Flow in ducts, (Nozzles and diffusers) and wind tunnels

The flow can be assumed to be one-dimensional, that is, conditions across each sections are
uniform. The conditions at any two sections in a steady flow are related by the equation
2 2 2 1 1 1
A u A u =
Using the sonic condition as reference
- - -
= A u uA
When the flow is purely subsonic,
-
A is a fictitious area that does not occur in the flow. But, if sonic
and supersonic conditions are attained in the flow, then = =
-
t
A A area of the actual throat
Since
- -
= a u ,

u
a
u
a
A
A
o
o
- - - -
-
= =

We have
1
1
2
,
1 o

-
| |
=
|
+
\ .

2
1
2
1
1
2
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
-

M
u
a

1
1
2
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|
+ =

M
o

The isentropic area-Mach number relation becomes

( )
( ) 1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 1

+
- (

|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
|
.
|

\
|

M
M A
A


Area-pressure relation
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1

- -
-
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

= =

o
o p
p
p
p
u
u
A
A


Mass flow rate per unit area

o
o
T
T
T
R
RT
pu
u
RT
p
u
A
m 1

= = =

2
1
1
2
o
pM
M
R T

= +

Defining a mass flow parameter as

W p
T
A
m
o
m
1
=

o , where W is the molecular weight

2
1
1
2
m
M M

o

= +
9
, 9= universal gas constant

In terms of stagnation quantities and Mach number

( ) 1 2
1
2
2
1
1

+
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

M
M
T
p
R A
m
o
o

Hence, for a given Mach number, the flow rate is proportional to the stagnation pressure and
inversely proportional to the square root of stagnation temperature.
o
o
p
T m
is used as a non-
dimensional mass flow parameter for turbomachinery performances.

In can be seen that the mass flow rate attains a maxima when 1 = M . Hence,
o
o
T
p
R A
m
A
m
1
1
max
1
2

+
- |
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
|
.
|

\
|

Hence, for a given gas, the maximum flow per unit area depends on
o
o
T
p
. For fixed and
o o
p T and
passage, the maximum flow that can pass is relatively large for gases of high molecular weight and
small for gases of low molecular weight.

The fact that the curve of mass flow rate per unit area has a maximum is connected with the
interesting and important effect called choking.


1
isentropic relations
chart or
M

,
1
|
.
|

\
|
o

,
1
|
.
|

\
|
o
T
T
( )
1
-
A
A
.

-
A is constant . Hence, ( ) ( )
1
1
2
2
- -
=
A
A
A
A
A
A

( )
2
-
A
A


or chart
relations isentropic
,
2
M ,
2
|
.
|

\
|
o

2
|
.
|

\
|
o
T
T


Since
o
p and
o
T are constant,
2
p &
2
T can be obtained as


,
1
2
1
2
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
o
p
p
p
p
p
p

1
2
1
2
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
o
T
T
T
T
T
T

Now, for a given area ratio
1
2
A
A
,
2
M can be computed for given
1
M . The plotted results look like











(1) For a given initial Mach number
1
M and a given area ratio
1
2
A
A
, there are either two solutions for
final
2
M or none at all. When there are two solutions, one is subsonic and the other is supersonic.
Which one of the two occurs depends, the part, on whether a throat exists between sections (1) and
(2), since in order to change the regime the flow must pass a throat at 1 = M .

For example if
1
M is subsonic and the passage is converging, then
2
M must be subsonic. But if the
passage is converging-diverging and has a throat between (1) and (2), the flow at section (2) may be
either subsonic (venturi) or supersonic (nozzle) depending on the pressures imposed at the inlet and
exit.

(ii) If there is no solution ( )
2
M for the chosen values of
1
M and
1
2
A
A
, that is, the solution is
imaginary in mathematical sense. This occurs only if
2
A is smaller than
1
A . Physically, this result
signifies that for a given flow at section 1, there is a maximum contraction which his possible: the
maximum contraction corresponds to sonic velocity at 2. If conditions at section (1) are specified, the
mass flow is fixed and there is then a minimum cross-sectional area required to pass this flow. This
phenomenon is called choking for a given area reduction, in subsonic flow there is a maximum
initial Mach number which can be maintained steady; and in supersonic flow a minimum initial Mach
A2 |A1 = 1
A2 |A1 = 1
M
2
M
1
No throat
--- Throat
A2 |A1 = 2
A2 |A1 = 1.2
A2 |A1 = 0.8
A2 |A1 = 0.8
number which can be maintained steadily. At either of these limiting conditions, the flow at section (2)
is sonic and is said to be choked.

Consider subsonic flow at 1. If
1 2
A A = , all conditions at 2 will be identical to 1. A slight reduction in
2
A will produce certain effects at 2 and will comprise an increase in
2
M and decrease in
2
p and
2
T .
This slight reduction in
2
A without a change in conditions at 1, must be accompanied by a reduction
in the back pressure
2
p . Further reduction in
2
A may be made in the same way until
2
M reaches
unity. After this point is reached, there is no way of reducing the area further without simultaneous
change in the steady state conditions at section 1. If for example, the pressure and temperature at 1
are held constant a reduction in
1
2
A
A
beyond its limiting value will, after a transient period of wave
propagation, result in a reduced steady-state
1
M , reducing the mass flow rate. The maximum
possible value of
1
M (also, maximum flow rate) is obtained when 1
2
= M . To obtain this limiting flow,
the back pressure
2
p must of course be adjusted accordingly.

Converging Nozzles








A converging duct with a large entrance area at section 0 (reservoir) discharges into a region where
the back pressure
B
p is controllable, by means of a valve. The values of
o o
T p , will remain constant,
but
B
p will vary.
E
p denotes the pressure in the exit plane of the nozzle.









V
0
= 0
P
0
, T
0

Constant

To exhaust

pB varies
pB
pE
Valve

0
*
p
p

0
p
p

The effects of back pressure variations on flow rate and exit pressure are as follows:











I. 1 =
o
B
p
p
, pressure is constant throughout and there is no flow.
II.
B
p is slightly reduced There will be flow with a constantly decreasing pressure through the
nozzle. Since the exit flow is subsonic,
e
p must be
B
p , except for minor secondary circulation
effects in the exhaust space. If
e
p is substantially larger than
B
p , then the flow would expand
laterally after leaving the nozzle. But such an area increase at subsonic speeds causes the stream
pressure to rise further. Since, the back pressure is the pressure which the stream ultimately
achieves in the exhaust space it follows that
e
p can not be larger than
B
p . Similarly,
e
p can not be
substantially less than
B
p .
III. Further reduction in
B
p - changes the pressure distribution, and increases the flow rate; but there is
no qualitative change in performance.
IV. 1 = =
-
e
o o
B
M
p
p
p
p
, flow performances identical to II and III.
V. Reduction in
o
B
p
p
to this level cannot produce further change in conditions within the nozzle, for
the value of
o
e
p
p
cannot be made less than the critical pressure ratio unless there is a throat
upstream of the exit section. Hence, at condition V, the pressure distribution within the nozzle, value
of
o
e
p
p
, flow rate are identical with the corresponding quantities for condition (iv). The pressure-
distribution outside the nozzle can not be predicted using 1-D analysis.




0
0
p A
T m
e

0
p
p
B

0
*
p
p

0
*
p
p

0
p
p
B

0
*
p
p

0
p
p
e

Regime I Regime II

o o
B
p
p
p
p
-
>
o o
B
p
p
p
p
-
s

o
B
o
e
p
p
p
p
~
o o
e
p
p
p
p

-
=

0 1 <
e
M 0 1 =
e
M

o e
o
p A
T m
depends on
o
B
p
p

o e
o
p A
T m
independent of
o
B
p
p

Converging-Diverging Nozzles



















In regime I the flow is entirely subsonic, and the duct behaves like a conventional venturi tube. The
flow rate is sensitive to changes in back pressure (conditions 1a, 1b).


V
0
= 0
P
0
, T
0

Constant

p
B
p
e
p
B
p
B
T

0
*
p
p
0
p
p
























At condition 2, which forms the dividing line between regimes I and II entered, a normal shock
appears downstream of the throat, and the process abt??? of the shock comprises subsonic
deceleration. As the back pressure is lowered, the shock moves down the nozzle at condition 4, it
appears in the exit plane of the nozzle. Both in regime I & II the exit pressure
e
p is virtually identical
with the back pressure
B
p . But the flow rate in regime II, unlike regime I, is constant and is unaffected
by the back pressure (conditions at the throat are unaltered, sonic).

In regime III, as for condition 5, the flow within the entire nozzle is supersonic, and the pressure in the
exit plane is lower than the back pressure over expanded nozzle. The subsequent compression
occurs outside the nozzle by oblique shocks and their reflections

Condition 6, is the design condition for the nozzle under supersonic conditions. The exit pressure is
identical with the back pressure. A reduction in the back pressure below that corresponding to
0
*
p
p

0
p
p
e

0
p
p
B
0
p
p
B
0
*
p
p

0
p
p
B

0
p
p
B
0
*
p
p

0
0
p A
T m
t

condition 6 has no effects whatsoever on the flow pattern within the nozzle. In regime IV the
expansion from
e
p to
B
p occurs outside the nozzle in the form of expansion waves.

In both regimes III and IV the flow within the nozzle is independent of
B
p and corresponds to the flow
pattern for the design condition. Adjustment to the back pressure is made in the jet.

For subsonic flow there are an infinite number of possible pressure-distance curve. For the
supersonic region of flow, the pressure-distance curve is unique. Since, in subsonic flow the pressure
ratio does not depend solely on area ratio, but in supersonic flow the pressure ratio depends solely on
area ratio.

Laval nozzle as a supersonic wind tunnel

As the exit pressure is described the shock moves downstream, finally reaching the exit, pressure
there then reaches a value of
4
p . If pressure at the exit decreases further, the flow in the nozzle is not
affected; the pressure adjustment being made through system of oblique shock waves. For exit
pressure lower than
4
p , flow up to the exit is completely supersonic. Thus a Laval nozzle may be
used as supersonic wind tunnel provided
4
p p
e
s
This is the principle of the open-circuit type of supersonic wind tunnel, operating from a high-pressure
reservoir or into a vacuum receiver or both. Continuous flow may be obtained if enough power is
available; otherwise, it is used as an intermittent or blow-down wind tunnel.

If the nozzle discharges directly into the receiver, the minimum pressure ratio for full supersonic flow
in the test section is

4
p
p
p
p
o
e
o
=
|
.
|

\
|

But if a diffuser is attached to the exit, operation at a lower pressure ratio is possible, since the
subsonic flow downstream of the shock may be decelerated isentropically to the stagnation pressure
o
p' in principle.





Test
section
M1
P1
P0
M2
P2 = p4
P0
The pressure ratio required then is the ratio of stagnation pressures across a normal shock at the test
section Mach number
1
M , i.e.,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2 1
1
1
2
1

+
+
(

+
+ =
'
=

M
M
M
p
p
o
o
s

Practically, this type of diffuser does not give the expected recovery, the interaction of shock wave
and boundary layer develops a flow different from this model.

However, a long constant area duct ahead of the subsonic diffuser nearly realizes the normal shock
recovery. Such a duct, provided it is long enough, gives nearly the same recompression as a normal
shock. The compression occurs through a system of shocks interacting with the thickened boundary
layer. Through this recovery through a dissipative system is not the most efficient, but it is often most
practical. It is quite stable with respect to variations of inlet conditions.

The normal shock pressure recovery is an ideal, convenient reference or standard for comparison of
performance.

If the supersonic flow at the test section could be isentropically compressed to sonic conditions at a
second throat, if could then be decelerated sub-sonically in the diffuser. Ideally, then it is possible to
operate at even a lower pressure ratio than the one for normal shock recovery. In the idealized case,
no shock complete recovery,
o o
p p = ' .
- -
=
1 2
A A

No pressure difference No power
But necessary to create a pressure difference to start.
Initial normal shock at the test section layer second throat
Minimum starting area forth second throat is

s
o
o
o
o
p
p
p
p
A
A
=
'
= =
-
-
2
1
1
2

Diffuser contraction ratio,
-
= +
2
1
A
A

( )
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
max
1
M f
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
s
= = = = +
- -
-
- -

With minimum area for the second throat and with larger ones, the shock wave jump from the test
section to the downstream side of the diffuser throat swallowing the shock test section is
supersonic, but also the second throat and part of the diffuser. The second throat area can be
reduced after the flow has started to move the shock toward the start.
- -
=
1 2
A A will now make it ideal,
but not possible to achieve the reduction, but some contraction is possible.

Flow in constant Area ducts with friction

Stationary power plants, aircraft propulsion, high-vacuum technology, fluid transport in chemical
process plants, natural gas transport in long pipe.

Wall friction is the chief factor, with the assumption that no special attempt is made to transfer heat to
or from the stream. When the ducts are reasonably short, the flow is approximately adiabatic, but for
extremely long ducts; there is sufficient area for heat transfer to make the flow non-adiabatic and
approximately isothermal.

Assumptions: - One dimensional steady flow,
Neither external heat exchange nor external shaft work

o
h u h = +
2
2
1

G
m
u = =
2

, h u, , are measured at he same section

2
2
2
G
h h
o
= , a relation between & h for a particular flow ( G h
o
, are constant)








All possible states of the fluid for a given adiabatic, constant area flow lie on one of these lines.

1

h
0
Since for a pure substance ( ) , s s h = , the curves may be transferred to the enthalpy-entropy
diagram. The curves are called Fanno curves or Fanno lines.
For all substances, the Fanno curves have the general shape







The upper branch of each Fanno curve corresponds to the subsonic flow, and the lower branch
corresponds to supersonic flow, and the Mach number is unity at the point of maximum entropy on
each Fanno curve.
Since the flow is adiabatic, the second law of thermodynamics states that entropy can not decrease;
thus the path of states along any Fanno curves must be towards the right. Consequently, if the flow at
a point in the duct is subsonic (a), the effects of friction will be to increase the velocity and Mach
number and to decrease the pressure and enthalpy. If the flow is initially supersonic (b), the friction
will decrease the velocity and Mach number and will increase the enthalpy and pressure. A subsonic
flow, therefore, will never become supersonic and a supersonic flow will not become subsonic, unless
a discontinuity is present.
The limiting pressure, beyond which the entropy would suffer a decrease, occurs at Mach number
unity and is denoted by
-
p .
-
p denotes the state where 1 = M for the adiabatic flow at constant area.
Referring to a state ' ' a the value of
-
a
p will be different for an isentropic flow as compared with the
value for an adiabatic constant area flow.
The isentropic stagnation pressure is reduced as a result of friction, irrespective to whether the flow is
subsonic or supersonic.
Choking due to friction Consider the stagnation enthalpy, flow per unit area and length of duct are
such that Mach number unity is reached at the end of duct. If the duct length is increased, it is evident
from the foregoing considerations that some sort of adjustment in the flow is necessary. When the
p
0a
=p
0b
p
0a
*=p
0b
*
p
a
*=p
b
*
h
o

p
a

Fanno curves
Small G
p
b

b
Large G
s
h
a
a
flow is subsonic, this adjustment is in the form of a reduction in the flow rate, that is, the flow is
chocked. When the flow is supersonic, the adjustment at first involves the appearance of shock
waves, and for sufficiently large increase in duct length, involves ultimately a choking of the flow.
Adiabatic, Constant-Area Flow of a Perfect Gas






T
dT d
p
dp
RT p + = =

--- (1)

T
dT
u
du
M
dM
RT
u
M RT u = = =
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
,

--- (2)
Energy:- ( ) 0
2
2
= +
u
d dT C
p

Divide by T C
p
, and use definition of Mach number
0
2
1
2
2
2
=

+
u
du
M
T
dT
--- (3)
Mass conservation
u
A
m
G = =


0
2
1
2
2
= +
u
du d

--- (4)
Momentum Conservation:
Audu dA Adp
w w
t =
+ d, M + dM
dx

w

A: Cross sectional area
dA
w
: wetted wall area over which
w
t acts.
The drag coefficient, usually called the coefficient of friction for duct flow, is defined as

2
2
1
u
f
w

t
=
The hydraulic diameter is defined as 4 times the ratio for c.s. area to wetted perimeter,
dx
dA
A
dx
dA
A
D
w
w
4
4
= =
Using f D, and continuity equation into the momentum equation to give

u
du
u du
A
m
D
dx u
f dp
2
2
2
4

= =


Dividing by p and using
2 2
pM u =
0
2
4
2
2
2 2 2
= + +
u
du M
D
dx
f
M
p
dp
--- (5)
From the definition of isentropic stagnation pressure

1
2
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|
+ =

M p p
o

2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
M
dM
M
M
p
dp
p
dp
o
o

+
+ =

--- (6)
Impulse function is defined as
( )
2 2
1 M pA Au pA F + = + =
2
2
2
2
1 M
dM
M
M
p
dp
F
dF

+
+ = --- (7)
We have now seven simultaneous linear algebraic relations involving eight differential variables
F
dF
p
dp
k
dk
M
dM
T
dT
d
p
dp
o
o
, , , , ,
2
2
2
2
1

and
D
dx
or
D
dx
f 4 . The physical
phenomenon causing changes in state is viscous friction. Hence, the variable
D
dx
f 4 is the physically
independent variable.
From (1) and (3)
2
2
2
2
1
k
dk
M
d
p
dp
=

Introducing (4) into it

( )
2
2 2
2
1 1
u
du M
p
dp +
=


With (5) this gives,
( ) | |
( ) D
dx
f
M
M M
p
dp
4
1 2
1 1
2
2 2

+
=

--- (8)
Similarly,

D
dx
f
M
M M
M
dM
4
1
2
1
1
2
2 2
2
2

|
.
|

\
|
+
=

--- (9)

( ) D
dx
f
M
M
v
dv
4
1 2
2
2

=

--- (10)

( )
( ) D
dx
f
M
M
a
da
T
dT
4
1 2
1
2
1
2
4

= =

--- (11)

( ) D
dx
f
M
M d
4
1 2
2
2

--- (12)
D
dx
f
M
p
dp
o
4
2
2

= --- (13)

( ) D
dx
f
M
M
F
dF
4
1 2
2
2

+
= --- (14)

Also,
2
1
1
2
1
1
ln
o
o o
p p o
o
o
T
T dp s ds
c c p
p
p

A
= =
| |
|
\ .

Since
o
T is constant in an adiabatic flow
D
dx
f M
c
ds
p
4
2
1
2

=

--- (15)
Since entropy can not decrease in an adiabatic process, (15) tells that ' ' f must be positive, thus the
shearing stress must always act on the stream in a direction opposite to the direction of flow, as
assumed.
The isentropic stagnation pressure and impulse function must decrease if friction is present both in
the subsonic or supersonic flow. Wall friction reduces the effectiveness of all types of flow machinery
and also reduces the thrust obtainable from jet propulsion devices.
Summary Subsonic Supersonic
p decreases increases
M increases decreases
V increases decreases
T decreases increases
decreases increases
F p
o
, decreases decreases
The Mach number always tends toward unity. Continuous transition from one regime to the other is
impossible. For given conditions at an initial section of the duct, the maximum possible duct length
which can be employed without attiring the given initial conditions and without introducing
discontinuities is that length for which the exit Mach number is exactly unity.
M is chosen as independent variable to integrate the relations above.

2
1
2 2
2
2
max
2
1
1
1
4 dM
M M
M
D
dx
f
M
L
o
} }
|
.
|

\
|
+

Defining a mean friction coefficient with respect to length as
dx f
L
f
L
o
}
=
max
max
1
; we have
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
+

=
2
2
2
2
max
2
1
1 2
1
2
1 1
4
M
M
lu
M
M
D
L
f

max value of
D
L
f 4 for given M
Hence, the length of duct L required for the flow to pass from
1
M to
2
M can be found from

2 1
max max
4 4 4
M M
D
L
f
D
L
f
D
L
f |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Combining (8) and (9)

( )
2
2 2
2
2
1
1 2
1 1
dM
M M
M
p
dp
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=

|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
-
2
2
1
1 2
1 1
M
M
p
p

Similarly,
( )
;
2
1
1 2
1
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
-
M
M
v
v

|
.
|

\
|
+
+
= =
- -
2
2
2
2
1
1 2
1
M
a
a
T
T

1
2
1
1 2
1
2
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
-
-

M
M u
u


1
1
1
2
1
1 2
1
2
+
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
-

M
M p
p
o
o


( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
-
2
2
2
1
1 1 2
1
M M
M
F
F

1
2 2
2
2
1
1 2
1
+
-
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+
+
M M
M l
c
s s
u
p

Hence,
1
2
1
2
M
p
p
M
p
p
p
p
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
-
-
and so on.

Isothermal flow in long ducts
Isothermal flow with friction is of interest in connection with pipe lines for transporting gas over long
distances. Mach number is usually quite low, but substantial pressure changes because of friction
over great lengths.
Energy equation: -
o p p
dT c
v
d dT c dQ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
2
--- (1)
o
T is not a constant now, it is the local stagnation temperature
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1 2
1
2
1
1
M
dM
M
M
T
dT
M T T
o
o
o
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

--- (2)
Equation of state of a perfect gas is isothermal flow

d
p
dp
= --- (3)
Also
u
du
M
dM
2
2
2
= --- (4)
The continuity, momentum and definition of stagnation pressure (local) remain unaltered (e.g. 4, 5, 6
earlier)
Solving the algebraic equations
( ) D
dx
f
M
M
M
dM
u
du d
p
dp
4
1 2 2
1
2
2
2
2

= = = =
( )
D
dx
f
M M
M M
p
dp
o
o
4
2
1
1 1 2
2
1
1
2 2
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
| +

( )
( )
D
dx
f
M M
M
T
dT
o
o
4
2
1
1 1 2
1
2 2
2
|
.
|

\
|
+

=

In this case, the direction of change depends not on M alone, but or
2
M . Since
D
dx
f 4 is always
+ve, the direction of change of the parameters is as follows

1
< M (subsonic) Sub or Supersonic
|
|
.
|

\
|
>

1
M
p decreases increases
decreases increases
u increases decreases
M increases decreases
o
T increases decreases
o
p decreases increases
The Mach number always tends towards

1
. When M is less than

1
, heat is added to the
stream, when M is greater than

1
heat is rejected from the stream.
Again
2
1
4
2
2
max 1
4 M
M
M
D
dx
f
M
L
o
} }

=

2
2
2
max
1
4 M l
M
M
D
L
f
u

=
Denoting properties at

1
2
= M by symbols t p t V
- -
, , it can be written as
( )
2
2
2
1
t V
V
M
-
=


Since T
RT
u
M ,
2
2

= being a constant here

M
V
u
t
=
-

Also
*
1
t
t
u
u M

-
= =
Hence,
*t
from the perfect gas relationships

M p
p
t t

1
= =
- -

From the formula for isentropic stagnation pressure
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1

- -
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =

M
p
p
t t
o
o

M
M
1
2
1
2
1
1
1 3
2 1

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

From stagnation temperature
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
= =
- -
2
2
2
1
1
1 3
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
M
M
T
T
T
T
t t
o
o

In long commercial pipelines, the Mach numbers employed are so low that the loss in stagnation
pressure is virtually identical with the loss in static pressure.
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
max
1
max
1 1
4 4 4
M
M
l
M
M
M
M
D
L
f
D
L
f
D
L
f
n
+

= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Since
2
1
1 2
1
2
2
1
p
p
M M
M
M
p
p
= =
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
4
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
p
p
l
M
p
p
D
L
f
n

Since
2
M cannot exceed

1
, it follows form the pressure ratio relation that
2
1
2
1
2
M
p
p
>
|
.
|

\
|

For given values of
1
M and
D
L
f 4 , there are two solutions for
1
2
p
p
. However, one of these is
not acceptable as it involves a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.
For a small pressure drop (in percentage), employing power series of the fractional pressure
drop
( )
1 2
1
p p
p

( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
~
1
2 1
2
1
2
1
1
2 1
2
1
2
1
1
2
4
p
p p M
M
p
p p
M D
L
f

The conventional pressure-drop formula for incompressible flow is similar to above except the square
bracket on therhs is unity. Solving the quadratic equation
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

D
L
f
M
M
M
M
M
M
p
p p
4
1 1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2 1

It is convenient to use

1
1
2
2
1
P
RT
A
m
M
|
.
|

\
|
=


For a given value of
1
M , there is a maximum length for continuous isothermal flow, hence, it follows
that choking effects may occur in similar fashion to those for adiabatic flow.
Flow in ducts with heating or cooling factors tending to produce continuous changes in the state of a
flowing stream are (i) changes in cross-sectional area, (ii) wall friction and (iii) energy effects such as
external heat exchange, combustion, or moisture condensation. Simple
o
T change is difficult to
achieve in practice. If
o
T is changed through external heat exchange, the connection between the
mechanisms of friction and of heat transfer assure that frictional effects will be present. Combustion
change in mass rate, chemical composition Simple
o
T change is an ideal case.
With constant area and no friction, the momentum equation is = = +
A
F
u p
2
constant
Continuity = =
A
m
u

constant G =
Combining
A
F G
p = +

2

For fixed mass flow rate per unit area and constant impulse function per unit area, the above equation
defines a unique relation between p and called the Rayleigh line. Since both enthalpy and
entropy are functions of p and , the above equation can be used for representing the Rayleigh line
on the s h diagram. All fluids have Rayleigh curves of the general form.









The relation above, in the differential form, becomes
|
.
|

\
|
= = =


d
dp
u u
G
d
dp
2
2
2

i
s
e
n
t
r
o
p
e
F
a
n
n
o

p1
p01
1
p*
|
.
|

\
|
d
dp
represents the local velocity of sound only for a special circumstances, namely, when the
infinitesimal variation of pressure with density is such that there is no change of entropy. This
condition is fulfilled at the point of maximum entropy on the Rayleigh line. This point represents the
state of Mach number of unity for the process of simple
o
T - change.
Beginning with state 1, Mach number unity might be reached in several way (isentropically,
adiabatically at constant area, etc), and it is only for simple heating the * point will correspond to
Mach number unity. The branch of the Rayleigh curve about the point of maximum entropy generally
corresponds to subsonic flow. Since the process of simple heating is thermodynamically reversible,
heat addition must corresponds to an entropy increase and heat rejection must corresponds to an
entropy decrease. Thus at subsonic speeds the Mach number is increased by heating and decreased
by cooling. The reverse happens in case of supersonic flow. Hence, heat addition, like friction, always
tends to make the Mach number approach unity. Cooling causes the Mach number to change always
in the direction away from unity.
For heat addition at either subsonic or supersonic speeds, the amount of heat input can not be
greater than that for which the leaving Mach number is unity. If the heat addition is too great, the flow
will be choked, the initial Mach number will be reduced to a magnitude that is consistent with the
amount of heat thermal choking.




Mass Conservation
2
1
1
2
u
u
=

Momentum Equation ( )
1 2 2 1
u u
A
m
p p =


Using, u
A
m
=

, and pM u =
2
momentum equation can be arranged to give
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
M
M
p
p

+
+
=
p
1
, T
1

M
1
, T
01

p
2
, T
2

M
2
, T
02

Equation of state:
2 1
2 2
1
2
T
T
p
p

= or
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
u
u
p
p
p
p
T
T
= =

Definition of Mach number:
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
T
T
u
u
u
a
a
u
M
M
= =
Impulse function
( )
( )
1
1
1
2
1 1
2
2 2
1
2
=
+
+
=
M p
M p
F
F

Definition of isentropic pressure
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

M
M
p
p
p
p
o
o

Change in entropy
2
1 1
1
2
1
ln
o
p
T
s s T
c
p
p

=
| |
|
\ .

When the process involves heat exchange, the change in stagnation temperature is a direct measure
of the amount of heat transfer. Form the energy equation
( ) ( )
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
o o p p
T T C
u u
T T C Q =

+ =
When the process involves combustion or evaporation, it is usually possible to devise an
approximately equivalent process of simple
o
T change. In such cases the initial and final stagnation
temperatures would be made respectively identical for the real process and for the equivalent
process. For a Rayleigh process, the change in stream properties are due primarily to changes in
stagnation temperature, u , the rate of change of stream properties along the Rayleigh line is a
function of the rate of change of stagnation temperature.
Now
2
2
1
1 M
T
T
o

+ =



2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
M
M
T
T
T
T
o
o

+
=

Substituting momentum equation and continuity into the equation of state

1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
u
u
M
M
T
T

+
+
=
Using
1
2
u
u
from the definition of Mach number
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
M
M
M
M
T
T

+
+
=
Substituting this into the stagnation temperature ratio

( )
( )
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
M
M
M
M
M
M
T
T
o
o

+
+
+
=

Similar expression for
1
2

,
1
2
p
p
,
1
2
u
u
may be found in terms of
1
M and
2
M . It is convenient to
normalize the equation by setting the Mach number equal to unity at one of the sections, say at 1.

( )
( )
2
2
2 2
1
1
M
M
T
T

+
+
=
-


( )
( )
2 2
2
1
1
1
1
M p
p
M
M
u
u

+
+
=
+
+
= =
-
-
-


1
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
1
1

-
(
(
(
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+
=

M
M p
p
o
o


1
2
2
1
ln
1
p
s s
M
c M

+
-
| | +
=
|
+
\ .

The ratio of properties at two sections where the Mach numbers are
1
M and
2
M are found using
these normalized expressions

2
1
1
2
M
T
T
M
T
T
T
T
o
o
o
o
o
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
-
-
and so on...
----xxx---