From C. Haigh (ed.

) The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and

Ireland

BRITONS AND ROMANS

C. 100 BC - AD 409

Overview
A.R. Birley

Contact with Rome took Britain from prehistory into history. Comparison of Caesar’s
account of his two brief expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, and other comments by Greek
and Roman writers, with the evidence of archaeology gives a reasonably full
picture of British life in the last century BC. Britain shared the same language and
religion as the continental Celtic peoples and the material culture of the island was
broadly similar to that found in Gaul. Society was dominated by a warrior aristocracy.
Mixed farming was practised, with considerable efficiency, mainly from individual
farmsteads, although there were also small settlements that probably housed
extended family groups. Whether or not the Britons had towns depends on the
definition of an urban settlement. The larger conglomerations were centres for the
collection and storage of agricultural produce and it may not be inappropriate to
regard them as chieftains’ residences. In three important respects the Britons had
reached a stage of development that made them suitable candidates for
incorporation in the Roman empire. They were producing their own coinage, which
indicates a certain degree of trading activity - soon, with increased contacts with
Rome, to be exemplified by imports of metal goods, wine and olive oil - and some
technological skill; while the use of the Latin alphabet on the coins suggests the
beginnings of literacy. They were also capable of building hill-forts, which
demonstrates that they had sufficient political organization and engineering skill to
shift thousands of tons of soil and prepare and instal thousands of posts. But above
all they were efficient farmers, producing a cereal surplus. Of course, there was
considerable variation within the island: the use of coinage did not extend north of
the Trent, and cereal cultivation was less developed in the highland zone.
It is difficult to be sure about the political divisions of Britain before the mid-first
century BC. Caesar refers to the arrival of Belgic peoples a generation before his own
invasion, but it is uncertain which of the tribes he mentions were the newcomers.
However, it is clear that during the century between the invasions of Caesar and the
Claudian conquest, much of southern Britain fell under the control of Cunobelinus
(Cymbeline) and his family, based at Camulodunum (Colchester). Meanwhile, a
former opponent of Caesar in Gaul, Commius, had established himself as ruler of a
smaller kingdom that included much of Hampshire and Sussex. Rome seems to have
backed the Cornmian kingdom as a counterweight to the power of Cunobelinus. It
was the expulsion of an heir of Commius, Verica, by a son of Cunobelinus, that was to
provide Claudius with his casus belli in AD 43.
There is a variety of evidence from which to reconstruct the history of Roman
Britain. Rome’s greatest historian, Tacitus, was son-in-law of the governor Julius
Agricola, and his brief biography includes a summary account- supplemented in
places by further detail in his later works - of Agricola’s ten predecessors as governor,
as well as the story of Agricola’s seven years in the post. Thus the first forty years of
Roman rule are exceptionally well recorded; and the Agricola also contains the most
explicit description in Roman literature of the policy of deliberate ”Romanization”.
Thereafter not many episodes are so well recorded. Two sentences in the Historia
Augusta are the sole literary evidence for Hadrian’s building of his Wall and for
Antoninus Pius’ later Wall in Scotland. Cassius Dio, who wrote in the early third
century (and also provides an account of the Claudian conquest), deals with a war in
the 180s and with the expedition of Severus in 208-11; a Gallic orator, in a fulsome
speech which includes a panegyric of Britain, recounts the recovery of Britain from
the usurper Allectus by Constantius Chlorus in 296; while the last great Latin
historian, Ammianus Marcellinus, relates the invasions by Picts, Scots, Attacotti and
Saxons in the ”barbarian conspiracy” of 367, and the restoration of Roman control by
Count Theodosius, father of the emperor of that name. Finally, Zosimus and a few
other late writers supply some details of the last years of Roman rule, 406-9.
Otherwise, the historian would be reduced to reliance on occasional snippets, were it
not for the assistance of epigraphy and archaeology. Epigraphic evidence, so
important for the history of the Roman empire as a whole, is unfortunately very
limited for Britain. Less than three thousand stone inscriptions survive, the great
majority from the military districts, especially Hadrian’s Wall and the forts of its
hinterland, and the legionary bases at Caerlcon, Chester and York. Civilian life in
Britain is seriously under-represented in comparison with many other provinces of the
empire. Some inscriptions from elsewhere supply important information, but once
again this is mainly on the military side. To compensate, in part, archaeological
investigation has been exceptionally intensive, although much work remains to be
done.
The Claudian invasion rapidly brought the lowland zone of Britain under Roman
control, most of it under direct rule, with some areas, notably the Commian
kingdom, parts of East Anglia, and the Pennines, left under Roman-protected client-
rulers. The conquest of Wales was completed in the 70s, by which time the remaining
client-states in England were absorbed and the advance into Scotland had begun.
That final stage of the overrunning of the whole island was never to be completed.
Julius Agricola, in the late 70s and early 80s, entered the Highlands and defeated the
Caledonian peoples, but most of the territory he occupied was soon abandoned. The
limit of Roman Britain was marked by Hadrian’s Wall in the 120s and effectively
Roman control was to be confined to what is now England and Wales, except for a
brief period, c. 138-62, when southern Scotland was reoccupied, and an even more
short-lived attempt, by the Emperor Septimius Severus, to reconquer the whole of
Scotland in the years 208-11.
For much of the period of Roman rule the garrison was extremely large, considering
that the population can hardly have exceeded five million at the highest estimate.
Over ten per cent of the entire Roman army was based in Britain. For the first forty
or so years after the invasion, there were four legions. One was withdrawn soon after
Agricola’s campaigns, but the other three remained for more than three hundred
years. They were backed up by a massive force of auxiliary regiments, of which there
were at least fifty in the early second century. The total strength of the army of
Britain was thus at least fifty thousand men. Virtually all these troops were stationed
- after the first few decades and until the last century - in the less developed
highland zone. Their presence undoubtedly acted as a powerful stimulant to the
economy. They were in the main provisioned from Britain itself and before long from
the highland zone, the agricultural efficiency of which must have markedly
increased. Furthermore, as soldiers were the only significant body of wage-earners in
the ancient world, their spending power was a major factor in the enrichment and
development of Britain.
From AD 43 until the early third century, Britain was governed as a single province.
The governor, who was also commander-in-chief, was of senatorial rank with the title
Iegatus Augusti pro praetore. The Roman senate was composed of about six hundred
men, drawn from the landholding élite of the empire, and the legates of Britain were
selected from the senior ranks of that body, men who had held the consulship -hence
they wore often referred to as ”consulars”. Not surprisingly, Britain’s unusually large
garrison required an experienced commander and the governor was often the
foremost general of his day, as shown by two cases when it was the British governor
who was summoned to deal with a military emergency in the East, and by the records
of governors’ careers. However, they had mostly gained their experience in other
parts of the empire: it was exceptional for them to have served in Britain before, as
Agricola had. The legionary commanders were also legates of senatorial rank, and
from the late 70s a further senatorial official, the iuridicus, assisted the governor
with his civil responsibilities. In about the year 213 Britain was divided into two
provinces. The northern, ”Lower Britain”, was governed by the legate of the VIth
legion at York, who also commanded the bulk of the auxiliary regiments, while the
southern, ”Upper Britain”, was governed from London, with the two western legions,
IInd Augusta at Caerleon and the XXth at Chester, under the orders of a legate who
was still consular -unlike his junior colleague at York - but lacked the great power
of the governors of the undivided province. The reason for the division was political,
to prevent rebellion: a governor of Britain, Albinus, had used his army to seek the
throne in 195-97. The governors had authority over everything in their province
except collection of revenue and payment of the troops. This was the sphere of an
official of lower status, an equestrian or ”knight” (eques), with the title procurator
Augusti. Since the procurator was directly responsible to the emperor, a means was
to hand by which a governor’s abuse of power could be watched. One occasion when
this was exploited occurred after the rebellion of Boudicca: the procurator
Classicianus reported unfavourably to Nero on the conduct of Paullinus, who was
replaced.
During the third century, senators were gradually phased out from military command,
to be replaced by equestrians. In Britain this process was delayed, since it belonged
to the breakaway Gallic empire from 260-74, and implementation of the even more
fundamental reforms of Diocletian (reigned 284-305) was also late in Britain, because
of the usurpation of Carausius and Allectus, who kept the island independent of the
empire from 286-96. After the restoration of central control, Britain was again
subdivided, into four provinces; and a fifth was created later in the century. A further
reform was the separation of military command from the governorship. Britain, or
”the diocese of the Britains”, was supervised from London by a ”vicar” (vicarius) who
oversaw the governors (praesides) of the individual provinces, and himself reported
to the regional praetorian prefect of the West at Trier. The main reason for this
elaborate new structure was fiscal, to ensure a more efficient collection of revenue,
now the responsibility of the governor. The commanding general of the British
garrison, the dux or ”duke”, had his headquarters at York, but his authority extended
into several, if not all, the British provinces. Later in the fourth century another
general, with a separate command, was installed, the ”count” (comes) of the Saxon
Shore, responsible for the defence of the south and east coasts. Finally, during the
last few years of Roman rule, a third general, the ”Count of the Britains” is found,
with a small mobile force. The garrison seems to have been proportionately and
absolutely much smaller in the last period of Roman rule, and most of its units were
classified among the least favoured ”frontier-force” (limitanei) category of troops.
There were few settlers from the rest of the empire in Britain. Three coloniae for
veteran legionaries were founded in the first century, at Colchester, Lincoln and
Gloucester. These doubtless became an important source of recruits for the all
citizen legions (although direct evidence is scanty), but the population of these
cornmunities will rapidly have become mixed, with a strong British element. A fourth
town, York, which had grown up outside the legionary base, was given the honorary
status of colonia in the third century, probably when it became the capital of Lower
Britain. London may have been similarly honoured, at latest in the fourth century,
when it was renamed Augusta: it was already a prosperous settlement at the time of
the Boudiccan revolt, although not a chartered town, as Tacitus notes. Verulamium
(St Albans) received the other type of chartered status, as a municipium, soon after
the conquest. All these towns must have been assigned an agricultural territory,
although there is direct evidence only in the case of Colchester. The remainder of
Britain, except for military districts, was organized in civitates corresponding, with
some modifications, to the pre-Roman tribal structure. Each civitas acquired an
urban centre - in many cases sited at obsolete military bases, as were the coloniae.
Chartered towns and civitates alike were run by a council, presided over by a pair of
annual magistrates, duoviri, on the standard pattern of Italy and the western
provinces, and were duly equipped with public buildings and fora. But it seems only
to have been in the second century that elaborate private houses appear, suggesting
that the British élite may have shunned urban life for several generations.
Furthermore, there are signs of stagnation in these towns during the fourth century,
although at this time a number of smaller centres flourished.
The majority of the population continued to live in the countryside. Substantial
stone-built villas began to be built in the mid-60s of the first century and the period
of their greatest prosperity is in the fourth, to which most of the best-known mosaics
belong. These houses were of course only for an élite minority. Agriculture was the
main source of Britain’s wealth, but there was also extensive mining - of gold in
Wales, lead, from which silver was extracted, in the Mendips, north Wales and the
Pennines, copper in Wales, tin in Cornwall, and iron in several areas. There was a
widespread pottery industry, notably in the Nene valley, and British textiles were
exported.
Religion is a sphere where ”Romanization” can be tested. Roman and Celtic existed
side by side, or merged -most notably in the great shrine of Sulis Minerva at Bath. As
well as their state cult, the Romans brought eastern forms of worship - of Isis,
Mithras, and Christianity. The last was already present in the third century, and by
the fourth British bishops were attending Church councils. Material evidence is
scanty, but includes the remarkable mosaic of Christ from Hinton St Mary and church
silver from Water Newton. Further, during the last decades of Roman rule and
beyond, a leading figure in the Church was the heretical monk Pelagius, whose
writings reveal his high level of education. Although he left Britain in his youth, this
confirms the evidence of mosaics that the élite, at least, was imbued with classical
culture. Indeed, Tacitus states that Agricola, who fostered the education of the
British aristocracy, rated their talents highly. His contemporary, the poet Martial, by
his tribute to the charm and culture of a British lady, Claudia Rufina, suggests that
Agricola’s policy bore fruit. Yet no Briton is known to have risen higher in the
imperial seivice than chief centurion. This may reflect the scanty epigraphic
evidence, but it may be that in Britain, not conquered until a century after the other
western provinces, education simply did not have enough time to develop. It is
noteworthy that in the early fifth century she supplied two emperors of her own, the
second of whom, Constantine III, controlled much of the western empire for a few
years, while his able army commander, Gerontius, was also a Briton. Paradoxically, it
was the rebellion of Constantine and his removal of troops which, having exposed
Britain to barbarian attack, led the exasperated inhabitants in 409 to expel their
governors and take up arms in their own defence.

HAY UN MAPA TITULADO: Invasion, Resistance, Settlement and conquest

ES UN MAPA DE INGLATERRA DONDE SE VEN LOS TOWNS Y MUNICIPIUMS, LOS

FORTRESSES, LOS FORTS Y MUCHAS CALLES QUE RECORREN TODO EL TERRITORIO. LA
FOTOCOPIA ES DE MUY MALA CALIDAD PERO SE ALCANZAN A VER LA HADRIAN’S WALL,
EN LO QUE AHORA ES ESCOCIA, Y MAS AL NORTE LA ANTONINE WALL.TAMBIEN ESTAN
MARCADAS LAS MARSHLANDS Y LAS LOWLAND FORESTS, AMBAS POR TODO EL
TERRITORIO (LAS LOWLANDS FORESTS OCUPAN MUCHAS MAS ZONAS QUE LAS OTRAS).
NO HAY NINGUNA OTRA REFERENCIA.
DESPUES HAY OTRO MAPA TITULADO TAMBIEN Invasion, Resistance, Settlement and
conquest

ES UN MAPA DE INGLATERRA DONDE SE VE EL SCANDINAVIAN SETTLEMENT DEL AÑO

876. OCUPA GRAN PARTE DEL TERRITORIO, MENOS EL SUR DE INGLATERRA Y CASI TODO
LO QUE ES AHORA GALES. TAMPOCO LLEGA A LA COSTA ESTE DE ESCOCIA NI AL NORTE
DE ESCOCIA. ESTA MARCADA LA DANELAW PERO LA REFERENCIA NO SE VE BIEN EN LA
COPIA.

The Byzantine Empire

527-65 – Justinian the Great

After 530: reconquest of N. Africa, Italy (Gothic Wars) S. Spain.
After 568 – Lombards take N. Italy and districts in the south
610-41 – Wars with the Persian Empire
After 640 – Arab seize Syria, Palestine, Egypt, N. Africa, Sicily.
11th c. – Division of Christian Church (Greek Orthodox vs. Roman Catholic)
- The Seljuk Turks attack the Empire in Asia Minor
- First Crusade: 1096
1204: Fourth Crusade Attacks Constantinople and sets up Latin Kingdom.
Late 13th. and 14th. c.- limited revival.
1453: Ottoman Turks seize Constantinople; fall of the Byzantine Empire.

MUSLIM EXPANSION AND CIVILIZATION

THE ARABS

c. 570-632: Mohammed- Koran, Allah, Jihad, Islam.

632-732 (Battle of Tours) Conquests: Jerusalem (638) Syria, Persia, 4 CALIPHS 632-
60
N.India; Egypt, N.Africa, Visigothic Spain (711-19)
660- OMMEYADS
Damascus
750- PERSIAN rulers: ABBASIDS in Baghdad……………political divisions
9th. c. Conquest of Mediterranean islands (Sicily, Crete)
11th c- Lost Eastern provinces to SELJUK TURKS (including Syria and Palestine)
1055- Seljuks seized Baghdad.
1095-1270- Crusades in Palestine.
1202-1405- Mongols invade Turkestan, Iran, Asia Minor. Seize Baghdad in 1258.
After 1300- OTTOMAN TURKS replace the Seljuks.
Before 1350: Western Anatolia- 1453: Constantinople, Balkan Peninsula.
After 1512: Syria, Palestine, Egypt, N. Africa, Arabia- Hungary, besieged
Vienna 1526-29.

THE FRANKS
THE MEROVINGIANS

486-511 - Clovis-conquest of Gaul (also under successors)

639-751-Decline of Merovingians, rise of Carolingians.

THE CAROLINGIANS

751-Pepin the Short

768-814- Charlemagne- 800- Emperor
814-40-Louis the Pious

INVASIONS AND RAIDS

after Louis 3 sons divide the Empire by treaty of Verdun 843

9th c. VIKINGS
SARACENS
Kingdom of West Franks (France)  987- Capets
Middle Kingdom

Kingdom of East Franks (Germany)  911-Ottonian rulers

lOth.c. MAGYARS