PreliminaryFundamentals 1.0 Introduction In all of our previous work, we assumed a very simple modeloftheelectromagnetictorqueTe(orpower)thatis requiredintheswingequationtoobtaintheaccelerating torque.

This simple model was based on the assumption that there are no dynamics associated with the machine internal voltage. This is not true. We now want to constructamodelthatwillaccountforthesedynamics. Todoso,wefirstneedtoensurethatwehaveadequate background regarding preliminary fundamentals, which include some essential electromagnetic theory, synchronousmachineconstruction, 2.0 Someessentialelectromagnetic 2.1Selfinductance Selfinductanceindicatesthemagnitudeofthemagnetic coupling between a circuit and itself. It is given, with unitsofhenries,by
1

L11 =

11

i1

(1)

WeseethattheselfinductanceL11istheratioof theflux11fromcoil1linkingwithcoil1,11 tothecurrentincoil1,i1. Sincethefluxlinkage11istheflux11linkingwithcoil1, and since this flux links once per turn, and since the numberofturnsisN1,then

11 = N111
2.2Faradayslaw

(2)

Any change of flux linkages seen by a circuit induces a voltageinthatcircuit.Theinducedvoltageisgivenby

e= d d ( Li ) = dt dt

(3)

IfLdoesnotvarywithtime,then
e= d di =L dt dt

(4)

2.3Mutualinductance Forapairofcircuits,themutualinductanceL12is
L12 =

12
i2

(5)

WeobservethatL12istherationof thefluxfromcoil2linkingwithcoil1,12 tothecurrentiscoil2,i2. Moregenerally,foragroupofcircuitslabeled1,2,

1 = L11i1 + L12i2 + ... 2 = L21i1 + L22i2 + ...

M

(6)

Thenweseethat

1 = L11i1 + L12i2 + ... 2 = L21i1 + L22i2 + ...

M

(7)

Here, L11, L22, are self inductances, and L12, L21, are mutual inductance. From (7), we see a more general definitionofselfandmutualinductances,accordingto:
3

Lii =

i ii

(8) (9)

Lij =

i i j

Inthecaseofselfinductance,becauseiisproducedbyii their directionalities will always be consistent such that current increases produce flux linkage increases. ThereforeLiiisalwayspositive. In the case of mutual inductance, whether current increasesinonecircuitproducefluxlinkageincreasesin the other circuit depends on the directionality of the currentsandfluxes.Therulewewilluseisthis: Lij is positive if positive currents in the two circuits produceselfandmutualfluxesinthesamedirection. 2.4Inductanceandmagneticcircuits We define magnetomotive force (MMF), as the force that results from a current i flowing in N turns of a conductor.WewilldenoteitwithF,expressedby:
MMF = F = Ni
4

(10)

If the conductor is wound around a magnetic circuit having reluctance R, then the MMF will cause flux to flowinthemagneticcircuitaccordingto

F Ni = R R

(11)

If thee crosssectional area A and permeability of the magneticcircuitisconstantthroughout,then

R= l A

(12)

wherelisthemeanlengthofthemagneticcircuit. Thepermeanceisgivenby
P=
1 R

(13)

Magneticcircuitrelationsdescribedaboveareanalogous toOhmslawforstandardcircuits,inthefollowingway: F V, I,R R,P P Sothat (14)

V F I = R R
5

(15)

2.5Constantfluxlinkagetheorem Consideranyclosedcircuithaving finiteresistance fluxlinkageduetoanycausewhatsoever otheremfsenotduetochangein noseriescapacitance Then

ri +

d = e dt

(16)

Weknowthatfluxlinkagescanchange,and(16)tellsus how: whenever the balance between the emfs and the resistancedropsbecomenonzero,i.e.,
d = e ri dt

(17)

But, can they change instantly, i.e., can a certain flux linkagechangefrom4to5weberturnsin0seconds? To answer this question, consider integrating (16) with respecttotimetfromt=0tot=t.Weobtain
6

d r idt + dt = edt dt 1 24 123 123 4 03 0 404

Term1 Term 2 Term 3

(18)

Noticethatthesetermsare,fortheinterval0 t, Term1:Theareaunderthecurveofi(t)vs.t Term2:Theareaunderthecurveofd/dtvs.t,which is(t). Term3:Theareaunderthecurveofe(t)vs.t. Now we know that we can get an instantaneous (step) changeincurrent shortthecircuitoropenthecircuit, and we know that we can get an instantaneous (step) changeinvoltage open/closeaswitchtoinsertavoltagesourceintothe circuit. And so i(t) and/or e(t) may change instantaneously in (18). But consider applying the limit as t 0 to (18). In thiscase,wehave:
7

lim r idt + lim (t ) = lim edt t 0 t 0 123 t 0 0 Term 2 1 24 4 3 123 404

Term1 Term 3

(19)

Evenwithastepchangeini(t)ore(t),theirintegralswill bezerointhelimit.Thereforewehave:
0 + lim (t ) = 0 t 0 123
Term 2

(20)

This implication of (20) is that the flux linkages cannot change instantaneously. This is the constantfluxlinkage theorem(CFLT). CFLT: In any closed electric circuit, the flux linkages will remainconstantimmediatelyafteranychangein Thecurrent Thevoltage The position of other circuit to which the circuit is magneticallycoupled.
8

The CFLT is particularly useful when Lii or Lij of a circuit changesquickly.Itallowsustoassumestaysconstant so that we can obtain currents after the change as a functionofcurrentsbeforethechange. 3.0 Basicsofsynchronousmachines 2.1Basicconstructionissues In this section, we present only the very basics of the physicalattributesofasynchronousmachine.Wewillgo intomoredetailregardingwindingsandmodelinglater. The synchronous generator converts mechanical energy fromtheturbineintoelectricalenergy. Theturbineconvertssomekindofenergy(steam,water, wind)intomechanicalenergy,asillustratedinFig.1[i].

 Fig.1[i] Thesynchronousgeneratorhastwoparts: Stator: carries 3 (3phase) armature windings, AC, physicallydisplacedfromeachotherby120degrees Rotor:carriesfieldwindings,connectedtoanexternal DC source via slip rings and brushes or to a revolving DCsourceviaaspecialbrushlessconfiguration. Fig.2showsasimplifieddiagramillustratingtheslipring connectiontothefieldwinding.

10

Stator

Rotor winding Brushes +-

Stator winding

Slip rings

Fig.2 Fig.3showstherotorfroma200MWsteamgenerator. Thisisasmoothrotor.

Fig.3

11

Fig. 4 shows the rotor and stator of a hydrogenerator, whichusesasalientpolerotor.

Fig.4 Fig.5illustratesthesynchronousgeneratorconstruction forasalientpolemachine,with2poles.NotethatFig.5 only represents one side of each phase, so as to not crowd the picture too much. In other words, we should alsodrawthePhaseAreturnconductor180awayfrom thePhaseAconductorshowninthepicture.Likewisefor PhasesBandC.

12

ROTOR (field winding)

Phase A
+

STATOR (armature winding) Phase B

DC Voltage

The negative terminal for each phase is 180 degrees from the corresponding positive terminal.

S
+

Phase C

A Two Pole Machine (p=2)

Fig.5 Fig.6showsjusttherotorandstator(butwithoutstator winding)forasalientpolemachinewith4poles.

N S

S N

A Four Pole Machine (p=4) (Salient Pole Structure)

Fig.6
13

The difference between smooth rotor construction and salientpolerotorconstructionisillustratedinFig.7.Note theairgapinFig.7.

Air-gap

Fig.7 We define synchronous speed as the speed for which the induced voltage in the armature (stator) windings is synchronized with (has same frequency as) the networkvoltage.Denotethisase. InNorthAmerica, e=2(60)=376.9911377rad/sec InEurope, e=2(50)=314.1593314rad/sec
14

Onanairplane, e=2(400)=2513.32513rad/sec The mechanical speed of the rotor is related to the synchronousspeedthrough:

m =

2 (e ) p

(21)

where both m and e are given in rad/sec. This may beeasiertothinkofifwewrite

e =

p (m ) 2

(22)

Thusweseethat,whenp=2,wegetoneelectriccycle foreveryonemechanicalcycle.Whenp=4,wegettwo electricalcyclesforeveryonemechanicalcycle. If we consider that e must be constant from one machine to another, then machines with more poles mustrotatemoreslowlythanmachineswithless. ItiscommontoexpressminRPM,denotedbyN;we mayeasilyderivetheconversionfromanalysisofunits:
15

Nm=(mrad/sec)*(1rev/2rad)*(60sec/min) =(30/)m Substitutionofm=(2/p)e=(2/p)2f=4f/p Nm=(30/)(4f/p)=120f/p (23)

Using (3), we can see variation of Nm with p for f=60 Hz,inTable1. Table1
No. of Poles (p) ------------------2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 32 40 Synchronous speed (Ns) ----------------------------3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 514 450 400 360 300 225 180

Becausesteamturbinesareabletoachievehighspeeds, andbecauseoperationismoreefficientatthosespeeds, moststeamturbinesare2pole,operatingat3600RPM.

16

At this rotational speed, the surface speed of a 3.5 ft diameter rotor is about 450 mile/hour. Salient poles incur very high mechanical stress and windage losses at this speed and therefore cannot be used. All steam turbinesusesmoothrotorconstruction. Becausehydroturbinescannotachievehighspeeds,they mustuseahighernumberofpoles,e.g.,24and32pole hydromachines are common. But because salient pole construction is less expensive, all hydromachines use salientpoleconstruction. Fig. 8 illustrates several different constructions for smooth and salientpole rotors. The red arrows indicate thedirectionofthefluxproducedbythefieldwindings.

17

 Synchronous generator Rotor construction Round Rotor Two pole Salient Pole

s = 3600 rpm

Four Pole

s = 1800 rpm

Eight Pole

s = 900 rpm

Fig.8 The synchronous machine typically has two separate control systems the speed governing system and the excitationsystem,asillustratedinFig.9below.Ourmain interestinthiscourseissynchronousmachinemodeling. Wewillonlytouchonafewissuesrelatedtothecontrol systems.

18

Fig.9 2.2Rotatingmagneticfield The following outlines the conceptual steps associated withproductionofpowerinasynchronousgenerator. 1. DCissuppliedtothefieldwinding. 2. If the rotor is stationary, the field winding produces magnetic flux which is strongest radiating outwards from the center of the pole face and diminishes with distance along the airgap away from the pole face center.Figure10illustrates.Thelefthandfigureplots fluxdensityasafunctionofanglefromthemainaxis. Therighthandplotshowsthemainaxisandthelines of flux. The angle measures the point on the stator from the main axis, which is the aphase axis. In this particularcase,wehavealignedthemainaxiswiththe directaxisoftherotor.
19

Direct rotor axis

Stator

Air gap B, flux density in the air gap

Rotor Magnetic field lines

Fig.10 3. Theturbinerotatestherotor.Thisproducesarotating magnetic field (or a sinusoidal traveling wave) in the airgap,i.e.,theplotontheleftofFig.1moveswith time.Figure11illustrates,whereweseethat,forfixed time(justoneoftheplots),thereissinusoidalvariation offluxdensitywithspace.Also,ifwestandonasingle point on the stator (e.g., =90) and measure B as a function of time, we see that for fixed space (the vertical dotted line at 90, and the red eye on the pictures to the right), there is sinusoidal variation of fluxdensityw/time.

20

=90

Fig.11

4. Given that the stator windings, which run down the statorsidesparalleltothelengthofthegeneratorare fixed on the stator (like the eye of Fig. 11), those conductors will see a time varying flux. Thus, by Faradays law, a voltage will be induced in those conductors. a. Because the phase windings are spatially displaced by 120, then we will get voltages that are time displacedby120. b. If the generator terminals are opencircuited, then theamplitudeofthevoltagesareproportionalto Speed
21

Magneticfieldstrength And our story ends here if generator terminals are opencircuited.

5. If, however, the phase (armature) windings are connectedacrossaload,thencurrentwillflowineach one of them. Each one of these currents will in turn produce a magnetic field. So there will be 4 magnetic fields in the air gap. One from the rotating DC field winding, and one each from the three stationary AC phasewindings. 6. Thethreemagneticfieldsfromthearmaturewindings will each produce flux densities, and the composition ofthesethreefluxdensitiesresultinasinglerotating magnetic field in the air gap. We develop this here. Considerthethreephasecurrents: ia = I cos e t ib = I cos( e t 120) (24) ic = I cos( e t 240) Now,wheneveryouhaveacurrentcarryingcoil,itwill produce a magnetomotive force (MMF) equal to Ni. And so each of the above three currents produce a time varying MMF around the stator. Each MMF will
22

haveamaximuminspace,occurringontheaxisofthe phase,ofFam,Fbm,Fcm,expressedas
Fam (t ) = Fm cos et Fbm (t ) = Fm cos(et 120) Fcm (t ) = Fm cos(et 240)

(25)

Recall that the angle is measured from the aphase axis, and consider points in the airgap. At any time t, the spatial maximums expressed above occur on the axesofthecorrespondingphasesandvarysinusoidally with around the air gap. We can combine the time variation with the spatial variation in the following way:
Fa ( , t ) = Fam (t ) cos Fb ( , t ) = Fbm (t ) cos( 120) Fc ( , t ) = Fcm (t ) cos( 240)

(26)

NoteeachindividualphaseMMFin(26)

varieswitharoundtheairgapand hasanamplitudethatvarieswithtime.

Substitutionof(25)into(26)yields:
23

Fa ( , t ) = Fm cos et cos Fb ( , t ) = Fm cos(et 120) cos( 120) Fc ( , t ) = Fm cos(et 240) cos( 240)

(27)

Nowdothefollowing:

AddthethreeMMFsin(27): F ( , t ) = Fa ( , t ) + Fb ( , t ) + Fc ( , t ) = Fm cos et cos + Fm cos(et 120) cos( 120) + Fm cos(et 240) cos( 240)

(28)

Use coscos=0.5[cos()+cos(+)] and then simplify,andyouwillobtain: 3 F ( , t ) = Fm cos(et ) (29) 2

Equation (29) characterizes a rotating magnetic field, justasinFig.11. 7. This rotating magnetic field from the armature will have the same speed as the rotating magnetic field fromtherotor,i.e.,thesetworotatingmagneticfields areinsynchronism. 8. The two rotating magnetic fields, that from the rotor and the composite field from the armature, are
24

lockedin,andaslongastheyrotateinsynchronism, a torque (Torque=P/m=Forceradius, where Force is tangential to the rotor surface), is developed. This torqueisidenticaltothatwhichwouldbedevelopedif twomagneticbarswerefixedonthesamepivot[ii,pg. 171] as shown in Fig 3. In the case of synchronous generator operation, we can think of bar A (the rotor field) as pushing bar B (the armature field), as in Fig. 12a. In the case of synchronous motor operation, we canthinkofbarB(thearmaturefield)aspullingbarA (therotorfield),asinFig.12b.

S
Bar B Bar A

S
Bar A

S
Bar B

Fig 12a: Generator operation

Fig 12b: Motor operation

Fig.12
i

[ ] http://geothermal.marin.org/GEOpresentation/

25

[ ] A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and A. Kusko, Electric Machinery, Processes, Devices, and Systems of Electromechanical Energy Conversion, 3rd edition, 1971, McGraw Hill.

ii

26