Dipmeter log and borehole imaging

Dipmeter
Multi-arm micro-resistivity log Measures direction of dip of beds adjacent to borehole

Formation MicroImager
Large numbers of micro-resistivity probes Imaging through statistical analysis (synthesises an image of lithology of a borehole face by using dipmeter log)
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 88

Dipmeter continued
Dipmeter is essentially a multi-arm microresistivity log. Three or four spring-loaded arms record separate microresistivity tracks, while within the sonde, a magnetic compass records the orientation of the tool as it is drawn up the hole. A software is used to correlate deviations (kicks) on the logs and calculate the amount and direction of bedding dip. Resolution of the dips depends on the averaging scale, could be both small scale (few cms only) and large scale. As a result structural dip is determined.

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 89

Making a dipmeter measurement

As the dipmeter is brought up the well, the electrodes on each arm are in contact with the rock layers. If the rock layer is dipping, different arms will contact the layers at different depths. The sequence of contacts between individual arms and each layer is used to compute the dip of the layer. If the layer is horizontal, all arms of the dipmeter contact the layer at the same time.
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 90

(A) Three-arm dipmeter sonde. (B) sidewall core gun. This device fires cylindrical steel bullets, which are attached to the gun by short cables, into the side of a borehole. Small samples of rock may thus be collcted from known depths.
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 91

Dipmeter
Locations of a, b, c, d peaks on resistivity curves give location of bedding plane (boundary between different rocks. Boundary does not conduct electricity well high resistivity.) 4 pad 4 track dipmeter
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 92

Dipmeter continued
The first dipmeter tool had three arms 120 apart (need three points to derive the eqn of a plane in 3D). This was replaced by the four-arm dipmeter. Originally having only 4 micrologs, the number was eventually increased to 8. There was then a major jump to increase the number of tracks to 25, and to 200.

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 93

Dipmeter continued
Two ways to present dipmeter data are tadpoles and stick plots. A stick plot uses lines (sticks) to sho the dip measurements. Depth is recorded on the vertical axis with the well represented by a vertical line. The angle on the stick is the dip measurement.
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 94

Dipmeter tadpole plot

Four basic types of motif are commonly identifiable Uniformly low dips (referred to as green patterns) are generally seen in shales and indicate the structural dip of the formation Upward declining dip sequences - as we move up towards the surface the dip angle decreases (referred to as red patterns), may be caused by the drape of shales over reefs or sandbars; by the infilling of sandstones within channels; or by the occurrence of folds, faults, or unconformities Upward increasing dip sequences - as we move up towards the surface the dip angle increases (referred to as blue patterns), may be caused by sedimentary progrades in reefs, submarine fans, or delta lobes. They may also be caused by folds, faults, or unconformities Random (bag onails) motifs can reflect poor hole conditions or they might be geologically significant, indicating fractures, slumps, conglomerates, or grainflows
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 95

Dip is plotted on the horizontal axis with zero dip on the left. Depth in the well is the vertical axis. Conventional dipmeter tadpole plot showing the four common dip motifs. Each motif can be produced by several quite different geological phenomena. The head of the tadpole shows the amount of dip. The tail of the tadpole points in the direction of dip.
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 96

Formation MicroImager (FMI)

Borehole image is produced in cylindrical and unrolled formats (software).

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 97

Formation MicroImager

Unrolled format
Dr Elena Pasternak

Cylindrical format
Slide 98

Dielectric logs
Dielectric logging - variation of the dielectric constant of the formation (Wharton, 1980) to measure more accurately porosity and water saturation. Idea: The dielectric constant is a factor that controls electromagnetic wave propagation through the medium. (Electromagnetic waves do not propagate where there is a current, because all energy goes into the current.)
Water has a dielectric constant that is much higher than for other fluids or the rocks. It ranges from 50 for freshwater, to 80 for saline water. Oil has a dielectric constant of about 2.2, air and gas 1.0. Sedimentary rocks have values of between 4 and 10.

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 99

Dielectric logs continued

Dielectric logs respond to water, whether it is connate water, mud filtrate, or water bound to mineral grains. If the depth is low, it may record high readings where mud filtrate has invaded permeable HC-bearing zones. This problem may be overcome, as with resistivity logging, by running shallow and deep dielectric logs together.

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 100

Porosity logs in combination

Sonic (acoustic) log porosity Electric logs porosity Radioactivity logs porosity Dielectric logs (electromagnetic wave propagation, salty water bad dielectric, dielectric constant in salty water > than in fresh water > HC; cf. resistivity of salty water is low, higher in fresh water and HC) porosity Combination
The three types of porosity measurements are differently influenced by factors:
Lithology Clay content Presence of gas

Combination increases accuracy

Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 101

Measurements and loggingwhile-drilling

Wireline well logs are run after the well has been drilled. In the 1980s, sensors for the bottom of the drillstring and a data transmitting process were developed to give a real time log as the well is being drilled called measurementswhile-drilling (MWD) and logging-while-drilling (LWD). MWD measures well properties such as azimuth and deviation. LWD measures rock and fluid properties such as short and long normal resistivity, natural gamma-ray, formation density, and neutron porosity.

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 102

The sensors are located just above the drill bit on the drillstring. The power to the sensors is supplied either by a turbine driven by the circulating drilling mud or electrical batteries. The data can be transmitted to the surface by fluid pulse telemetry. The data are coded digitally in pressure pulses that are sent up the well through the drilling mud. They are recorded on a pressure transducer on the surface where they are decoded by a software. MWD is very useful in drilling deviation and horizontal wells. It records a directional log that shows the orientation of the drill bit, the direction in which the well is being drilled (in real time). The measurement is made with a magnetometer in the downhole tool that measures the direction of the Earths magnetic field. Geosteering is the drilling of a horizontal well while continuously adjusting the direction of the bit to keep well within the target formation. A LWD system is used to sense the target formation top or bottom. The MWD system shows the direction of the bit. A steerable downhole assembly is used to adjust the direction the well is being drilled to keep the well within a target formation which can be quite thin (eg, 2m).
Dr Elena Pasternak Slide 103

Measurements and logging-whiledrilling continued

Mud Logs
Drilling rate
Information about lithology Qualitative indication of porosity

Investigation of cuttings lifted with mud

Traces of hydrocarbons

Gas detector

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 104

Mud logs

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 105

Cost
Depending on the boreholes (exploration or development) and their location (onshore/offshore), the cost of well logging can generally be estimated at about 5 to 15% of the total cost of the borehole.

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 106

Summary (on common wireline logs)

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 107

10

Summary of the main types of wireline logs and their major applications

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 108

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 109

11

Dr Elena Pasternak

Slide 110

12