Terminology

Wednesday, September 19, 2012 11:26 AM

Vowel: a, e, I, o, u (in spelling) Diphthong: combination of two vowels /eI/ Jane, /aI/ Michael, etc. Consonant: all other sounds. Stress: emphasis within a word or sentence. Syllable: part of a word, usually bigger than a phoneme, but never a full word.

Linguistics Page 1

2 Animals and human language

Tuesday, September 18, 2012 8:00 PM

Properties of human language

Communicative signals
Behavior used intentionally to provide information.

Informative signals.
Behavior that provides information. Usually unintentionally.

Reflexivity
Reflexivity (or "reflexiveness") is a human property of language which accounts for the use of language to think and talk about language itself. A dog does not bark about barking.

Displacement
Humans can refer to the past and the future. We talk about things that are not present in the immediate environment.

Arbitrariness
The relationship between linguistics signs and objects. The linguistic form of the word dog does not have a natural or iconic relationship with the actual dog. But our brains link it to the object or form in our head.

Productivity
Continually creating new expressions and novel utterances by manipulating their linguistic resources to describe new objects and situations. Animals lack this feature and make use of fixed references. They cannot create new words. For instance a flying snake would never get a new name but will always stay a flying snake.

Cultural Transmision
Where a language is passed on from one generation to another.

Duality
At one level we have distinct sound, and at another level, we have distinct meaning.

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5 Word formation
Tuesday, September 18, 2012 8:27 PM

Etymology
The study of the origin and history of language (etymon "original form" + logia "stufy of").

Coinage
The invention of totally new terms. One of the most common sources are invented trade marks such as aspirin, nylon or zipper. Another source for coinage are the names of persons or places such as Sandwich from Earl Sandwich. Those are called Eponyms.

Borrowing
Taking over of words from other languages such as croissant or piano. A special type of borrowing is described as Loan-translation or calque . With a calque there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language.

Compounding
The combining process of language. Thus, Lehn and wert becomes lehnwort. Some English examples are: doorknob, fingerprint and sunburn. It's basically just combining 2 words into another word with a new meaning.

Blending
Almost the same as Compounding but you only take the beginning of one word and join it to the end of another. For instance; alcohol and gasoline blends into the word gasohol.

Clipping
The element of reduction. Simply shortening a word. For instance; gas, exam, gym and lab. When an -y or -ie is added to the end of the clipping (telly, bookie, brekky) it is called a Hypocorism.

Backformation
A word of one type is reduced to form a word of another type. For instance; donate (from donation). In most cases this is done by simply adding -er to the end of the word, as is done with work(er) or edit(or).

Conversion
A change in the function of a word. The word does not change but the function does. For instance bottle and bottled (he bottled the home-brew last night). Other words for this common process are category change and functional shift.

Acronyms
New words formed by the initials of a set of words. Like the word CD or VCR. The meaning doesn't change but the word becomes shorter.

Derivation
Creating new words by adding pre- suf- or infixes, also called affixes.

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6 Morphology
Tuesday, September 18, 2012 8:55 PM

Free

Lexical Functional

(child, teach) Open (and,the) Closed

Morphemes
Bound (affixes) Derivational (re-,-ness) New words Inflectional (-'s,-ed) Change function

Allomorph: A different pronunciation of a morpheme. For instance, consider the -s plural morpheme.

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7 Grammar
Wednesday, September 26, 2012 9:04 AM

Parts of speech
Noun Noun Articles Adjectives Verbs Adverbs Preposition A person, thing, place or idea A word that is with the noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun A 'describing' word An action Typically answer questions such as how?, in what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent?. characteristically express spatial relations (such as the English words in, under, toward) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic roles (such as the English words of, for)
Pronoun Determiner Personal (1st/2nd) we Possessive ours Demonstrative this Indefinite some Interrogative who

Pronouns

Conjunctions

such as "and", "but", and "so"

Agreement
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Number Person Tense Voice (active & passive) Gender

The prescriptive approach

You must not split an infinitive: To solemnly (seriously) swear To swear solemnly

You must not end a sentence with a preposition: Who did you go with? With whom did you go?

Hierarchical organization
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Hierarchical organization
The structure of a sentence. You don't say "black the dog saw the man".

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9 Semantics
Thursday, September 27, 2012 12:07 PM

Conceptual and Associative meaning

A conceptual meaning described the basic, essential components of a meaning (a needle is thin, sharp, steel, etc.). While you could for instance, associate low-calorie with healthy although this does not fit the basic conceptual meaning of being healthy. This is what we would call Associative meaning.

Semantic features
A procedure to analyze meaning. For instance, the hamburger ate the boy is not right because you have to be an animal to eat or at least animate. The _____________ is reading the paper N [+human]

Semantic roles
Agent Theme Instrument Experiencer Location Source Goal The entity that performs the action. The entity that is involved in or affected by the action. Another entity that the agent needs in order to perform an action. If a entity has a feeling, perception or state it is in the semantic role of experiencer. Where an entity is in the description of an event. Where an entity comes from in the description of an event. Where an entity moves to in the description of an event.

Lexical relations

Synonymy Antonymy Gradable antonyms Non-gradable antonyms Reversives Hyponymy

Two or more words with very closely related meanings. Two forms with opposite meanings. My car isn't old does not mean my car is new. My grandparents aren't alive really means they are dead. When you literally reverse an act, for instance, undressing. When the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another. Animal/dog, dog/poodle, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan Superordinate = Higher-level term Co-hyponyms Dog and horse are co-hyponyms and the superordinate is animal.

Prototypes

The best example of a category or the best idea of "the characteristic instance" such as a sparrow or pigeon for the category bird.
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Homonyms

When one form has two or more unrelated meanings, as in these examples: Bank (of a river) - bank (financial institution) Race (contest of speed) - Race (ethnic group)

Polysemy

When one form has two ore more meanings that are all related by extension as in these examples: foot (of person, of mountain, of bed) or run(person, water, colors). Using a word to refer to another word as in these examples: king/crown, car/wheel house/roof.

Metonymy

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10 Pragmatics
Thursday, September 27, 2012 12:07 PM

Pragmatics is the study of "invisible" meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it isn't actually said or written.

Context
Linguistic context or co-text The meaning of a word is influenced by the context of the sentence. Physical context The meaning of a word Is influenced by the context of the physical location or scenario.

Deixis
You need to have some virtual knowledge of the references used in the sentences. We use deixis to point to thing or people, locations and times. Person Deixis Spatial Deixis Temporal Deixis

Reference
References are the funtion of deixis. They point towards a general understanding between certain people. For instance, Our lovely Linguistics teacher refers to Maaike even though I didn't say her name. Everyone knows I am talking about Maaike because we all know she is our Linguistics teacher.

Inference
Inference is linking things or actions to people or people to things or actions. For instance, taking a william shatner refers to the action taking a shit during work.

Anaphora
When you are referring back to an earlier introduced entity.

Presupposition
What a speaker (or writer) assumes is true or known by a listener (or reader) can be described as a presupposition). A presupposition refers to certain facts without stating them. For example, "Chaniqua has stopped working at KFC" You know that she has been working at KFC.

Speech Act
We use the term to describe actions. For example; when you say "I'll be on time today" you seem to be performing the speech act of "promising" without saying that you actually promise.
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"promising" without saying that you actually promise.

Direct and indirect speech acts Politeness

Politeness is basically showing respect of another person's public self-image (Aka face). If you say something that would threaten a person this is called a face-threatening act.

Negative and positive face

A positive face is the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of a group. (Let's do this together; You and I have the same problem, so...) A negative face is the need to be independent and free from imposition. (I'm sorry to bother you; I know you're busy, but)

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11 Discourse analysis
Friday, December 07, 2012 7:48 AM

Discourse analysis is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, vocal, or sign language use or any significant semiotic event.

Interpreting discourse
Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical links within a text or sentence that hold a text together and give it meaning (cohesive ties) Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text meaningful (samenhangend).

Conversation Analysis
Turn-taking how we take participation in conversations through conversational style and different strategies.

Filled pauses filling a pause with er, em, uh, ah.

The co-operative principle

The Quantity Maxim: Make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more, or less, than is required. The Quality Maxim: Do not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence. The Relation Maxim: Be relevant. The Manner Maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly. Hedges: is a mitigating device used to lessen the impact of an utterance. Typically used when we are not really sure that what we're saying is correct or complete. (as far as I know Now, correct me if I'm wrong, but I'm not absolutely sure, but)

Implicatures: An additional conveyed meaning Person 1: Are you coming to the party tonight? Person 2: I've got exam tomorrow.

Background knowledge
Schema: term for a conventional knowledge structure that exists in memory. (supermarket-schema)

Script: conventional actions, you have a script for going to the dentist and for going to the movies Fill measure cup to line And repeat every 2-3hours.
You know you should drink it every 2-3 hours.

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12 Language and the brain

Thursday, December 13, 2012 12:07 PM

The study between language and the brain. (Neurolinguistics)

Language areas in the brain

Broca's area: producing actual speech Wernicke's area: Understanding of speech The motor cortex: Movement of muscles (jaws, tongue and larynx) The arcuate fasciculus: Crucial connection between Wernicke's and Broca's areas The localization view: Specific aspects of language ability can be accorded specific locations in the brain. 1. 2. 3. 4. Heard and comprehended via wernicke's area Signal is transferred via the arcuate fasciculus to broca's area Broca's area makes preparations to produce it A signal is send to the motor cortex to physically articulate the word.

Tongue tips and slips

Tip of the tongue: When we feel that some word is just eluding us, that we know the word, but it just won't come to the surface. Slip of the tongue: Producing expressions such as make a long shory stort (spoonerism) Slip of the ear: hearing great ape instead of great tape etc.

Aphasia
Broca's aphasia: reduced amount of speech, distorted articulation and slow, often effortful speech. Wernicke's aphasia: Can produce fluent speech but is difficult to make sense of. I can't talk all of the things I do, and part of the part I can go alright, but I can't tell from the other people Conduction aphasia: They are fluent, but may have disrupted rhythm because of pauses and hesitations.

Dichotic listening
Right ear advantage: goes to left hemisphere, which is dominant for syllable and word processing.

The critical period

Laterization: left hemisphere dominance. The critical period: Period during childhood when the human brain is most ready to receive input and learn a particular language.

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16 Writing
Monday, December 17, 2012 2:20 PM

Pictorgrams: when "picture" represent particular images in a consistent way, we can describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms. (a ideogram that conveys it's meaning through it's pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Ideograms: when something visible moves to something conceptual. Graphical symbol that represents an idea or concept. Logograms: the relationoship between the written form and the object it represents had become arbitrary and we have a clear example of word-writing or a logogram. (representing a word or morpheme) Rebus writing: Symbol of one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to the entity.

Syllabic writing is a system of writing that represents each syllable of the language or dialect with a unique symbol. Alphabetic writing: ...

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17 Language history and change

Monday, December 17, 2012 2:31 PM

Philology: study of language history and change

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Inversion
Tuesday, September 18, 2012 9:19 AM

If you start a sentence with a negative adverbial, you get inversion. For example:
Never have I encountered such rudeness! (extract from a letter of complaint about the service in a restaurant) Not only is Amanda Swift a gifted musician, but she is also good-natured and responsible. (extract from a covering letter) No sooner had he locked the door than the phone started ringing. Only when the last person had left did she sit down and try to relax. Under no circumstances can you inform the staff about the imminent changes. Not a sound could be heard in the church. Little does Michael suspect that his daughter has been failing all her subjects at school!

The word order is inverted: the negative adverbial is placed first, an auxiliary verb follows it and the subject of the sentence comes next. The inversion of the subject and the verb can take place after a clause that begins with Not until and Only after/if/when.

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Clause Analysis
Tuesday, September 18, 2012 9:19 AM

What was done?

Find the verb(s) that belong together first. (Predicate) Is there more than one verb or group of verbs? Which is the most important? Is the verb transitive or intransitive? Transitive = Incomplete without a Direct Object.
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes. In this example, the verb "leave" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "this goo."

Intransitive =

Can not take a Direct Object.

We would like to stay longer, but we must leave. In this example, the verb "leave" does not take a direct object.

Transitive Verbs
P? Who/What + P? Who/What + S + P? Whom/What + S + P + DO When? Where? How? Why? -> S -> DO -> IO (Always in front of a DO) -> A/(A)

Direct Object
In most cases, the DO of an active sentence can function as the subject in a passive sentence: Peter built this house nine years ago. This house was built nine years ago.

Direct Object *
Transitive verbs that express having, containing, resembling or fitting: The DO of an active sentence CANNOT function as the subject of a passive sentence. Peter looks like his mother. NOT: *His mother is looked like (by peter).

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grammar
Wednesday, September 26, 2012 10:25 AM

Transitive Intransitive Copula Subject compliment

Altijd direct object Zonder direct object (the girl is loved deeply) Linking verb (to be) Predicate + subject ? = what is he? / He is ill

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Verbs
Tuesday, November 20, 2012 9:51 AM

Main Verbs (or: lexical verbs): Swim, write, vote, sing , linger, etc. Auxiliary verbs Primary auxiliary verbs (have, be, do) Modal auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, might, etc.) To have: To be: Auxiliary of the perfect Auxiliary of the continuous Auxiliary of the passive Copula To do: Auxiliary of interrogative and negation

Verb forms: Finite form ( always part of the predicate) 1. Shows tense: present past 2. Shows person: 3rd* (in present only) 3. Shows number: singular* or plural 4. The first verb form in V (Verb element) Non-finite form ( not always part of the predicate) Does NOT show number, person or tense Four non-finite forms of the verb: 1. Base form of the verb (infinitive) 2. -ing form of the verb ( present participle) 3. -form ed of the verb (past participle) 4. (verbal noun in -ing: gerund) /present perfect/ I /have walked/ six miles.

Tense (finite) and Aspect ( non-finite ): Present Simple Continuous: form of "to be"+ present participle Perfect: form of "to have" + past participle Past Simple Continuous: form of "to be"+ present participle Perfect: form of "to have" + past participle

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Adjective
Tuesday, November 27, 2012 10:09 AM

Adjective = Type of word that qualifies (= mofigies, describes) only a noun or pronoun.
Attributive adjectives
Attributive adjectives are part of a noun phrase. The simple pleasures of life / should be cherished. Loiseau / went up / to his bedroom / in his usual way. He / gave / them / a warm welcome. All the people present / applauded / the idea. So most of them are usually in front of the noun (simple); some of them follow the noun they qualify (present).

Predicative adjectives
They function as subject complement (after a linking verb I) or as an object complement (after a main verb meaning causing something or someone to become something II). Joined to the noun or pronoun by a verb, so : in the subject or object complement. I (SC) Her general knowledge is amazing. Sea water tastes nasty. The leaves turn brown. They are driving me crazy. He wiped the bottle dry with a dishcloth He painted the door green

II (OC)

Not adjectives: Grading (Adverbs)

Many adjectives can be graded: described in terms of intensity and degree. A very obvious mistake An extremely large house

Comparing ( Some of them adverbs)

Many adjectives can be put in comparative and superlative: either using -(e)r and more or -(e)st and most. A more obvious mistake The largest house The most obvious mistake A richer mistake

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Form of adjectives
Pure adjectives: Calm, nice, big, happy, long, friendly Present participle: Interesting, amazing, frightening, exciting Past participle: Wanted, disturbed, chosen

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Adverb
Tuesday, December 04, 2012 9:37 AM

Adds information to a verb: - He spoke slowly. - She carefully removed the splinter from her finger. Adds information to an adjective: - We were extremely happy. - I feel reasonably tolerant today. - He walked home in a very foul mood. Adds information to another adverb - He walked very quickly. - I hit my head quite hard against the wall. - U2's latest CD was extraordinarily well-received Connects or qualifies clauses: I went home early, therefore you couldn't see me. Unfortunately, I can't come to your party tomorrow. Honestly, I don't understand you sometimes. John did not speak, instead he took up his book and started reading.

Like adjectives, adverbs can how comparison and grading: - He works faster than him. - She is bigger than him. - My teacher is smarter than you.

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Debate
Thursday, September 27, 2012 8:36 AM

The catholic church is a force for good in the world

Chair Introducing subject & speakers Give authority/importance to speakers Introduce every new speaker/objective

Affirmative Speaker Personal Introduction Relate to people "friends" Humble("grateful") Part of his culture (Set an atmosphere) Warm personality Calm/clear Examples (facts/figures/percentages) Community of believers

Negative Speaker Direct rebuttal Tone of voice Personal attack "Aggressive" tone of voice Distant "Building" his argument (towards climax) Trying to be funny (serious) Sarcasm/Irony.

English Skills Page 22

How old is your mother?

Thursday, September 27, 2012 11:19 AM

There needs to be an age limit for women to have children Affirmative: The parents are not able to see the children grow up or see them as an adult. In most cases those children would grow up without parents or with someone else. Studies show that children growing up with the absent of a parent score a lot lower in school. Raising a child approx. Costs 300.000 dollars. Not including college. A senior approx. costs 77.000 dollars a year. If these seniors would start raising children it would cost the state way more then it could afford. The parents will be in need of care very near in the future. So if they can't even take care of themselves, who will take care of the babies? Failing to take children into care costs another 33.000 per child each year. The parents physical conditions are not good and not fit for carrying a child and children could suffer from this. Giving labor to a baby at this age is also really dangerous for the mother and the child. She is not able to grow a healthy child in her body because she is not that healthy anymore herself. The parents are physically unable to give the kid entertaining experiences such as going in a rollercoaster or playing sports with him. 10 percent of the people over the age of 65 get Alzheimer's and by age 80 this is even 50% of the people. One could imagine that this could have traumatic effects on a child growing up with parents that have Alzheimer's. Parents over 40 have a 55% greater chance to have an autistic child. (recently confirmed for BOTH parents) Children of parents over 65 are more likely to get complex diseases such as prostate cancer, nervous system cancer, etc.

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