CALCIUM CARBONATE {ARROW
POINTING DOWN INDICATES THAT IT IS A PRECIPI
TATE) AND ONE MOLECULE OF WATER.
74
PUT %- BRASS CLIPS IN HOLES SHOWING POSITIVE VA-
LENCES. HOLD THEM IN PLACE WITH SCOTCH TAPE.
WRITE THE NAMES OF THE ELEMENTS WITH CRAYONS.
val ences for ma king up formulas. :\Ios[ of the it ems
are elements, but some of them are "radicals' - t hat
is, groups of atoms that hang toget her in chemical
reacti ons, such as t he ammoni um radical (:'\ H1l that
behaves as a met al , an d the sulfate ra dical ( S O ~ )
that goes into the making of salts .
Not ice t ha t some valences have plus ( + ) signs .
ot hers have minus (-) signs. wb en ~ ' o u make up
the form ula for a compound, t here must be the same
number of pl uses and minuses. Hyd rogen with on..
SOME COMMON VALENCES
P05itive Volen cu Negoti ve Va lences
Item Yol en ce Circl e Item veteece Circle
Ag +1 A CI -1 A
AI
+ 3 C 1 -1 A

+3 C N -3

C +4 C 0 -2

Co +2

5 -2 C
C,
+1+2

F. +2+3

H
+ '
A
K +1
A
Mg
+2

Mo + 2

CO, -2

No +1 A NO, -I A
5 + 4+ 6 C OH - 1 A
5i + 4 C SO, - 2

NH. + 1
A SO. -2

plus ( H'-j and oxygen with two minuses(O- - ) would

not fit together - you need HI t o combine with O.
Similarly. C wit h + -l (C++++) ta kes two O. each
wit h - 2 (0 - -), in order to balance.
To get a clear understanding of chemical for mulas,
ma ke yourself a set of atom models as shown on
t hese pages. Wit h these mod els you will be a ble to
figur e out how compounds are made up and what
happens in the various chemical reactions ) -OU will
cause in your exper iments.
~
\V
o
o s
,
\
SULFUR HAS SEVERAL VALENCES. IT HAS A VALENCE
Of - 2 IN HIS. Of + ~ IN Sal' AND Of +6 IN SO.
AND IN SULFURIC ACID IHaSO.I. IN MAKING THE CIR.
ClE fOR SULFUR. YOU CAN SHOW THESE VALENCES
WITH TWO EMPTY HOLES AND SIX BRASS CLIPS.
INSTEAD Of USING ONE SULFUR CIRCLE AND fO UR
OXYGEN CIRCLES TO INDICATE A SULFATE. YOU CAN
MAKE UP A SINGLE CIRCLE TO STAND fOR THE SUL-
FATE RAOlCAl ISO.J WITH TWO NEGATI VE VALENCES.
75
. ,
.
,

,
.:'
A LANDSCAPE IN THE COAL AGE, APPROXIMATELY THREE HUNDRED MILLION YEARS AGO.
To TH E OLD ROll.\J. ...S, carbo meant coal - a black
rock that would hurn. To the modern chemist , car-
bon is an element found in all living things - plants
and animals - and in many dead things. It is hidd en
in the whitest sugar and the reddest rose and th e
greenest apple. in hundreds of thousands of com-
pounds pr oduced by nature and in many th ousands
more created in th e laborator y.
The soot from a smoking candle is almost pure
carbon. So is also the gra phi te t hat forms the "lead"
of your pencil and the diamond in the jeweler's win-
dow. The coal that we use for fuel contains from 80
t o 90 per cent carbon - the other 10 to 20 per cent
is made up of various substances from whi ch a
great number of important and valuable chemical
compounds are made.
All the coal we mine deep undergrou nd toda y is
made up of th e remains of plants that grew around
t hree hundred milli on years ago - hu ge tree ferns.
giant club mosses and horseta ils. They thrived in
the hot. humid climate, died and tumbled to the
ground. During the ages th ey were covered by other
dead t rees and by layers upon layers of mud. Even-
tually, pressure and heat tu rned them into coal.
PRESSURE AND HEAT TURNED TREES AND OTHER PlANTS INTO THE COAt WE USE TODAY.
76
THREE' FORMS OF CARBON
rough
diamond
GRAPHITE IS A SOFT fORM O f
CARBON. IT FEELS SLIPPERY.

",- --." .....'
1.-- . "
\'"'"'
\ l
'-- p

uses of graphite I
nr
bituminous cool .
C
CA R BO N
Ele me nt 6 .
At om ic wI . :
12.011 . Found in
na lure a s diamond
(density 3.5 21. 0 5
grophit e lde ns ity
2.25), a nd as cool.
Dia mond burns in
oxygen, coa l in air.
ANTHRACITE IS ALSO CAllED HARD COAL BITUMINOUS COAL IS SOFT CQAL. LIGNITE IS BROWN COAL.
GRAPHITE IS A SOFT fORM OF CARBON. IT FEELS SLIPPERY. DIAMOND IS THE HARDeST SUBSTANCE KNOWN.
A
=::::=:::>
for d ry distillation of
wood, whit tle twi g i nto
slive rs, o r use wooden
matches without heads.
;:.:....::;;=:--
"
"
"
2
f ILL TEST TUBE V. fUl l Of COARSelY POWDERED BITUMINOUS COAL lOR
000 SliVERSl . PLACE SMALL WAD Of COTTON AT MOUTH OF TEST TUBE.
CLOSE MOUTH Of TUBE WITH STOPPER WITH L-SHAPED GlASS TUBE DRAWN TO
A JET POINT. PLACE TUBE HORIZONTAllY IN HOlDER. HEAT COAL l OR WOOD].
AfTER A WHILE, DENSE f UMES DEVelOP. THEY CAN BE IGNITED AT JET.
COTTON WAD DISCOLORS f ROM TAR CONDENSING AfTER BEING DISTILLED.
STOP HEATING. REMOVE STOPPER. BRING MOISTENED lITMUS PAPER TO
MOUTH Of TUBE. I f YOU DISTillED COAL, RED lITMUS TURNS BLUE fROM AM
MONIA (AI . If YOU DISTillED WOOD, BLUE lITMUS TURNS REO fROM ACETIC
ACID tB). COAL HAS TURNED TO COKE, WOOD HAS BECOME CHARCOAl.
for dry distillation of coed, crush lump
of bituminous coot inlo powder.
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION...._------, /
IN REGULAR DISTIlLATION {SEE PAGE 61}, A
CHEMICAL IS PURIFIED. IN DESTRUCTI VE OR
DRY DISTilLATION, THE suaSTANCE IS BRO
KEN INTO SEVERAL DI Ff ERENT CHEMICALS.
RUB A LUMP OF SUGAR
WITH CIGARerre ASHES
ITO ACT AS CATALYST).
IGNITE. DIP TEST TUBE
IN LIME WATER. HOLD
OVER BURNING SUGAR.
fiLM OF CALCIUM CAR.
BONAIE SHOWS CO.
I N flAME-PROVING
THAT THERE IS CARBON
IN SUGAR.


f
YOU CAN PROVE PRESENCE OF
CARBON IN THE FOOD YOU EAT
BY HEATING SMAll SAMPLES OF
CHEESE, BREAD, MEAT, SUGAR.
BE SURE TO 00 THIS OUTDOORS
TO PREVENT EXPERIMENTS FROM
SMELLING UP THE WHOlE HOUSE.
CARBON IN
SUGAR
.....
HEAT I TEASPOON CANE SUGAR IN A CUSTARD
CUP. fiRST, SUGAR MELTS. THEN IT TURNS BROWN
-IT " CARAMELIZES." NEXT IT GIVES Off THICK
VAPORS THAT CAN BE IGNITED. f iNALLY, A PURE
FORM OF COAL REMAINS.
77

~ ' - ' - _ . .
IT WAS ONCE BELIEVED THAT ORGANI C COMPOUNDS
COULD BE PRODUCED ONLY BY LIVING ORGANISMS.
IN 1B2B, FRIEDRI CH Wt:lHLER SUCCEEDED IN MAKING AN
ORGANIC COMPOUND'ARTIFI CIAllY IN HIS LABORATORY.
T he Che:rillsfJrY of Carbon C mllJPounJs
THE CHEMISTS of about two hundred years ago di-
vided all compounds very neatl y into two groups-
organic and inorganic. The organic compounds were
those produced by living organisms - that is, plants
and animals. The inor ganic compounds were made
up of dead things - rocks and minerals. water and
various gases. No organic compound, these chemists
insisted, c o ~ l d ever be produced artificiall y - they
required the force we call " life" for their creation.
And then, in 1828, a German chemist , Fri edrich
Wohler, completely upset this idea.
I n his laboratory, Wohler had mixed ammonium
sulfate (NH.)zSO.) and potassium cyanate (KCNO),
expect ing to get ammonium cyanate. After eva po-
rating, he analyzed the compound he had made. To
his amazement he discovered th at it was not am-
monium cyan ate at all , but ur ea - a compound pro-
duced in the kidneys of living animals, including
man. The atoms of the ammonium cyanate molecule
had rearranged th emselves into a urea molecule.
NH. eNO had turned into (NH,)zCO.
A few years later, another organic compound-
aceti c acid - was made artificially. And then th e lid
reall y blew off. :i\lore and mor e products of plant and
animal life were put t ogether - synt hesized - in the
laborator y. And as if thi s were not enough, chemists
began producing organic compounds that were not
even found in nature.
It became clear that the old meaning of organic
chemist ry no longer was right. And so, th e definition
was changed. Today, organic chemi stry is defined as
" the chemistry of the car bon compounds. " This defi-
nition is almost , but not 100 per cent , correct. The
metallic carbonates, for instance, are st ill considered
t o be inorganic compounds, and carbon dioxide and
carbonic acid are regarded as being both organic and
. .
morgamc.
You ma y think it odd that a whole branch of
chemistry should deal wit h the compounds of a sin-
gle element. But you will not be surprised at all when
you sta rt experimenting with a few of the close to
1,000,000 carbon compounds.
78
HYDROCARBONS CONTAIN TWO ELEMENTS ONLY:
CARBON AND HYDROGEN. HYDROCARBONS WITH
FEW ATOMS TO lHEIR MOLECULES AREGASES. OlH
ERS WllH MANY ATOMS ARE LIQUIDS AND SOUDS.
ALCOHOLS MAY BE CONSIDERED HYDROCARBONS CARBOHYDRATS ARE IN MANY OF OURMOST VAL-
IN WHICH A HYDROGEN ATOM IS REPLACED BY OH. UABLE FOODSTUFFS AS STARCH AND SUGARS.
;:
fR JR
W'N


Gly <l"
m.,r t:.v-'
l8 ..
' L:
Cottoa

'"

....
G:
Q
4

-..
ea

?.:

%
? ,
,

...",
ESURS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY CAN BE COMPARED ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT ESTERS. THESE ARE THE
TO SALTS IN INORGANI C CHEMISTRY. FATS AND OILS " SALTS" OF GLYCERINE AND FATTY ACIDS.
e

,
r -
( Ia __
0 ..
....
"
0;,

tr@L
Oil
Wia' ..._
'"
. fMa
....
Oil
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ARENAMED FORlHE CARBOXYL PROTEINS ARE COMPLEX COMPOUNDS THAT CON-
GROUP-COOH-FOUND IN THEIR FORMULAS. TAIN CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN.
ViU _
...
"'- - -.- '"
OTHER CARBON ADDITION TO NUMEROUS OlHER KINDS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS.
THE MAIN GROUPS ILLUSTRATED ABOVE. THERE ARE MANY HAVE VERY COMPLICATED FORMULAS.
79
The FOJrltllDJlll naS of CaJrbon Cmu pounds
So far so good. But there were st ill many carbon
compound formulas that would not line up in this
kind of arrangement. C
6Hs
, for instance -benzene,
an impor tant hydrocarbon obtained by dist illation
of coal.
Again, it was KekuIC who offered t he explanat ion.
This ti me it came to him in a dream. He had bee n
H-C_C-H
1I<,
C
_C H
11- - H
wit h four lines to indi cate the va len ce bonds, but
arrange the lines in these t hree different ways :
-C- - C = = C=
Then hook them toge ther, two by t wo, in t hese three
different ways :
- C-C= =C=C= -C=C-
Now add a hydrogen atom to each of t he free bonds
- and there ) "OU have t he formul as for the t hree
hydro-carbons - ethane (CfHfi) ' ethylene (Cf H
I
) ,
and acetylene (CfH
f
) :
H" / H
H-C-C- H
H/ ' H
Ho w IS IT POSSIBLE for carbon t o make so many dif-
ferent compounds of such t remendous That
was one of the great questions facing chemists during
the last cent ury.
It was easy enough t o explain carbon dioxide. Car-
bon has a valence of 4, oxyge n of 2 - the formula
had t o be CO
2
It was al so easy to explain t he mole-
cule of t he simple hydrocarbon methane (CH,). But
how explain compounds consist ing of two atoms of
carbon and SLX of hydrogen (CzH., ethane) , or two
atoms of carbon and four of hydrogen (CzII
h
ethyl-
ene) , or two of car bon and only two of hydrogen
(CZH
h

A German chemist and professor, Friedrich August
Kekule, came up with the solut ion. The answer was
quite simple:
While t he atoms of most elements "hook on" to
the atoms of ot her elements according to t heir va l-
ences, the atoms of carbon " hook 0 0" to each other
as well. To understand t hi s, write out carbon atoms
KEKUU'S
H
BENZENE

RING
I;
C
-,
C =H

H C
= H
\\
I
C

H
AUGUST KEKUlE HIT UPON THE
STRUCTURE OF THE BENZENE MOlE-
CULE IN A DREAM. A SNAKE SEEMED
TO WHIRL IN A RING BEFORE HIS
EYES. BY ARRANGING THE SIX CAR
BON ATOMS IN A RING, THE PROB-
l EM WAS SOlVED.
80
YOUR OWN MODEL OF
METHANE MOlECULE.
,-
,
I '
I "
, "
, '
, "
,
,
... ..............
sma ll circles
repr esent
. hydrogen ctcms
fOR HOMEMADE MODELS OF
CARBON ATOMS, MAKE UP
TETRAHEDRONS FROM CARD-
BOARD, USING THIS PATTERN. ...
fOLD AT DOTTED LINES. TAPE ... ...
WITH SCOTCH TAPE. ... ...
, / I _
, /
, -- , / /
-
TWO LABORATORY MODELS
SHOWI NG THE METHANE
MOLECULE.
IN A CARBON ATOM (AI, THE fOUR VALENCE BONDS
POINT AWAY f ROM THE CENTER (NUCLEUS) TOWARD
THE CORNERS Of A TETRAHEDRON-A FIGURE MADE
UPOf fOUR TRIANGLES. IN MODELS Of CARBON ATOMS,
VALENCE BONDS ARE SHOWN BY RODS (B).
working all day with long lines of organic formu las.
In t he eveni ng he dozed before t he fire. In his dream,
the lines of formulas turned into snakes, twisting and
twi ning - unt il suddenly one of t he snakes grasped
its own t ail and whirled around in a ring. This dream
gave Kekul e t he clue : t he carbon atoms in benze ne
hang toget her in a ring, each atom using t hree of its
bonds to hang on t o th e atoms next to it , with one
bond free to hook onto a hydrogen atom.
Start ing from t hese very simple formulas, modern
scient ists ca n figure out t he most complicated chemi-
cal formulas.
YOU CAN THINK Of THE BENZENERING
AS SIX MONKEYS HANGING ON TO
EACH OTHER WI TH ON E OR TWO
HANDS, HOlDING BANANAS IN THEIR
FREE HANDS.
THIS ISTHEWAY THEBENZENE MOL-
ECULE l OOKS WHEN IT IS CON-
STRUCTED FROM PARTS USED TO
MAKEUP LABORATORY MODELS FOR
DEMONSTRATION.
THIS IS HOW THE BENZENE MOLE-
CULE WIl l LOOK WHEN YOU P'
TOGETHER FROM HOME-MADE
BON ATOMS_ YOU CAN 00
WITH SCOTCH TAPE.
81
A HUNDRED YEARS AFTER THE FIRST OIL WELL IN PENN-
SYLVANIA, Oil fiELDS ARE fOUND IN SEVERAL STATES.
THEF.ulILY CAR stops at the service station.
"Fill ' er up!" The attendant pours what may be
a hesane-septene-octanc-nonane mixtur e into the gas
tank. " Check your oil, mi st er )" Into the engine goes
another hydrocarbon mixture - possibly along the
line of C2oHu-CuHwC21lIu. And so you take afr-
on hydrocarbon tires. Yes, gasoline, mot or oil, and
rubber are all hydrocarbons - compounds that con-
tain only hydrogen and carbon.
A great number of hydrocarbons come from pe-
troleum (cr ude oil). Coal and natural gas provid e
several ot hers..Many more are produced by nature
- natural rubber, turpentine, camphor, to mention
a few. Even the red coloring of tomatoes and the
yellow of carrots are hydrocarbons.
One of the remarkable things about hydrocarbons
is that it is possible to combine some of those with
small molecules into ot hers with larger ones (as in
making syn thet ic rubber), as well as to "crack" those
with large molecules into ot hers with smaller ones
(as when a heavy oil is " cracked" into gasoline). But
that is only the beginning. By replacing one or more
hydrogen at oms wit h hydroxyl groups (0 11) or car-
boxyl groups (COOH) or chlorine at oms (CI). for in-
stance, it is possibl e to build up more complicat ed
compoun ds - whi ch can then be built up fur ther and
further. And th at is exactl y what chemists are doing
t oday - giving us med icines and dyes. plasti cs and
explosives, and count less ot her things.
A Lot of Hydrocarhons
-I-
ASPHAlT
LUUlCATING
O ilS
~
FRACTIONATING
OF OIL
THE FIRST JOB OF
THE OIL REFINERY
IS TO SPlIT UP THE
OIL INTO THE PARTS
(ORFRACTIONS) Of
WHICH IT CON.
SISTS. THIS ISDONE
IN TALL TOWERS.
THE Oil IS HEATED.
THE VAPORS RISE
IN THE TOWER.
THE LIGHTEST FRAC-
TIONS-GAS AND
GASOLINE-GO
TO THE TOP, FOL-
LOWED BY KERO
SENE, fUEl OIL, LU-
BRICATING OILS,
WAX, ASPHALT.
--
82
j
.
-
.:::1: .
-.,iJ
.. - .'
r \IllITE
, VINEGAR
IURPENTINE_
C.. H..
POUR A LITtlE TURPENTINE I NTO A
BOTTLE CAP. PLACE A SMAll WI CK IN IT.
PLACE BOTTLE CAP ON PIECE OF PAPER.
I NITE TURPENTINE. I T BURNS INCOMPLETE-
tv, GIVING OFF A BLACK SMOKEOF CARBON
WHICH YOU CAN COllECT IN A JAR.
,
IN THE LABORATORY, METHANE IS MADE BY HEATING
WATERFREE SODIUM ACETATE WI TH "SODA LIME. "
TO MAKE SODIUM ACETATE, ADD WASHING SODA
Y2 CUSTARD CUP VINEGAR UNTIl NO MORE COt IS
GIVEN OFF. EVAPORATE MIXTURE AT l OW HEAT TO GET
WHITE POWDER OF SODIUM ACETATE.
MIX 5 9 SODIUM ACETATE (CH1COONlJ). 5 9 SODIUM
HYDROXIDE, AND 5 g CALCIUM OXIDE. DROP INTO TEST
TUBE. SET UP APPARATUS FOR COLLECTING GAS AS
SHOWN BelOW. HEAT TO MAKE METHANE:
CH1COONa + NaOH _ CH.. + NlJtCO
t
CRACKI NG Oil
POURA FEWml HOUSEHOlD
Oi l I N TEST TUBE. PLACE
WAD OF STEel WOOL NEAR
MOUTH OF TUBE. CLOSE IT
WITH STOPPER THAT HAS A
GlASS TUBE WITH JET TIP.
HEAT STEEL WOOL A LITTLE
LATER, ALSO HEAT THE OIl.
OIL IS CRACKED INTO GAS
THAT BURNS WHEN IGNITED.
MnHANE-CH..
. ,

NAPHTHALENE IS USED IN MAKING MOTH BAllS.
NAPHTHALENE CAN BE PURIFIED BY SUBLIMATION .
TO DEMONSTRATETHIS, CRUSH A COUPLEOF MOTH
BAllS. HEAT THEM IN A CUSTARD CUP. FIRST THEY
MelT, THEN GIVEOFF VAPOR. PUT JAR FillED WI TH
ICE WATER OVER CUP. NAPHTHALENE SmlES ON
BOTTOM IN l EAFY CRYSTALS.
- -'"

- v..v.
HAMMER LUMPS OF
BITUMINOUS COAL INTO
A COARSE POWDER. Fil l
FUNNEL WITH IT. BRING
FUNNEL INTO LARGE JAR.
2 TURN J AR UPSI DE
DOWN. FIl l JAR WITH
WATER. PLACE A WATER-
FIllED TEST TUBE OVER
FUNNEL IN A FEW DAYS.
TUBE IS FIL LED W I TH
METHANE.
I
83
Carbohydr ates-Sweet and Bland
USUALLY, when we t alk about "hydrates" we mean
chemical s that conta in water. But when we t al k
about carbohydra tes we mean organic compounds of
carbon. hydrogen. and oxygen in which the propor-
ti on between hyd rogen an d oxygen is the same as in
water (H,O) - that is, t wil l' as much hydrogen as
oxygen. And so we find carboh-vdrat es that han' 22
a toms of hydrogen and 11 atoms of oxygen to 12
atoms of carhon (C
12
H"Oll)' or 12 hydrogen and 6

-se-
"
THE SWEETNESS OF FRUITS AND
BERRI ES COMES FROM A MIXTURE
OF TWO KINDS OF SUGAR CALLED
fRUCTOSE AND GLUCOSE. THESE
SUGARS ARE MADE IN, THE GREEN
LEAVES O F THE PLANT AND SENT
INTO THE FRUITS fOR STORAGE.
84
oxygen to 6 car bon (C
6
H
I 2
0
6
) . or 10an d s to 6 car-
bon atoms
Ca rbohydrat es are prod uced hy plants by a re-
markable process call ed photosynthesis - " putt ing
thi ngs together with the help of light. " Wh en gree n
leaves are exposed to sunlight, the chlorophy ll in
them combines the hydrogen from water wit h carbon
di oxide from the air, whi le setting oX:lgen free -
along this lin e:
6Il !O + 6CO! + sunlight - C
6
II
n
O, + 60! t
Carbohydrates an- of tremendous imparlan ce t o
all of us. They make lip a large part of our food
supply in the form of sugars and starches. Another
carbohydrate called cellulose helps to clothe us (cot -
t on. linen) and shell er us (wood) .
SUGARS - .\ Iost of our sugar comes from sugar
hoots or sugar can e. The j uice is pressed ou t, cleared.
filtered, and evapora ted . The result is pure. white
cr ystals of a sugar wit h the chemical nann- sucrose
(CnH!!OI') '
Anot her sugar ca lled glucose (C
6
Hn06) is found
in ripe frui ts. often in t he company of st ill anot her
sugar of the same formula called Fruct ose (C,H
12
0,).
TIJ('se t wo sugars can be made in the laboratory by
tr eat ing the more complicat ed S UCCOSl' with an aci d.
TI \(' sucrose pick s lip water ana splits int o glucose
and fru ctose by a process known as inver sion :
C
n
II
220il
+ H
2
0 - C,H
12
0, + C, HnO,
(sucrose) (glucose) (fruct ose)
(CO" Tl /( UED 0 " PAGE 86)
"
HEAT A MIXTURE OF
2 ml FEHLING A AND
2 ml FEHLING B IN
A TEST TUBE. ADD A
FEW DROPS OF SOLU-
TION TO BE TESTED.
HEAT AGAIN. RED PRE
CIPITATE OF CUPROUS
OXIDE SHOWS
GLUCOSE IS PRESENT.
- -----

:'RocHHlE
SALT
TEST FOR
GLUCOSE
SUGAR
A GERMAN SCIENTIST, HERMAN FEHLING, THOUGHT UP THE TEST
FOR GLUCOSE THAT HAS HIS NAME. FOR THIS TEST, TWO SOLU
TIONS ARE REQUIRED. THEY ARE MIXED JUST BEFORE USE.
t FEHLING A. DISSOLVE 5 9 COPPER SULFATE IN 70 ml WATER.
FEHLING B. DISSOLVE 7 Il SODIUM HYDROXIDE IN 70 ml WA-
TER. IN THIS SOlUTION, DISSOLVE 25 9 ROCHELLE SALT (SODIUM-
POTASSIUMTARTRATE) FROM YOUR LOCAL DRUG STORE.
r
f
' ..
COPPER

USE FEHLING TEST TO FIND OUT IF DIFFERENT SWEET-
TASTING FOODS CONTAIN GLUCOSESUGAR, CORN SYRUP,
MAPLE SYRUP, MOLASSES, HONEY. ALSO TRY JUICES OF
VARIOUS fRUITS: PRUNES, ORANGES, LEMONS, BERRIES.
SEVERAL CONTAIN GLUCOSE AND GIVE RED PRECIPITATE.
SUGAR IN MILK lLAOOSEI GIVES PRECIPITATE.
TEST CANE SUGAR WITH FEHLING. YOU DO NOT
GET RED PRECI PITATE. CANE SUGAR IS NOT
GLUCOSE BUTANOTHER SUGAR CALLED SUCROSE.
CANE
. SUGAR

.,
-.
SUCROSE
TO
GLUCOSE
1 DISSOLVE 1 g CANE SUGAR IN 10 ml WATER IN A
T TUBE. ADD 10 DROPS HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
HEAT GENTlY FOR A fEW MINUTESWITHOUT BOlliNG.
HEAT FEHLINGSOLUTION IN ANOTHER TEST TUBE.
A 0 A fEW ml SUGAR SOLUTION . HEAT AGAIN. YOU
GET REO PRECIPITATE. GLUCOSE HAS BEEN FORMED.
MAKING SUGAR CANDY
I T IS EASY TO MAKE LOLLIPOPS.
OVER LOW HEAT AND WHILE STIR-
RING, DISSOLVE 112 CUP SUGAR IN
2 TABLESPOONS WATER AND 1 TA-
BLESPOONS LIGHT SYRUP. THEN
CONTINUE HEATING WITHOUT STIR-
RING UNTIL A SAMPLE DROPPED
INTO COlD WATER FORMS BRlTILE
THREAD. SPOON OUT TABLESPOON_
FULS ONTO A SHEET OF GREASED
ALUMINUM FOIL, PUSH STICK IN
EACH BLOB. REMOVE WHEN COLD.
Perform this experl.
ment In the. kitchen. .,fn ...
! d 0-
j ?

85
C arbohydrates-Continued
PICK OFF A LEAF. REMOVE BLACK PAPER STRIPS.
DIP IN BOILING WATER FOR A MOMENT TO KI LL
THE LEAF. THEN DROP IT INTO DENATURED ALCOHOl
IN A CUSTARD CUP. PLACE CUSTARD CUP IN A POT
OF BOILING WATER. AS ALCOHOl GETS HOT, IT EX
TRACTS THE CHLOROPHYl L FROM THE LEAF. KEEP
LEAF IN ALCOHOL UNTI L ALL CHLOROPHYll IS OUT.
3 PLACE LEAF I N IODINE TEST SOlUTION. PARTS
EXPOSED TO SUN TURN BLUE. THI S PROVES PRES
ENCEO F STARCH. UNEXPOSED PARTS BECOME BROWN.
EXPERIMENTS WITH PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1 POT UP A NASTURTIUM OR GERANIUM PLANT AND
PLACE IT IN THE DARK FOR A COUPLE O F DAYS.
THEN FASTEN STRIPS OF BLACK PAPER ACROSS BOTH
SIDES OF ONE OR MORE LEAVES. NOW EXPOSE THE
GROWING PLANT TO THE SUNLIGHT FOR TWO HOURS.
wood an d fibers. Cotton is 95 per cent cellulose. The
paper a ll which thi s book is print ed is specially
treated cellulose. So is the cellophane around
candy and the rayon that goes into ladies' dresses.
For more about cellulose in nat ur al fibers and rayon,
see pages 102-103.
86
A GROWING PLANT IS THE
MOST ASTONISHING CHEM
[CAL FACTORY ON EARTH.
THE GREEN SUBSTANCE IN
LEAVES-CALLED CHLORO-
PHYLL- WITH THE HELP OF
SUNLIGHT IS ABLE TO COM-
BINE WATER (TAKEN IN BY
THE ROOTSI WITH CARBON
DIOXIDE FROM THE A IR
(TAKEN IN THROUGH THE
LEAVES) TO FORM SUGAR
FIRST AND THEN STARCH.
STARCHES - St ar ch is distributed in most plant
parts. It is a car bohydrate with w ry large molecules.
Take a look at its for mula: . At first glance
it looks quite simple. But not e th at little x - it
stands for " any number of times." A single molecule
of starch may weigh 6.000 times as much as a single
molecule of glucose.
You can break t his polysaccharide (vmany-sugar")
into the monosaccha ride C'single-sugur") glucose hy
t reat ing it with an add.
CELLULOSE is the building mat erial of t he plant
world. It makes up the cell walls of leaves and stalks,
\

,
LET STARCH SETILE IN
POT. POUR OFF MOST OF
WATER. POUR REST INTO A
JAR FOR FURTHER SETIUNG .
AGAIN, POUR WATER
O FF UNTIL VERY liTTLE IS
terr. POUR THE REST ONTO
A PLATE. PLACE IN A WARM
SPOT TILL STARCH IS DRY.
TEST FOR STARCH

c
IH C'l

.

.\


SO......T I
-r
' N'
0<

sr
.,
Ie....
o ,
s'"....
Z../.
I OPIPI'
SOLUTION FORTESTING STARCHCAN BE
MADE BY DILUTING 5 ml REGULAR TINC-
TURE OF IODINE WITH 4 S ml WATER.
OR YOU CAN MAKE IT BY DISSOLVING A
FEW IODINE CRYSTALS (FROM EXPERI
MENT ON PAGE 4S) IN A SOLUTION OF
I 9 POTASSIUM IODIDE IN 50 ml WATER.
IODINE GIVES A BLUE COLORTO STARCH.
LINE UP FIVE TEST TUBES, EACH CONTAINING 5 ml
WATER AND 1 DROP IODINE TEST SOLUTION. IN AN
OTHER TEST TUBE, ADD 2 DROPS OF SALIVA (SPI T-
TLE) TO 5 ml STARCH SOLUTION. PLACE THIS IN
GLASS OF WARM (NOT HOT) WATER. WITH 2-MINUTE
INTERVALS, DROP 3 DROPS SALIVA-STARCH MIXTURE
INTO A TEST TUSE WITH IODINE SOLUTION. SHAKE.
COLOR GETS LESS AND LESS BLUE. SALIVA DIGESTS
THE STARCHAND TURNS IT INTO A SUGAR, MALTOSE.
.
C"
=
LD WATER.
I
,
G TO SOIL
1
I
,
I

SOLUTION.
I
---
I-----,

'r--,
=
=
F F
- -
f--
-
I-- f--
<,
--
.
r.- - - -.---

--
EXPERIMENTS WITH STARCH
TO MAKE 1 PER CENT STARCH SOLUTION
STIR % 9 STARCH IN 5 ml CO
ADD 45 ml MORE WATER. BRIN
WHI LE STIRRING, THEN COOL
,
.,
PREPARING STARCH
IT I S A SIMPLE MATTER TO
GETSTARCHFROM POTATOES.
TO 10 m[ 1 PER CENT STARCH
SOLUTION ADD 10 DROPS HY-
DROCHLORIC ACID. BOIL FOR
2 MINUTES. TEST THE RESULT
WI TH FEHLING SOLUTION. YOU
GET RED PRECIPI TATE THAT
SHOWS PRESENCE OFGLUCOSE.

UNTREATED STARCH SOLUTION

DOES NOT REACT WI TH THE
FEHLING SOLUTION.
1 PEEL A COUPLE OF POTATOES. GRATE
EM UP ON FINE SIDE OF GRATER.
PLACE POTATO PULP ON DOUBLE LAYER
F CHEESE CLOTH. FOLD UP AND TIE. DIP
BAG IN POT OF WATER. SQUEEZE. DIP
AND SQUEEZE UNTi l MOSLSTARCH IS OUT._-,
87
S,...t h..ic
lubber
P.... INT
-
"".
I INc;;.
, . I ' J j I
I ---- I , I
- =..... _- I I I
CeHog""". I I 1
I I
, , ,


PLASl"I C "",-,. '
l.--' ...... '"

o
Many JlLnds of Alcohols
To )IOST PEOPLE, alcohol is t he st rong st uff in beer.
wine. and bard liquor. But to a chemist . this is just
one of DIan)" alcohols.
Alcohols may be considered. hydrocarbons in whi ch
one or more hydrogen (H) atoms are replaced ..
hydroxyl (OH) grou ps. Their names are ma de up
from the names of t he hydrocarbo ns to whi ch the)"
are related by giving t hese an "-01" ending. I n t his
way, CHI' methane. becomes CHI OH, methanol
(also called methyl alcohol) ; eIH et hane. becomes
CIHsOH. ethanol (also known as et hyl or grain al-
cohol) ; and so on. (CHsOH) was origina lly
called. wood alcohol because it was made by the de-
structive distillat ion of wood. It is very poisonous
and is therefore used to " denat ure" et hanol, making
this unfit for drinking.
Ethanol is produced today, to a great
extent , in t he same way in whi ch it was made thou-
sands of years ago, by a process ca lled fermentation.
I n t his, the r plant cells of yeast are made 10 grow
in the solution of a simple sugar . such as glucose
(C, I1
I1
O,). In growing, the yeast cells give off a sub-
stance called zymase. This ac ts as a catal yst and
t urns t he glucose into et hanol and carbon dioxide:
C, HuO, - + 2CO
J
t
The et ha nol is Iinally separated from the watery
liquid by distillation.
Glycerol is st ill anot her alcohol
whi ch vou probably know better under the name of
glycerin. Glycerol may be considered a product of
propane (C, H,) in whi ch nol one but three H atoms
ha.... e been replaced by OH.
THE " FAMi lY TREE" OF ETHANOl-WITH SOME OF ITS CHilDREN, GRANDCHILDREN, AND GREAT-GRANDCHil DREN.
_ PROPIONIC ACID
-
-
-
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE
ALCOHOl
CHLOROFORM
CEllULOSE ACETATE ':.. a_- PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
- - TEXTi l E f iBERS
ACETALDEHYDE _ -
CYANOHYDRIN -
ACETONE

RUBBER
STYRENE ;:=.
PLASTICS
_ GLYCOl ACID
::: EXPLOSIVES
DIETHYL ETHER
ETHYLENE
ACETALDBiYDE
IOOOFORM
ACETIC ACID
.e;
<
<,
ETHANOL
- i':-- A
<,
-
(GRAIN
"-
ALCOHOL)
---

<,

88
CHLOROFORM FROM
ETHANOL
MIX 5 ml ETHANOl WITH
5 ml SODIUM HYPOCHLO
RITE SOLUTION ("CLO.
ROX"). HEAT MIXTUR E
A
GENTLY FOR A FEW MO
MENTS WITHOUT BOILING.
I
THEN SNIFF CAREFUllY.
' . YOU GET THE PECULIAR
SWEETISH ODOR OF CHLO
- - - - ROFORM_THE C.HIOH HAS
{:> BEEN TURNED INTO CHO
METHYL SALICYLATE
CRUSH AN ASPIRIN
TABLET. MIX WITH
%TEASPOON SODIUM
BISULFATE. HEAT.
DROP A FEW DROPS
OF METHANOL l OR
DENATURED ALCOHOl}
ONTO HOT MIXTURE.
YOU GET SMEll OF
WINTERGREEN OIL-
METHYl SALICYLATE.
filTER HALF OF THE FERMENTED LIQUID INTO A
. PINT SCREWTOP CAN. SET UP APPARATUS FOR
DISTILLATION AS DESCRIBED ON PAGE 61 WITH THE
EXCEPTION THAT HEATING IS DONE ON A WATER BATH
MADE FROM HALF A QUART CAN WITH WATER_ DISTilL
OFF A FEW ml ETHANOl AT LOWEST POSSIBLE HEAT.

ETHYL ACETATE
FROM ETHANOL
IN A TEST TUBE, MIX 3 ml
ETHANOL WITH 2 9 SO
DIUM BISULFATEAND 3 ml
WHITEVINEGAR. HEATIT
GENtlY. SNIFF CAREFUL
LY. THE SOUR SMELl OF
VINEGAR HAS TURNED
INTO THE FRUITY SMELL
OF ETHYL ACETATE
(CH.COOC.H.I. IT IS A
MUCH-USED SOlVENT.

vapors burn
with blue
Rome
ETHANO L I S
PRODUCED BY
THE FERMENTA
TlON OF SUGAR
METHANOl CAN BE PRODUCED BY DRY DISTILLATION OF
WOOD. FIll A TEST TUBE ONE THIRD FUll OF SLIVERS
OF WOOD. HEAT. LEAD VAPORS THROUGH LSHAPED GLASS
TUBE INTO TEST TUBE IN MIXTURE OF WATER AND ICE.
ETHYL ALCOHOL-
ETHANOL
=
METHYL ALCOHOL-
METHANOL
IN A PINT Bo nLE MIX Y. CUP CORN SYRUP WITH
1 CUP WARM WATER. ADD YI PACKAGE YEAST THAT
HAS BEEN SOfTENED IN LUKEWARM WATER. PLACE BOT-
TLE IN A WARM SPOT. SHORTLY THE LIQUID BEGINS
TO BUBBLE. LEAD THE GAS INTO LIME WATER. GAS IS
CO
J
IN A FEWDAYS. GAS DEVELOPMENT SLOWS DOWN.
\
e-/
IODOFORM FROM
ETHANOL
TO A SOlUTION OF 1 9
POTASSIUM IODIDE IN 5
ml WATER ADO IODINE
CRYSTALS TO GET DARK
BROWN COlOR. ADD 5 ml
A
ETHANOL. ADO 10-/_NoaH
I
SOLUTION UNTIl COLOR
I DISAPPEARS. HEAT GENTLY
TWO MINUTES. LET COOL.
- - : THE YEllOW PRECIPITATE
C? IS IODOFORM--CHI.
89
FORMIC ACID IS THE
HI GHLY I RRITATIN G
ACID THAT ANTS (FOR.
MICA' PUMP INTO YOU
WHEN THEY BI TE YOU.
Carboxylic A cids
Cax YOU THII\"K of an ything more refreshing than a
glass of cold lemonade on a hot summer's Or
anyt hing better than cranberry sauce for adding a
tangy tas te to th e Thanksgiving dinned
The tartness of lemonade and cranberry sauce
comes from organic acids.
These acids ar e found ready-made in nature in
great numbers. Some of t hem occur as free acids
(cit ric acid, ta nnic acid, mal ic acid), e thers as esters
(products of acids and alcohols, such as fats and oils
and the flavors of many fruits and t he odors of many
flowers). Still ot her of these organic acids are pro-
duced hy the act ion of bacteria (acetic acid from
wine or cider, lactic acid when mi lk t urns sour, bu-
t yric acid in rancid butter).
Some organic acids can be ext racted directly from
t he plant parts in which t hey are found. But to get
them in pure and concentrated form it is usuall y
necessary t o t ur n them int o sodi um or calcium salts
and t hen free the acids from th e salts wit h a st ronger
acid. .Many of t he acids which were formerly ob-
t ain ed from plant parts can now be made ar tificially
in t he laboratory.
Organic acids have one thing in common. TI ley
all contain a combination of one carbon atom, one
cxygr m atom, and one hydroxyl group (OH). This
COOH combination, called a carboxyl group (from
a j oining-up of th e words carlxm and hydroxyl),
has given t he organic acids their scientific name, car -
boxyli c acids. When these acids form salts it is the
H in t he carboxyl group that is replaced by a metal,
as, for inst an ce, when CHsCOOH (acet ic acid) forms
CHsCOONa (sodi um acetate).
90
MALIC ACID IS FOUND IN MANY
UNRIPE FRUITS-GREEN APPl ES,
PLUMS. CURRANTS, AND A GREAT
NUMBERO FOTHERS . NAMECOMES
FROM LATIN MAWS- APPLE TREE.
,
.:
- ' /
-s-: . i:
- ---. ..,-
- -. _--- '
OXALIC ACID O RIGI.
NAllY CAME fROM THE
WOOD SORREl PLANT-
QXA lIS . N O W IT IS
MADE ARTIFICIALLY.
ACETIC ACID IS WHAT
MAKES VINEGAR TASTE
SOUR. VINEGAR MEANS
" SOUR WI NE." THAT IS
WHAT IT USED TO BE.
ACID GOT
ITS NAME FROM SAUX,
LATIN FOR WILLOW. IT
WAS FIRST MADE FROM
BARKOF WIllOWTREES.
TANNIC ACID
1
USED FOR
TANNING, IS FOUND IN
THE BARK O F A NUMBER
OF TREES AND IN GAtL
APPLES ON OAK TREES. ......."
CITRIC ACID G IVES
THE TART TASTE TO
CITRUS FRUITS-LEM-
ONS, LIMES, GRAPE-
FRUITS, AND ORANGES.
ACEtiC ACID
YOU HAVE ALREADY MADE
SODIUM ACETATE (ON PAGE 83).
VINEGAR
c..o
VINEGAR IS DILUTED ACETIC ACID. SEVERAL OF ITS
SALTS-ACETATES-CAN BE MADE FROM VINEGAR. USE
LIME FOR MAKING THE CALCIUM SALT-{CH,COO),Co.
1 WARM 50 ml WHITE VINEGAR IN A CUSTARD CUP.
o CALCIUM OXIDE UNTIL NO MORE DISSOlVES.
FILTER SOlUTION TO REMOVE UNDISSOlVED CALCI-
OXIDE. FILTRATE CONTAINS CALCIUM ACETATE.
3 EVAPORATE SOlUTION UNTIL ALMOST DRY. DO NOT
ERHEAT-IF YOU DO, THE ACETATE BREAKS UP
INTO CALCIUMCARBONATE AND ACETONEI CH, COCH, ).
SALICYLIC ACiD
YOU CAN AGAIN DRIVE ACETIC
ACID OUT OF ITS CALCIUMSALT.
MIX CALCIUM ACETATE WITH AN
EQUAL AMOUNT OF SODIUM BI-
SULFATE. PLACE IN DRY TEST
TUBE. HEAT GENTLY. YOU GET
SHARP ODOR OF ACETIC ACID.
MOISTENED BLUE LITMUS PAPER
AT MOUTH OF TUBE TURNS RED.
j
Ll
I
, \
., ...........
TANNIC ACID
TANNIC ACID IS
FOUND IN TEA.
1 BOIL TEASPOONTEAIN
SO ml WATER. THEN LET IT
STAND TO STEEP AND COOL.
POUR OFF THE CLEAR LIQUID.
2 DISSOlVE A CRYSTAL OF
IRON SULFATE IN 5 ml WA
TER AND ADD TO THE TEA_
YOU WILL GET A BLACK PRE-
CIPITATE OF IRON TANNATE_
PHENOL
SALICYLIC
ACID
=
=
2
' ..

.,
' n " .
..
.'."
t' .'
"" ' ..
,, '
1 SHAKE UP 1 9 SALICYLIC
ACID WITH 10 ml WATER. IT
DOESNOT GO INTO SOlUTION.
2 ADD 10 PER CENT NoOH
SOlUTION BY THE DROP UN-
TIL All SALICYLIC ACID IS
DISSOlVED. YOU NOW HAVE A
SODIUMSALICYLATE SOlUTION.
3 WITH IRON SUlFATE, SOOt
SALICYlATE GIVES RED
BROWN FERROUS SALICYLATE.
4 A FERRIC SALT GIVESWINE.
REO FERRIC SALICYLATE.
5 COPPER SULFATE GIVES THE
GREEN COPPER SALICYLATE.
IN A DRY TEST TUBE, MIX
A SMALl AMOUNT OF SALI -
CYLIC ACID WITH AN EQUAL
AMOUNT OF CALCIUMOXIDE.
HEAT GENTlY. REMOVE TUBE
FROM HEAT. SNIFF. YOU GET
THEODOROF PHENOl-ALSO
KNOWN AS CARBOLIC ACID.
91
BEEF
r > ' I}
.;
MOST COMMONLY SOLID AT ' " __
USUAL ROOM TEMPERATURE. - , -
butter - .- __

suet . .I
Seers OF Til E FOOD you eat is used for your growth,
some of it for givi ng you the energy to do all th e
th ings you want t o do. l\I uch of t his energy comes
from carbohydrates (sugars and starches). The rest
you get from fats - t he most concent rat ed energy
foods available.
All fats are esters , that is. combinations of Iat ty
adds with the alcohol, glycerol (glyceric}. Some fat s
(butter, lard) are solid at usual room temperature.
ot hers ar e liquid (olive oil , corn oil). But when heat-
ed, the solid fat s melt, and, when cooled, the liquid
fats turn solid.
Liquid fat s ca n be t urned completely into solid
fat s by a process called hydrogenation. I n this, more
hydrogen atoms are added to their molecules with
the help of a catalyst . That is how vegetable short -
enings and margarine are made. The liquid olein in
pea nut, cottonseed, and soybean oils is made to pick
ti p hydrogen and become a solid fat known as stearin:
(CnHuCOO)IC1H
s
+ 3H, - rc., lin
(olein) (stearin)
- , --
Fats and oils are used for ma ny other things in ..
addit ion t o t heir use as food. Soap and candles arc 3
?13d{' from fats. Soare paints and \ arnishr-s , printers' - - ----' -1!; i
mks and some of th e det ergents. .. :U , Ei:,
- -- Oil
.--* .: -
0 " - - \
Fats and Oils for Energy
COCONUT
f ILTER CHOCOLATE-TETRACHLO-
RIDE MIXTURE. LET f iLTRATE STAND
UNTILCARBON TETRACHLORIDE HAS
EVAPORATED AND YEllOW-WHITE
COCOA BunER IS LEfT_
Be careful nat to breathe fumes.
EXTRACTING
FAT
,
SHAVE A SMALL SQUARE Of BAKER'S CHOCO-
LATE OR BIITER CHOCOLATE INTO f iNE BITS.
IN A CUSTARD CUP. POUR CARBON TETRACHLO-
RIDE OVER THE CUT-UP CHOCOlATE AND STIR.
UO_
T. .... -
chl. " d.
2
RENDERING FAT
" RENDERING" IS THE MOST COM-
MON METHOD Of EXTRAOING fAT .
CUT UP A SMALL AMOUNT Of SUET- THE fAT
fROM A PIECE O f BEEf . DROP I T INTO HOT
WATER_ BOIL WATER fOR TEN MINUTES OR MORE.
REMOVE THE RENDERE[).QUT SUET. PLACE CUS-
ARDCUP IN REfRIGERATOR. AfTER COOLING YOU
CAN urr Of f THE fAT AS A SOLID DISK.
TEST FOR
FAT
1 CRUSH A COUPLE Of PEANUTS. DROP THEM IN A TEST
TUBE. COVER THEM WITH CARBON TETRACHLORIDE AND
LET STAND ABOUT S MINUTES. POUR A fEW DROPS ON A
PIECE Of PAPER. LET CARBON TETRACHLORIDE EVAPORATE.
lOOK AT THE PAPER AGAINST THE liGHT. THE ALMOST
TRANSPARENT " GREASE SPOT" IS A TEST fOR f AT.
DISSOLVE lh TEASPOON SOAP
POWDER OR fLAKES IN SOml WARM
WATER. ADD 10 ml HYDROCHLORIC
ACID. YOU WILL GET LUMPS OF
THE FAnY ACIDS Of WHICH SOAP
IS THE SODIUM SALT_ MOSTlY
STEARIC AND PALMITIC ACI DS.
STEARIC ACID IS ADDED TO PAR_
AFFIN IN THEMAKING Of CANDlES.
.:
.
.----
.'
'.
FATTY
ACIDS
THE NoHSO. SETS THE
GLYCEROL fREE, THEN
IMMEDIATELY DESTROYS
I T. GLYCEROL LOOSES
WATERAND TURNS INTO
ILL-SMEll iNG ACROlEIN,
C, H. IOH), -+
C, H. O+ 2H,O
93
TEST FOR GLYCEROL
(GLYCERIN) . ...
. I i
IN A DRY TEST TUBE ADD V4 TEA- ;::::= ./ :.:"
SPOON SODIUM BISULFATE TO I ml / r----';"! ,'
VEGETABLE Oi l AND HEAT GENTlY.
WAfT THE IRRITATING ODOR TO-
WARD YOU AND SNiff CAUTIOUSLY.
THE SMEll I S fROM ACROLEIN
WHICH IS PRODUCED BY BREAKING
DOWN THE GLYCERIN IN THE f AT.
II I
IN THE OlD-FASHIONED SOAP KmLE, ONLY A FEW
GALLONS OF SOAP COULD BE MADE AT ONE TIME.
I I I I ~ ' I I I I
IN MODERN SOAP PANS,
SEVERAL STORIES HIGH, UP
TO 100 TONS Of FAT CAN
BE TURNED INTO SOAP.
\VHEo"'"EVER YOUR mxns get dirty, it is an easy matter to get them clean.
All you need is water and plenty of CH
1C
H
1C
H
1C
H,CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,
CH,CH,CH,CH,CH,CHzCHzCHzCOONa - C
17Hu
COONa for short, the
sodi um salt of stearic acid, a substance more generally known as soap.
Soap has been used for cleaning for thousands of years. No one knows who
invented it - but the method for making it was passed down from father
to son, from mother to dau ghter. The early soap makers first had to burn
wood t o get potash (K
ZC01-see
page.59) or dr ied seaweed t o get soda ash
(Na, C0
1
).This was treated with lime to make potassium or sodium hydrox-
ide (KOH or NaOH - see page -15), and thi s, in turn, was boiled wit h fat
to make soap. Ver y much the same method is used today - except th at the
boiling is done in tremendous soap pans under steam pressure.
THIS IS THE WAY SCI ENTISTS BELIEVE THAT SOAP ACTS, ONE
END OF THE SOAP MOLECULE IS SOLUBLE IN WATER, THE OTHER
END IN OIL. WHEN OIL IS SHAKEN UP IN SOAPY WATER, THE
OIL DROPS ARE SURROUNDED BY THE SOAPMOLECULES DIPPING
THE OIL-DISSOLVING ENDS INTO THE OI L. THE WATERSOlUBLE
ENDS HOlD THE OIL DROPLETS SUSPENDED.
STRONG SOAP BUBBLES RESULT
WHEN YOU ADD GLYCERIN TO
THE SOAP SOlUTION. HERE IS
A RECIPE: 5 9 SOAP, 100 ml
WATER, AND 10 ml GLYCERIN.
o
o
G
Q)
o
GQ
G
MAKING SOAP
r
."
3 DISSOLVE 100 9 TABLE
lT IN 300 ml WATER. POUR
m
E HOT SOAP MIXTURE INTO
T IS SOlUTION. THE SOAP
II "SALT OUT" IN THICK.
C EESELIKE CURDS.
TIE A PIECE OF CHEESE CLOTH OVER THE TOP
OF A JAR. POUR THE SALT SOlUTION WI TH THE
SOAP CURDS INTO CHEESE CLOTH AND l ETSALT SO-
LUTION DRAIN OFF. WASH THE SOAP BY POURING
TWO TEST TUBES OF ICECOlD WATER THROUGH IT
TO REMOVE MOST OF T E SALT THAT'S STIll ON IT.
S FINAllY, SQUEEZE OUTTHEWATER AND SPREAD
T THE CHEESE CLOTH TO LET THE SOAP DRY.

--:;:
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17' '\
Soap

-
MELT 10 'iii SHORTENING ("CRISCO" OR SIMILAR
PRODUCT) IN A CUSTARD CUP ON THE WATER BATH.
2 DISSOlVE 5 9 SODIUM HYDROXIDE {NoOHI IN 15
m WATER. ADO 15 ml DENATURED ALCOHOL (TO
SPEED UP THE ACTION). POUR THIS SOlUTION INTO
THEMELTED SHORTENING WHilE STIRRING. CONTINUE
HEATING AND STIRRING UNTIL A SMAll SAMPLE DIS-
SOlVES COMPLETElY IN Y.z TEST TUBE WATER. THE
SOAP MAKING ISAPONI ZATIONJ IS THEN COMPLETED.
CRISCO
... -._----."
MAKE A WATER BATH BY POURING
1 INCH WATER INTO A TIN CAN.
] POUR 10 ml OF THE SOAP AND DETER
ENT SOlUTIONS INTO SEPARATE TEST TUBES.
TEST EACH SOLUTION FOR ACID AND BASE
WI TH lITMUS PAPER AND PHENOlPHTHALEIN.
2 SHAKE 5 DROPS OF OIL INTO EACH SOLU
TION. NOTE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE WAY
THE SOlUTIONS MAKE EMULSION WITH OIl.
AGAIN, POUR 10 ml Of EACH SOlUTION
NTO SEPARATE TEST TUBES. ADD 5 ml LIME_
WATER TO EACH. SHAKE AND NOTICE THE
DIFFERENCE IN THE AMOUNT OF FOAM MADE
BY EACH SOLUTION IN THIS " HARD" WATER.
TESTING SOAP
AND DETERGENTS
DISSOlVE I 'iii OF YOURHOME-
MADE SOAP IN 50 ml LUKE
WARM WATER. ALSO MAKE
SOLUTIONS IN 50 ml WATER
OF 1 'iii TOILET SOAP, I 9 SOAP
FLAKES, I 'iii SOAP POWDER,
I 'iii POWDERED DETERGENT,
AND I ml LIQUID DETERGENT.
95
cheese
eggs
-- 0-' _, :
- -- .--
AT .... every meal, we look forward especially
to the proteins: ham and eggs for breakfast, ham-
burgers or frankfurters for lunch. steak or chicken
for dinner. We drink milk mostly for the sake of its
proteins. Even many of our desserts are protein prod-
uct s - from ice cream to Jell-G.
While most other foodstuffs, such as carbohydrates
and fats . consist of ca rbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
the proteins also contain nitrogen and, for the most
part, sulfur. Their molecules are "giants" compared
with the molecules of ot her chemi cal compounds.
One of them. albumin in egg. ha s this estimated
formula :
Not all proteins are edible. You would hardl y think
of ea ting hair and nail s, furs and feathers - yet
these are all proteins.(CO{o;TINUED ON PAGE 99)
Fill CUSTARD CUP HA lf
f ULL OF WATER. BRING TO
A BOi l . POUR IN THE EGG
WH ITE THAT IS l EfT. IT
COAGUlATES INTO A f iRM
WH1TE MASS. THISMETHOD
IS USED IN COOKING. IT
IS CAllED " POACHING. "
SHAKE 5 ml EGG WHITE WITH
5 ml WATER. ADD 5 ml DENA-
TURED ALCOHOL THE ALCOHOl
CAUSES THEALBUMIN TO COAG
UlATE OUT IN WHITE fl ECKS.
,"
THE PROTEIN IN
EGG IS CALLED
ALBUMIN
SHAKE 5 ml BEATEN EGG WHITEWITH
5 ml WATER. BRING TO A BOIl. THE
HEAT CAUSES THE ALBUMIN TO COAG
ULATE. IT HAS BEEN "DENATURIZED."
IT CAN NOT AGAIN BEMADE SOlUBLE.
PROTEIN IN EGG
----------- ..
CRACK AN EGG. SEPARATE WHITE FROM YOLK BY
trrnxc WHITE flOW INTO A CUP WHILE RETAIN-
ING YOlK IN EGG SHELl. BEAT WHITE WITH FORK.
96
THE ITEMS ON THE
TOP OF THESE TWO
PAGES ALL CONTAIN
PROTEINS.
Peanut
Bulter
WHAT DOES ALBUMIN CONSIST OF?
2
DROP A SMAll PIECE OF COAGULATED EGG WHITE
INTO A TEST TUBE. COVER IT WITH 5 ml 10-/. NoOH
SOLUTION. HEAT. WHITE GOES IN SOlUTION.
POUR A FEW DROPS OF THE EGG WHITE SOLU
TION ONTO A BRIGHT SILVER COIN. IN A FEWMINUTES
SILVER COIN TURNS BROWNISHBLACK FROM SILVER
SULFIDE, PROVING THAT ALBUMIN CONTAINS SULFUR.
1 PLACE A SMALL PIECE OF
COAGULATED EGG WHITE
ON A PIECE Of TIN. HEAT.
VAPORS SMel l Of AMMO-
NIA AND TURN WETTED RED
lITMUS PAPER BLUE. AMMO-
NIA IS NH. ALBUMIN MUST
CONTAIN NAND H.
ALBUMIN IS FOUND
IN EGGS, BLOOD,
MILK. AND GRAIN.
.'
."
2 CONTINUE HEAT.
ING. IN THE END,
CARBON REMAINS.
ALBUMIN THEREFORE
CONTAINS CARBON.
IT ALSO CONTAINS
OXYGEN.
TEST FOR SOLID
WHITE PROTEIN
2
- ~ . . . . . - = - - _ .
--
TEST CHEESE, WOOL, CHICKEN,
LIMA BEANS THE SAME WAY.
1 IN TEST TUBE, DIS.
SOLVE V.. TEASPOON
SODIUM BISULFATE IN
5 ml WATER. ADO %
TEASPOON POTASSIUM
NITRATE. DROPIN SMAll
PIECE OF COAGULATED
EGG WHITE. HEAT.
NoHSO.. AND KNOt
FORM HNO.-NITRIC
ACID. THIS COlORS THE
ALBUMIN YElLOW.
2 ADD HOUSEHOLD
AMMONIA. THE YEl-
LOW ALBUMIN TURNS
BRIGHT ORANGE.
97
WHAT DOES EGG YOLK CONTAIN?
;:;:::
Be careful not to breathe fumel.
1 SHAKE 5 ml OF THE YOLK WITH 5 ml CARBON TET-
RACHLORIDE TO FIND OUT I f IT CONTAINS FAT.
:z: POUR A LITTLE OUT ON PAPER. LET CARBON TET
RACHLORIDE EVAPORATE. GREASE SPOT REMAINS.
3 HEATTHEMIXTURE. YOU GET A WHITE COAGULA
TJ N. YOlK AND WHITE BOTH CONTAIN ALBUMIN.
,
I
FOLDCHEESE CLOTHUPAROUND
T E CASEIN. DIP THE SAG IN WA-
TER AND SQUEEZE SEVERAL TIMES
TO WASH OUT WHEY AND VINEGAR.
SQUEEZE THE CASEIN ALMOST
DRY. SPREAD OUT THECHEESE CLOTH
TO LET THE CASEIN DRY.
MAKING CASEIN GLUE
SOFTEN 4 9 CASEIN WITH" ml WATER.
SHAKE UP I 9 CALCIUM OXIDE IN 4 ml
WATER. POUR THE CALCIUM OXIDE MIX-
TURE INTO THE CASEIN WHILE STIRRING.
THE RESULTING SMOOTH PASTE IS AN EX-
CElLENT GlUE FOR PAPER AND FORWOOD.
"
ADD ONE TEST TUBE FULL OF
WHITE VINEGAR TO THE WARM
SKIM MILK. THE CASEIN SEPA-
RATES IN HEAVY, WHITE CURDS.
, I
POUR Yz CUP SKIM MILK
lOR MIXTURE OF S TEA _
SPOONS SKIMMILK POWDER
AND Yz CUP WATER} INTO
A CUSTARD CUP. HEAT
GENTLY UNTIL IT FEElS JUST
SLIGHTlY WARMWHEN YOU
TEST IT WITH A FINGER.

TIE A PIECE OF CHEESE '-1fJ'\.,-fi'<..,<:'f
CLOTH OVER A JAR. POUR
THE CURDLED MILK JNTO THE
CHEESE CLOTH. LET LIQUID
(WHEYMIXED WITH VINEGAR)
RUN OUT. KEEP THE LIQUID.
PROTEIN IN MILK
MILK IS AN IMPORTANT SOURCE
OF PROTEIN. THE PROTEIN IN
MILK IS CALLED CASEJN. CHEESE
JS SPECIAllY TREATED CASEIN.
WHAT ELSE IS IN MILK?
mPOUR THEVINEGAR-MIXED WHEY INTO A
CUPAND BRING JTTO A BOIL. YOU
Will SEE TINY WHITE flECKS. THESE ARE
ALBUMIN COAGULATED OUT BY THE HEAT.
FILTER THE WHEY. TEST THE fiLTRATE
WITH FEHLING SOlUTION {SEE PAGE 851.
MILK SUGAR GIVES RED PRECIPJTATE.
98
GlLATIN IS A PROUIN
GELATIN IS MADE fROM
ANIMAL BONES AND HIDES.
1
1 REMOVETHIGH BONE
fROM AN UNCOOK ED
CHICKEN LEG. SCRAPE IT
CLEAN Of MEAT. DROP IT
IN A TEST TUBE, COVER
WITH 3 ml HYDROCHLO-
RIC ACID IN 12 ml WATER.
LET STAND fOR 3 DAYS.
THE DILUTED HYDROCHLORIC
ACI D DISSOlVES THE CALCIUM
SALTS IN THE BONE, LEAVING
A flEXIBLE SUBSTANCE CAllED
OSSEIN. WASH OFF THE ACID.
EXTRACT THE GelATIN IN THE
OSSEIN BY BOlliNG IN WATER.
fiLTER THE SOlUTION. ON COOLING, IT BECOMES
JEllY-LIKE. IT HAS TURNED fROM " SOl" TO "GEl."
TEST FOR LIQUID PROTEINS
GELATIN - Gelatin is a protein made from animal
skins and bones, horns and hooves.
Gelatin behaves in a peculiar manner with water.
In cold water it merely swells, but in bot water it
"dissolves" readily, fanning a colloidal dispersion.
As long as ),OU keep tbis dispersion warm, it remains
in a liquid form tbat is called a "sol." 'When cooled,
it t urns into a jelly-like form called a "get "
- -'0;:
~ -
NaOH
10%
MIX 5 ml OF liQUID TO
BE TESTED WITH 5 ml
10-,' . SOLUTION Of
NoOH. ADD TWO
DROPS OF A 2-/_ SO-
LUTION Of COPPER
SUlfATE (1 9 IN 50 ml
WATERl. liQUID Will
TURNREDDISH-VIOlET.
P roteins-Cont inued
You are certain to be familiar with three common,
pure proteins: albumin in eggs, casein in milk, and
gelatin.
ALBU\ IlN- Egg white contains around 13 per
cent albumin - from Latin albus, while,
When J OU shake up egg white with water, J OU
get what looks like an almost clear solut ion. But
t his is not a "t rue" solut ion such as you get when
you dissolve salt or sugar - it is anot her kind of
"solution" called a "colloidal disper sion." For more
about colloidal dispersions, see pages 100-101.
As long as egg whi te is kept cool. it stays trans-
parent and almost liquid. But what happens wben
you beat it? You knowfrom Irying or boiling an egg:
It hardens - coagulates - int o a solid white mass
which ),OU can not again "dissolve" in water. The
chemist's term for t his change is "denat uration" -
the egg white has changed its nat ure.
CASEIN - Casein is another prot ein t hat goes into
your diet. Some of the casein you drink (milk) , some
of it rou eat (ice cream and cheese).
In cheese making, the casein is separated from the
liquid part of the milk - the whey. It is then pressed
and stored until ripe. The flavors of cheeses arc caus-
ed mostly by esters creat ed during t he ripening,
99
Colloidal Dispersions
'''OULD YOU WALK up to a soda fountain and order
" a tripl e, chocolate-flavored colloidal di sperslonva
No? Yet that' s what you do when you ask for a
chocolate sundae. Ice cream is a colloidal di spersion
of solids in a liquid ; so is chocolate S) T Up. Whipped
cream is a colloidal di spersion of air in a liquid.
It was a Scot. Thomas Graham, who explained
colloids. in 1862. He not iced that some solutions
passed through parchment paper, others didn't. He
discovered that most of those that filtered through
were of chemi cals that formed cryst als - he call ed
them " crystal loids." The others he called " colloids"
- from Greek hotfoot's, glue-like.
When a colloid is mixed with water, it does not
form a solut ion but a dispersion. In a solut ion, the
molecules of the dissolved chemi cal are too small to
be seen even with the st rongest microscope. In a col-
loidal dispersion. the much larg er particles can be
seen in an ultra-microscope - and you can see them
as a light effect when you pa ss a light beam through
the dispersion.
Colloidal dispersions can be formed by gases, liq-
uids, and solids. Eight combinations are possible:
CHEfSE
liquid in .olid
MUDDY WATER
$olid ill liquid
-:
.
--.
: ~
.--
:;"::;
-- .-
- ~ -
.- _."
MILK
MAYONNAISE
liqu id in liquid
r--4"
;: /oV,YON- ~
W....l S10 L-'-;-"-;-""",?
~ COLORED GLASS ~
~ . olid in . ol1d "' ....

.
IN 1862, A SCOTTISHCHEMIST.
THOMAS GRAHAM, PRESENTED
HIS IDEAS ABOUT COllOIDS.
,
BLOOD
,ol id in liquid
o
!OO

"'-__1.2
--_._-
!. ,
I
cone of black construction paper
1 LIGHT BEAM IS INVISIBLE AS
IT PASSES THROUGH A SOLUTION
(OF SUGAR, FOR INSTANCE].
2 LIGHT BEAM IS VISIBLE AS IT THIS "TYNDAll EFFECT" GOT
THROUGH A NAME FROM AN ENGlISH _
flashlight DISPERSION (SUCH AS OF SULFUR). SCIENTIST, JOHN TYNDAll .
LIGHT TEST FOR COLLOIDS
2
SULFUR
(
0/
("DENAl
; ALe
=

i-=-=:

I
,
,
,
!l
,
!
!
,
I
,
.
I
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
1...-
,
L '
L
._ -

.

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-
1-' .
f=
.
.
.

I
,
f=
2
.
1/
-----
=
'- '- =
. .
.
D'
!Y' MANY:OlECULES Of A SUBSTANCE
TOGETHER INTO PARTICLES OF COLLOIDAL SiZE.

1 SHAKE I 9 FLOWERS OF SULFUR WITH 10 ml DENA-

URED ALCOHOL A SMALL AMOUNT OF SULFUR GOES
IN SOlUTION. FILTER OUT THE UNDISSOLVED SULFUR.
POUR THE ALCOHOLIC SOlUTION OF SULFUR INTO
Ii. LARGE AMOUNT OF WATER. YOU Will SEE A WHITE
CLOUD OF FINELY DISPERSED COllOIDAL SULFUR.
SHAKEUP I 9 STARCH WITH 100 ml
COLD WATER. IF LEFT UNDISTURBED,
STARCH QUICKLY SETTLES TO BOnOM.
POUR THEMIXTURE OF STARCH AND
WATER INTO A CUSTARD CUP. BRING
TO A BOIL, THEN COOL STARCH HAS
NOW FORMED A COLLOIDALDISPERSION.
IN EMULSIFICATION, ONE LIQUID IS DISPERSED IN AN-
OTHER. EMULSIONS CAN BETEMPORARY OR PERMANENT.
1 SHAKE 5 ml KEROSENE AND 5 ml WATER TOGETHER
IN A TEST TUBE. LET STAND FOR A SHORT TIME. LIQUIDS
SEPARATE. THE EMULSION WAS TEMPORARY.
2 SHAKE 5 ml KEROSENE WITH SOLUTION OF Y2 9 SOAP
IN 5 ml WARM WATER. THEN LET STAND. LIQUIDS DO
NOT SEPARATE. THIS IS A PERMANENT EMULSION.
gases in liquids and in solids; liquids in gases, in
ether liquids, and in solids ; solids in gases. in liquids,
and in ot her solids. The illustrations show some of
these possibilities - you can think of many others.
The colloidal state is important to life. It is th e
way in which we get most of our food, the way we
digest it. and the way the blood carries nouri shment
throughout our bodies.
IN PEPTlZATlON, LARGE PARTICLES ARE BROKEN DOWN
INTO SMAllER PARTICLES OF COLLOIDAL SIZE.
-' .
:;<... -
:--.:


101
VEGETABLE FIBERS COME FROM
PLANTS: COTTON, flAX IlINEN).
ARTIFICI AL FIBERS ARE VERY pop-
ULAR, NYlON, DACRON, ORLON.
Natural and Artificial Fihers
IT WO ULD BE TOUGH to get along without fibers in
the modem world. Fibers ar e spun into thread, and
the thread is made into cloth for clothing and bed-
sheets, curtains and t owels. and man)" ot her things
around th e house. Fibers al so go into such articles
as string and rope . rugs and auto tires, Some of th ese
fibers come from the plant and animal world s, others
are man ufactured synt hetically with coal or petro-
leum for their starting point.
Fibers belong in different groups of chemical com-
pounds. Animal fibers are prot eins : vegetable fibers
are cellulose. Artifi cial fibers such as nylon, Orlan
and Dacron are very complex chemical compounds
and ha ve enormously long molecules.
BURNING TEST FOR FIBERS
KIND FLAME
1 COnaN Ra pid, yell ow fla me
2 LININ f a irly fast. yellow flame
3 WOOL Slow, siuling flame
4 SILK Small . slow flame
S NYLON Melt s; no fla me
6 ORLON Me lh a nd burns
7 VISCOSI
Ra pid. yell ow flame
RAYON
8 CILLULOSI Rapid flame with sma ll
ACETATE sparks ; melts
2 3 4 S 6 7 8
SMILL ASH
like burning paper Sma ll, fine, gray
like catlon lik e cotton
like burning hair Hollow. block bead.
easy 10 crush
like wool Shiny, round bead,
easy to crush
Li ke cel e ry Melh 10 block bead,
hard 10 crush
l ike br oiled fish Block bead.
hard to crush
Like cotton Like colton
Li ke vineg a r Block bead,
hard 10 crush
102
1
CUT HAlF INCH STRIPS
O F DIFFERENT FABRICS"
IGNITE EACH STRIP IN
TURN. NOTICEHOW FAB-
RIC BURNS, THE SMEll,
AND ASH LEFT BEHIND.
-_.
=
PLAc e THEJETTIPJUST
BelOW THE SURf ACEOF A
MI XTURE Of 10 11'11 HYDRO_
CHLORI C ACID AND 500 11'1 1
WATER. BLOW. AS BLUE LIQUID STREAMS OUT
INTO THEDILUTED ACID, IT TURNS INTO WHITISH
STRAND Of RAYON THAT SmLES ON BOTTOM.
TRYSAME EXPERIMENT
WITH STRONG HCI.
SILK AND RAYON DIS-
SOlVE. BUTTHEWOOL
DOES NOT.
ST WASHING,
POUR Of f WATER. POUR
WET CUPRIC HYDROXIDE
INTO A f ILTER. WASH SOME
MORE. THEN lET IT DRIP.

P.;

F-i
=

""


, ,
1
I
.
I
!
I
I
, . ,

:,--
,
: f----- f--- :f---
U (\

F
TI
r.r
/
'-of--
'-0
c,
-,
MAKE APPARATUS AS SHOWN
BELOW, WITH GLASS TUBE
ENDING IN fINE JETTIP. POUR
PAPER SOl UTION INTO BOT-
tlE.
:1 ' I.
-
POUR.5 11'11 lOY. NoOH
OlUnON INTO EACH OF
SIX TEST TUBES AND DROP
IN STRIPS Of SIX KINDS
Of CLOTH. MARK EACH
TEST TUBESO YOU KNOW
WHAT IS IN EACH.
2 PLACE TEST TUBES IN
A CAN Of HOT WATER.
BOIL FOR TEN MINUTES.
PLACE TEST TUBES IN
AND. NOTE RESULT.
WOOL AND SILK HAVEDIS-
SOlVED, THEOTHERSNOT.
SCRAPE THE MOIST CUPRIC HY
DROXIDEINTO A GLASS. ADO STRONG
AMMON IA 127Y., f ROM DRUG STORE)
BY THE DROP UNTIL ALL Cu(OH1. HAS
DISSOLVED AND HAS BECOME DEEP.
BLUE Cu(NH.).IOHI a- THIS SOlUTION
IS CAllED "SCHWEITZER'S REAGENT."
TEAR UP 3 TO .4
PIECES O f filTER
PAPER. STIR THEM
INTO THE BLUE LIQ-
UID. THEY WILL GO
INTO SOlUTION.
CHEMICAL TESTS FOR FIBERS
'.
MAKING RAYON
.....
RAYON IS MADE BY
" DIGESTING" CELl U
LOSE IN CUPRAMMO
NIUM AND THEN SET-
TING IT FREE AGAIN.
TO MAKE CUPRAMMONIUM SOlUTION, FIRST
SOlVE 109 COPPER SUl f ATEIN 10 0 ml WATERIN A PINT
JAR. ADD 10"/0 NoOH SOlUTION UNTi l NO MORE lI GHT-
BLUE CUPRIC HYDROXIDE fORMS. LET STAND. POUR WA-
TER Off PRECIPITATE. RE-Fll l THE JAR WITH WATER.
AGAIN LET STAND. AGAIN POURWATEROf f PRECIPITATE.
REPEAT THIS WASHING PROCESS HALF A DOZEN TIMES.
103
{p
..
:.::__. ,
. ..
. . -
air cool

1' 1
HOLD SMALL
PIECE OF A
PLASTIC IN
FLAME. NOTE
HOW IT BURNS.
I.)
HEAT TIP OF GLASS ROD
SLOWLY IN FLAME OF AL.
COHOL BURNER. PRESS
HOT TIP AGAINST PLAS-
TIC. IT MAKES A DENT
IN THERMOPLASTIC, NOT
IN THE THERMOSETTING.

TEA
MOST THERMOSETTING PLAS
TICS GIVE OFF STRONG ODOR
BUT DO NOT BURN. MOST
THERMOPLASTICS BURN BUT
SOMEOf THEMSTOPBURNING
WHEN REMOVED FROM fLAME.
!)r:;

LEO H. BAEKELAND WITH THE AUTO-

CLAVE IN WHICH HE MADE BAKELITE
IN HIS YONKERS, N. Y., LABORATORY.
ABOUT FIFTY YEARS ago, Dr. Leo H . Baekeland, a
Belgian-born American chemist , mixed phenol and
formaldehyde together during an experiment. Other
chemists had done thi s before Baekeland and had
wondered how to get the messy goo that resulted
out of their test tubes. But Baekeland had anot her
approach. He asked himself. " wh at is it good for)"
He decided t o find out. The result was Bakelite-
the first successful, modern plasti c.
During theyear 1910, Baekeland produced less than
25 barrels of hi s " phenolic" pla sti c in a barn in Yon-
kers. N. Y. Nowadays , fift y years later, close to
500 milli on pounds are produced yearly. During
those same fifty years , more than a dozen other types
of pl asti cs were invented.
Today, plastics seem to be everywhere. You find
them in your home in flooring and wall coverings,
in table tops and chair upholstery, in TV cabinets
and telephones. in t oys and games, in rigid containers
and in squeeze bottles. Much of your food comes to
)-OU protected by some kind of plasti c. The)"ar e used
in planes and trains and cars. A plasti c puts th e
"safety" into safety glass. Other plasti cs are used
for long-wearing engine parts and for electrical in-
sulat ion.
''''
Plastics-a M odler n G iant
carbon
monoxide
phenol
THE MAKING OF A TYPICAL
THERMOSEnlNG PLASTIC
PHENOLICS
IJ
EJ l)

a a
phenol ic resins
Il\,
...---

calcium carbide
acetylene
\
_.-
vinyl chloride-acetate
copolymer
J! \
ethylene
THE MAKING OF A TYPICAL
THERMOPLASTIC
VINn
salt
YOU CAN MAKE UNUsUAt
DECORATIONS FOR THE
WAltS OF YOUR GAME
ROOM FROMOLD RECORDS.
chlorine
M - - L t i 1 ~ ~
nalural gas coke limestone
} ~
2 SCRAPE SOFTENED PLASTIC ONTO
A GLASS PLATE. PRESS A PENNY INTO
IT. YOU GET A PERFECT MOlD.
j 2
1 CUT UPA SMALL AMOUNT
OF SOFT PLASTIC. HEAT IT IN
AN OlD TEASPOON.
MOLDING PLASTICS
I
Plasti cs arc made from afew simple raw materials
- some just from water, air, and coal , others with
the help of petroleum or natural gas , limestone and
salt . The plasti cs chemist breaks down the compar e-
tivel y simple molecules of these materials, then
builds them up anew into wry complex molecules.
Plasti cs may be di vided into two main groups ac-
cording to their special properties. One group con-
sists of the thermosetting plastics . These can be
molded by heat and pressure, but can not be re-
melted and remolded. They are along the lines of egg
white which , once set by heat. st ays set. The pheno-
lics and ureas are important thermosetting plasti cs.
The other group contains the thermoplastics.
These are soft when heated. hard when cooled , but
can be softe ned and hardened repeatedl y. You can
compare th em to sulfur and candle wax. The pol y-
et hylenes, pol ystyrenes, vinyls, and acrylics are in
the thermoplasti cs " family."
HEAT SHAPING. THERMOPLASTICS BECOME SOfT
WHEN HEATED. YOU CAN THENSHAPE THEMAT Will.
BRING A POT OF WATER TO A BOIL. DROP IN AN
OlD VINYl RECORD. WHEN SOFT, SHAPE IT WITH
TWO lONG STICKS. IT BECOMES HARD AGAIN WHEN
IT IS REMOVED FROMTHE HOT WATER AND COOLED.
105
CHEMISTRY TAKES ON A GREATER IM-
PORTANCE WHEN YOU NOT ONLY PER-
FORM AN EXPERIMENT BUT ALSO WORK
OUT THE EQUATION OF THE REACTION.
!I
I I'
.,
11/ 11
---..
,
lJl
_ ...r..

,,&

==

--.
VVc>rking out Chemical Equations

In a DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT. the t wo com-
pound s change pa r tners with each other. Think of
the time when you precipitated silve r chloride from
solutions of salt and silver nitrate :
-- Ag Cl I + NaNO)
or whe n you mi xed Epsom sal t and washing soda:
o Na -- 1+
In st udying the chemical short hand above, you
notice that. in every instance. there is an equal num-
ber of atoms of each element on eit her side of the
arrow that indicates that a reaction takes place. Be-
cause of this equal arrangement, these chemical de-
script ions ar e call ed equations.
1\lan)" of these equations are scattered throughout
this book. Many more ar e found in advanced cbem-
istry textbooks . But very often, a chemis t has to
work out an eq uat ion from SCr atc h.
Let' s say you want to figure out t he equation for
dissolving alumi num foil in hydrochlor ic acid. Yo u
write out a trial equ ati on :
AI + HO - AIO + H I
But is AlCI corrects Look at the valence char t on
page 75. Aluminum has three valence bonds. chlo-
rine ouly one. One AI atom ther efore takes on three
Cl atoms, and aluminum chl oride must be A1Cl $. H
isn' t right, eit her. Hydrogen exists in the free state
only in mol ecules containing two at oms (Hz). So you
change the equation to this:
Al + liD -AID) + Hz t
2H, 1 + 0, 1
OR 0
or when quicklime (calci um oxide) reacts wit h water
to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide):
You H .WE DO:\r: a great number of experiment s by
now. You have wor ked with gases, liquids, and solids .
You have prec ipitated and decanted, filtered and
dist illed. As you think back ove r the experi ments you
will discover that they fall into four main groups of
chemical r eactions.
The simplest of these reactions is the DIRECT
In this. two or more subs tances
combine t o form a si ngle more complex subs tance.
as when iron and sulfur form iron s ulfide:
is the opposite of che mical
combi na tion. In t his , a s ubstance is broken down
in to simpler substances. This was the case when you
separated the t wo elements found in water :
a
or when you made oxygen from hydrogen peroxide:
2!::E:il
0
2 -- 2H20 + 0 1 f
In a SINGLE DISPLACEMENT, one element
takes the pl ace of anot her in a compound, as whe n
you made hydrogen from zinc and hydrochloric aci d:
Cl -- II, f + ZnCl
2
or you set copper free by dropping a nail in a
solution of copper sulfate :
S0, -- Cn l + FeSO,

106
MEASURE OUT All CHEMICALS COR
RECTl Y AND FOllOW INSTRUCTIONS
CAREFUllY. MAKE NOTES AS YOU GO
ALONG AND WRITE DOWN RESULT
WHEN EXPERIMENT IS COMPLETED.
Now you need an amount of HCI t hat will give
you CI b)' the 3' 8 and H by the 2' 8. 6HCI will do this.
So JOu write in 6HCl and change the rest unti l the
equation balances :
2Al + 6HCl - 2AlCl
s
+ 311
s
t
Equat ions teU you what happens - but the)' tell
Car more than that.
Take the simple equation :
Fe + S - FeS
APPROXIMATE ATOMIC WEIGHTS
FOR CALCULATIONS
1.' . .. 1. At... l.
EI. ..._,
SyOlbol Woigh t El.M. o, SYOIbol Woighl
ALUMINUM AI 27 MAGNESIUM Mg 24
BORON 8 11 MANGANESE M. 55
CALCIUM Co 40 NI TROGEN N 14
CARBON C 12 OXYGEN 0 I.
CHLORINE CI 3. POTASSIUM

3'
COPPER C. .4 SILICON 51 28
HYDROGEN H 1 SilVER Ag 108
IODINE 1 127 SODIUM No 23
I RON f. 56 SULfUR 5 32
l EAD Pb 207 ZINC Za 65
This not only tells you t hat iron and sulfur make
iron sulfide hut also t hat it takes one iron atom and
one sulfur atom t o produce one molecule of YeS. Fur-
th er. hy inserting the atomic weights for th e two
elements Cram the chart on page 107, th e equation
tells you how much iron and sulfur are needed and
how much iron sulfide you should get:
Fe + S-FeS
5632 56 + 32= 88
You can use th e atomic weight numerals to Iadl-
cate numbers of grams or an)' other unit of weight.
By div iding by 16 you get the number of grams you
used for experiment on page 22.
Now take a more complicated equ ation.
Let's S8 Y J Ou want to produce magnesium carbon-
ate. The chart of solub ilities on page 108 t ells JOU
t hat AlgCO
s
is insoluble. You should therefore be
able to precipitate it from a soluble magnesiu m salt
- the sulfate, for instance - and soluble sodium
carbonate :
Now you need t o know how much ~ l g S O , and how
much Na zCO
s
you need . and how muc h ~ l g C O s you
will get.
Before you start figuring from t he equation above,
check the chart on page 108. top right. Here you
will discover th at each molecule of magnesium sul-
rate has seven molecul es of water of h)'drat ion (7H
2
0 )
attached to it . and each sodi um car bona te molecule,
(COIiTINUED Oil PAGE 108)
107
Na
ISO
..10H
IO
Na
IS.OI'5HIO
WATER OF HYDRATION
(WATER Of CRYSTALLIZATION)
NH..At [SO.l."12H
IO
NH..CI
Na
IB
.O
J10HIO
Na
ICOI'IOHIO
NoCI
NaHCO.
NaHSO.H.O
NaOH
AgNO.
CoCI
I'6
H
IO
{CaSO..1.H. O
CuSO.5H.O
f eCI.6H
I
O
f eCI
I'4
H
I
O
f eSO..-7H
IO
KAI[SO..kt 2H
1
0
KNO
I
MgSO...7H.O
NITRATES-SOLUBLE_WI THOUT EXCEPTIONS.
ACETATES-SOLUBLE-WITHOUT EXCEPTIONS.
CHLORIDES-SOLUBLE-EXCEPT Ag, Hg (MERCU.
ROUS), AND Pb.
SULfATES-SOLUBLE-EXCEPT Pb, Ba, Sr (Ca, Ag
AND Hg SLIGHTlY SOlUBLE).
NORMAL CARBONATES, PHOSPHATES, SILICATES,
SULFIDES-INSOLUBLE_ EXCEPT Na, K, NH .
HYDROXIDES-INSOLUBLE-EXCEPT Na, K, NH.,
Ba. (Ca AND Sr SLIGHTlY SOl UBLE.)
SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
AND HYDROXIDES
t en molecules of water (lOH:O). These do not enter
into t he chemical reacti on - but you haw to in,
dude t hem in t he weight of t he chemicals.
'Yrite the atomic weight below each element. Then
figure th e molecular weight of each compound by
adding the ato mic weight s of all the atoms found in
t he molecule.
This is what ) ' 0 11 get :
) Ig S O. - 7H,0 +I'ta, C O. -10H,0 --
24 32 16x4 i x18 23x2 12 16x3 10xl 8
2..t +32 + 6-t + 126 -16 + 12 + -1 8 + 180
2-16 286
)Ig C
0,1+
x, 5 O. 17H:O
U 12 16:.: 3 23x2 32 I fix-l 17x18
2-1- + 12+ -1 8 -16 + 32+ 6 1 306
81 U 2 306
(When a formula contains subscripts - the small
numeral s that indicate how man y of a ki nd - be
certain to mul t ipi)' the a tomic weight hy t he number
indi cat ed by t he subscri pt. I n cases where the for-
mula is pr eceded by a large number . be sure to mu l-
tiply the molecular weight b)' t his number.)
Your finished calculation t ells you t ha t 2' 6 g (or
24.6 g or 2046 g) of magnesiu m sulfat e cr ystals an d
286 g (or 28.6 g or 2.86 g) of sodium carbonate Cf)'S-
tal s will give you 84 g (or 8..1 g or .8-1 g) magnesium
car bonat e.
When you get even deeper into chemical ma the-
matics )'ou will be ab le t o figure out the percentage
of elements in a compound for which )"ou know t he
formula. or t he formula of a compound when JOU
know the percentage of elemen ts. or the numbers of
liters of a gas you prepare in a chemical react ion.
CHEMISTRY AS A
HOBBY WItt GIVE
YOU MANY HOURS
O f ENJO YMENT.
CHEMISTRY AS A
SCIENCE TRAINS
YOUR REASON ING
AND OBSERVATION.
108
Wha"t's Ahead in Chemistry?
Tue CIIEYIC.U WO:'lODERS of today aTC amazing
enough - but they are like not hi ng compared to t he
wonders the future holds in stor e for the welfare of
all humanit y.
FOOD - The fertilizers of tomorrow will greatl y
increase the crops grown 0 11 far ms throughout t he
world. Insect and disease-destroying chemicals will
make cattle and poultry hea lt hier and be tter pro-
ducers of meal, milk. and eggs. Chemical s unknown
today will make it possible to keep food fresh with-
out refr igerati on in any cli mate.
HO:\1 ES - The houses of t he fut ure will be built
of more durable materials than any we haw t oday.
Floors and wall cover ing will last almost indefinitely.
Xcw paints will add never-fading colors .
CLOTllE'G- ) Iany more man-made fibers will
be added to those we use today - fibers with longer
wear; fabrics that are cool in summer. warm in win-
ter. easy to keep clean.
HEALTH - T he miracle drugs of today ha ve
wiped ou t diseases t hat ranked among our greatest
killers just a few years ago. In years to come many
more diseases will disappear from the sur face of the
world under t he onsla ught of st ill more effecti ve
drugs created in t he che mical laboratory.
TRAVEL - :\luch of t he travel of the future will
be at supersonic speeds. Planes and rockets will re-
qui r e materials that can st and t remendous hea t and
new fuels capable of produ cing enor mous energy.
Chemistry will provide them.
El'iERGY - T he force hidden in t he
atom will be t urned int o light and heat and power
for everyday uses. Che mists of the future. working
with t heir brct ber-scient lsts, the ph ysicists. will find
new ways of harnessing and using the atoms of nu-
merous elements - some of them unknown to t he
scientis ts of today.
Do you want to share in t he making of t hat as-
tonishing and promising fut ure?
If you haw enjoyed performing t he experiments
in this book. figuri ng out formulas and equations,
jotting down observations. you are the kind of pe r-
son who has the q ualifica t ions for making a SUCCes.i-
Iul career in chemis t ry.
If you care to look furt her into the ma tter, speak
to your science teacher about it and drop a line to
one or all three of t he organizat ions mentioned below
and ask for their pamphlets on becoming a chemist :
Aml'Tican Cht mical Socit ty.
1155 16th St reet. X. W., Washington 6. D. C.
.-lmt rican [nst ituft oj Cht mical Enaineers,
25 West -15th Street. Ne w York 36. X. Y.
Jlanuf ad uring Cht misls' Association.
1625 I Street, N. W.. Washingt on 6, D. C.
But whatever you decid e for the future. keep up
your interest in chemist r y as a hobby. In addit ion
to giving you fun and enjoyment . your chemical
hobby will sharpen you r powers of obser va t ion and
reasoning and tr ai n )our mind for whatever occu-
pation ) 0\1 decid e upon for a lifework.
CHEMISTRY AS A tlfE-
WORK ENABLES YOU TO
CO NTRIBUTE TO THE
Wel FARE OF MANKIND.
' "
.
'"--"C9l'9 - ;;;;'J


109
Where to Get Chewcals and Equipment
IF YOU DECIDE TO USE REGUlAR lABORATORY WARE
IN YOUR HOME lAB, GET PRICE usr FROM SUPPliER.
Science )'Iail cc.. 17-33 ).Iurra}- St. , Whitestone 57. K Y.
(Price list Ieee)
Winn Chemical Co. 12-1 Wes t 23rd sr.. Xew York 11. x, Y.
(Catalog 251! )
x , Y. Scientific Stlppl)" Co., 28 Wffi. 30th St., New York I ,
x, Y. (Catalog
Horne Lab 5uPPh , 511Homestead A,-e. ).Iount vernon, X. Y.
( Price th t rrre )
Bicloeicel Supply Co., 1176 .\ It. Hope Ave. , Hochester :1.0,
x, Y. (Catalog 25j! )
A. C. Gilbert co., P.O. Box 1610, New Haven 6, Conn.
(Price list rree)
Bio-Ehemicel Products, 30 Somerset St. , Belmont,
( Catalog 25t)
Labora tory Sales, P. O. Box 161, Brighton.
(Catalog 25t )
Th e Per ter Chemical Cc., HIIKcrsl own, :\Id. ( Price list free)
Tracey Scientific Laboratories, P. O. Box 615, Evanston, m.
(Calalog 25j! )
....ati onel Sctenunc Co., 13 South Park Ave., Lombard , Ill.
(Catalog 35j!)
Hagenow Laborat ories. ).Ianitowoc, Wis. (Catal og 2ot)
....

K

Iii

-
,
"
1/ '
fe,

-::,
CUPRIC POTASSIUN
" ,
SODIUM
' "
,
, ,
SULfATI PlRMAN-
..
BISULFATI
' ,
c
.
GANATI
"
,
.,
CuSO,,"
[);
KMnO"
..
NoHSO,,"
,
,
,
7H
lO
H,O
.
.
,
-:.'-:' ..-'<"\-{
CHEMICALS FOR HOME EXPERIMENTS ARE AVAIlABLE
IN JARS O F UNIFORM SIZE, All PROPERLY lABELED.
WH:-i \"ER l ! OU :O; D a chemical for one of the ex-
periments descr ibed in this book, check the list of
common chemicals on page il l to find out where t o
buy it "
All of these chemicals are, of course, avai labl e
through chemical supply houses. The trouble is t bat
many of these houses do not sell to individuals but
only to schools and esta blished laborator ies. ABo,
t he chemicals usuall y come in a sta ndard amount of
34 lb. - or even lib. - where, in home experime nt s,
you would need 1 ounce or less. The same is often
th e case when you buy chemicals in a local store.
T he minimum-sized packages or jars may be so large
t hat you couldn' t possibly use up t he contents in a
year of experiment s. You will probably also have to
repack what you act ually need into glass jars of suit -
able size for effi ciency and to fit )our st orage space.
Because of thi s and the Inconvenien ce of haying
to shop around, ) 011 may find it advantageous to bu y
your chemical s by t he ki t , in unifonn-sized screw-
top glass containers. Such kits arc available in t he
science department of many hobby and model supply
stores.
Cbe m-Klt No. I contains the t en chemicals mark-
ed I!!!I on t he opposite page. Ehcm-Kit No. 2 contains
the t en chemicals marked D. 111e kits contain suf-
ficient amoun ts of chemical s to perform each experi-
ment many times over.
You can also make up your own set of chemicals
t' in amounts suitable for home experimen ts by getting
t hem from one of the companies listed to t he left.
Be cer tain to add the cost of the catalog when ) -011
write for one and to send the correct amount when
) "OU order.
f
,I
,
=
"
I
1
,
,
,
" f
,
"

r-d \
A GRE .H :o.U. :'iY of the expe rime nts in this book can
be performed witb equipment found around the
house: water glasses, custard cups, jars. bottles. cans ,
and funnel. For the rest, the following pi eces of regu-
lar chemical labor atory equipment ar e needed:
6 test t ubes. regular . 150 mm x 16 mm
3 lest tubes , Pyrex, 150 mm x 16 mm
1 test t ube brush, small
3 wide-mouth bottl es, -l oes.
6 Ct. glass tubing, 6 mm outside di ameter
3 Ct. rubber tubing, inside di llmeter
No. 0 rubber etoppera, (me hole
I ;'\0.5 rubber stopper, one bole
3 5 ru bber ste ppers, two holes
I triangula r file,
I glau st irri ng rod. 5"
1 p" g. filler pape r, 12.5 em. 50 pieces
1 vial Iitmus paper stri ps., bl ue
1 vial Htmus paper st ri ps, red
If you can not secure this equipment locall y, write
to one of the companies bel ow asking for price list
or catalog, including cost of catal og where called for.
When you receive the answer, mail your orde r and
the correct amount b)" bank check or money order.
lIO
Common Chemicals and Their For mulas
CIIE:\lIC..\L :"i.H IE FOR:lI GLA CO:\t:l IO:'i" x n lE WHERE TO BUY

ACbJIC ACID CBsCGOR + H,O 5% solu tion : white vi negar Grocer y

.U , ,,rOXIUM CHLORIDE i', i'H1Cl sal am moniac Drug "lore

.. .U I" IO:"i IU" 1 HYDROXIDE NH,OH + 0% solution: house hold ammoni a Grocer)'
27% solution; strong ammonia Drug store
II BORIC ACID HsRO
s
boric acid Drug store

CALCIU'" C..\.RBOX.-\TE csco, bunks : marble. limest one Builders' supplies

powder : precipitated chalk Drug store
0
c..... LCm)t HYDROXIDE CatOH},: slakedlime, garden lime Hardware store
0 C.\ LCIUM OXIDE Cao qui cUime Builders' supplies
0 C.\ LCIU" I SULFATE (Caso, ) tit<) laster or Hllnhrafe store
2H:rO ypsum Chemical supplies
0 c.-\..RBOX TETRACHLORIDE co, 'a rbon tet Hardware store
0
COPPEll. SULt' .-\.TE Cu....'O. .:;II:P lue ,;triol Drug store
0 FERROUS SULFATE iron sulfate. green vi triol, copperas Drug store
'"
GLUCOSE
+
solution: cor n syrup Grocer y
0 HYDROCHLORIC ACID IIQ ....5% solution : muriatic acid Hard....are store
0
HYDRQGEX PEROXIDE
H10" + HtO
% solution : peroxide Drug store

IROX, :\IETAL. POWDER F. powdered iron Che mical supplies

0
:\l\GXESIU:\ I, :\lETAL :\I g magn..sium ribbon Chemical supplies
D
:\UGXESIU:\ I SULFATE Ep50m salta Drug store

)IAXGAXESE DIOXlDE ) l n0 2 pyrolusite Hardware store

(Ilashlight batter)' )
OJ
K.\.PHTll-\LE.'iE

moth hall s Hardware store

PHL'iOLPHTIHLEIN ph..nolphtbaleia Drug store

0 POTASSIU:\I ALIDnXUM SULFATE KA1(SOl b -1 2H
2
O al um, potassium alum Drug store
a POTASSIU:\1 FERROCYAN lDE K
t
l'e(CN)5- 3H
2
O potass ium jerroc yeni de Chemical supplies

POTASSIU:\ I IODlDE KI potassium iodide Drug store

OJ roTASSIIDI NITRATE

sal tpeter, niter Drug store
0 POTASSIU:\1 PER:\ IAXGA..'iATE K..\lnOj pctass ..ium permangenat e Drug store
"
SALI CYI.I C ACID CeH10llCOOJI salicylic acid Drug store
n
SILVER NITRATF; lunar caustic Drug store
0
SODI U:\1 BICARBONATE bakiag soda, bicarb Grocer-y

SODIU:\1 BI SULFATE 82% of Sani-Flush:D Grocer)'

SODIIDI CARBO;";' ATE sal soda , crystal washing soda Grocer)'
.
a
concentrated washing soda Grocery
0
SODI IDl CHLORlDE NaCI salt , table salt Grocer)'
0 SODIInI HYDROXIDE NaOJI lye, caustic soda, Grocer r
0 SODiIDl HYPOCHLORITE NaClO + .5% solution: laundr y bleach,
Clorox
ll
Grocery
0 SODIUM POT.-\SSlU:\1 TARTRATE NaKG,H
l06
Rochelle salt Drug store
0 SODIIDI SILICATE
+H
10
solution: water glas.s Hardware store
0 SODIIDI TETRAnORATi:': -lOH
1
O born, Drug store
"
TIIIOSULFATE NaAOl -.5H
2O
hypo Photo store
0 SUCROSE
-
CuHnO
u
cane sugar Grocer)'
"
SULFUR S powder: flowers of sulfur Drug st ore
t
lock : sulfur candle Hardware store
"
ZINC, )' IETA.L
Z. zinc
Hardware store
(flashlight battery]
0 ZL'OC CHLORIDE
zso, + H:rO tinners' fluid Hardware store
Xote: Chemical" merked O- mUD)' of them liquids-c-are roost eas;i1)' secured io local stores, Chemicals
mar ked . are found in :'\0. I , chemi cali mar ..ed 0 in Cbem-Kit .No. 2 (see opposi te page).
III
Index
A. e, i, "dd. 90. 91
Acid 13. 43, 90,
f"lly. 92. 93, i' em>
>"'oi"i "II .(.4, mcki"lI. 44, 'e.'
10,.43 .(.4, I,,,il> "f."2
A<tolein. 93
91. 99
Al<homi. ts. 6.1. 36
Alcohol 19. a8-89
64. 65
6465, dolo,id e. 64,
feil. 12, hyd,,,xidc. 65, . "If"' e.
64.65
Ammoni". 32. 33. 43, feun'e in. 33;
meking. 33, of . 33,
"f. 31
64, dol" , ide. 33,
cy" na.e. la; hydr oxide . 33. 43
Appo,,,",,. hnw 'n m"ke. 11, 16
Ari. 'e,le. 6
Sv"n le. 40
A' mc.phe,e .27
A' emi. enerllY. 5
Alomi. weigh". 38. 39. 101
AI1, m 36. 31. 38. 39
a".kel,, "d. len H. 104
a"l,," ,". h,,"d. IS
a"lIooo\$. 28
8<> 23, i.ern. >n,,,in_
inll. 45, 'c., fer. 43. 45, ""il.
01. 43
B.n.ene. 80. Bl
Jen 36
Be..emer, H"" ry. 69
ae , oo.!iT; bO<ld IU'. 56
Beri, "cid.!iT; ' u, f"r. !iT
Beren, 56
Boyle. Robert. 6. 7
a,,,nn. 70
c " rci"",. 60-6 1, bi.",;'ene' e. 60,
.erben,,'e. 60. 61, doleride.
-U, 61, hydre oide. "5. 60,
45. 60, 60. 61
Cond ie. 18-19, ,,,,,l e,,l. "r. 18
C"rb<lhydr",... 19,84-87
C",b"". 76, ,,'om. 31,
23.76_77. 7a. aO.81, f"rm. "'.
77; , .., for. 77
Cer be",,' 45. 60. 61,
>ppe, . 71, 71; le"i
69; i",n. 69; "",g"..i"m. 63,
m" nlloneu. 61, po'o.. 59;
.odi"m. 53, .i n 63
C"rben 30.3 1; cyd . eF. 30,
"",king. 30. 31; ' e.1 fa ,. 31;
" ... "f. 30
Cerbexyli, o.id 79, 9091
C" . ein. 98. 99, hom. 98,
mck ing 01. 98
C"vend"h. H""ry. 2a
86
Ch",le Jo.'I"'" 28
Ch..... . 99
Chemko l. ",mmOtl "" meo. I l l ;
form" lo 111, wh..., 10 b"y.
110. III
Ch. mi. , ry. ",<oe.. i" . 109, f"Iu ..
"F. 109, imporl" nc 4; whal il
i 4
Ch. mi, " . 6
Chlorid oh,mi n"m. 64; ommani"m,
33, 41, 61, ,"pp". 11,
71; <Up"''''. 71, le" i, .
68, f ....,,, 68, i,,,". 35. 68,
mogn illm. 62, "",nllone 67,
.Hver. 12, . odi" m...1. 53, . in
28. 41. 62
Chle, ine. 3...35; b!. oching wil h.
35, U . 35, moking.
35, le.1 fo,. 34
Chloroferm. 89
C" ol "g 16, mining. 76
96. 101
Collo ido l di .p e"ion. 100
Col1aids, 13. 100101, ligh'
fo,. 101
22. 23
Copp. r. l 0.7l , ecrbonele. 11,
dolerid 11; 71,
replocem. " t ef , 62. 71;
.olieyl,,' 91, 62. 11;
53. 71
Cop""", 69
Cey, ' olli. ,,'i on. 21, sa
Cry"ol, ...I. 64
103
C"p,i, "" It 70. 71
CllprOIl' ""Its. 70.11
C"rie. Mar ie. 7. 20
C"r i Pi." 7. 20
D" lton. Jehn. 36. 31
Davy. 7. 59. 60
Deeon' e' i" n. 20
Dem""11,, 6
De'e,genU. 95
Di. p. " ia n ,01l0ido l. 1001 01
Diotillol ia n. d..' r"dive. 77,
", . ' henol. 89, "f wo'er. 61
Eg!l" p,o'ein in, 96 rn
Ele""oly.i. "f wele,. 25
Elements. 22. 23. 38..:19
Empe<l"od 6
Em"!oir,.,,'i,,n. 101
Eq"otion,. <hemi,ol. l Q6..108
Eq" ipmen' . I"bernlery. 8,
impr"v i, :I. 9. 11,
wil er. 10 b" t, 110
E.' e... 79.92
E' h" "ol. 88. 89
Evapo'o""n.21
for ed oy. Jo,eph. 18
f"I 92.93; exl.o<1ing. 93,
'001 for. 93
fe" li ng ,el"tien. B5. 87. 98
fe"i. '0111.68. 69
f e"""01IS. 68. 69
f ih. ... 102103, Ie.'. f"r. 102. 103
fi lt r" tion. 20. 21
f ire ex'i"g"i. he 30
fo rm" lo 7"'5. 106, en,ben
tomp<>"nd,. 8081, ef ",mmen
<hemkol 111
f ro<1i"no' i"g of " il. 82
frosch. He. mon. SO
U
Ge>oline.82
Gelo'in. 99
Glo .. lub... bendi "ll. 13, "," ing.
13, gle .ing. 13
Gly<erol . 92. 93
Glo.,e ry. 2
GI".o,e. 84. 85
Gr"ham. Themo 100
Hell. Charle,. 64. 65
Hydr c<orb<lm. 79. 82-83
Hydrcch lo, ie oeid.
Hydr"ll en. 2B_29, mckinll. 28. 29,
.el ..,. wilh. 29, I.., fu 25. 18
Hydro!l en iodid.. .. 9
Hyd, ogen pe,nxide. 26. 21, 61
Hyd' " gen ,,, lr,de. 52. 53, in .hemi
,0 1onely,i,. 53, "",king. 53
<13; ol"min"m. 65,
33. <13, ,olri"m. 60.
61, ."ppct. 71, <Uprie. 11;
f. "i 69, f... ra" 69, iren. 69,
m09ni"m. 63, "",ng"ne.e. 66,
peto.. i"m. 94, ""d i"",. <13. 94,
""llIb m..,. of. l OB; .i",. 63
Hypo. .. 9. 51. 52. 73
Indi to'o" . colo, 'eble .(.4. 45;
homemod e. 42; ..,.p of
leberoloey. <13
lodid po,,,..i,,m. 34. -18. B7
Iodin 48_49, mokinll. 48. "9 ,
. emcving. . ol"bil i..,. of.
le. 1 fe r. " 9, li n.I " re "f.
lodofo.m. 89
112
Iren. 68_69, lrbnnote. 69, <hlo.id
35. 68, hydroxide. 69, oxid 68,
. 01icylo' e. 91, ,,, lfo'e. 69,
53, IonnoIe. 91
Koli"m. 59
K<ik " I<i. A"g ".I. 80. 81
Ki" he" 0' lobn,,,'ory. "
Lobe rol ory. sofe..,.. 16, . etti" g "P.
101" le.h" i'l"e 1611
Lovoi, ie. , An'eine. 6
Lim <13. 60
ti",. wo' . ' . 31
Lye, <13
M09 ne.i"m. 62-63; .orbonole. "'.
63, hyd rnxide. 63, . "[ fo' ....l ,
41. 62. 63
Mongo" .." . 66.67, .o,bono' 61,
dolo,i de. 67; 25. 66,
hydrnxide. 66, ."lfOl 66. 61;
. " Ir,de. 53. 61
M"" .".e
m
en, l "
M. nd.lull. O", il>i. 39
Me' olln' d. , 13
M.'ol,.13 ('c. 01<0individ""l
m.'ol. ); , ,. fo 53. 56
M. t" o" e. 80. 81. 83
Methone l. 88. BP
Metric .y..em. U
Milk. p. e' ein in. 98
Mi" ero], . 54
Mix,,, .... 22. 13
Mn, el ey. H"".y .39
ndd, ' H Ht d, ochle ri,
".id
No phl hol en 83
Nohi "m. sa
Ne"l. alil oli en. 46
Nih"' pO,,,,, i,,m. 32...1. 59,
.i1n r.72
Nihi , "ol d. 42
Nitrogen. 32..:13; in "'m",ph,,,e. 32
Ne n. melol 23
Oil. ",e.king 01. 83, "''''' 82,
' ro<tiano' i"g "r.82
cn., 9293
Olein. 92
O,g"nie , ,, mpo,,,, d, . ICC CorbOtl
. empollnd.
0 ..,:1. H" " . C. 64
b<l,i<. Sl, .erci"m. 60,
meg" e.i"m. 62; .i lver. 72, .in
"
2621, i" "'m",ph. , 27;
"",ki"g.71, , .., Inr. 25
Po,o<tll." 6. 1
Pep'i ,,, 'ion. 101
P. , iodic lobI 3839
Permcngono'. "f po'o..i"",. 66. 61
Pe'role"m. 82
Ph. nol. 91
Phnl"ll , ophy. 73, wi,ho lll "
.om.,,,. 73
Photo.yo, h..i B6
Pla" e, of Po. i 61
Plo,ti, 104105, to." for. 10..
Pe'o.h. 59, 9..
Po'o., i"m. 53. 59, ol"m, 64,
",rb"""'e. 59; f. ,.,..,eye nide. 68;
flem. .." f"r. 59, hyd,oxide. 94;
iodide. 34. 4lI. "9. 81, nil.ot
32. .. I. 59. 61, oi'ri' e. 59, pe r_
"",ngn""t e. 66. 67 .
P,i e, lley, 10,eph.7. 26
PreIein 79. 96.99; in egg. 96.
97; in fa od 96. 91, i" mil k.
98, I .." 10'. 91. 99
1',,,,,'1. Je,eph. 31
P", ..io.. br" 6B
Py,,,I,,.i, 66
Redi"m. 20. 21
Rayon. 102; moking, 103
Ro<hell. ",It. 8S
R"bber. 82
68
Sole..,.. 16
5<>1 ommenio'. 43
Soliey li. ocid. 90. 91
5<>11. ' e bl e 5<>di"", ,hlo,id.
Solt ",,'.r. 32. .. 1. 59. 61
Solts. 13. -16-.. 7; ho"'. "old i' em.
.on'oin'"g. -U, moking.-U,
neme. 01. 46, ""I"bili..,. of, l OB
Schul Ko, l. l . 26
Xhwei l.e. ' og. "t. 103
Sc:ien' ir,. me'hod. 21
Sili,;, odd. SS
Sil icon, 54-SS
SiII.... e,. 54
Silv",. 72.73, bromid 73,
,M"ride. 72, "i ' ro' . , 12; ...id
12, . " IM 12
5<>oP. 9"95, how il 0<1'. 94,
"'eking. 95, Iu ' ing. 95
Sodo ,, " 59. 9..
5<>di"m. sa, ",eln'e. 91, 01I1min,,'
64, bi,orbenol sa, bi,,, lIo'e.
42. sa; l,b""o' sa. 59.12;
, Mnrid 41. sa, f1om.. le.1 f" ,.
59, hydre xide. 43. 45. 94. 95, hy_
po<hlo,i, 34, "" Heylo' 91;
. ilk o' e, 54. SS, .,,If,,le. sa,
, ,, Ir,d 53; lettobo',, ' Sl,
!hio."I'ol.. .. 9. 51. 52. 73
Scl",ion 20. 23 .010... 1; b.hovie.
of. 41; ecnd,,<tivity "f .co,
moking. ..1, ""',,re!:I. 41
Sloh. 86.87, "", kinll. 81, , ..,
10 81
S' ea,in.92
S' eel,69
Stopp rubbe 12
S"m: 84. 85
SlIg" 8485, le. 1 lor. 85
S"lIole. ol"mi n" m. 64; ,elci"m. 60.
61, ' oppe,. 62. 7 \; fe rri<. 69,
fe""" 69; ir" n. 69,
"1. 61. 63, mengon., 66. 61,
,odi"m. sa, "n 62. 63
S" lfid " n'imony. 53; .o dmi"",. 53,
, ,,ppe, . 53. 11, ",pri,.1I, hyd ro
gen. 52 .53, i re n. 22. 53, mo"ge
n. ", .53. 61, .ilver.12, ""di"m.
53, " "'. 53. 63
S"lfu-, 22. SO-51, ",.' ing with. 51;
fo, m, "f. SO. 51, ..... hinll. 51,
p, eeipi'el:l. 51, p. " d" " i",,
"f. SO
S"IFu, diaxid 52; "",kin". 52
S" lf" , i, " ,id, 41
SlIlfu'''''. odd .(.4. 52
Symbo!o. "l<h.mi.IO. 2, 6. 36,
"' emical. 36
T" bl el'.... Sed i"m <hlar id.
T" nni, od d. 90. 1'1
Tin.lur. "f iodine. 4lI
Ti' ro'ion. 46
T" rpenl in 83
Ureo. 18
Vol enee 1.. -15, ","0' 1 01. 75
Vitriol. gr ..n. 61'
V"r.eni>D 'io n. SO
We<hi ng'"n M",,"menl. 64
Wo'e,. O' 0 cololys l. 24;
de"r ing. 65, lmp<>.i,ien of.
14.26, di,'illing. 61; .Iee
' roly, i. of. 25, hotdn. .. "f.
61.95, ", "" lvenl. 2"
Wo' . ' 01 hyd rn'ion. lOB
W" ' . , gl,,... 55
Wohrer. fr i:l ri<h. 7. 78
Zinc. 25. 62-63, ec rbenn' e, 63,
ehlnride. 28, 63,
."Ifo' e. 62, ,,,Ilide. 53. 63