Reception of different LNG qualities in LNG receiving terminals Prediction tools for improving LNG storage tank management

Pierre-Luc LANTERI-MINET LNG Program Manager Research and Development Division, Gaz de France

1. INTRODUCTION
With an increasing diversification of LNG supply sources, caused by a growing number of liquefaction plants around the world, an increase in short-term trade and a general trend toward a worldwide liberalization of gas markets, reception terminals need to deal with a greater variety of incoming LNG qualities. With the need to reduce capital and operating costs, existing storage capacity must be used to its maximum extent and the capacity of new storages must be optimized. It is within this context, and as a response to the above mentioned trends, that GAZ de FRANCE has developed a software model called LNG MASTER which can accurately predict the behavior of LNG in storage tanks. Gaz de France itself found its use invaluable when it agreed to receive on a regular basis from 1999 on , at the Montoir-de-Bretagne LNG receiving terminal, LNG from Nigeria for the ENEL Italian company. The structure of this paper is the following : In a first step, the French context with a diversification of LNG sources is given for memory. In a second step, we will explain the challenges which are often faced by the terminal operators who need to handle different qualities of LNG concurrently in the same storage tanks. Effects such as stratification, rollover, or flashing will be explained. Some practical rules to manage such cases will be given. In a third step, we will present the LNG MASTER software developed by GAZ de FRANCE, a real operational tool allowing operators to optimize LNG tank management. To conclude, typical case studies will be presented as examples of the use of LNG MASTER at the design stage or when operating an LNG terminal.

2. FRENCH CONTEXT, DIVERSIFICATION OF LNG SOURCES

The level of importations are increasing at the two French LNG receiving terminals within a context of diversification of LNG sources, in particular at the Montoir-de-Bretagne terminal where LNG tank management has been optimized while simultaneously undertaking modifications works at the terminal. A long term contract was signed in 1992 between the Nigeria LNG Company and Gaz de France for the reception of 0.5 bcm/y of natural gas. Moreover, Gaz de France signed a swap contract with ENEL in 1997 to receive Nigerian LNG in exchange for gas redeliveries from Gaz de Frances existing basket of supplies. The map hereafter shows the swaps. As a consequence, the Montoir-de-Bretagne LNG receiving terminal, on the Atlantic coast of France, required some adaptations in order to receive these additional quantities of LNG.

ENEL CONTRACT : Swaps

dash lines : previous exchanges before contract continuous line : exchanges after contract
IRLANDE ANGLE TE RRE HOLLANDE
B ELG IQ U E

0.3 Bcm/y Norvegian rerouted to Italy via switzerland

DANE M ARQUE

ALLE M AGNE

F RANCE AUTRICHE ITALIE P ORTUGAL E S P AGNE

2 Bcm/y Russian rerouted to Italy

3.5 Bcm/y Nigerian rerouted to Montoir

GRCE

1.2 Bcm/y Algerian rerouted to Italy

Figure 1 : ENEL swap contract

3. CHALLENGES FACED BY THE OPERATORS

When mixing different LNG qualities in a same tank, terminal operators have to face three cases : The first case is a safe case for operators. The incoming LNG is lighter than the LNG in the tank to be filled. A tank bottom filling operation ensures a complete mixing of the two LNG qualities (the LNG injected at the bottom being lighter than the stored LNG) and there is no risk of creating a stratification which can potentially lead to a rollover. The boil-off gas (BOG) production which can be generated due to the temperature rise of the LNG transferred from the LNG carrier to the filled tank is limited by the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom (due to the liquid column of stored LNG). In the second case, the incoming LNG is heavier than the stored LNG. A tank top filling operation avoids stratification and the risk of subsequent rollover but usually results in excessive vapor evolution, due to the flashing of the injected LNG in the tanks vapor space. The last case is the situation which is the most difficult to deal with and needs care. Tank bottom filling with an injected LNG which is heavier than the stored LNG can lead to a stratification, which will then need to be managed, in order to avoid the rollover risk. This stratification creation risk depends on the injection speed, the density difference between the injected and stored LNGs, the geometry of the filling device and the height of stored LNG. The figure below illustrates the second case explained above, showing the BOG production rate and operating pressure increase during a tank top filling operation. In the example shown in this figure, heavy LNG is top filled over light LNG in one of the tanks at the Montoir-de-Bretagne receiving terminal in France. The measurements show the time evolution of the total gas flowrate exiting the tank and of the gas phase pressure. As can be seen, a significant amount of gas is flashed off during the filling operation. The operating pressure of the tank rises steadily during tank filling and then decreases after the end of filling.

Tank exit gas flowrate and pressure evolutions during filling

50000 45000 Tank exit gas flowrate (m 3(n)/h) 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 Time 1170 1190 1200 1220 Absolute pressure (mbar) 1230

1210

1180

Figure 2 : total gas flowrate and pressure evolutions during tank top filling at the Montoir terminal The operator has several options in order to mitigate these consequences of tank filling and reduce their effects. First of all, he can reduce the tank filling flowrate, in order to decrease the liquid level displacement effect (piston effect) and the gas phase flashing rate. However, this might not be possible due to constraints relative to the maximum staying time of the carrier at berth. A preferable solution is to regulate the tank's operating pressure in a judicious way, in order to minimize gas production during tank filling. This can be done by first pre-cooling the tank heel before unloading occurs by lowering the operating pressure (this draws-off more boiloff gas, thus lowering the LNG temperature). Then, just before unloading, the operating pressure is increased above the nominal operating pressure, in order to limit the amount of flashing of incoming LNG coming into the tank's gas phase. This new operating pressure is then maintained throughout the filling process. Once tank filling is achieved, the pressure is then lowered progressively to the initial nominal value. The figure below shows the comparison between the total BOG rate generated (surface evaporation and gas phase flashing of incoming LNG) with and without operating pressure optimization when heavy LNG is top filled on top of light stored LNG at a filling rate of 10 000 m3/h. The results in the figure have been obtained with LNG MASTER computer simulations. The results show that by modulating the operating pressure, the total BOG rate generated during filling can be reduced by about 50% in this example. This highlights the advantages which can be reaped from this procedure, not only in terms of cost savings by reducing compressor output, but also in terms of safety by avoiding the use of safety equipment such as site flares.

30000 BOG to compressors (m 3(n)/h) 25000 20000 15000

BOG with pressure optimization BOG without pressure optimization operating pressure

1210 Operating pressure (mbar)

operating pressure (mbar)

1200 1190 1180 1170

10000 5000 0 0 20 40 60 80 time (h)

1160 1150 1140 100

Figure 3 : pressure optimization of BOG rate during tank top filling In the third situation mentioned above, the creation of a stratification consecutive to bottom filling of heavy LNG under light stored LNG and its management after tank filling has ended can lead to significant reductions in BOG generation, when compared to top filling operations. This is illustrated in the following figure, which shows the gas flowrate treated by the terminals BOG compressors for tank top and bottom filling of heavy LNG into light LNG, with and without operating pressure optimization.
30000 1140 1130 1120 1110 15000 1100 10000 1090 1080 1070 300

25000 compressor output (m3(n)/h

top filling no optimization top filling with optimization bottom filling no optimization bottom filling with optimization optimization pressure scenario

20000

5000

0 0 50 100 150 time (h) 200 250

Figure 4 : comparison of BOG generation for top and bottom tank filling operations However, once such a stratification is formed, it needs to be managed safely. A good understanding of stratification evolution is needed to carry out such management. The figure represented below shows a stable stratification in a storage tank. The heat inputs into the bottom layer gradually increase its temperature and reduce its density. If the system is left to evolve unmitigated, the density difference between the two layers vanished and leads to a rapid mixing of the two layers : this phenomenon is called rollover. Because the bottom layer is superheated with respect to conditions in the vapor space at rollover, this phenomenon is accompanied by a transient high rate of vapor evolution that can be 10 to 30 times greater than the tanks normal boil-off rate, thus giving rise to a hazard, due to the potentially harmful overpressures the tank can experience.

Stable LNG stratification behavior

upper layer

transition

zone (interface)

lower layer

Figure 5 : stable LNG stratification behavior The first signal of a stratifications presence in a tank is a decrease of the boil-off rate of the tank and an increase of the temperature of the LNG in the bottom part of the tank, because the heat leaks into the bottom layer are not evacuated at the free surface by evaporation but contribute to that layers temperature increase. Figures 6-a and b below show the evolution of an LNG stratification created in a 500 m3 LNG tank during Gaz de France's experimental campaign conducted between 1987 and 1989. This evolution can be decomposed into 4 distinct phases, each governed by its own phenomenology.
T (z=2m) T (z=5.5m) T (z=6.5m) Boiloff

-158

300 Boiloff rate (m3(n)/h)

465

Rho (z=2m) Rho (z=5.5m) Rho (z=6.5m) Boiloff

300 Boiloff rate (m3(n)/h)

T (C)

-159

200

Density (kg/m3)

460

200

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 4 Phase 3

-160

100

455

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 4 Phase 3

100

-161 21/04/89

0 22/04/89 23/04/89 Date 24/04/89 25/04/89

450 21/04/89

0 22/04/89 23/04/89 Date 24/04/89 25/04/89

(a) (b) Figure 6 : stratification temperature and BOG rate (a) and density and BOG rate (b) evolutions During a first phase, the stratification's layers can be considered as insulated both heat and mass wise and only the lower layer heats up progressively, which decreases the density difference between the layers. During a second phase, interlayer penetration takes place between the two layers, reducing even more the layer's density difference. During the third phase, density equalization occurs, which results in a rapid mixing of the two layers, producing the rollover event. The rollover is characterized by a sudden liberation of overheat accumulated in the lower layer which can now be liberated at the free surface through evaporation. The LNG then progressively loses this overheat and returns to an equilibrium state in a fourth phase. The above figures also show the difference in nominal BOG rates between the stratified tank and the tank after rollover and return to equilibrium has occurred. In the trial shown, the stratification reduced the nominal BOG by a factor of 5. This and other examples show the advantages in using stratifications to decrease electrical power consumption for BOG gas compression during LNG aging, and thus terminal operating costs. However, LNG stratifications need to be managed in total safety. the technique of using state-of-the-art LNG handling software tools in order to determine a stratification's critical emptying rate above which rollover can be avoided is illustrated in paragraph of this paper.

4. PRESENTATION OF LNG MASTER

LNG Master is a Windows-based commercially available software with an on-line help facility that has been designed to be user-friendly for use by operational engineers. LNG MASTER helps to optimize the handling of LNG storages in terms of safety and cost reduction. Its main functionalities are : the prediction of LNG aging, the prediction of LNG tank filling operations, the prediction of stratification evolutions and the rollover phenomenon, the coupling of boil-off rate with the operating pressure and its variations, the taking into account of tank and site gas recovery and safety devices (compressors, flare, safety valves, rupture disk), the specification of operating scenarios for the pressure, the unloading of methane carriers, the site emission and LNG transfer between tanks. The association of the 1146 traveling Liquid-Temperature-Density (LTD) gauge from Whessoe with the LNG MASTER software gives the operator an integrated predictive tool with real-time validation, in order to optimize the management of LNG storages. Whessoe can supply the combined instrumentation and LNG MASTER software as an integrated system, or can supply LNG MASTER by itself as well as GAZ de FRANCE.

Operating Conditions (pressure, LNG contents, fllling and emptying rate ...)

1146 LTD gauge

LNG MASTER

Tank MANAGEMENT

Figure 7 : association of LNG behavior predictive software and tank inventory software The Whessoe system for combining and displaying all the data from the storage system instrumentation and operating parameters is known as LNG MANAGER. When combined with standard tank level gauges, cargo transfer measurements, etc. the use of a travelling LTD gauge such as the Whessoe Model 1146 allows the progress of tank filling or emptying and the build-up of a stratification to be monitored. Gaz de France operates Whessoe systems at the Fos and Montoir LNG terminals, and chose the Model 1146 for installation in the 500 m3 LNG tank at Nantes. There exist competing systems from other companies for LTD measurements in LNG tanks, and for predicting tank stratification/boil-off behavior. However, the Whessoe LNG MANAGER system, when incorporating Gaz de Frances LNG MASTER software, is the only truly integrated system that allows real-time comparison between measured and calculated LTD profiles. The measured LTD profiles after tank filling can be fed into the model, and the predictions validated and adjusted accordingly. In this way, LNG MANAGER allows regular updating of tank contents and LNG MASTER carries out the predictions of their evolutions, thus enhancing safety and operating flexibility. A three day on-site training package is performed by Whessoe or Gaz de France for those companies who purchase LNG MASTER

The use of a software like LNG MASTER can help with the safety aspects of tank management. With a good model for predicting stratification behavior and rollover occurrence, it is easier to design the emergency relief valve capacity and to persuade safety authorities that it is adequate. The accurate prediction of the behavior of LNG in storage tanks using models such as LNG MASTER also helps to reduce Capital Expenditures. The capacity and the number of new storages can be optimized : for example in case of extension of a LNG receiving terminal, existing storage capacity can be used to their maximum extent, and the capacity of new storages can be minimized, thus reducing cost. The boil-off recovery system (number of compressors, capacity of reliquefaction unit, ) can be optimized by making a good prediction of the boil-off rate. With a good prediction of stratification and rollover, it is also easier to design the safety devices. The Operating Expenditures relative to boil-off handling can be reduced using LNG MASTER : by a judicious use of tank operating pressure, boil-off rate can be significantly reduced, by a deliberate creation of stratifications, high boil off rate can be avoided during tank filling.

An appropriate model as LNG MASTER is absolutely necessary in order to predict the rollover risk and how to avoid it. This method induces some constraints on daily terminal management (in term of sendout flowrate, carrier supply frequency, minimal storage levels). Another application of LNG MASTER lies in optimizing compressor output as a function of electricity prices (daytime versus nighttime). By raising the operating pressure during daytime and lowering it at nighttime in a periodic way, savings in electrical costs can be made.

5. APPLICATIONS OF LNG MASTER 5.1. Modification of an LNG terminal for importation of a new LNG quality

The modifications of the Montoir-de-Bretagne LNG terminal for the reception of LNG from Nigeria are presented, as an example of the use of LNG master at the design stage. The Montoir-de-Bretagane LNG terminal was built in 1980 and received LNG from Algeria since the beginning of its operation. With the ENEL contract Montoir-de-Bretagne LNG terminal will have to handle 3 LNG qualities (2 Algerian and 1 Nigerian grades). Simulations made with LNG master showed clearly that using existing storage tanks without dedicating a new one was absolutely possible, provided that the boil-off gas recovery systems was reinforced. Due to composition differences, the mixing of Nigerian and Algerian LNG in a storage tank may create additional boil-off gas during unloading, especially when filling from the top is required to avoid stratification. The boil-off gas is compressed and incorporated into send-out LNG in arecondenser, as commonly performed, but the capacity of the recondenser was no more sufficient in the new situation to avoid the flaring of gas. The feasibility of mixing Nigerian and Algerian LNGs as well as the resulting new boil-off rates were estimated using the LNG MASTER software. Regarding these results, the following items were modified to reduce environmental impact : a new recondenser was built with a larger capacity three cryogenic boil-off gas compressors were added.

5.2.

Sizing of BOG compressors with respect to a worst case scenario

The BOG compressors for a new terminal to be built have been sized by considering a worst case scenario consisting of a typhoon inducing an atmospheric pressure decrease of 15 mbar/h during 6 hours. The effect of such a depressurization was calculated with LNG MASTER. The results obtained gave valuable information on the transient generation of BOG and allowed realistic sizing of the compressor units to be installed.

5.3.

Adaptation of boil-off to electricity pricing for homogeneous LNG aging

The operating pressure is a key factor for transient control of boil-off in LNG storage tanks. By varying the pressure, it is possible to anticipate on the tank behavior, thereby optimizing the daily management of boil-off phenomena. Optimization can involve savings in capital expenditure and operating costs related to the compression function. A generic example of optimization is presented below, concerning the adaptation of boil-off flow rate to electricity prices.

Operating tank pressure Maximum operating pressure

Rated operating pressure

Boil-Off Gas flow rate

Nominal BOG

Number of operating compressors

2 1

Time (hrs)
0 LOW 6 12 HIGH Electricity costs 18 24

Figure 8 : Daily electricity cost savings with optimized operating pressure management Electricity contracts generally provide for pricing according to specific time slots reflecting the conditions of power supply and demand. Depending on the contracts, prices may vary seasonally or daily. By varying the operating pressure, it is possible to shift the power consumption of the compressors during low-rate time slots. For example, in the case of daily cycles, the pressure is allowed to rise during the high-rate period, which reduces the boil-off and hence the related power consumption. Conversely, during low-rate time slots, a drop in pressure will release the previously accumulated overheat by generating additional evaporation. Figure below presents a schematic diagram of the operating procedure.

5.4.

Optimization of LNG stratification management

The intentional creation of LNG stratifications can be an interesting alternative to the complete mixing of cargo and tank heel LNGs. By deliberately creating a stratification, in particular in the case of filling of heavy cargo under light heel using a tank bottom filling device, not only can the operator avoid high BOG production rates during the filling operation (see 2.1), but the nominal BOG rate after tank filling during LNG aging can also be significantly reduced. However, in managing LNG stratifications, the operator needs to be aware of the basic behavior of stratifications and also be able to anticipate their evolution up to the rollover, in order to take appropriate remedial actions to avoid this phenomenon. Among the rollover mitigation methods available to the operator, stratified tank emptying represents one of the surest and most economical methods to manage stratifications safely. It is the method of choice for LNG terminals, since in any case they have to emit their LNG continuously and thus can distribute in an optimal way the terminal's emission requirements on the different storage tanks. The emptying flowrate which is necessary to avoid rollover occurrence must be sufficient to completely empty the lower layer of a stratification before its density equalizes with that of the upper layer. The effect of lower layer emptying on the evolution of a stratification translates into a reduction of the rollover onset time. As the emptying rate increases, the rollover occurs earlier, since the tank wall heat leaks into the lower layer is attributed to a smaller and smaller volume. However, above a given emptying rate, the lower layer is entirely emptied before rollover occurrence.

Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the notion of critical emptying rate and critical point of a stratification and present an application of this concept to an industrial stratification using Gaz de France's LNG MASTER software.
time emptying rate curve rollover onset time curve
400 350 rollover time 300 critical emptying time

time (h)

250 200 150 100 50 0 0 200 400 600 800

critical time

critical point

1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 3

critical flowrate

emptying flowrate

emptying flowrate (m /h)

Figure 9 : stratification critical point

Figure 10 : stratification critical emptying rate

In figure 9 above, the emptying rate curve gives the time necessary to empty the lower layer of a stratification at the prescribed emptying rate. The rollover time curve represents the rollover onset time at the given emptying rate. As the emptying rate increases, the rollover onset time decreases. At sufficiently high emptying rates, the two curves intersect. This intersection, defined by the critical onset time and the critical emptying flowrate, defines the critical point of a stratification. The critical emptying flowrate of a stratification is the flowrate at which the lower layer is entirely emptied just as rollover occurs. Operating at an emptying flowrate above this critical flowrate ensures the withdrawal of the lower layer before rollover occurrence. In this way, the region in figure to the right of the emptying rate curve represents the safe operating zone of a stratification. The region to the left of this curve represents the danger zone of a stratifcation. The critical emptying flowrate constitutes an interesting criterion to evaluate the compatibility of a stratification with the site's operational constraints and in particular relative to the emptying capacities (number of submerged pumps) of the stratified tank. If for a given stratification, the operating conditions and tank characteristics allow the use of an emptying rate above the critical rate until the lower layer has disappeared, then the stratificatio can be managed in complete safety by the site's operators. In figure 10 above, this concept is applied to a 10 m GL1K upper layer / 25 m GL1Z lower layer stratification in a 120 000 m3 (63 m diameter) tank. The rollover time curve in figure has been constructed with a series of 7 LNG MASTER simulations. The results show that this particular stratification can be managed in total safety by using two submerged pumps of 450 m3/h nominal output, which is entirely compatible with large scale tanks, which are usually equipped with 3 or 4 submerged pumps.

140 120

2700 2250 1800 1350

rollover time (h)

100 80 60 40 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

critical rollover time tank emptying rate

900 450 0

upper layer height (m)

Figure 11 : various stratification critical emptying rates This type of parametric study using systematic simulations can be repeated for various stratification configurations. Figure 11 above illustrates the results obtained by varying the stratification layer heights ratio,

emptying flowrate (m3/h)

while keeping the total LNG height constant at 35 m. The results highlight some interesting tendencies. First of all, all stratifications studied can be managed safely in a tank equipped with 3 submerged pumps of 450 m3 capacity. Second of all, the rollover time evolution curve shows that the longest stratification management period (about 6 days) is obtained with an equal layer 17.5 m /17.5 m stratification, which can be managed with just one 450 m3 pump. The examples presented above highlight a technique which can be used to optimize the safe management of LNG stratifications. Of course, in order to apply this technique safely, accurate advanced LNG stratification prediction tools such as LNG MASTER which the operations engineer of shift operator can use easily are indispensable for ensuring the smooth operation of the site.

6. CONCLUSION
In the current context of diversification of LNG supply sources and liberalization of gas markets, operators of LNG installations as well as engineering firms need tools to allow optimization of LNG storage tank management and design of LNG installations. The LNG MASTER software developed by GAZ de FRANCE can help achieve such optimization, in particular for minimizing BOG generation in daily terminal operations and for sizing the BOG recovery and safety devices of the terminal and its tanks. The examples shown in this paper illustrate the various techniques which can be implemented with the help of LNG MASTER and highlight the advantages of managing safely LNG stratifications for reducing operational costs. We are confident that LNG MASTER can successfully help gas companies operating LNG storage sites and engineering firms better face the challenges of todays rapidly evolving LNG industry.