History of England

Chapter 1: The Foundations of England

The early history of England is essentially a chronicle of invasions.

Long before recorded British history began with the Roman invaders,
wave after wave of warlike settlers landed on English shores. Here the
migrants mingled with other tribes so that the Britons became the
most mongrel of races. These early invaders came because the island
lay so invitingly open to invasion. After the last of these migrant
settlers, the Celts, had subdued the island the Roman legions, in turn,
subdued the Celts.

An Island People

Central to the history and character of the British people is the

geographical location of Britain, Its location, twenty-one miles from
the Continent, makes England part of Europe, but with a separate and
insular identity. “Thus, in early times, the relation of Britain to the sea
was passive and receptive; in modern times, active and acquisitive. In
both it is the key to her story.” (G.M. Trevelyan, History of England (Garden
City, New York; Doubleday, 1953), I, p. 12.
The land and Its Resources. The physical formation, climate, and
minerals of the country tempted the early invaders to settle, and
explain the paths of settlement they followed. Not having mastered
nature, the successive invaders claimed the rich and accessible
lowlands of southern and eastern Britain and drove the earlier
inhabitants to the north and west.
The Islands. The five thousand British Isles, dominated by the major
islands of Britain (labeled Britannia by Julius Caesar) and Ireland,
cover approximately 120,000 square miles, with the area of England
totaling less than half this amount (50,331 square miles). Presumably
man first came to Britain in the Old Stone Age when the land was still
joined to the Continent. With the closing of the lee Ages, the receding
glaciations transformed the physical surface of the land and left it an
island. But the early connection with the Continent meant that the
flora and fauna of Britain were closely identified with the flora and
fauna of northern Europe.
Geographical features. The physical map of Britain will show why
England was so accessible from the Continent, for the land slopes
downward from the highlands to the north and from the craggy coast
of the Atlantic to the low, flat plains of the southeast. Because of the
general slope of land from north to southeast most English rivers have
their outlets on the south and the east coasts. Invaders moved inland
by following the Trent, the Welland, the Nen, and the Thames rivers to
the Midlands. Later, these rivers doubled as main arteries of trade. In
the southwest the Severn River served the same dual function for the
area of the Welsh border. As the invaders reached the highlands of
the north and west, they displaced older cultures. Consequently, the
Scottish Higlands, Wales, and Cornwall were inhabited by the ilder
stocks; and to this day, they are commonly called the “Celtic fringe”.
Climate. In the third millennium before Christ the first agriculturalist
crossed the Channel and revolutionized the existing society of eave-
dwelling hunters by introducing a new way of life: they bred cattle,
sowed grain, and later developed a flint-mining industry. The more
temperate climate of England after teh Ice Ages was well suited to the
growing of crops, because the prevailing winds from the southwest
follow the Gulf Stream and keep England at a warmer and more
equable temperature than its latitude would ordinarily permit.
Although the rainfall is moderate, the oceanic climate produces fog,
mist, and haze so that visitors, from Tacitus to modern tourists, write
about the wretched weather.
Natural Resources. The temperate climate, coupled with a farily rich
soil, promoted the growing of barley and wheat. Good harbors and the
long, irregular coastline encuoraged fishing and ocean trade. In fact,
the trade of the Levant with Britain antedated the Celtic conquest,
and Mediterranean traders had long heard exaggerated tales of
British gold and pearls. Copper and tin were found in abundance. By
smelting the two metals together, the inhabitants manufactured
bronze, and so marked the close of the lengthy Stone Age. Later,
conveninetly located deposits of coal and iron would support
England’s industrial revolution.
Prehistory of Britain. In Britain, as elsewhere, the story of man and his
society can be traced through the various stone and metal ages. Man
moved westward in Europe and arrived in Britain during the Paleolithis
(Old Stone) Age. Since each succeeding period or “age” was also a
transplanting from the Continent, Britain became largely a recipient of
cultural change in the period of prehistory.
The Stone Ages. From stone and bone tools and skeletal remains it is
surmised that Homo sapiens first appeared in Britain by a land bridge
some 250,000 years ago. In the New Stone Age, long-headed
agriculturalists, probably from the Iberian peninsula, crossed the
Channel and set up mixed farming in southern England side by side
with the older hunting communities. A thousand years later (around
2000 BC) these peaceful and mild-mannered settlers were attacked in
turn by tall, powerful, round-headed warriors from Europe who
overran all of habitable Britain. They brought with them metal
implements and thereby introduced a new age of Bronze.
The Beaker Folk. The latest invaders were designated as the Beaker
Folk after the shape of the drinking vessels which they fashioned out
of clay. These newcomers possessed a mastery of metal workmanship
that was reflected in the variety of weapons and tools they produced.
They wore woolen and linen clothes, greatly admired jewelry, but had
little interest in farming. Where the earlier imigrants (Iberians) had
worshipped Mother Earth, the Beaker Folk worshipped the Sun in
temples open to the sky. Stonhenge, a circular grouping of massive
stones, remains to this day a fascinating and impressive monument of
the period (The hypothesis that Stonhenge was originally planned as
an astronomical observatory is offered by Gerald S. Hawkins (with
John B. White) in Stonhenge Decoded (Garden City, New York:
Doubleday, 1965). Other immigrants followed and by 1500 BC the
blending of traditions established the distinctive Wessex culture in
Britain: an age of Bronze, an organized religion and priesthood, and a
tribal structure centered around a kinglike chief and a slowly evolving
aristocracy.
The Celtic Invaders. The last of the early invaders were the Celts, the
first of the conquerors about whom the Romans wrote. With the Celts
came the higher civilization of the Iron Age.
Celtic Origins. The word “Celt”, in terms of British identity, is more a
matter of civilization and language than of race. Threatened by rival
groups, the Celtic-speaking tribes of France and western Germany
migrated to the British Isles to obtain relief from continental conflicts.
During the last century before Christ, bands of Celtic invaders, armed
with battle-axes and double-edged swords, landed on the south and
east coasts and moved inland.
Celtic Society. The invaders wove cloth, shaved their bodies, and
made agriculture and grazing important industries for the first time.
Communities of farmers lived in either hut villages or protected
homesteads, and the clan became the center of their social
organization. Over the years Celtic culture advanced as the tribes
became expert in working tin, bronze, and iron; the pottery and their
metal helmets indicate a growing interest and ability in the decorative
arts and in ornamentation. The south Britons had a gold coinage
similar to that of Macedon, and their tribal leaders led a revelrous life,
enriched with imported wines and luxury goods. At least the Celts
were not just primitive savages, painted with blue dye, and beyond
the pale of civilization as was once thought.
Celtic Religion. Druidism originated in England and spread to Gaul and
Ireland. The druids were an organized caste of priests who exercised
great power. They preached a religion of fear and immorality,
worshipped various nature gods in sacred groves, and offered human
sacrifices. Druid priests commanded prestige and served as judges
and leaders of tribal opinion.
Celtic Britain and Gaul. Druidims, trade, and racial affinity were three
of the ties between Britain and Gaul. The link became even more
direct in 75 BC when the Belgic tribes of Gaul claimed southeast
Britain (modern-day Kent, Middlesex, and Hertforshire) as their
kingdoms. These Gallic Celts dispersed the native Celts from the best
lands of the southeast and were the first tribe to face the next
invader, Caesar.

Roman Conquest and Consolidation

In contrast to the earlier Celt or later Saxon invaders, the Romans

came to Britain to rule and exploit the island as part of a world
empire, not to disperse the inhabitants and settle in their place. The
Roman objectives in this new method of conquest produced quite
different results. Roman rule became urban and efficient, but
remained alien, and therefore only temporary in its effects.
The Roman Conquests. The annexation of Britain was scarcely a
primary objective of Roman expansion, for the British Isles marked the
fringe of civilization to those who ruled in imperial Rome. However,
when the Romans decided to conquer and colonize Britain, their
superior military and political organization was decisive.
The Invasions of Julius Caesar, 55-54 BC. Two attacks on Britain were
made by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul. Certainly one of
his reasons was to punish the South Britons who were providing aid to
their kinsmen in North Gaul. No doubt, too, Caesar’s popularity and
position would be enhanced by another victory that would provide
tribute and slaves for his supporters in Roman and booty for his
soldiers. His first expedition (55 BC) was a military failure. After a
skirmish with Kentish tribesmen near Dover he withdrew, but returned
the next year with five legions. This time Caesar won several battles
against Cassivelaunus (king of the Belgic tribe of the Catuvellauni),
forded the Thames, and penetrated inland approximately to where
London now stands. The Britons sued for peace, and Caesar granted a
treaty on easy terms because, with renewed disturbances in Gaul, he
was content with hostages and a promise of yearly tribute. The
Romans then departed from Britain without making a permanent
occupation. Caesar, lured on by larger stakes in Rome, crossed the
Rubicon to his final triumph and tragedy.
Results of Caesar’s Invasion. Caesar described his conquest
graphically in his commentaries On the Gallic Wars, but his sortie into
Britain had few permanent results except to increase trade between
Britain and the Latinized province of Gaul. Roman traders and settlers
now entered Britain peacefully and spread Roman culture and
influence. Caesar’s invasion also proved that the Romans could
conquer Britain at their convenience if they were ready to devote time
and men to that purpose. Almost a hundred years passed before it
was convenient to do so.
The Coming of Claudius. While Rome was preoccupied with more
immediate matters, Britain remained unmolested until 43 AD, when
emperor Claudius ordered Aulus Plautius to invade the island. The
decision was made because the emperor was anxious for glory and
irritated by a revolt in Gaul instigated by the druids; and also because
his Gallic origins increased his interest in conquering Brtain. The
British defenders, who were led by Caractacus, a son of Cunobelinus
(Shakepeare’s “Cymbeline”), displayed a vigorous but disunited
resistance. Tacitus later commented upon this fact: “Our greatest
advantage in coping with tribes so powerful is that they do not act in
concert. Seldom is it that two or three states meet together to ward
off a common danger. Thus, while they fight singly, they all are
conquered.” (The Complete Works of Tacitus. Translated by Alfred
Church and William Brodribb; New York: Random House, 1942, p.
684). Claudius himself came for a brief period to command the
legions. Within three years Plautius reduced the divided Britons to
guerrilla reprisals and brought southeast Britain under Roman rule.
But when the legions reached the Welsh mountains and the northern
moors they, like every other successful invader, encountered
stubborn opposition.
Later Roman Conquests. During the governorships of Scapula (47-54
AD) and Suetonius (59-61 AD) the Roman occupation was extended
northward and westward. While Suetonius was suppressing the druids
at their sacred center of worship in Anglesey, the Iceni under Queen
Boudicca revolted (81 AJX). The Iceni and their neighboring tribes
attacked the Romans and the Britons who fraternized with them In the
towns of Colchester, London, and Veralasmum, in retaliation for the
Roman confiscation of their property and the public outrages
committed against their queen and her daughters. Tens of thousands
were massacred in the uprising. Governor Suetonius returned with his
legionnaires and crushed the revolt in a crucial battle; Boudicca took
poison, and Roman vengeance was inflicted upon the rebellious
Britons. In 78 AD Agricola became the new governor, completed the
conquest of Wales, and extended Roman rule into Scotland after his
victory at Mons Graupius. More is known of Agricola’s able leadership
and administration than of any other governor because Tacitus, his
son-inlaw, was Rome’s most famous historian. Before Agricola was
called bark to Rome he was able to pacify the south of England by his
conciliatory statesmanship: elsewhere in Britain military expansion
almost ceased. The Roman garrison was reduced to three legions
located at strategic centers near the frontiers
-Caerleon and Chester on the border of Wales and at York in the north.
Military Consolidation. A rebellion in Scotland quickly swept away
Agricola’s gains and prevented Roman rule from triumphing in
Scotland. In 122 A.D., to protect northern England from barbarian
raids. Emperor Hadrian ordered a wall built from the Tyne river to
Solway Firth. This famous wall roughly divided England from Scotland
(see map. p, 7) A later emperor, Antonius Pins’, extended Roman
control northward and constructed a second fortification, tho Antonine
Wall, in 143 A.D. However, the Romans overextended their resources
and the northern tribes overran both walls. Not until Emperor Severus
strengthened the fortresses- and frontiers (208-211 A.D.) did a
semblance of peace prevail in the north. These northern wars were
the price Rome paid during these two centuries for the protection and
peace of southern England.

EL MAPA DEL QUE SE HABLA ES DE ROMAN BRITAIN. TODA EL

SUDESTE DE INGLATERRA (HASTA UN POCO MAS ABAJO DEL MEDIO
DE LA ISLA) ESTA MARCADO COMO LA EXTENSION DE LA CONQUISTA
DEL AÑO 49 AD. LA PUNTA SUDOESTE (LA PUNTITA DE LA ISLA) ESTA
COMO “INTERMITTENT OCCUPATION” Y LO QUE ES AHORA GALES MAS
LA ZONA SUR DEL LIMITE CON ESCOCIA ESTAN COMO “MILITARY
OCCUPATION”. ADEMAS ESTAN MARCADAS LAS ROMAN ROADS, QUE
PASAN POR LAS PRINCIPALES CIUDADES DE INGLATERRA Y FORMAN
UNA RED CUYO CENTRO ES LONDRES.

Pax Romana
Under Roman rule the Britons began to live in towns and traveled
from town to town on stone highways, Romanization also introduced
to the British Isles the atmosphere of the Mediterranean world with its
Latin tongue, its country villas, and its new faith, Christianity. But
Roman rule did not teach the Britons how to govern or how to defend
themselves; thus, when the legions withdrew from the island, the
Britons were once again easy for the next invaders.
Roman institutions. The Roman conquerors imposed on the Britons
their imperial administrative structure which included racial and
religious toleration and respect for local chiefs and customs as long as
no political opposition was involved. Since Romans were convinced
that civilization was based on urban life, the first thing they did was to
build cities. But outside these city walls Roman civilization remained
alien to the rural tribesmen.
Roman administration. Between the reigns of Claudius (43 AD) and
Severus (211 AD) the province of Britain was administered by Roman
governors whose duties included maintaining peace, collecting taxes,
and providing justice. For local government the Romans, like the
British later in India and Africa, employed “Indirect rule” by permitting
loyal Celtic chiefs to continued to exercise authority over their
tribesmen. On the frontiers the army administered the area, but in the
Romano-British south, several privileged cities enjoyed self-
government. In the cantons (tribal areas) the magistrates in Roman
togas were ususally loval chiefs. This policy served both to Romanized
the Celt and to minimize friction between ruler and ruled. In later
years, after several ambitious generals had used their position and
legions in Britain to defy the emperor, and after increasing raids from
the Scots and the Picts had jeopardized Roman defenses, Britain was
divided into two, and then four, provinces.
Roman achievements. Roman contributions to Britain were largely
material. They built towns and established such features of urban life
as forums, public baths, indoor plumbing, and amphitheaters. Towns
were originally constructed for military or commercial purposes, but
served equally as the centers for the diffusion of Latin civilization.
Joining these towns was a network of splendid stone highways that
permitted the rapid movement of troops and commerce. Many
modern British roads still follow these Roman routes. The new city of
London at the hub of this road system became the chief port of entry
for commerce with the rest of the empire. The tradition of town
houses and country estates (or villas) was another innovation.
Probably the urbanized Britons lived more comfortable under the
Romans than at any other time until the nineteenth century. The
Romans were indifferent to local religions unless these challenged the
omnipotence of the emperor (as did druidsm and Christianity). When
Christianity was finally granted toleration by Constantine in 313 AD,
Roman rule was already weakening, and Romanized Britain remained
essentially paga. Christianity did gain strength in Wales, however, and
was the only institution to survive the departure of the Romans.
Roman Withdrawal. By the fourth century, the declining power of the
Roman Empire encouraged the Picts, the Scots, and raiders from
northern Europe to harass Roman outposts in Britain and to force teh
Romans to draw in their defensive borders. As the empire became
paralysed by political factionalism and weakened by barbarian attacks
from the East, Roman legions evacuated Britain to fight elsewhere
and never returned. The last Roman soldier left the island in 407 AD,
and Britain, which had been defended by Rome for nearly four
hundred years, had to fend helplessly for itself. Invaders now entered
England with ease and killed or displaced the Romanized Britons of
the south and east. The conquest was made easier by the revival of
intertribal warfare among the Celts. Celtic culture remained in Wales
and Cornwall for the same reason that it survived the Roman invasion
–by existing in such an inhospitable area that any invader was
deterred. In England, only the roads continued in use to remind the
invading Saxons of Rome; in Wales, a Celtic version of Christianity
prospered; every other memory of Rome vanished. Perhaps,
therefore, the greates fact in the Roman occupation is “a negative
fact –that the Romans did not succeed in permanently Latinizing
Britain as they Latinized France.” (Trevelyan, History of England, I,
p.30.)