The Mathematics Pre-Service

Teachers Need to Know

R. James Milgram
Department of Mathematics, Stanford University, Stanford,
California, 94305
E-mail address: milgram@math.stanford.edu
The author was supported in part by a Grant from the U.S. Department of
Education. Any opinions, ndings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily
reect the views of the United States Department of Education.
Copyright 2005, R. James Milgram. Permission granted to reproduce for educational
purposes and distribute for cost of reproduction and distribution.
For my students at the University of New Mexico and Skip Matthes. To my wife Judy,
my son Jules, my daughter Jean, and dedicated to the memory of Martha, my sister.
Contents
Preface vii
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1. Why is math important? 3
2. The critical role of mathematics in modern society 6
3. Common misconceptions by pre-service teachers about
mathematics 8
4. The mathematics K - 8 teachers need to know 10
5. Mathematical problem solving 11
6. Chapter 2 - the mathematics students need to know 13
7. Chapter 3 - the core material central to all school mathematics 14
8. The detailed course discussions, chapters 4 - 8 16
9. Chapter 9, experiences teaching pre- and in-service teachers 21
10. The book The Mathematical Education of Teachers 21
Chapter 2. The Basic Topics in K - 8 Mathematics 23
1. Introduction 23
2. Place Value and Basic Number Skills 24
3. Fractions 27
4. Ratios, Rates and Percents 33
5. The Core Processes of Mathematics 37
6. Functions and Equations 46
7. Real Measurement and Measurement in Geometry 51
8. Course Outline for the First Course 57
9. Course Outline for the Fractions Course 70
Chapter 3. Topics Needing Special Attention in all Four Courses 73
1. Introduction 73
2. Precision 74
3. Making Sense of Mathematics for Students 79
4. Abstraction 82
5. Denitions 85
6. Problem Solving: Overview 92
7. Well-Posed and Ill-Posed Problems in K-8 Mathematics 96
8. Problems with Hidden Assumptions 100
9. Problems where Psychology Aects the Outcome 101
10. Patterns in School Mathematics 104
iii
iv CONTENTS
11. Parsing Word Problems 107
12. Real World Problems 110
13. Polyas Four Step Problem Solving Model 111
14. Working With Problems for Elementary Teachers 114
Chapter 4. Issues in the Basics Course 121
1. Introduction: Foundational Mathematics in the Early Grades 121
2. Whole Numbers: First Steps 122
3. Addition and Subtraction 128
4. Multiplication and Division 146
5. Magnitude and Comparison of numbers 153
6. Place value 157
7. Decimals 168
8. Bringing in the Number Line 171
9. Other systems for writing numbers 175
10. Algorithms and their Realizations 177
11. Algorithms: Addition and Subtraction 187
12. Algorithms: Multiplication 197
13. Rounding, Approximation, and Estimation 207
14. Algorithms: Division 209
15. Factoring, Multiplication and Division 215
16. Fractions: First Steps 218
17. Average, Rates, Ratios, Proportions, and Percents 221
Chapter 5. Fractions, Ratios, Percents, and Proportion 227
1. Denition of fractions and immediate consequences 230
2. Negative fractions 240
3. Arithmetic operations 240
4. Complex fractions 248
5. Percent 250
6. Ratios and Rates 252
7. Alternative Development of Ratios, Rates, and Percents 255
8. Finite decimals 263
9. Innite decimals 265
10. False Periods for Repeating Fractions 270
11. The two-sided number line and the rational numbers 271
12. The arithmetic operations on rational numbers 272
13. Ordering rational numbers 279
14. The Fundamental Assumption of School Mathematics 280
15. Sample Problems from Other Nations 282
Chapter 6. The Role of Technology in Mathematics Instruction 289
1. Introduction 289
2. Introducing the Graphing Calculator and Its Functions 290
3. Introducing Calculators Into The Classroom 292
4. Mathematical Activities 315
CONTENTS v
5. References 334
Chapter 7. Discussion of Issues in the Geometry Course 337
1. Introductory Comments 337
2. Lines, Planes and Figures in Space 338
3. Length and Perimeter 342
4. Angles and Arc Length on the Circle 349
5. Polygons in the plane 353
6. Measurement, Perimeter, Area, and Volume 354
7. Congruence and Similarity 366
8. Grade 8: Scale Factors 372
9. Coordinate Geometry 374
10. The Euclidian Group: I 377
11. Euclidean Group II: Reections and Applications 381
12. Optional discussion of relation to optics 386
13. Similarity and Dilations 388
14. Geometric Patterns - Symmetry 389
15. Geometry in Space 392
16. Length and Euclidian Group in Space 393
17. A Problem Solving Example in Plane Geometry 394
Chapter 8. Discussion of Issues in the Algebra Course 401
1. Introduction 401
2. Objectives of the Algebra Course and Key Denitions 402
3. Variables and Constants 405
4. Decomposing and Setting Up Word Problems 408
5. Symbolic Manipulation 416
6. Functions 417
7. Graphs of Equations Contrasted with Graphs of Functions 422
8. Symbolic Manipulation and Graphs 424
9. Linear Functions 425
10. Polynomials 430
11. Rational Functions 439
12. Inductive Reasoning and Mathematical Induction 450
13. Combinations, Permutations and Pascals Triangle 454
14. Problem Solving Applications of Binomial Coecients 466
15. Compound interest 473
Chapter 9. Experiences in Teaching Math to Pre-Service and
In-Service Teachers 475
1. Comments on the need for mathematician involvement in
pre-service teacher training 475
2. Some points to consider in teaching pre-service elementary
teachers 478
3. A Mathematicians Thoughts on Teacher In-service Learning 482
4. Comments on the Issues of Pre-Service Teachers 484
vi CONTENTS
5. Mathematics for elementary teachers: Explaining why in ways
that travel into the school classroom 488
6. Teaching Math for elementary Ed majors 490
7. The Geometry of Surprise 495
8. Vermont Mathematics Initiative (VMI) 497
Appendix A. Singapore Grade Level Standards Arranged by Topic 499
1. Multiplication and division 499
2. Decimals 500
3. Standard multiplication algorithm 501
4. Rounding, approximation, and estimation 501
5. Standard division algorithm 502
6. Fractions 502
7. Rates, ratios, proportion, and percent 504
8. Lines, planes, space 505
9. Length and perimeter 505
10. Angles and arc-length on the circle 506
11. Length, perimeter, area, volume 509
12. Congruence and similarity 510
Appendix B. Algorithms from the Education Perspective 511
Appendix C. The Foundations of Geometry 515
1. A Model for Geometry on the Line 516
2. A Model for the Plane and Lines in the Plane 520
3. Distance in the Plane and Some Consequences 523
4. Further Properties of Lines in the Plane 526
5. Rays and Angles in the Plane 528
6. Euclids Axioms in the model for Plane Geometry 531
Appendix D. The Sixth Grade Treatment of Geometry in the Russian
Program 533
Appendix E. The Sixth Grade Treatment of Algebra in the Russian
Program 543
Preface
It has long been felt that the mathematical preparation of pre-service
teachers throughout the country has been far too variable, and often too
skimpy to support the kind of outcomes that the United States currently
needs. Too few of our K - 12 graduates are able to work in technical areas or
obtain college degrees in technical subjects. This impacts society in many
and increasingly harmful ways, and it is our failure in K - 8 mathematics
instruction that is at the heart of the problem.
This is especially true when we compare outcomes in the United States
with outcomes in countries that do a better job of teaching mathematics,
countries such as Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Singapore, China,
and Japan, to name a few.
It has also been increasingly recognized that if we are to improve our
performance in K - 8 mathematics instruction, pre-service teachers should
take focused, carefully designed courses directly from the mathematics de-
partments, and not, as is often the case, just a single math methods course
taught in the Education School. A focused two year sequence in the basic
mathematics teachers have to know is the minimal mathematics sequence
that pre-service teachers need in order to to successfully teach students in
K - 8.
The United States Department of Education under the guidance of Sec-
retary Paige awarded an FIE (Fund for the Improvement of Education) grant
to Doug Carnine, Tom Loveless and R. James Milgram in 2002 to analyze
the reasons for the success of these foreign programs and produce a book,
designed for the use of mathematics departments in constructing a two year
sequence sequence of courses that will achieve this goal.
A critical part of the project was an advisory committee comprised of
many of the top people in this country concerned with the issues of K - 12
mathematics education and outcomes. Their advice has been critical in the
development of this book.
The members of the advisory committee:
Prof. Richard Askey, Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin
(emeritus)
Prof. Deborah Ball, School of Education, University of Michigan
Prof. Hyman Bass, Department of Mathematics and School of Education,
University of Michigan
Prof. Sybilla Beckmann, Department of Mathematics, University of Georgia
vii
viii PREFACE
Dr. Tom Fortmann, Mass Insight Education, Boston, Massachusetts
Prof. Sol Friedberg, Department of Mathematics, Boston College
Prof. Karen Fuson, School of Education, Northwestern University (emerita)
Prof. Ken Gross, Department of Mathematics, University of Vermont
Prof. Roger Howe, Department of Mathematics, Yale University
Kathi King, Messalonskee High School, Oakland, Maine
Prof. Jim Lewis, Department of Mathematics, University of Nebraska
Prof. David Klein, Department of Mathematics, California State University,
Northridge
Prof. Stan Metzenberg, Department of Biology, California State University,
Northridge
Prof. Ira Papick, Department of Mathematics, University of Missouri
Prof. Tom Parker, Department of Mathematics, Michigan State University
Prof. Paul Sally, Department of Mathematics, University of Chicago
Prof. Uri Treisman, Department of Mathematics, University of Texas at
Austin
Prof. Kristin Umland, Department of Mathematics, University of New Mex-
ico
Prof. H.-H. Wu, Department of Mathematics, University of California,
Berkeley
We have also benetted from the advice of Barry Garelick and Karen
Jones-Budd.
Prof. Klein played a critical role in the writing of most of the chapters
3 - 8. Prof. H.-H. Wu also deserves special thanks for help beyond the call,
as do Prof. Beckmann, Prof. Fuson Prof. Parker, and Prof. Umland.
A second component of the FIE grant was to study the issues needed to
construct successful in-service mathematics training. Both Prof. Sally and
Prof. Gross have been running long-term in-service training and the grant
has helped them collect data on their outcomes, though, at this time, the
data is still being analyzed.
We would like to thank Susan Sclafani, Assistant Secretary of Education,
and above all Pat Ross of the U.S. Department of Education for their help
and support.
We would also like to thank Tom Kelly at Cappelli Miles [Spring] for
assistance with design and layout, as well as the people at Direction Service
who managed the grant, particularly Aimee Taylor and Marshall Peter.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
It is well known that for many years mathematics outcomes for K - 12
students in this country have lagged far behind what they should be. This is
clearly illustrated by the results of the TIMSS tests, which show our students
about average internationally in grade 4, signicantly below average in grade
8, and near the bottom by grade 12. It is also illustrated by the very low
numbers of United States students who graduate from college with degrees
in technical areas.
The level and quality of the highest mathematics courses that students
successfully take in K - 12 is the greatest single predictor of degree com-
pletion in college, and the data clearly show that Algebra II is the college
gatekeeper.
1
Mathematics is the key component of success in any technical area. If we
are to prepare our students to maximize their opportunities to succeed in
todays society, then improving their backgrounds in mathematics is the key.
Moreover, there is only so much that can be done to improve outcomes by
improving the quality of the texts they use and focusing instruction on the
most critical topics. In California, in 1997 - 1998, for the rst time in many
years, mathematicians were asked to write the state mathematics standards
1
Cliord Adelman, Answers in the Tool Box, Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and
Bachelors Degree Attainment, U.S. Dept. of Education, 1999, p. 17
1
2 1. INTRODUCTION
and the California Mathematics Framework that guides instruction and cur-
riculum selection. The initial results were very promising bringing California
math outcomes from second from the bottom among all states to something
much more respectable:
but over the next two years the results attened out. Nobody knows for cer-
tain what the cause was, and it is clear that student outcomes in California
were still nowhere near where they should be. But it is highly plausible that
the reason lies in limitations in teacher math content knowledge, especially
in the lower grades.
2
It is perhaps surprising to a number of people that teacher content knowl-
edge matters for student outcomes even in the rst grade, but recent research
of Deborah Ball, et. al.
3
shows exactly this. They point out that
Many kindergarten and rst grade teachers explain their choice
of grade level by referencing both their love of young children and
lack of mathematics knowledge. However, our analysis suggests
that mathematical knowledge for teaching is important, even at
this grade level, in our sample schools.
The eect of teacher content knowledge by grade three is very dramatic
according to this study -
2
Our teachers, as a group, are remarkable people, doing an extremely dicult job with
dedication, intelligence, and care, but the preparation they are given for the task is the issue in
this book. Comments on their limitations, such as the one this footnote refers to, are not directed
at the teachers, but at the job we do in preparing them. In this regard, Chapter 9 consists of
essays by a number of research mathematicians who have worked with pre-service teachers. Their
experiences have generally been very positive.
3
Heather C. Hill, Brian Rowan, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Eects of teachers mathematical
knowledge for teaching on student achievement.(2004)
1. WHY IS MATH IMPORTANT? 3
In third grade, its eect size rivals that of SES and students ethnic
and gender aliation and in the rst grade models, the size is not
far o. This suggest that knowledgeable teachers can positively and
substantially aect student learning of mathematics, and the size
of this eect is, at least in this sample, in league with the eects of
student background characteristics.
Course instructors need to instill a sense of mission to help
pre-service and in-service teachers believe they must prepare
students at all levels for jobs that will require more mathe-
matical education. Pre-service and in-service teachers need
to become as concerned about students who have diculty
with math as they are for students who have diculty with
reading. This is currently not the mindset of K-12 teachers.
4
Among the things that have to be done to help change this mind-set
5
are
to clarify for pre-service and in-service teachers the reasons why
mathematics is essential for todays students,
to give pre-service and in-service K - 8 teachers a much better
grounding in the subject.
1. Why is math important?
There is a common perception that math is for nerds and that being
good at mathematics is not important. This misperception is also shared
by some faculty members in our education schools and some of our K -
12 teachers. In fact even misconceptions about the benets of studying
mathematics are common and tend to focus on advantages that may have
been important many years back but are not nearly as critical today. Liping
Ma, one of the best known mathematics educators in the United States,
gave a presentation at the International Congress of Mathematics Education
which had as one of its main themes, the reasons for studying mathematics.
4
The dangerous bend symbol is used throughout this book to indicate a point where special
care is needed.
5
It is important to keep in mind that the attitudes that teachers bring to the job are moulded
by a combination of their own K-12 educations, their family backgrounds, and their college prepa-
ration for the task. When we talk about changing this mind-set we are strictly discussing their
college preparation, more specically, their preparation to teach the mathematics component of
the material in K - 8. In particular, it is our perspectives and those of their education school
professors that are at issue.
4 1. INTRODUCTION
This is what she came up with:
and practical is expanded as counting sheep, measuring land, compiling
the calendar, collecting tax, paying salaries, merchant.
This situation comes from our earliest history and continues to the
present day. From a short history of mathematics education in this country
by Alan Tucker we have the following remarks: The countrys rst colleges,
created to train ministers, taught no mathematics or science. There was no
training for teachers and theirs was one of the lowest ranked professions in
early America.
Some founding fathers argued that a voting citizenry needed a deeper
education. For example, George Washington wrote, The science of gures.
. . is not only indispensably requisite in every walk of civilized life, but the
investigation of mathematical truths accustoms the mind to correctness in
reasoning. However, Washingtons type of education was associated with
landed aristocracy, whose learning and power in Europe most immigrants
to the U.S. despised. Further, it was deemed of little value in business. Our
country quickly developed a tradition of anti-intellectualism in parallel to
its support of basic education for all citizens. ...
While other countries were developing academically demanding goals in
the early 1900s for high school education, focused on either vocational train-
ing or college preparation, U.S. high schools had vague educational goals.
To many reformers, they were foremost semi-custodial institutions to keep
young people out of dangerous factories. The NCTM
6
was formed around
1920 to ght eorts to eliminate any mathematics course as a requirement
for high school graduation.
6
NCTM is the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the national umbrella orga-
nization that plays an analogous role to that of the MAA and AMS for K - 12 mathematics
teachers.
1. WHY IS MATH IMPORTANT? 5
Diane Ravitch, the noted education historian points out At every level
of formal education, from nursery school to graduate school, equal opportu-
nity became the overriding goal of postwar
7
educational reformers. Some-
times those who led the battles seemed to forget why it was important to
keep students in school longer; to forget that the ght for higher enroll-
ments was part of a crusade against ignorance, and that institutions would
be judged by what their students had learned as well as by how many were
enrolled.
8
Beyond the historical antecedents, there are teacher perceptions and
beliefs that have to be dealt with. A recent poll of high school teachers
asked them how many of their students they thought went on to college
after high school graduation. The average response was 23%. There is also
a very common belief that college preparatory math such as calculus in
high school is only for the top 10% or 12% of students. In actuality, over
75% of current high school graduates attempt college within two years of
graduation. Moreover, among the total population of this country over the
age of 18, over 61% of high school graduates have enrolled in either a two
or a four year college. The following data comes from the U.S. Department
of Education and breaks this 61% down more exactly.
A 2003 update of these data showed that the rate of enrollment in college
had increased to 63.7% for people between 20 and 24 years of age in 2002
and to 61.7% overall, (Digest of Education Statistics 2003, Table 9, page
22, NCES, Dec. 2004). Consequently, it is imperative that, in teaching
these courses, the pre-service teachers be made aware of the critical role of
mathematics in society, and that, far from being of limited use, mathematics
is one of the most critical factors in our lives.
Additionally, there is every reason to believe that far more students than
currently major in high tech areas in our colleges have the ability to do this
level of work. For example, when we compare our outcomes with those of
higher achieving countries we have
7
Post 1945
8
Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education 1945-1980, Basic Books, 1983,
pp. xi - xii.
6 1. INTRODUCTION
Thus, the most advanced mathematics students in the United States,
about 5 percent of the total age cohort, performed similarly to 10
to 20 percent of the age cohort in most of the other countries.
9
2. The critical role of mathematics in modern society
Current estimates are that over the next 15 years at least
3.3 million jobs and $136,000,000,000 in wages will move to
East Asia Forrester Research, Cambridge, MA. The major
component of this situation traces to the poor mathematics
backgrounds of our citizens.
Often we mathematicians are inarticulate when challenged to explain
why mathematics is such a critical aspect of K - 12 education today. We
know it is, but are so involved in the subject that we have not looked at
the broader perspective of the way in which mathematics actually interacts
with todays society. So what follows are some observations that may well
be useful in this regard. It is strongly suggested that at a number of points
in these courses for pre-service teachers, the instructor should take a few
minutes to explain some of the (real) core applications of mathematics, so
as to break the mind-set that mathematics is only good for amusement,
aesthetics, mental discipline, counting sheep, and collecting tax.
The applications of mathematics. The usual reasons given in school
mathematics for studying mathematics are because it is beautiful, for men-
tal discipline, or a subject needed by an educated person. These reasons
are naive. It doesnt matter if students nd the subject beautiful or even
like it. Doing mathematics isnt like reading Shakespeare, something that
every educated person should do, but that seldom has direct relevance to
an adults everyday life in our society. The main reason for studying math-
ematics is that our society could not even function without the applications
of a very high level of mathematical knowledge. Consequently, without a
real understanding of mathematics one can only participate in our society
in a somewhat peripheral way. Every student should have choices when
he or she enters the adult world. Not learning real mathematics closes an
inordinate number of doors.
The applications of mathematics are all around us. In fact, they are the
underpinnings of our entire civilization, and this has been the case for quite
a long time. Let us look at just a few of these applications. First there are
buildings, aqueducts, roads. The mathematics used here is generally avail-
able to most people, but includes Euclidean geometry and the full arithmetic
9
S. Takahira, P. Gonzales, M. Frase, L.H. Salganik, Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S.
Twelfth-Grade Mathematics and Science Achievement in International Context, U.S. Dept. of
Education, 1998, p. 44
2. THE CRITICAL ROLE OF MATHEMATICS IN MODERN SOCIETY 7
of the rationals or the reals. Then there are machines from the most primi-
tive steam engines of 150 years back to the extremely sophisticated engines
and mechanisms we routinely use today.
Sophisticated engines could not even happen until Maxwells use of dif-
ferential equations in order to stop the engines of that time from ying apart,
stopping, or oscillating wildly, so the mathematics here starts with advanced
calculus. Todays engines are far more sophisticated. Their designs require
the solutions of complex non-linear partial dierential equations and very
advanced work with linear algebra.
Today a major focus is on autonomous machines, machines that can do
routine and even non-routine tasks without human control. They will do
the most repetitive jobs, for example automating the assembly line and the
most dangerous jobs.
Such jobs would then be gone, to be replaced by jobs requiring much more
sophisticated mathematical training. The mathematics needed for these
machines, as was case with engines, has been the main impediment to actual
wide-scale implementation of such robotic mechanisms. Recently, it has
become clear that the key mathematics is available, (the mathematics of
algebraic and geometric topology, developed over the last 80 - 90 years),
and we have begun to make dramatic progress in creating the programs
needed to make such machines work. Because of this, we have to anticipate
that later generations of students will not have the options of such jobs,
and we will have to prepare them for jobs that require proportionately more
mathematical education.
But this only touches the surface. Computers are a physical implementation
of the rules of (mathematical) computation as described by Alan Turing
and others from the mid 1930s through the early 1940s. Working with a
computer at any level but the most supercial requires that you understand
algorithms, how they work, how to show they are correct, and that you
are able to construct new algorithms. The only way to get to this point
is to study basic algorithms, understand why they work, and even why
these algorithms are better (or worse) than others. The highly sophisticated
standard algorithms of arithmetic are among the best examples to start.
But one needs to know other algorithms, such as Newtons method, as well.
What is essential is real knowledge of and prociency with algorithms in
general, not just a few specic algorithms.
And weve still only touched the surface. Students have to be prepared to
live eective lives in this world, not the world of 500 years back. That world
is gone, and it is only those who long for what never was who regret its
passing. Without a serious background in mathematics ones options in our
present society are limited and become more so each year. Robert Reich
described the situation very clearly in a recent article.
10
10
This article is from The American Prospect Online, December, 2003, and the URL is
http://www.prospect.org/webfeatures/2003/reich-r-12-26.html
8 1. INTRODUCTION
The problem isnt the number of jobs in America; its the quality of
jobs. Look closely at the economy today and you nd two growing
categories of work but only the rst is commanding better pay and
benets. This category involves identifying and solving new prob-
lems. Here, workers do R&D, design and engineering. Or theyre
responsible for high-level sales, marketing and advertising. Theyre
composers, writers and producers. Theyre lawyers, bankers, -
nanciers, journalists, doctors and management consultants. I call
this symbolic analytic work because most of it has to do with ana-
lyzing, manipulating and communicating through numbers, shapes,
words, ideas. This kind of work usually requires a college degree.
...
The second growing category of work in America involves personal
services. Computers and robots cant do these jobs because they
require care or attentiveness. Workers in other nations cant do
them because they must be done in person. Some personal-service
workers need education beyond high school nurses, physical ther-
apists and medical technicians, for example. But most dont, such
as restaurant workers, cabbies, retail workers, security guards and
hospital attendants. In contrast to that of symbolic analysts, the
pay of most personal-service workers in the U.S. is stagnant or de-
clining. Thats because the supply of personal-service workers is
growing quickly, as more and more people whod otherwise have
factory or routine service jobs join their ranks.
Here is how things change. Originally, the public school curriculum was
designed under the assumption that students would, in the main, work on
assembly lines, or do physical labor. But assembly lines today are highly
mechanized, and much of the current assembly line work demands high
level programming and maintenance of robotic mechanisms. Similar changes
have occurred with respect to direct physical labor. For example, even
40 years back, dock-work was brutal - lifting and carrying. Today, the
vast majority of this work is done by huge robotic mechanisms, and the
dock-worker of today spends most of his or her time controlling a very
expensive and complex machine or smaller fork-lifts. The usual requirement
is two years of college to handle the big machines, because running these big
machines entails extensive non-routine problem solving. Thus, pre-service
teachers have to be carefully educated in what we know and what we dont
know about solving problems.
3. Common misconceptions by pre-service teachers about
mathematics
There are three main areas where mathematicians teaching mathematics
courses for pre-service teachers have to contend with serious misconceptions.
3. COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS BY PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS ABOUT MATHEMATICS 9
The rst is the widely held view that mathematics is, somehow, innate
11
.
Pre-service teachers will often indicate that they do not see the need to learn
the material being covered because, when the time comes that they actually
need it, they will be able to dredge it up. As a result, it is quite impor-
tant that, throughout these courses, the instructor should keep reminding
students of the nature of mathematics and the fact that mathematics is,
entirely, a human construction that has developed over thousands of years
and reects the contributions of many of the most intelligent people from
past civilizations all the way to recent times.
Speaking of the nature of mathematics, this is another point where stu-
dent misconceptions get in the way. Often they will have been taught that
mathematics is the study of patterns, or as was some peoples view in the
mid-nineteenth century, the science of numbers, and the art of computing
by means of them. If either of these were ever true, they are certainly
not true today, as mathematics has grown in breadth over the centuries. It
is impossible to dene mathematics today. About the best we can do is
roughly describe it but when we do two things stand out:
(1) Precision (precise denitions of all terms, operations, and the
properties of these operations)
When we look at typical
U.S. elementary school
texts and workbooks,
one of the most striking
things is the lack of
precision, especially
when contrasted with
texts from high
achieving countries.
Thus, for most of the
pre-service students in
these courses, precision
is one of the most
critical things we can
teach them.
(2) Stating well-posed problems and solving them. (Well-posed
problems are problems where all the terms are precisely dened and
refer to a single universe where mathematics can be done.)
The students should constantly have this perspective on mathematics in
front of them throughout these courses.
The third misconception is, in many ways the hardest to deal with.
Many subjects in K - 12 appear to students to be little more than learning
lists of facts and repeating them as necessary. Instruction in mathematics
usually tends to have the same character in the United States. Methods of
solving certain classes of problems are carefully categorized and then taught
separately. For example there are one step equations, two step equations,
three step equations and four step equations when looking at linear equations
in one variable. Likewise, multiplying two binomials is usually not taught
as a consequence of the distributive rule, but rather as a rigid process called
foiling (rst, outer, inner, last). Consequently, pre-service teachers expect
to learn the content of these courses in exactly the same way. Thus, when
the focus of discussion deals with underlying principles as is usually the case
in the recommended content for these courses, the audience will, at least
initially, be likely to be totally confused. This situation has to be handled
with patience.
11
An interesting article on this recently appeared in Science, P. Pica, C. Lemar, V.Izard,
S. Dehaene, Exact and approximate arithmetic in an Amazonian idigene group, Science, 306
(2004), 499-503. They study addition and estimation in a tribe with a language that does not
have expressions for numbers larger than 5. What was found is that these people could estimate
as well as native French speakers using less than, greater than, and equal to, but they had extreme
diculty with exact addition and subtraction with numbers larger than 5.
10 1. INTRODUCTION
4. The mathematics K - 8 teachers need to know
In the mid 1980s Lee Shulman and others began the study of the math-
ematical knowledge that teachers need to know. This was broken down
This book covers the
issues in designing a
four course sequence for
pre-service teachers who
do not intend to teach
high school
mathematics. In many
states there is a single
certicate for K-8
teachers. Consequently,
the material here
represents the minimal
amount of mathematics
that teachers in these
grades must know. In
states where there are
separate K-6 and
middle school
certicates, it is likely
that mathematics
beyond this core could
be required for the
middle school
certication. However,
we do not discuss such
material here.
into
(1) Content knowledge, which includes both facts and concepts as well
as the reasons why the facts are true
(2) Pedagogical content knowledge, which goes beyond content knowl-
edge to the subject of the content that is needed for teaching which
includes such things as what makes learning specic content easy
or dicult
(3) Curriculum knowledge, which involves knowing how topics are ar-
ranged over the course of a academic year or over the years and
ways of using such things as textbooks to organize their teaching.
Since then this area has been developed much further by a number of re-
searchers, among them being Deborah Ball and Liping Ma.
In this work we take the view that the best foreign programs in math-
ematics are so overwhelmingly successful with such a high percentage of
students that we can learn a great deal about the issues above by studying
how these programs handle the core topics and their development. Fore-
most among these programs is the Russian mathematics program that was
developed during the 1930s and 1940s. It was used in Israel from the late
1940s to the early 1970s during which time their outcomes were the best
in the world. It was adopted by China during the 1950s, and from China
was modied for use in Singapore. It is also the core program underlying
the current programs in former iron countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary,
Poland, and Romania. Thus, we pay a great deal of attention to the way
in which the Russian program develops the core concepts in mathematics
during the early years, and we also reference the Singapore program exten-
sively to learn about how the three topics above are treated in countries
where instruction in mathematics is successful.
Two things are notable when looking at these programs. The rst is
that aside from whole numbers, everything is precisely, though grade appro-
priately, dened for students. Thus, when it comes time to dene even and
odd numbers in the second grade Russian program, we nd
From the series of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, rst give those which are divisible by 2, and then
those which are not divisible by 2.
Numbers that are divisible by 2 are called even.
Numbers that are not divisible by 2 are called odd.
One could quibble that instead of talking about numbers they should
have said whole numbers, but fractions have not even been dened at this
5. MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING 11
point in the second grade course. Before continuing we should clearly note
the following
Who gets hurt when denitions are not present? The em-
phasis on precision of language and denitions matters most for
exactly the most vulnerable of our students. It is these students
who must be given the most careful and precise foundations. The
strongest students often seem able to ll in denitions for them-
selves with minimal guidance. On the other hand, foreign outcomes
clearly show that with proper support along these lines, all students
can get remarkably far in the subject.
The second thing that is notable in the programs of the high achieving
countries is the level of abstraction that is present in the problems students
are expected to do in these early grades. Variables have been introduced
and are routinely used, so students set up and solve simple equations in
second grade and quite sophisticated equations in third grade. There is a
strong belief in the education community in the United States that young
students learn strictly in context, which means that they do not believe
young students can handle abstraction. This belief is not supported by
research, nor is it supported by the outcomes in the high achieving countries.
We will discuss the mathematics programs used in the high achieving
countries in detail in chapters 3 - 8.
Summary. In summary, we need to rst describe the core mathematics
that should be covered in, say, grades K - 7. This turns out to be far less
than the content that is typically required by state standards in this country.
It is consistent in all the programs in successful foreign countries that the
number of topics covered in the early grades is far less than is covered here.
But these are the key topics, and since they are covered to far greater depth
than is the case here, those foreign students have a much more solid and
dependable base, which makes it far more likely that they will be able to
succeed in the more advanced topics in mathematics, science and related
areas that are so essential today.
5. Mathematical problem solving
To start, we must deal directly with the widespread belief that we know
how to teach students how to solve problems. Everyone needs to be aware
of this basic truth:
Problem solving is currently an arcane art.
We do not know how to reliably teach problem solving. The most eective
method for communicating this process seems to be to have a mathematician
stand in front of a class and solve problems. Many students seem to be able
to learn something of this multi-faceted area in this way, but, as we will see,
the ground has to be carefully prepared before students can take advantage
of this kind of experience.
12 1. INTRODUCTION
What will be discussed now is what virtually all serious research mathe-
maticians believe, and most likely most research scientists as well. This is
not what will be found in a typical math methods textbook. Other theories
about mathematical problem solving are current there. It could be that
the focus of the views on problem solving in these texts is concerned with
routine problems where the biggest eort might be in understanding what
the problem is asking. This can be a dicult step, but here we are talking
about solving a problem where the answer is not immediate and requires a
novel idea from the student. It is exactly this level of problem solving that
should be the objective for every student, because, at a minimum, this is
what virtually all non-routine jobs require today.
The hidden part of problem solving. There is a hidden aspect to
problem solving: something that happens behind the scenes, something that
we currently do not know how to measure or explain. It is remarkable, when
you read the biographies of great mathematicians and scientists that they
keep saying of their greatest achievements, I was doing something else and
the answer to my problem just came to me.
12
This is not only true for the
greatest, it seems to be true for every serious research mathematician or
scientist.
Answers and ideas just seem to come out of the blue. But they dont!
There are verbal and non-verbal aspects to problem solving. Successful
researchers seem to have learned how to involve non-verbal mechanisms in
their brains in analyzing and resolving their problems, and it is very clear
that these non-verbal regions are much more eective at problem solving
than the verbal regions.
In order to engage the non-verbal areas of the brain in problem solving,
extensive training seems to be needed. This is probably not unlike the
processes that one uses to learn to play a musical instrument.
13
Students
must practice! One of the eects, and a clear demonstration that the process
is working, is when students become uent with the basic operations and
dont have to think about each separate step.
For school mathematics, students must practice with numbers. They
must add them until basic addition is automatic. The same for subtraction
and multiplication. They must practice until these operations are automatic.
This is not so that they can amaze parents and friends with mathematical
parlor tricks, but to facilitate the non-verbal processes of problem solving.
At this time we know of no other way to do this, and it is a grim thing to
watch otherwise very bright students struggle with more advanced courses
because they have to gure everything out at a basic verbal level. What
happens with such students, since they do not have total uency with basic
12
H.-H. Wu points out that the rst example of this that he is aware of in print is due to H.
Poincare.
13
It is probably not a coincidence that an inordinate number of professional mathematicians
are also skilled musicians.
6. CHAPTER 2 - THE MATHEMATICS STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW 13
concepts, is that - though they can often do the work - they simply take far
too long working through the most basic material, and soon nd themselves
too far behind to catch up.
Skill and automaticity with numbers is only part of the story. Students
must also bring abstraction into play. This is also very commonly an uncon-
scious process. There are huge numbers of choices for what to emphasize
and what to exclude in real problems so as to focus on the core of what
matters. Indeed, it is often far from clear what the core actually is. As was
the case before, one has to practice to facilitate abstraction. How?
One explores the situation, focusing on one area, then another, and accu-
mulates sucient data so that non-verbal tools in the brain can sort things
out and focus on what matters. But in order to do this, the groundwork has
to be laid. That is what algebra does (or is supposed to do). That is why
students should practice with abstract problems and symbolic manipulation.
Moreover, as we have seen in section 1, Algebra I and more particularly Al-
gebra II are the gate keepers for college. When we think of problem solving
in this way, that is not so surprising.
The need for further study. Our knowledge here is fragmentary and
anecdotal. What has been stated above is highly plausible, and most re-
search mathematicians tend to agree that it ts their experiences. However,
it is not yet possible to assert this knowledge as fact. Basic research needs
to be done, much as was done for reading. The medical and psychological
sciences almost certainly have the tools to begin such research now. Indeed,
the NIH has recently begun to support work in this direction.
6. Chapter 2 - the mathematics students need to know
In the rst seven sections of chapter 2 we discuss the core mathematics
that students should learn in grades K - 7. By the end of grade 8 they should
have also been exposed to a considerable amount of algebra. However, the
discussion here is restricted to the core pre-algebra material that students
must know. This core material breaks up into six main topics:
(1) Basic number skills and place value
(2) Fractions
(3) Ratios, rates and percents
(4) Symbols, equations, symbolic manipulation, solving linear equa-
tions in one variable
(5) Functions and equations
(6) Measurement: the exact measurements of geometry and the mea-
surements with errors that occur in real situations
The nal two sections of chapter 2 give outlines for the rst two courses or
the rst year in the four course sequence that we recommend.
This discussion reects the mathematics that students need to know,
and consequently the core mathematics that pre-service K - 8 teachers must
know, though it goes without saying that they must know more than just
14 1. INTRODUCTION
this. They must know enough more, at minimum, to accommodate students
who are able to learn more. Also, they must have sucient further knowl-
edge to be able to explain the mathematics they are teaching as well as why
it is important for students to know, and how it will help them.
However, as pointed out above, teachers must also know more about
this mathematics than just the key mathematical points and issues. They
must be able to diagnose student errors and misunderstandings, and they
must be able to explain these topics to a wide range of students. Thus
it is necessary to explore in much greater detail the material discussed in
chapter 2, expanding on it mathematically as well as discussing the most
important pedagogical issues involved in presenting it. This is what the next
ve chapters do.
7. Chapter 3 - the core material central to all school
mathematics
Chapter 3 is key. It develops the central concepts of mathematics, and
covers the following topics:
It appears to be the norm in K - 8 mathematics instruction in the United
States that the material is treated as lists of facts and techniques for students
to learn. Students do not see denitions, and never are exposed to the
7. CHAPTER 3 - THE CORE MATERIAL CENTRAL TO ALL SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 15
general principles underlying school mathematics. For example, the teaching
of the standard algorithms is purely mechanical. Students are taught how to
apply each algorithm and then are drilled on various special cases - perhaps
where special carrying procedures have to be used - so that they can arrive at
the correct answer in all cases. But they are not exposed to the underlying
reasons why the algorithm works.
Such instruction was entirely appropriate many years ago, when it was
essential that people be able to uently and accurately do such calculations
by hand. However, today, though skill with the basic algorithms is still
important, the need for hand calculation is not nearly what it was. It is
also more important today that students learn the underlying reasons why
algorithms work. Consequently, the material in chapter 3 must become a
basic part of K - 8 mathematics instruction, and this means that pre-service
teachers not only have to be exposed to it, but actually have to internalize
it.
The problem solving sections in chapter 3. Another critical aspect
of chapter 3 is the detailed discussion of problem solving which takes up
sections 5 - 13. There is very wide agreement that students have to learn
as much as can be taught to them about problem solving. However, the
existing discussions of this extremely recondite topic are not very good,
and the outcomes for todays students have been discouraging. Thus it is
critical that actual problem solving be a core component of each of these
four courses. Pre-service teachers should clearly understand that, though
there are aspects of problem solving that can be isolated and taught, there
are other aspect which are key, but which nobody really understands today.
The best we can say is that these deeper lying aspects of problem solving
appear to be developed by practice and by study. They depend on uent
technical skill and a wide background in the area of the problems being
considered.
16 1. INTRODUCTION
8. The detailed course discussions, chapters 4 - 8
The next four chapters concentrate on the four main mathematical topics
to be covered in the two year sequence. Chapter 4 covers foundational
material
Chapter 4 breaks naturally into four parts.
The rst part, comprising 2 - 5 covers the introduction of the whole
numbers the basic operations, and magnitude.
The second part, 6 - 9 is a careful discussion of the base-10 place-
value system. This is a core area, and perhaps the key area where student
misunderstandings cripple their further development in mathematics. Place
value is critical in the early years, and too many pre-service teachers only
have a very sketchy understanding of it. Consequently, this should be a
point of particular emphasis in this course.
The third part, 10 - 14 covers algorithms It is very important that
pre-service teachers understand that algorithms play a special role in math-
ematics and particularly in the applications of mathematics. They should
8. THE DETAILED COURSE DISCUSSIONS, CHAPTERS 4 - 8 17
realize that the standard algorithms are superb examples and deserve to be
studied for that reason alone. They should also realize that being able to
construct algorithms that are correct is an essential skill students must have
if they are to apply mathematics. Consequently, the general discussion in
section 10, together with the development of the standard algorithms in the
following sections are very important components of this course.
The fourth part, 15 - 17 outlines the introduction of fractions, ratios and
rates in the early grades, and describes the ways in which these topics are
handled in the Russian and Singapore programs. In the next chapter these
topics will be taken up again, but the presentation will be more appropriate
to grades 5 - 7.
Chapter 5 is concerned with fractions, ratios, rates, proportions and
percents. This is a topic that has traditionally been a huge problem in K -
8 in this country.
Students tend to view fractions as pairs of integers, and they approach
them very mechanistically, seldom understanding why the rules for adding
fractions with dierent denominators are true, and blindly applying the
product and quotient rules. This seems to track back to students very
earliest experiences with fractions.
18 1. INTRODUCTION
Fractions are seldom dened, but are developed through rst dividing
numbers of objects into equal groups, so eight objects are divided into four
groups of 2, and students are told that each group of two is
1
4
of the total.
Then they cut up regions - typically circles - into equal subregions, with
only the vaguest idea of what equal means. Then the same is done for line
segments, and it is hoped that through exposure to these dierent models
for fractions, students will understand what fractions are.
Unfortunately, the visible results of this method of instruction speak for
themselves. As a result, pre-service teachers in these courses will typically
need to have their entire understanding of fractions rebuilt from scratch.
By contrast, in the high achieving foreign countries, the development of
fractions is much more structured, and much more successful. The typical
approach there is reected in Chapter 4, section 16, for initial instruction in
the earliest grades, and then the entirety of Chapter 5. In all the successful
foreign programs we looked at, fractions were rst introduced in terms of
parts of a whole models, for example,
1
3
is pictured as one among three
identical objects. However, this model only is present for a few lessons,
and then a more consistent and careful development is given in terms of
the area model in second grade. After that, students learn to represent
fractions as points on the number line. This approach is then carefully,
systematically, and above all, precisely developed. Students learn that two
fractions are the same if they represent the same point on the number line
and this gives a solid context for understanding equivalent fractions, the core
property that fractions satisfy (recall the formal mathematical construction
of fractions as equivalence classes of pairs of integers (a, b) with b ,= 0, where
the equivalence relation is (a, b) (c, d) if and only if ad = bc, which is little
more than a slick denition of equivalent fractions).
Then the denitions of the basic operations of addition and multiplica-
tion are given, with subtraction and division being dened as inverse opera-
tions. This provides a rm foundation on which skills with fractions can be
built.
After this, detailed discussions of methods for handling ratios, rates,
proportions, and percents are given. In the United States it is fair to say
that if a student survives fractions then he or she will not survive ratios
and proportions. Yet it is remarkable that student in the third grade in the
Russian program and fourth grade in the Singapore program are already
solving extremely sophisticated multiple rate problems.
Chapter 6: Introducing calculators to students and pre-service
teachers. Chapter six, written by Frank Demana and Bert Waits, is a
careful discussion focused on introducing calculators for pre-service teachers.
It is based on the TI-83 calculator, but is written in such a way that it should
be appropriate for most graphing calculators that are currently available.
Chapters 7 and 8 describe the material in the proposed second year.
Chapter 7 covers geometry and chapter 8 covers algebra.
8. THE DETAILED COURSE DISCUSSIONS, CHAPTERS 4 - 8 19
Chapter 7: the geometry course. The material in chapter 7 is signif-
icantly dierent from the usual coverage of geometry for pre-service teachers.
It is in three parts
(1) Descriptive geometry, the geometry of the earliest grades
(2) Synthetic geometry, needed for rigor, but only a part of the usual
Euclidian geometry, though there is a reasonably detailed descrip-
tion of the dilations and the elements of the Euclidian group
(3) Coordinate geometry to the degree that it is needed
The main focus of geometry instruction in K - 8 is the descriptive aspects of
the subject, so this is given considerable emphasis. However, teachers need
to also know more than just the basics that they are likely to teach. So it
is important that they see basic material related to congruence and similar-
ity. This provides the core connections between geometry and algebra. For
example, teachers should understand why the graphs of linear equations are
straight lines, but in order to understand this in a mathematical way, they
have to understand the basic properties of similar triangles. These consid-
erations also underlie and support proportions, and are applied in section 8
20 1. INTRODUCTION
to scale factors. The generators of the Euclidian group, translations, rota-
tions and reections are discussed next, as well as dilations. Then these are
applied to give meaning to the notion of geometric patterns and symmetry.
Finally, the chapter concludes with some discussion of basic three dimen-
sional geometry, and a problem solving application, counting the number of
regions the plane is divided into by a nite collection of straight lines. Also,
there are a number of calculator based exercises that may well be of some
interest.
Some of the more unusual aspects of this chapter are a focus on non-
trivial applications of geometry. Pre-service teachers need to be aware of
how the mathematics they teach is applied in signicant situations. It is
notable that virtually all the K - 8 texts, when discussing applications of
mathematics only cover applications of immediate interest such as recipes
and baseball batting averages. These are usually extremely supercial and
hardly convince students that mathematics is important. On the other hand,
in section 3 of chapter 7 we discuss linkages and various non-trivial appli-
cations to such things as designing lamps that hold the light in a xed
orientation while the position of the light is moved as well as motors and
mechanisms. In section 12 we discuss the applications of geometry to deter-
mining the way the moon appears in the night sky as well as other similar
applications.
Chapter 8: the algebra course. Chapter 8 discusses some of the key
topics that should be part of the fourth course, algebra.
10. THE BOOK THE MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION OF TEACHERS 21
For the most part, the material is standard, though for pre-service teach-
ers it represents a considerable advance in terms of the level of abstraction.
Also, there is a much sharper focus on symbolic manipulation than is usu-
ally the case in courses for this audience. The later sections, sections 9 -
12 are non-standard, focusing on basic combinatorics and applications. But
this is material that is becoming more and more common in K - 8 mathe-
matics curricula, so teachers need to know it properly. Section 10 gives an
extensive discussion of basic combinatorics - combinations, permutations,
Pascals triangle, and binomial coecients. The exercises at the end of 10
carry these considerations further, looking at the evaluation of certain basic
sums of binomial coecients. Then in 11 these results are applied, rst
to the probability issues in tossing pennies, then to derive the binomial for-
mula, and nally to show rigorously that the volume of a right circular cone
is
1
3
r
2
h.
9. Chapter 9, experiences teaching pre- and in-service teachers
The nal chapter is a number of short contributions describing mathe-
maticians and master teachers experiences in teaching mathematics to both
pre-service and in-service teachers.
(1) Comments on the Need for Mathematician Involvement in Pre-
service Teacher Training by Sol Friedberg
(2) Some points to consider in teaching pre-service elementary teachers
by H.-H. Wu
(3) A Mathematicians Thoughts on Teacher In-service Learning by
Kristin Umland
(4) Comments on the Issues of Pre-Service Teachers by Kathi King
(5) Mathematics for Elementary Teachers: Explaining Why in Ways
that Travel into the School Classroom Sybilla Beckmann
(6) Teaching Math for elementary Ed majors Paul Wenston
(7) Vermont Mathematics Initiative (VMI) Ken Gross
(8) The Geometry of Surprise Dave Benson
10. The book The Mathematical Education of Teachers
A volume with similar objectives, The Mathematical Education of Teach-
ers edited by Jim Lewis, was published several years back by the MAA and
the CBMS. As is the case here, the MET volume requested that pre-service
K - 8 teachers be required to take considerably more mathematics courses
than is typically the case currently.
Where the two approaches dier is in the suggestions for this mathe-
matics. The MET approach is to describe math courses along the lines of
current curricula based on the 1989 NCTM standards, and the NSF-funded
math programs. Unfortunately, a recent analysis of these programs by the
22 1. INTRODUCTION
National Research Council
14
concluded that there is no evidence to support
the contention that these curricula are any more eective than more tradi-
tional United States curricula in mathematics which have shown themselves
to be totally ineective when compared to the best foreign programs.
At the time the MET volume was written the NRC report was not avail-
able. However, the discussions in the earlier chapters of the MET volume
remain timely and valuable.
14
On evaluating curricular eectiveness: judging the quality of K-12 evaluations, National
Academies Press, (2004), Committee for a review of the evaluation data on the eectiveness
of NSF-supported and commercially generated mathematics curriculum materials, Jere Confrey,
(Chair)
CHAPTER 2
The Basic Topics in K - 8 Mathematics
1. Introduction
The are six basic areas of mathematics that should be covered with great
care in the school mathematics courses that precede algebra.
(1) Place Value and Basic Number Skills
(2) Fractions and Decimals
(3) Ratios, Rates, and Percents
(4) The Core Processes of Mathematics: Symbols, Symbolic
Manipulation, Solving Equations.
(5) Functions and Equations
(6) Real Measurement and Measurement in Geometry
There are a number of topics, such as prime factorization, data analysis,
and probability that are not mentioned in the list above. It is not that they
are not important, but that the topics above are core. They provide the
foundations for the applications of mathematics in society, as well as the
basis for learning more advanced material.
Instruction in these topics already starts in rst grade, and continues un-
til students take algebra in high achieving countries like Singapore. It follows
that the mathematics that pre-service teachers learn in preparation for K -
8 teaching must focus on these areas. It is essential that pre-service teachers
understand the mathematics and additional material - such as recognizing
common errors and points of confusion - that are necessary to teaching this
material eectively.
In this chapter we review the mathematical issues in these core topics. In
the following chapters we will ll in details of the core mathematical content
as well as the most basic additional material that is needed.
In the nal two sections of this chapter, 8 and 9, we give detailed
outlines for the rst two courses in the sequence we recommend for pre-
service teachers. The outlines presented here, discussing the rst two courses
in the proposed four course sequence have considerable overlap in the area
of fractions, ratio, and proportion, though the rst course focuses on these
topics in earlier grades.
It was felt that the outline for the rst course should contain a discussion
of the absolute minimal amount of material that pre-service K-5 teachers
must know, and the conservative time estimates that are included with each
topic in the rst course total more than the time in a single semester. Thus,
23
24 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
if one course is all that is going to be required for these teachers, there will
have to be some core material that will not be covered.
A much better approach is to cover the material in the rst two courses
over a one year period. If this approach is possible, then the discussions in
the detailed chapters on basics and fractions give a better idea of what should
be covered in each course. Fractions should be initiated by a discussion of
how fractions are introduced in the earliest grades (typically using careful
area models where the decomposition of simple regions into pieces, each
of which has the same area, is used to initially explain fractions. But the
detailed approach to fractions in the discussion of the second course, using
the number line should be developed as soon as possible.
Likewise, the very complex topic of ratios, rates, proportions, and per-
cents is typically begun in high achieving countries in the second and third
grades, and we give some discussion of how these topics are initiated in
successful programs. But teachers should also have worked through a very
careful discussion of these topics, as is given in the detailed chapter for the
second course.
2. Place Value and Basic Number Skills
Many students and consequently, many pre-service teachers misunder-
stand place value. Without a solid understanding of this topic students
will be unable to handle the basic algorithms and develop basic skills with
numbers, let alone develop them to automaticity, and the same holds for pre-
service teachers. But even more, if pre-service teachers do not understand
place value solidly, they will not be able to teach mathematics to students,
and their outcomes with students will lag even in the earliest grades as the
recent research
1
discussed in Chapter 1, 1 shows. Consequently, we start
with base-10 place-value.
Counting is the beginning of place value. One can start the discussion
of place value by explaining why, with the use of only ten symbols 0, 1, 2,
... , 9, counting can proceed beyond the ones place by creating the tens
place, so that after 9, one starts the counting all over again from 10, 11,
12, etc. Likewise, counting can proceed beyond the tens place (after 99)
only by creating the hundreds place, etc. Observe that each new place has
a value 10 times the preceding one because, for example, in the same way
that one goes from 99 to 100, one goes to 200 upon reaching 199. Then
another 100 later it is 300, and then 400, ... , 900 and therefore (after 999)
it has to be 1000. So we see that 1000 is 10 steps from 0, i.e., 0, 100, 200, ...
, 1000 if we skip count by 100. This knowledge also gives a clearer picture
of addition because the latter is nothing but continued counting, in the
sense that 12 + 5 is the number one arrives at by counting 5 more starting
at 12. (Actually, addition corresponds to counting the number of elements
1
Heather C. Hill, Brian Rowan, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Eects of teachers mathematical
knowledge for teaching on student achievement.(2004)
2. PLACE VALUE AND BASIC NUMBER SKILLS 25
in disjoint unions, but the continued counting property of addition follows
directly from this.) In the detailed discussion we will see that there are a
number of delicate issues here that pre-service teachers have to be aware of
such as the obstacles that the irregular pronunciation of these numbers in
English put in the way of many students. In this chapter, we will not dwell
on such issues, and will focus almost exclusively on the mathematics.
Counting. The concept of multiplication is (initially) a shorthand for
counting the number of elements in groups of the same size. 75 means the
number of objects in 7 groups of objects with 5 in each group. Therefore
the meaning of 7 5 is 5 + 5 + 5 (7 times).
This is a point worth
emphasizing.
Students should understand that 10 10 = 100, 10 100 = 1000. As
remarked above, these are consequences of the way we count in this numeral
system. Students should also see an area model comparing the relative sizes
of 1, 10, 100, and 1000
....... . ....... . . . . . . . ...... ....... . .................................................................. . . . . . . . ................................................................. .................................................................. . ................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................
1 10 100 1000
as well as construct similar models for 10, 000 to get a clear idea of the
magnitude of these numbers.
It follows from the method of counting that, for example, 3 100 =
100 +100 +100 = 300, that 7 1000 = 1000 +1000 +1000 +1000 +1000 +
1000 +1000 = 7000, etc. Similar facts are also true for the multiplication of
the numbers 1, 10, 100, 1, 000, and even 10, 000 by 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9. Students
should construct these numbers, particularly for multiples of 1 and 10, and
place them on the number line.
The number line should be introduced as early as possible (in high
achieving countries, it is done as early as grade 2). For a discussion of
some instructional issues related to the teaching of the number line at early
grades, see 8 in chapter 4.
A number such as 37 is said to be bigger than 23, because 37 comes
after 23 in our way of counting. On the number line, 37 is to the right of
23. Thus 1000 is bigger than 100 in this sense.
With these preliminaries, students should be ready to understand place
value.
A key objective at this point is that students understand that the place
value representation of numbers means addition of successive products of
the form a multiplied by a power of 10, where a is a whole number between
0 and 9. People often talk of the special role of 0 as a place-holder, but this
emphasizes the form of the written number, for example 10, 703, and not
the number itself. Students should clearly understand that 0 a power of
10 is always 0, and that when they write a number like 10, 703, this signies
the full sum
1 10, 000 + 0 1, 000 + 7 100 + 0 10 + 3 1.
26 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
They should understand that when we write such a number as
1 10, 000 + 7 100 + 3 1,
where the 0s are suppressed, we are abbreviating.
Often, in instruction, there is a tendency to teach the abbre-
viated form and not the full expansion. This can be result in
core confusion for at risk students, who will often not distin-
guish a number like 23000012 from 2300012, since they fail
to fully comprehend the role of the zeros. This is, in fact, a
critical point and is more fully discussed in 6 of chapter 4.
After the careful introduction of place value, students should be ready to
study the standard algorithms with greater understanding.
2
Instructor Note Care
should be taken to
indicate that the
standard algorithms are
the application of the
denitions of addition,
multiplication, and so
on to numbers in place
value notation.
Addition and subtraction. Addition and subtraction are initially de-
ned in terms of combining or removing sets of objects and counting the
number of objects that results. This leads to the strategy of counting on,
adding one element at a time till the requisite number of elements are added.
It should be pointed out that the virtue of the addition algorithm applied to,
for instance, 259 + 671 is that it replaces the cumbersome adding on of one
671 times starting with 259. Likewise, the subtraction algorithm makes it
unnecessary to count backward 259 times from 671 before nding out what
671 259 is. Students should be able to add and subtract uently.
Multiplication. Multiplication is dened in terms of the number of
elements in equal groups. Emphasize that to compute 245 67, for exam-
ple, one has to add 67 to itself 245 times, according to the denition of
multiplication. The multiplication algorithm renders the tedious addition
completely unnecessary by breaking up 245 67 into a sum of two simpler
multiplications using the distributive law: (245 6) 10 and 245 7. Ob-
serve that place value asserts itself in the appearance of 10 in (2456) 10.
Each of (245 6) 10 and 245 7 is in turn broken up into a sum of single
digit multiplications, e.g., 245 6 is the sum of (2 6) 100, (4 6) 10,
and (5 6). This is why the multiplication table is so important, and why
students need to achieve automaticity with it.
Students should look at the special case of multiplication by 1 and
see that both from the denition of multiplication and the algo-
rithm, multiplication by 1 doesnt change the number being multi-
plied.
But when multiplication by 0 is discussed, (see, for example, the dis-
cussion of the role of 0 in place value notation that we gave above),
it should not be treated as a curiosity, but as a logical consequence
2
In Chapter 4 there is a detailed discussion of algorithms. This is necessary, since there is a
great deal of confusion currently in school mathematics about what algorithms are and why they
should be taught even though calculators are readily available to do these operations for us, so
it is advised that before instruction is given to pre-service teachers about teaching the standard
algorithms, they rst learn about algorithms themselves.
3. FRACTIONS 27
of the denition of multiplication (if there are no groups, then there
are no elements), and the result is also consistent with the rules for
multiplication.
Division. The core standards for multiplication tend to involve division
as well, but it seems advisable to introduce division only after students have
developed signicant multiplication skills.
Division has always been dicult with students, especially the division
of fractions and decimals. With a view to easing this diculty, we suggest
introducing division at the outset as an alternative but equivalent way of
writing multiplication. Thus the division statement
c is b divided by a or a divides b is c
is to be taught as nothing but an alternative but equivalent way of ex-
Instructor Note:
When introducing
initial examples of
concepts that contain
nothing but variables,
the expression should
be followed by examples
that substitute simple
numbers for the
variables. This practice
needs to occur for both
pre-service teachers and
their students. This is
an important point to
convey to instructors.
pressing b = c a for whole numbers a, b, c (with a > 0). In symbols, we
write: b a = c. Thus the two statements
b = c a and b a = c
go hand-in-hand. It follows from the denition of the multiplication b = ca
that the division b a = c has the intuitive meaning of partitioning b
objects into equal groups of a objects, and there are c such groups.
It is also important to thoroughly discuss the fact that, with this deni-
tion, some divisions cannot be carried out. So for example, we cannot write
7 3 = c for any whole number c, for the simple reason that there is no
corresponding multiplicative statement 7 = c 3.
Next discuss division with remainder from the perspective of getting
close to an answer. Signicant time should be taken here, using the number
Instructor Note
Pre-service teachers
must understand that
the advantage of always
linking division to
multiplication is that
this link is the key to
understanding division
in general (fractions,
decimals, etc.)
line and place value, for students to master division with remainder. Then
long division can be developed. It is not necessary to spend a lot of time
drilling students on long divisions with multi-digit divisors. If they under-
stand the reasoning behind the case of one-digit divisors very well, it should
be enough for them to go forward. (At the beginning of 14 of Chapter 4
a full discussion of the reasons why long division is a critical skill for stu-
dents is given. This is material which is not well understood and should be
carefully explained.)
3. Fractions
Introducing fractions. Fractions can be initially introduced to stu-
dents using dollars and cents, since these are objects of intense interest.
This leads naturally to the rst model for fractions, what might be called
the set model. The set model describes a fraction as a decomposition (or
partition) of a collection of objects into equal groups.
A dime is decomposed into 10 pennies, a nickel into 5 pennies, a
quarter into ve nickels, and a dollar into 10 dimes.
28 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
In these examples, depending on whether the whole, i.e., the number 1, is a
Set models for fractions
should not be
emphasized in
instruction. Students
have diculties
understanding what the
whole is in these
models, particularly in
modeling fractions
greater than one. They
provide a good way of
initially introducing
fractions, but, among
the pitfalls are the
inconsistent uses of the
whole, as nickels, dimes,
quarters, and dollars in
the money model, and
the tendency to try to
introduce decimals
before fractions are
fully developed.
nickel or a dime, the penny represents a dierent fraction: it is
1
5
in case of
the nickel, and
1
10
in case of the dime. Thus the importance of knowing what
the whole stands for, i.e., what the number 1 represents, comes naturally to
the forefront.
If the whole is a collection of eight objects,
1
4
would represent two objects,
and if the whole is a collection of four objects, the same fraction would then
represent only one object. This is a core understanding, and should be
explained to students already by the end of second grade. However, while
this is a legitimate starting point for the development of fractions, it should
only be covered briey, and then more powerful models introduced.
Modeling fractions. Students should next be introduced to the area
model for fractions, again paying careful attention to the relation between
the fractional part and the whole.
It is important that certain standard kinds of errors in understanding
be checked here. In both models it often happens that students can become
confused about the whole. The meaning of the whole in the area model,
for example, has to be carefully explained.
It is the total area represented by the unit square (the square each
of whose sides has length 1).
3
With this whole understood, the
number 2 represents the area that is twice the total area of the unit
square. Likewise, one-third is the area of any region which has the
property that three such regions together would have area equal to
1, i.e., equal to the area of the unit square.
There are many common errors that students make here. The most im-
portant of them are discussed in detail in the chapter on Fractions, Ratios,
Rates, and Proportions.
Next are two substantive concepts: the equivalence of fractions and their
addition. These concepts are neither natural or self-evident; rather, they
should be clearly explained to students and once that is achieved, careful
denitions should be supplied. See the discussions in 16 of Chapter 4 and
3 of Chapter 5 for details.
Fraction misconceptions. Here is a classical example of a common
misconception of the addition of fractions: since the addition of whole num-
bers is achieved by counting the combination of two groups of objects, one
should add fractions in the same way by counting the combination of part-
wholes, by brute force if necessary, even if nobody knows how part-wholes
should be counted. Thus if one is given 2/3 represented as two parts of three,
and one is asked to add 2/3+2/3 the student will combine the parts getting
four parts of six, rather than four parts, each of which is
1
3
of a whole.
This example points to the weaknesses in the usual exposition on fractions:
Addition of fractions is
a very delicate
instructional issue.
the precise meaning of a fraction is typically never explained to students and
3
For a detailed discussion see 16 of Chapter 4 and 1 of Chapter 5.
3. FRACTIONS 29
reasoning based on fuzzy notions of part-whole, quotient, etc. inevitably leads
to errors. The addition of fractions is a delicate instructional issue because
not only must it be precisely dened, but it must also be taught so students
retain the basic intuition one gains from the addition of whole numbers as
putting things together.
What is usually done in high achieving countries at this point is to place
fractions on the number line and, based on this and introduce the concept
that any two fractions which are placed at the same point on the number
line (e.g.,
2
4
and
1
2
, or 3 and
15
5
) are said to be equivalent or equal.
Likewise, if a fraction on the number line is to the right of another
fraction, then the rst fraction is said to be larger than the second. Also,
addition of fractions is dened by putting the fractions on the number line
and then adding the lengths of the segments from 0 to the respective frac-
tions. Notice that the addition of whole numbers can be phrased in exactly
the same way and that this concept of fraction addition literally embodies
the intuitive idea of putting things together.
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to emphasize this
point in instruction
A fundamental fact that underlies the development of fractions, usually
referred to simply as equivalent fractions, is this: two fractions are equivalent
(i.e., represented by the same point on the number line) if one is obtained
from the other by multiplying top and bottom by the same non-zero whole
number.
How this works on the number line can be illustrated with, for example,
the fractions
4
5
and
8
10
=
24
25
. We divide the segment from 0 to 5 into
2 5 = 10 segments of equal length as the following picture shows.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
................
................
................
................
................
................
0
1
5
2
5
3
5
4
5 1
...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
10
...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
10
...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
10
...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
10
...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
10
The fact that a fraction, e.g.,
5
3
, can be interpreted as a division is
important. More precisely, the claim is that the fraction
5
3
, which in terms
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to emphasize this
point in instruction
of the number line is just the total length of 5 segments each of which has
length
1
3
, is also the length of a part when a segment of length 5 is divided
into 3 parts of equal length. The explanation of this division interpretation
is as follows.
(1) If every segment of length 1 is divided into 3 parts of equal length
Instructor Note
Instructors need to be
told that this will
require varied examples
coupled with extensive
practice and review for
both pre-service
teachers and students.
(so that by the denition of a fraction each part has length
1
3
), then
the given segment of length 5 is now divided into 15 (= 5 3) of
these parts of length
1
3
.
(2) If we now divide this segment of length 5 into 3 sub-segments of
equal length, each sub-segment then comprises 5 of these parts of
length
1
3
. Therefore the length of a sub-segment has length
5
3
, which
then explains the division interpretation of
5
3
.
30 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
The same reasoning shows that a fraction
a
b
is also the length of a part when
a segment of length a is divided into b parts of equal length. Usually one
paraphrases this fact as
a
b
is one part when a wholes are divided into b equal
parts. If a = mb for some whole number m, then we get back the fact that
a
b
=
mb
b
= m, which then coincides with (mb) b = m. This explains the
phrase division interpretation. For the same reason, the division symbol
is retired at this point and a b will henceforth be denoted by
a
.
Students are now ready to review and further study the addition of
fractions with the same denominator. They should add such fractions on
Instructor Note As
before this is a point
where both pre-service
teachers and students
will require varied
examples coupled with
extensive practice and
review.
the number line, and be able to understand why, according to the preceding
precise meaning of fraction addition, the following formula that expresses
this addition
a
b
+
c
b
=
a +c
b
for any whole numbers a, b, and c is correct.
Further fraction topics. Once students understand fractions on the
number line including
how to place them on the number line
how to add fractions with the same denominator on the number
line
the fundamental fact of equivalent fractions
how to interpret a fraction as a division
the formula for the addition of two fractions with the same denom-
inator
they are ready to understand and use further formulas. The rst key formula
that they need to learn is the fundamental fact of equivalent fractions:
a
b
=
ca
cb
for c any whole number,
where, by convention, we write ca for c a, cb for c b. The reasoning for
this formula is the same as that given above for
2
5
=
4
10
. Next, they should
be given the formula for the addition of two fractions
a
b
and
c
d
:
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad +bc
bd
.
This is true because by equivalent fractions, we can write the given fractions
as two fractions with equal denominator:
a
b
=
ad
bd
and
c
d
=
bc
bd
. Therefore
the addition
a
b
+
c
d
now becomes the addition of two fractions with equal
denominator,
ad
bd
+
bc
bd
, which we already know how to do and the preceding
formula is the result.
4
4
Though instruction is best presented to pre-service teachers using formulas with variables
as is done here, pre-service teachers are not going to enter classrooms that use textbooks with
extensive examples presented with variables. Consequently, discussion should be given of how to
present these formulas to students so that they understand the basic concepts but that minimize
the use of variables.
3. FRACTIONS 31
Some comments on ordering fractions and mixed numbers are appropri-
ate at this point. First, given two fractions
a
b
and
c
d
, because
a
b
=
ad
bd
and
c
d
=
bc
bd
, it follows that
a
b
is to the left of
c
d
on the number line exactly when
ad < bc. By the denition of larger than,
c
d
is larger than
a
b
exactly when
bc > ad. This is sometimes called the cross-multiplication algorithm.
Next, it is important to demystify the concept of a mixed number, nor-
mally introduced in grade 4. A mixed number such as 3
2
5
is nothing more
than a shorthand notation for 3+
2
5
. Since we now know how to add fractions,
Instructor Note The
point that formulas are
either denitions or,
more commonly, are
logical consequences of
denitions needs to be
emphasized in
instruction.
we have
3
2
5
= 3 +
2
5
=
3
1
+
2
5
=
3 5 + 2
5
=
17
5
Notice that while we end up with the usual formula for converting a mixed
number to a fraction, the dierence (and it is an important one) is that
here 3
2
5
is clearly dened to be 3+
2
5
, and since we know how to add fractions
at this point, the formula is a logical consequence of the denition rather
than an unsubstantiated formula.
Multiplication and Division. By grade ve students should be able
to multiply and divide with suciently simple fractions. It is essential that
This is the expectation
in some states, for
example, California, but
many states do not
require this till sixth or
even seventh grade.
However, this
expectation occurs at
the third or fourth
grade level in most of
the curricula of the high
achieving countries we
looked at .
the procedures for multiplication and division be carefully justied and ex-
plained.
We rst deal with multiplication. There are many ways to do this, but
the simplest is to just dene the product as
a
b

c
d
as
ac
bc
and then show, with
the area model, that the denition is consistent with our intuition of the
multiplication of two numbers as the area of a rectangle.
Another way is to directly dene
a
b

c
d
to be the area of the rectangle
with sides
a
b
and
c
d
, and then prove that
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
.
Next, the division of fractions can be explained in terms of the division
Instructor Note This
subsection is another
point where introducing
denitions that involve
nothing but variables
should be followed by
examples that
substitute simple
numbers for the
variables.
concept between whole numbers. Recall that for whole numbers a, b, c, with
a ,= 0,
b a = c is the same as b = c a
For fractions we follow this lead and dene: for fractions A, B, C, with
A ,= 0,
B A = C is the same as B = C A.
If B =
a
b
and A =
c
d
, then it is immediately veried that the fraction C =
ad
bc
satises B = C A. Rewriting this multiplication statement as a division
statement according to the preceding denition, we get
a/b
c/d
=
ad
bc
It is important that every student knows why the formula above is true.
Besides the general discussion of fractions, there is the specic case of
decimal fractions, more commonly known as (nite or terminating) decimals.
They should serve as key examples. A fraction whose denominator is a power
of 10, e.g.,
427
10
5
is traditionally written as 0.00427, where the decimal point is
32 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
placed 5 places (corresponding to the 5 in 10
5
) to the left of the last (right)
digit of the numerator. Thus, by the same token,
1200
10
6
= 0.001200,
and 0.001200 is traditionally further simplied to 0.0012 in the same way
that 0026 is simplied to 26.
Mathematical integrity requires giving students a solid grounding in frac-
tions before giving any extended discussion of the arithmetic of decimals dec-
imals. When this is done, then it is straightforward to transfer the knowl-
edge of fractions in general to the more specialized knowledge about decimal
fractions.
We can dene a decimal by way of place value considerations, e.g., 3.14
would be, by denition, the sum 3(10
0
) +
1
10
+
4
10
2
. Adding these fractions
gives back 3.14 =
314
10
2
. In either case, a knowledge of fractions is absolutely
essential for a mathematical discussion of decimals.
Rational numbers. The next fractions topic is negative fractions. Neg-
ative integers, in this country, are typically introduced in fth or sixth grade,
and often negative fractions are not introduced at all. But in order to pre-
pare for algebra and more advanced mathematics, students need to become
facile with rational numbers.
When students have a rm grasp of fractions, the discussion of negative
fractions can begin. Of course, before one talks about negative fractions
students need to understand negative integers. The need for negative num-
bers can be introduced by discussing owing, degrees below 0, driving a
certain number of miles and then driving back a dierent number of miles,
but, as before, this is simply not enough. Negative numbers have to be
dened.
For the purpose of doing arithmetic, the number 2, for example, should
be clearly dened as the number so that 2 + (2) = 0. We have already
alluded to the need to place the integers on the number line. Briey, if we
reect the whole numbers on the number line with respect to 0, we obtain a
new collection of numbers to the left of 0. The mirror image of 1 is 1, of 2
is 2, etc. This gives the placement of the negative numbers on the number
line. An integer x to the left of another integer y is said to be smaller than
y. Thus 5 < 3. At the same time, this gives the negative fractions. The
fraction
2
5
, for example, is by denition the number satisfying
2
5
+(
2
5
) = 0.
On the number line,
2
5
is the mirror images of
2
5
with respect to 0 and the
mirror image of
8
3
is
8
3
, etc. Size comparison among rational numbers is
dened exactly as in the case of integers: x < y if x is to the left of y.
.......................................................................................................................................................
...................... ........................... .......... ..................... ........... ................ . ........... ....................
...................... .......................... ........... ..................... ........... ................ . ........... ....................
..................... ........... ................ . ........... ..................... .......................... . ........... ..................... .......................... ........... .....................
.....................
3
10
7
10

3
10
is less than
7
10
4. RATIOS, RATES AND PERCENTS 33
We now indicate how to approach the arithmetic of integers. Except for
complications in the notation, the discussion is essentially the same with
rational numbers. Recall, for every integer x, we have x + (x) = 0, by
denition of x. The simplest way to do arithmetic with the integers may
be to take as an article of faith that the integers can be added, subtracted,
multiplied, and divided (by a nonzero integer), and that the associative,
commutative, and distributive laws hold. On this basis, we can show why
8 5 is the same as 8 + (5).
Observe that there is only one integer that can solve the equation +5 =
8, namely the integer 3. But 8 + (5) + 5 = 8 +(5) + 5 = 8 + 0 = 8,
so 8 +(5) = 3, and consequently 8 +(5) = 8 5 because 8 5 is also 3.
For the same reason, x + (y) = x y if x, y are whole numbers and
x > y. Knowing this, we can dene for any two integers z, w the subtraction
z w as z + (w). So once we introduce the integers, subtraction becomes
addition in disguise.
For multiplication, perhaps the most striking fact that needs conrma-
tion is why (for example) (2) (5) is equal to 2 5? The reason is very
similar to the preceding argument: again observe that if we denote (2) 5
by A, then there is only one rational number that solves + A = 0,
namely A. We now show that both (2)(5) and 25 solve +A = 0,
and therefore must be equal since both will be equal to A. To this end,
we compute twice:
(2) (5) +A = (2) (5) +(2) 5
= (2) (5) + 5 (distributive law)
= (2) 0
= 0,
and also
2 5 +A = 2 5 +(2) 5
= 2 + (2) 5 (distributive law)
= 0 5
= 0.
By a previous remark, this shows (2) (5) = 2 5.
4. Ratios, Rates and Percents
The rst serious applications of students growing skills with numbers,
and particularly fractions, appears in the area of ratios, proportions, and
percents. Unfortunately, when the diculties that students often have with
fractions are combined with the confusion surrounding ratios, proportions,
and percents, it seems that the majority of students have severe diculties
at this point. On the other hand, most of the high achieving countries expect
students to be able to solve very sophisticated problems in these areas from
about grade three on.
34 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
Before students can discuss these topics they need to become comfort-
able with fractions expressed in the form of a fraction divided by a second
fraction:
a
b
c
d
,
sometimes called complex fractions.
By applying the rules they have learned for multiplying and dividing
fractions, students should understand that such a number is still a fraction,
simply
ad
bc
, and they should become procient at working with fractions in
this form. For example, all the usual formulas which are valid for ordinary
fractions are equally valid for complex fractions.
To begin, students need to understand what a ratio is: the ratio of two
quantities a and b is the quotient
a
b
.
5
Thus, in taking ratios, the order of
the two numbers matters.
Ratios are almost always fractions, but initially, one usually contrives to
make the ratio come out to be a whole number. For example, if 15 items
cost $4.50, what is the unit cost? In this case, the unit cost is the ratio of
the total cost to the number of units. So if 15 items cost $4.50, then the
unit cost is
4.5
15
dollars or
450
15
= 30 cents.
Once students have learned about fractions, unit cost should be revisited.
For example, if 15 items cost 4.5 dollars, then the cost of a single item would
be one part when four and a half dollars, i.e., 450 cents, is is divided into 15
equal parts. By the division interpretation of a fraction, the size of one part
when 450 is divided into 15 equal parts is exactly
450
15
. So it is 30 cents. In
general, if n items cost x dollars, then the cost of one item is
x
n
dollars for
exactly the same reason.
Ratios appear in this country in grades 6 and 7, but it is not uncommon
for them to appear as early as grade three in high-achieving countries. By
grade six it is be reasonable for students to consider problems such as the
following: if 2.5 pounds of beef costs $22.25, what is the cost of beef per
pound? Then the unit cost is the ratio
22.5
2.5
, and one recognizes this as a
complex fraction.
Dimensions appear in this country around grade three with simple unit
conversions, and as early as second grade in other countries. It is worth
noting that they have already appeared in the study of money.
Students should get considerable practice with determining ratios, and
with unit conversions, but care should be taken that proportional relation-
ships not be introduced until students are comfortable with the basic con-
cepts of ratio and unit conversion.
Problems like the following are appropriate in third grade.
In 10 minutes a plane ew 150 km. covering the same distance each
minute. How many kilometers did it y each minute?
5
This is a very specialized denition, but is sucient for school mathematics.
4. RATIOS, RATES AND PERCENTS 35
Students should reason as follows: Since the plane travels the same distance
each minute, the distance it travels in a minute (no matter what it is) when
repeated ten times will ll up 150 km. Therefore the distance it travels in
one minute is 150 10, because this is precisely the meaning of dividing
by 10. So the answer is 15 km.
Percents rst appear around grade 5. Students should recognize that
percents are special ratios, where the denominator (or b in the ratio of a to
b) is 100. When they see a ratio in the form
a
100
even if a is a fraction and not
a whole number they should understand that, according to the denition,
the ratio a to 100 is the same as a percent, written as a%.
Once students understand this and it is strongly advised
that this be presented to them as denitions then they
should be able to sort out problems like the following:
What percent of 20 is 7? (What percent is 7 of 20?)
We follow the denition, and so must put the ratio
7
20
into the form
a
100
.
Since 100 = 5 20, equivalent fractions gives
7
20
=
57
520
=
35
100
= 35%. At
the fth grade level, they can also do something slightly more complicated:
What percent of 125 is 24? (What percent is 24 of 125?)
In this case, we want to express
24
125
as
a
100
. No multiple of 125 is equal
to 100, but 2 125 = 250 and it should immediately come to mind that
4 250 = 1000, which is almost as good as 100. So by equivalent fractions
again:
24
125
=
824
8125
=
192
1000
= 19.2%. Note that this is also a complex
fraction.
More complicated problems of this type, such as what percent of 17 is
4, are appropriate by sixth grade level because of the higher demand on
symbolic computation skills.
Ratios in the guise of rates and motion problems are also very impor-
tant by sixth grade level if not before. Rate is the name given to ratios that
compare two quantities of dierent types in some sense. If one under-
stands the concept of a ratio as a complex fraction, there is no need to pay
special attention to rates. For example, the solution of the plane problem
above used the concept of speed, which is a rate, but the discussion of the
solution was strictly based on basic facts about fractions.
The general discussion of constant speed to be given next gives further
evidence that there is no need to make rates a separate topic.
Problems involving ratios and rates are known to cause di-
culties with U.S. students. Students should be steered clear
of any pre-occupation with the semantics and focus on the
mathematics instead.
Sections 5, The Core Processes of Mathematics, and 6, Functions and Equa-
tions, will deal with topics that rely more heavily on symbolic computations,
36 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
including topics involving ratios, rates, and percents. However, even with-
out such computations, a proper discussion of rates involves substantive
mathematics that should be brought out.
First there is the general concept of motion with constant velocity or con-
stant speed. For this kind of motion, the basic fact is that distance traveled
is equal to velocity multiplied by the time-duration (usually abbreviated to
distance is velocity multiplied by time), or in the self-explanatory formula:
d = v t
In case the time t is a whole number (5 hours, 12 minutes, etc.), this formula
Instructor Note
Instructors need to
emphasize to pre-service
teachers that while the
meanings of formulas
may be self-explanatory
to them, this is often
not true for elementary
and middle school
students. It is
important for teachers
to spend time helping
students substitute and
understand words
associated with
variables in a formula,
i.e. v=velocity and
t=time.
is easy to verify. If the velocity v is 55 miles an hour, then the distance
traveled after 2 hours is 55+55 = 255 miles, after 3 hours is 55+55+55 =
3 55, after 4 hours is 55 + 55 + 55 + 55 = 4 55 miles, etc.
After n hours (with n an integer), the distance traveled s is then
55 + 55 + + 55 (n times) = n 55 = 55n. Since v = 55 and t = n, the
formula is correct in this case. Clearly the velocity can be any v instead of
55 and the reasoning remains unchanged. So the formula s correct in general
when t is a whole number.
If t is not a whole number, say t = 6
2
5
hours and v is 55 miles an
hour, then the meaning of constant velocity is that the distance traveled in
fractional hours such as
2
5
is exactly
2
5
55 miles. It is important to
explain this meaning of constant velocity to students and to
verify the formula in the case where t is not a whole number. As
a simple illustration consider the problem
A passenger traveled 120 km by bus. The speed of the bus was 45
km per hour. How long did the passenger travel by bus?
Instructor Note It is
important to point out
that students require
direct instruction and
carefully designed
practice in reading and
understanding word
problems. For some
students, their
diculties with word
problems have more to
do with reading
decitsnot the
mathematics.
Additionally,
instructors should point
out that students must
be taught how to assign
correct unit labels in
problems, and teachers
must be consistent
about requiring
students to label units
in a problem.
Thus s = 120 km and v = 45 km per hour. According to the formula,
120 = 45 t, where t is the total time duration of the passenger in the bus.
Multiply both sides by
1
45
and we get
120
45
= t and so t = 2
30
45
= 2
2
3
hours, or
2 hours and 40 minutes.
Many ratio problems are accessible without extensive symbolic compu-
tations or setting up proportions. Consider the problem:
A train travels at constant velocity and gets from Town A to Town
B in 4
2
3
hours. These two towns are 224 miles apart. At the same
velocity, how long would it take the train to cover 300 miles?
From the data, the velocity is
224
4
2
3
miles per hour, or 48 miles per hour.
Therefore to travel 300 miles, it would take
300
48
= 6
1
4
hours, or 6 hours and
15 minutes. Another example of this kind is:
I spent $36 to purchase 9 cans of Peee. How much do I have to
spend to purchase 16 cans?
The price per can is
36
9
= 4 dollars, so to buy 16 cans, I would have to
pay 16 4 = 64 dollars. We emphasize once again that no setting up a
proportion is necessary.
5. THE CORE PROCESSES OF MATHEMATICS 37
Among the important related topics are conversion of one unit of mea-
surement to another (rates), probabilities as ratios or rates, and percentage
increases and decreases as well as computing discounts, commissions, simple
and compound interest.
Compound interest is likely to be too involved at this stage for most
students, but pre-service teachers should become familiar with it. This is
a very important and practical topic that high school graduates should un-
derstand. Moreover, the percentage increase, percentage decrease problems
Instructor Note
Instructors should be
encouraged to have
pre-service teachers
complete similar
examples when this
topic is discussed.
and related problems are quite tricky and somewhat non-intuitive. Students
should convince themselves, via direct calculation, that a 20% increase, fol-
lowed by a 20% decrease does not get one back to where one started. For
example, a 20% increase of $100 gives $120, but a 20% decrease of $120
yields 120 (20%120) = 120 24 = 96 dollars, which is less than $100.
5. The Core Processes of Mathematics
Introduction. It is in the area of symbolic manipulation that the power
of mathematics in general, and algebra in particular, comes to the forefront.
If students cannot handle these processes, they will not be able to use mathe-
matics in eective ways. Yet, in this country extremely few students manage
to become procient in symbolic manipulation on their own, and the need
for remediation in this area is widespread.
Symbols. It often happens that we want to determine a quantity that
satises a number of conditions. A method for doing this is to let a symbol
stand for the unknown quantity, and to express the conditions via equa-
tions involving the symbol. In many situation, these equations can then
be manipulated using a small set of principles to nd the value(s) of the
quantity.
Symbolic manipulation begins with the use of symbols. Already in the
earliest grades students use symbols to solve equations, such as +7 = 11,
13 = 7, and they learn to represent verbal descriptions algebraically
when this is possible, as in Tom has 3 dimes. His brother Bob has twice as
many dimes. How many dimes does Bob have? which could be expressed
as the equations T = 3, B = 2T.
For the moment, we shall concentrate on the use of symbols. At the
outset, a symbol or variable (such as x or a) is just a number, in exactly the
same way that the pronoun it in the question Does it have ve letters?
is just a word. This x or a may be unknown for the time being, but there is
no doubt about the fact that x or a is a number and therefore can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided. For example, it makes perfect sense to
write 3 +x or 5x as soon as we specify the meaning of x.
6
Third graders should be taught to use letters to represent numbers in-
stead of using blanks all the time, i.e., use 3 + x = 5 sometimes instead of
6
5x means 5 times x, but this symbolism should only be used starting at the fourth grade
level.
38 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
3 + = 5.
Students should be taught the good habit of always specify-
ing what a symbol means instead of just writing something
like 27x = 14 without saying what x is. It could be, for in-
stance, Find the number x so that 27x = 14. Or, What
number x would satisfy 27 x = 14? But a common mis-
take one nds in many textbooks is to just thrust something
like 27 x = 14 on students with no explanation.
Third grade is a good starting point for students to learn the use of
symbols, but because the main thrust here is for students to learn to use
symbols uently, the exact grade level of each standard is not a primary
concern. What is important is that the technical sophistication of the ex-
ercises they are asked to do increases gradually. And it must be said that
Instructors need more
guidance here to help
pre-service students
understand what
constitutes meaningful
practice. Pre-service
teachers cannot
generally rely on their
textbooks to provide
carefully constructed
practice. The general
principles are that
initial forms of practice
involving symbols
should begin with
careful instruction
followed by on-going
opportunities to read
and explain the
meaning of symbolic
statements. This should
be followed by writing
symbolic statements to
represent given
parameters and, nally,
solving problems
involving symbols. This
must proceed from
simple to more complex
examples, and the
practice must be varied
and cumulative. This is
a daunting task for
most teachers. Further
discussion of these
issues is provided in
Chapters 3 - 8.
exercises are the heart of this process; students must achieve uency in the
use of symbols through practice. Here are some sample suggestions.
Third grade level problems
(1) Write a number sentence for a number y so that 21 minus y is
equal to 7.
(2) Write a number sentence to express: 21 cars are parked and y
cars drive o; only 7 cars remain.
(3) Express in symbolic form: a number x when added to 21 is
larger than 45.
Fourth grade level problems
(1) Paulo reads a number of pages of a 145-page book, then he
read 43 pages more so that only 38 pages remain. If p is the
number of pages Paulo read the rst time, write an equation
using p to express the above information.
(2) I have a number x and when I rst subtract 18 and then 9 from
it, I get 7. What is x?
(3) 18 meters of wire was cut from a reel, and then another 9 meters
of wire was cut. 7 meters of wire then remained on the reel.
If there were w meters of wire on the reel originally, write an
equation that expresses the preceding information. What is w?
Fifth grade level problems
(1) Starting with a number x, Eva multiplies it by 5 and then
subtracts 9 from it to get a new number. If x is 3, what is the
new number? If x is 10? If x is 14? If x = 19?
(2) y is a number so that when 5 is subtracted from 3 times y, we
get 31. Write down an equation for y. What is y?
(3) Let x be the number of oranges in a basket. Write a story
about the equation x 5 11 =
1
2
x.
Sixth grade level problems
(1) Johnny has three siblings, two brothers and a sister. His sister
is half the age of his older brother, and three fourths the age of
5. THE CORE PROCESSES OF MATHEMATICS 39
his younger brother. Johnnys older brother is four years older
than Johnny, and his younger brother is two years younger than
Johnny. Let J be the age of Johnny, A the age of Johnnys
older brother, and B the age of his younger brother. Express
the above information in terms of J, A, and B.
Seventh grade level problems
(1) We look for two whole numbers so that the larger exceeds the
the smaller by at least 10, but that the cube of the smaller
exceeds the square of the larger number by at least 500. If the
larger number is x and the smaller number is y, write expres-
sions relating x to y.
(2) Erin has 10 dollars and she wants to buy as many of her two
favorite pastries as possible. She nds that she can buy either
10 of one and 9 of the other, or 13 of one and 6 of the other,
and in both cases she will not have enough money left over to
buy more of either pastry. If the prices of the pastries are x
dollars and y dollars, respectively, write down the inequalities
satised by x and y.
Mathematical Preliminaries to Symbolic Manipulation. The main
emphasis of the above discussion as well as the included examples is on the
use of symbols. If a solution is asked for in any of the examples, it can be
obtained by simple arithmetic or even mental math.
The next stage in the development of students command of the symbolic
language will be the acquisition of symbolic manipulative skills to solve
equations and inequalities. Before taking this up, we need to develop an
important aspect of the use of symbols: the symbolic representations of the
associative, commutative, and distributive laws. Students should be familiar
with these rules by grade four and should be taught how to express them in
symbolic form from fourth grade on. For example, the associative property
of addition can be rephrased symbolically as follows: for any numbers x, y,
z, it is always true that
x + (y +z) = (x +y) +z.
Students must be taught why this symbolic representation is important:
(1) Concrete statements about the associativity of addition in terms of
explicit numbers are inadequate, e.g., we can go on listing equalities
like these: (2+3)+13 = 2+(3+13) (both sides equal 18), (17+5)+
43 = 17+(5+43) (both sides equal 65), (8+613)+11 = 8+(613+11)
(both sides equal 632), etc.
(2) The inadequacy comes from the fact that no matter how many
triples of numbers are listed for illustration, they always beg the
question of whether associativity works for three numbers of ones
own choosing.
40 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
(3) Since associativity is supposed to be true regardless of what the
three numbers may be, the preceding symbolic representation be-
comes a necessity if we want to express the associative property
precisely and correctly. The symbolic representation carries all the
information about the associativity of addition.
As was mentioned earlier, good practice indicates that every symbolic
expression should be accompanied by a statement of what the symbols mean.
In the case of associativity for addition, the statement for any numbers x,
y, z should be explained with care to students because this will be their rst
encounter with the concept of generality. They will have only written out
symbolic statements for specic numbers, e.g., (2 + 3) + 13, or the number
x so that x 17 = 8 before. By contrast, the associativity of addition does
not make a statement about one or several triples of numbers, but about
all triples x, y, z. When we begin to assert that something is true for all
numbers, we are introducing students to the heart of algebra and the core
of mathematical reasoning.
The symbolic representations of the commutativity of addition and mul-
tiplication and the associativity of multiplication should be similarly pre-
sented to students at the fourth grade level, and the distributivity at the
fth grade level.
Students can, and should be shown the power of generality even at this
stage. For example, knowing that (19, 805+80, 195)+2, 867, 904 = 100, 000+
2, 867, 904 = 2, 967, 904, we can blithely assert that (80, 195 +2, 867, 904) +
19, 805 = 2, 967, 904. First of all, this is a rather lengthy computation as it
stands, and its correctness is by no means a foregone conclusion. However,
we can check it by mental math if we make use of the commutativity and
associativity of addition, as follows. By the fact that commutativity of
addition is true for any two numbers, it is true in particular for (80, 195 +
2, 867, 904) and 19,805, so that
(80, 195 + 2, 867, 904) + 19, 805 = 19, 805 + (80, 195 + 2, 867, 904).
Since associativity of addition is true for any triple of numbers, and in
particular true for 19,805, 80,195, and 2,867,904, we have
19, 805 + (80, 195 + 2, 867, 904) = (19, 805 + 80, 195) + 2, 867, 904,
and since we have already seen that (19, 805 + 80, 195) + 2, 867, 904 =
2, 967, 904, by stringing these three equalities together, we have shown that
(80, 195 + 2, 867, 904) + 19, 805 = 2, 967, 904.
It is necessary to point out to students that, impressive as this example
may seem, it is a rather trivial justication of why they should learn about
these general rules. The real justication comes from applying them to
unknown numbers x, y, and z when we try to solve equations.
Finally, students should be aware that the associative, commutative, and
distributive rules remain valid no matter how many numbers are involved.
5. THE CORE PROCESSES OF MATHEMATICS 41
For example, the validity of the associative law for the addition of four
numbers a, b, c, d, states that all possible ways of adding these four numbers
are equal:
(a +b) + (c +d) = ((a +b) +c) +d
= a + ((b +c) +d)
= (a + (b +c)) +d
= a + (b + (c +d))
The equality
(a +b) + (c +d) = ((a +b) +c) +d,
can be seen to be the application of the original associative law to the three
numbers: (a + b), c, and d. The equality of the others is similar. While
reasoning of this kind is (admittedly) boring, it must be recognized that the
more general form of the associative law is what makes it possible to write
a + b + c + d without the use of parentheses (they dont matter). To push
this line of reasoning one step further, students should at least see why
a(b +c +d +e) = ab +ac +ad +ae.
This is because
a(b+c+d+e) = a(b+c)+(d+e) = a(b+c)+a(d+e) = (ab+ae)+(ad+ae),
and the last is equal to ab +ac +ad +ae because of the associative law for
four numbers.
One should not emphasize this kind of generality, but to the extent that
students see expressions such as 12+872+66+54 or 4417(23)
91 often (polynomials of high degree, for example), these facts should be
explained to them at least once.
Evaluating Expressions. order of operations should be de-emphasized
in instruction but some conventions are so universally used that students
Instructor Note This
may be a dicult point
to get across since order
of operation is deeply
embedded in the
curriculum. However, it
is well worth pointing
out that these
conventions were meant
for a time when
accurate hand
calculation was
critically important.
Today, the need to
understand
mathematics at a less
procedural level creates
dierent priorities.
have to be familiar with them. The following should suce: with symbolic
expressions of the type 5x
2
+ 7(2x 1)
2
2x
3
for a number x, the nota-
tion itself suggests the correct order of doing the operations: rst do the
exponents (i.e., x
2
, (2x 1)
2
, and x
3
), then do the multiplications (i.e.,
5x
2
, 7(2x 1)
2
, and 2x
3
), and nally the additions. Because subtraction
is just a dierent way of writing addition (e.g., 2x
3
is just +([2x
3
])),
and because division is expressed in terms of fraction multiplication (e.g.,
2x 5 should be written as
1
5
(2x)),
7
this rule is suciently comprehensive.
Anything more complicated should use parentheses for the sake of clarity.
For example, monstrosities such as 2
5
7
13 3 + 15 16 should be
avoided at all costs.
Here are some sample problems for the evaluation of expressions. In each
case, an expression involving a number x and sometimes other numbers y
7
By the seventh grade, students should know that parentheses stand for multiplication, i.e.,
1
5
(2x) means the product of
1
5
and 2x.
42 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
and z are given and students are asked to evaluate the expression for the
value of x (and y and z) specied in each case.
Grade 5
(1) 8 (x 7) (x 2). x = 84.
(2) (3x + 5) 4 (7 x). x = 6.
(3) (4 + (2x (9 x))). x = 5.
(4)
3
4
(x
1
2
). x =
2
3
.
(5) 5 (x
2
+
2
5
) x. x = 1
1
2
.
Grade 6
(1) x(3y 2z) +x(2z 3y). x = 213, y = 71, z = 102.
(2) 8xy 5xz +x
2
. x = 35, y = 1, z = 7.
(3) 63x 49x + 5x 8x. x = 21.
(4) 24x
2
3x 21x
3
+ 6x
2
. x =
1
2
(5)
3
7
x
2
+ 2
1
3
x
5
3
x
2
7
x
2
. x = 21.
Grade 7
(1)
1
4
x
2
3
1
3
x
3
2
x
2
+
1
3
x. x = 6.
(2) 5x
2
+ 18
2
3
x (
1
2
5x). x =
1
4
(3) 2x(1
1
2
x) +
1
2
x(2x + 4). x =
85
4
.
(4) x(2
1
x
) 47
1
x
. x =
47
2
.
Symbolic Manipulation. By the time students get to the seventh
grade, they have learned about rational numbers. As suggested in the Frac-
tions section, rational numbers are a system of numbers which is assumed
to satisfy the associative, commutative, and distributive rules.
Students need to be reminded of this fact, and in particu-
lar, the fact that the distributive property now includes not
just addition but also subtraction, namely, for all rational
numbers x, y, z, the following holds:
x(y z) = xy xz
which can be justied from the usual form of the distributive
rule and the basic properties of multiplication by 1.
Here something new and immensely signicant has been added to the
mix - simplifying expressions. This is one of the two basic components of
symbolic manipulation on the introductory level, to which we may regard
the exercises above on evaluation as a prelude.
The topic of simplifying expressions will be taken up at greater length
in Chapter 8 on algebra, but a few pertinent comments at this point would
5. THE CORE PROCESSES OF MATHEMATICS 43
help to pave the way for future work.
What matters is not just simplifying expressions but manip-
ulating them, changing a mathematical expression possibly
involving variables into an equivalent expression, or correctly
deriving a more useful expression from a given one. Put this
way, this is one of the most important steps students must
take in developing mathematical prociency.
Let us illustrate the most elementary aspect of simplifying expressions, which
is nothing but the application of the distributive law.
Suppose we are given an expression (25169)+(7612
2
)+(32251)
(12
2
16). Rather than doing the multiplications 251 69 and 32 251
involving the same number 251 separately, it would save labor to combine
the two operations if possible. The distributive law says (251 69) +(32
251) = 251 (69 + 32) = 251 101 = 25351. Similarly, (76 12
2
) (12
2

16) = 12
2
(76 16) = 12
2
60 = 8640. Thus the original expression
equals 25351 + 8640 = 33991. This is one of the instances where the
process is more importantthan the end result. The key idea of this process
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to be told to
emphasize this point
during instruction
is that the distributive law should be applied whenever possible to achieve
a simplication:
(25169)+(7612
2
)+(32251)(12
2
16) = 251 (69+32)+12
2
(7616)
If we replace the numbers 251 and 12 by any other numbers, the simplica-
tion would be similar. This means that for any two numbers x and y, we
always have:
69x + 76y
2
+ 32x 16y
2
= (69 + 32)x + (76 16)y
2
,
or more generally, for any (rational) numbers a, b, c, d,
ax +by
2
+cx +dy
2
= (a +c)x + (b +d)y
2
.
The extension to any sum of this type can be similarly formulated. This
technique is known as collecting like terms in algebra, and it is one of
the rigid rules that is normally emphasized in the teaching of algebra, but
students should understand that it is no more than the distributive law
and ecient organization of ones work. The basic idea of applying the
distributive law whenever possible will also be a key step in the solution of
linear equations below.
The other basic component of symbolic manipulation has to do, not with
expressions, but with equations. There are two basic properties students
need to understand here:
(1) When equals are added to equals, the results are equal,
(2) When equals are multiplied by equals, the results are equal.
Students should know how to express these properties using symbols. The
rst means that if a, x, y are any three numbers, and x = y, then a +x =
a + y. Similarly, the second means that under the same assumption on a,
x, y, ax = ay. Note that these two statements remain valid even as the
44 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
meaning of numbers (i.e., a, x, y) becomes more inclusive as the grade
level progresses: in grade 4, numbers are basically whole numbers, in grade
5 they include fractions, in grade 6 they include integers, until nally in
grade 7 a number means any rational number.
What is important about these two statements in the context of sym-
bolic manipulation is that, at the seventh grade level, they give rise to the
following basic skills in manipulating equations.
8
First, suppose a, b, c are
Instructor Note This
is an important point to
make with pre-service
students. Students to
understand these
properties earlier than
is now customary in the
U.S.A, but the
examples must be
carefully controlled.
rational numbers so that a = b + c, then a c = b, and vice versa (this is
commonly referred to as transposing c).
9
(1) To show that a = b + c implies a c = b, observe that from c =
c and a = b + c, we obtain a + (c) = (b + c) + (c). The
associative law and the denition of a c as a + (c) immediately
yields a c = b.
(2) Conversely, a c = b implies a = b +c because, from a c = b and
c = c, we get (a c) +c = b +c, which is (a +(c)) +c = b +c.
The associative law for addition similarly yields a = b +c.
One can paraphrase this fact by saying that the two equations a = b +c
and a c = b are interchangeable: knowing either one means knowing the
other. It is common to abbreviate this fact by saying a = b +c is the same
as or is equivalent to a c = b.
10
In more suggestive language, one can say
that the number c in the equation a = b + c may be transposed to the
other side and we would still have the same equation.
For exactly the same reason, if b ,= 0 and ab = c, then by looking at
ab = c and
1
b
=
1
b
, we see that ab = c is equivalent to a =
c
b
.
These two facts,
a = b +c is equivalent to a c = b
and
if b ,= 0, then ab = c is equivalent to a =
c
b
are fundamental for the symbolic manipulative aspect of solving equations.
Because they are so important, many concrete examples and
exercises on these manipulations should be given. For exam-
ple: if a number a satises (3125 467) = a + 100, what is
a +567? Or, if b is a number so that 3b +2345 = 2b, what is
b?
8
In the high achieving countries such skills are part of the curriculum much earlier than
seventh grade.
9
Of course this fact can be taught in grade 4 if a, b, c are restricted to be whole numbers so
that a c. A similar statement can be made about grade 5 and grade 6, but we want to state
the most general statement possible up to this point for convenience.
10
It would be good practice to suppress the terminology same as and strictly use equiv-
alent to since, in common usage, same has a dierent meaning than its usage here.
5. THE CORE PROCESSES OF MATHEMATICS 45
Isolating variables in simple linear equations. To solve a linear
equation such as 12x 5 = 6x means to nd the number c that makes
12c 5 equal to 6c. Such a number c is called a solution.
Generally, equations have more than one solution, though lin-
ear equations usually only have at most one solution. Since
linear equations are so common in school mathematics, one
often nds reference to the solution for general equations.
In the case of equations with more than one number in the
solution set, it is also common to call the entire set of solu-
tions the solution. These diering usages cause diculties
for students, and care must be taken at this point.
Thus 2 is not a solution of 12x5 = 6x since 1225 = 19 while 62 = 12.
However
5
6
is a solution because 12
5
6
5 = 10 5 = 5 and 6
5
6
is also
equal to 5. Notice the relevance of evaluating expressions to our attempt to
determine whether or not a number is a solution of a given equation.
Observe that if the equation is presented as simply 3x = 25, then we
can directly make use of the fact that
if b ,= 0, then ab = c is the same as a =
b
c
to conclude that 3x = 25 is the same as
x =
25
3
.
In particular, 3
25
3
= 25 (a fact which is simple to verify directly in any
case), so that
25
3
is the solution of the equation 3x = 25.
In like manner, the equation 12x = 3 has solution x =
3
12
=
1
4
, the
equation
2
5
x = 6 has solution x = (1/
2
5
) 6 =
5
2
6 = 15, and, in general,
if c, d are rational numbers, then for c ,= 0,
cx = d has the solution
d
c
.
Suppose now we are given an equation 11x+6 = 3x6 where x is some
unknown number. The preceding discussion shows that if we can isolate the
variable x in the sense of getting an equivalent equation with all the xs on
one side and the other numbers on the other side (e.g., 5x2x = 6855+1),
then after an application of the distributive law, we can get an equation of
the form cx = d for some numbers c and d (e.g., since 5x2x = (52)x = 3x,
we get 3x = 68 55 + 1 for the preceding example), and the determination
of the solution set for the equation would follow.
To isolate the variable, it is therefore a matter of transposing all the xs
to one side and all other numbers to the other side. To this end, we make
repeated use of the following fact:
a = b +c is equivalent to a c = b
46 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
Here are some examples, in increasing order of diculty that illustrate an
approach to instruction in this area.
(1) Solve 7x = 3x 16. We begin by transposing 3x to the left side:
7x 3x = 16. By the distributive property, 7x 3x = (7 3)x =
4x, so that 4x = 16. The solution is then
16
4
= 4.
(2) Solve 5x + 1 = 2x 11. We rst transpose 2x to the left side:
(5x + 1) 2x = 11, so that 3x + 1 = 11. Now we have to
transpose +1 to the right side: 3x = 11 1, and 3x = 12. Thus
the solution is
(12)
3
, which is 4.
(3) Solve 3x + 14 = 2 8x 17. As usual, it is convenient to rst
transpose the xs to one side: (3x + 14) (8x) = 15 (we have
made use of 2 8x 17 = 2 17 8x = 15 8x), so that
3x + 14 + 8x = 15, and 11x + 14 = 15. We next dispose of 14:
11x = 15 14, and therefore 11x = 29. The solution is then
29
11
.
However, one must not give students the idea that the xs must be on the
Instructor Note
Instructors and
pre-service teachers
need to be told to
emphasize this point.
This is also a good
point to emphasize the
importance of carefully
selected or created
examples during
instruction.
left, so we will manipulate the symbols dierently to get the same solution.
We begin by transposing 3x to the right side: 14 = (28x17) 3x, which
is 14 = 2178x3x, i.e., 14 = 1511x. Now transpose 15 to the left:
14 (15) = 11x, so that 14 +15 = 11x, or 11x = 29. The solution is
then
29
(11)
=
29
11
, which is of course the same as before.
6. Functions and Equations
In this section we discuss the concept of a function, its graph, and its
relation with the study of equations. Functions and graphs are misunder-
stood by students. Students need to understand that a function is a rule
that associates an object of one kind with an object of another kind. In
this sense, student experience with functions starts in Kindergarten with
problems such as associating a color to each ball in a set.
Functions appear in more and more contexts and become more and more
central to mathematics as students move through the grades. Functions such
as formulas for area and perimeter, rules for calculating the number of horses
legs given the number of horses, and others are introduced. Gradually, the
functions studied become so complex that students need aids to understand
them. Graphs are initially introduced for this reason. Graphs often serve as
visual representations of functions.
Functions. A function is a rule that associates to each element in a
set one and only one element in a second set. As an example, the equation
2x+y = 1 determines one and only one y for each value of x, namely 12x,
and thus determines a function associating 1 2x to each x. Students have
seen functions repeatedly from the earliest grades.
Students should become familiar with certain basic functions, particu-
larly the functions x, and x
2
. Graphs of simple linear equations can occur
6. FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS 47
in grade four. By the end of grade seven they should have also graphed
simple quadratic equations. They should realize that some functions, such
as
1
x
are not dened for every value of x, but there is no reason to introduce
terminology such as domain and range at this point. It will be introduced
in the algebra course.
Some linear functions occur in daily life, as in converting from miles to
feet or from centimeters to inches. Conversion of these types lead to linear
functions. For example, the conversion of miles to feet is described by the
linear function m 5280m, and the conversion of Celsius to Fahrenheit in
temperature is described by the linear function C
9
5
C + 32.
Graphing. The graph of a function is dened as the set of all pairs of
numbers (a, b) so that b is the number the function associates with a. (Of
course, for functions where the domain and range are not numbers, one still
has the graph, but it is not something that is studied in school mathematics.
Consequently, when we discuss graphs, we strictly restrict our attention to
functions from numbers to numbers.)
Additionally, before students can handle graphs eectively, they must
understand coordinates in the plane or at least the rst quadrant. Finally,
students must understand the concept of the graph of an equation as the
collection of all the ordered pairs of points (x, y) satisfying the equation.
The failure to come grips with the quantier all may account for students
common error of not recognizing why the graph of y = 5 is a horizontal line
or that the graph of x = 3 is a vertical line.
Combining Graphs and Functions. The fact that the graph of a
linear function is a straight line cannot easily be demonstrated without using
properties of similar triangles. Students will have to initially take it on faith
that the graph is a straight line. This should be carefully explored with
exercises and examples.
Students in sixth through eighth grades should graph functions of the
form ax + by = 0, x
2
+ a, and
1
x
. They should also explore the graph of a
function such as x its integer part, i.e., the largest integer x (e.g.,
1.05 1, 5 5, 2.1 3, etc.):
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
0 1 2 3 1 2 3
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
)
)
)
)
)
)
[
[
[
[
[
[
Solving and graphing linear equations. In the discussion of sym-
bolic manipulation, solving linear equations was the key example. When
48 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
given a linear equation of the form ax + b = cx + d with a ,= c, students
know how to solve by isolating the variable and obtain x =
dc
ac
.
The linear equation in two variables
ax +by = c
should now be introduced. The study of this equations graph will be one of
the main topics in algebra, but what students need claried is the relation-
ship between the graph of this equation and the graph of a linear function.
First, the explicit process of determining the value of y that makes the
equation ax +by = c true for a given x should be developed. This is similar
to the symbolic manipulation in the solution of a linear equation of one
variable. When a and b are non-zero, students should be able to derive the
formula y =
cax
b
=
a
b
x+
c
b
, and they should, in particular, know that when
c = 0 then the graph contains the origin (0, 0). The special cases x = c or
y = c should be discussed as well.
Now observe that the graph of the equation ax + by = c is exactly the
same as the graph of the linear function x
a
b
x +
c
b
. This means one
should check that every (x, y) in the graph of the equation ax + by = c is
also a point in the graph of the linear function x
a
b
x+
c
b
, and vice versa.
Proportions. Proportions are another major source of diculty in the
K - 8 mathematics curriculum. A key reason is that a complete understand-
ing of a proportional relationship requires the use of the concept of a linear
function, but the connection between proportions and linear functions is
rarely made explicit.
In school mathematics, four ordered numbers a, b, c, d are said to form a
proportion if the ratio of a to b is the same as the ratio of c to d. This rarely
makes sense to students. However, the connection between proportions and
linear equations is that (a, b) and (c, d) are points on the same straight line
through the origin if and only if a, b, c, d form a proportion. In many foreign
countries, this is the denition of proportion.
When students attempt to use proportions to solve problems, they be-
come puzzled about how to set up the correct proportions. We will address
this issue below.
Proportions can be motivated via examples like connecting the total
number of wheels on n bicycles to n, and noting that the ratios are the
same for each n. (Similarly for counting the total number of legs on n
chickens, and the cost of n items when the unit cost is known.) It is very
important that we do not stop at this point. Notice that if one bicycle has
2 wheels, two would have 2 2 wheels and three would have 2 3 wheels
and, in general, n bicycles will have 2n wheels. So we have an association
of n 2n. We recognize this as a linear function of n. Put another way,
we have a relationship
number of bicycles
number of wheels
=
1
2
6. FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS 49
There is a constancy of a certain ratio, and this is the key
to proportions. Bicycle wheel problems are too simple (one
can guess the answer without doing any mathematics), so a
dierent kind of problem must be used to illustrate this point.
Instructor Note It
should be pointed out
that many students will
have diculty
identifying the essential
information needed to
form a proportion. It
would not be unusual
for students to become
confused about whether
4 p.m. needs to be part
of the proportion.
There will also be
students who dont
know that shadow
length changes
throughout the day.
Teachers need to
carefully discuss such
problems with students
and step them through
initial examples.
If a building at 4:00PM has a shadow that is 75 feet long, while, at
the same time, a vertical pole that is 6 feet long makes a shadow
that is 11 feet long, then how high is the building?
What is implicitly assumed here, and what must be made explicit when
teaching this material, is the fact that
height of object
length of shadow
= constant
(This comes from considerations of similar triangles which will be discussed
in the geometry chapter, Chapter 7.) Now we can do the problem. Let B
be the height of the building. Then we know
B
75
is equal to this constant
while for the pole, the ratio
6
11
is also equal to the same constant. Therefore
the two numbers
B
75
and
6
11
are equal, i.e.,
B
75
=
6
11
The solution is now straightforward: multiply both sides by 75 to get B =
75
6
11
= 40
10
11
feet. (Or, we could cross-multiply and we get 11B = 6 75,
so B =
450
11
= 40
10
11
feet.)
The preceding displayed equation is traditionally said to be obtained
by setting up a proportion. We can ignore the name for the time being,
but we should know that there is no guesswork involved. Once we know
the constancy of the ratio of the height-of-object to length-of-shadow, the
preceding displayed equation is automatic and then getting the solution
becomes routine.
To review: once we get the equality of two ratios (i.e., set up the cor-
rect proportion) of the type
a
b
=
x
c
, where a, b, c are known and x is the
unknown number, cross-multiplication leads to bx = ac. We can now apply
the method we developed for solving linear equations to get b =
ac
b
.
Alternatively, we do not have to cross multiply, but simply rewrite as
a
b
=
1
c
x, and multiply both sides by c to obtain the result. (It is important
for students to try multiple methods for solving these equations in order
to support the understanding that correct methods of isolating the variable
and solving the equation all give the same result.)
The numbers a, b, c in the equation
a
b
=
x
c
are, in general, fractions and
therefore we are looking at complex fractions again.
A good introduction to proportions is the concept of a motion of con-
stant speed. In section 4, Ratios, Rates, and Percents, motion with con-
stant speed was dened in an ad hoc manner. We can now do better. A
motion is said to have constant speed if given the distance traveled, s miles,
in a xed time interval of t hours, then the quotient
s
t
is always equal to a
50 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
xed constant (say v) no matter how the time interval is chosen. Here as
elsewhere, all such discussions always have an implicit understanding that
all the numbers involved in this case s and t are fractions. Thus
s
t
is
a complex fraction again. The following examples will serve to clarify the
situation.
Example 1: Suppose a train travels at constant speed. If it takes
2 hours and 40 minutes to go from town A to town B which are
160 miles apart, how long will it take to go from town C to town D
which are 225 miles apart?
Because we know the meaning of constant speed, we know that if x is the
time it takes to go from C to D, then 225/x is the speed of the train, v, just
as 160/2
40
60
is also the speed of the train v. Therefore
225
x
=
160
2
40
60
as both are equal to v. Cross-multiply to get 160x = 225 2
2
3
, so that
x =
225
160

8
3
=
15
4
= 3
3
4
hours, i.e., 3 hours and 45 minutes.
Note that we did not set up a correct proportion. We merely observed
what constant speed means and made use of it.
Example 2: Water is coming out of a faucet at a constant rate.
If it takes 3 minutes to ll up a container with a capacity of 15.5
gallons, how long will it take for it to ll a tub of 25 gallons?
As is the case with all problems in mathematics, all the terms must be under-
stood. Here, before students can solve this problem they have to understand
the meaning of constant rate. It means that if we measure the amount of
water, say w gallons, coming out of the faucet during a time interval of t
minutes, then the quotient
w
t
is always a xed constant, say r, no matter
what time interval is chosen. It takes x minutes to ll the tub, so both
25
x
and
15.5
3
are equal to r and therefore
25
x
=
15.5
3
Notice that both are complex fractions because 15.5 is really
155
10
and x is
expected to be a fraction and not a whole number. Cross-multiply to get
15.5x = 75 and therefore x =
75
15.5
= 4
26
31
minutes.
Again, the displayed equation above was not set up as a proportion.
Rather, it is a statement of the constancy of the rate of water ow. In
Instructor Note This
is a critical point to
emphasize in
instruction for
pre-service teachers and
students.
general, we can say that all the claims about two things being proportional
are always imprecise ways of saying that certain quotients are constants.
The linear function involved in Example 2 is w = rt, i.e., it is the
function t rt. All the traditional problems about proportions are about
linear functions without a constant term.
When preparing and presenting these kinds of problems, an eort must
be made to make explicit what this function is or else make the search for
7. REAL MEASUREMENT AND MEASUREMENT IN GEOMETRY 51
this function part of the problem. Suppressing any reference to this function
and making vague references to proportional reasoning is not conducive to
mathematics learning.
7. Real Measurement and Measurement in Geometry
Before students can work with measurement and the core topics that
develop from it, they must be familiar with the number line and means of
making measurements.
Some students will not understand how rulers work, confusing
tick marks and intervals, for example.
Care has to be taken here, and it is a good practice to introduce the number
line rst, then rulers.
The following
information should be
presented during
instruction: (a) practice
using teacher-prepared
number lines should
precede the use of rulers
(b) practice examples
should systematically
proceed from easy to
complex intervals, (c)
students need explicit
instruction/practice
understanding the
dierence between tick
marks and intervals, (d)
rulers that combine
dierent measurement
systems should not be
used during initial
instruction, and (e) an
important student
pre-skill for reading
rulers is the ability to
read and write mixed
fractions. Do not
assume pre-service
students understand
this material.
Once the use of number lines and rulers for measuring and the number
line are in place, the discussion of measurement can begin. Measurement
involves length, weight, capacity, and time, and standards involving mea-
surements are present from Kindergarten on. The elementary aspects of
measurement involve knowing:
(1) the dierent systems of units used for measurement,
(2) when it is appropriate to use one or the other of these systems, and
(3) how to translate between these systems.
The next two aspects of measurement are on a higher level, and, though the
fth starts occurring in the early grades, a careful discussion of it and the
fourth should be deferred till about grade ve or six. Students should know
(4) how to use and make measurements in abstract mathematical situ-
ations
(5) how to make measurements in real life situations.
A basic measurement issue here is the distinction between the last two as-
pects. In abstract, mathematical situations, measurements are almost al-
ways assumed to be exact. However, actual measurements in the real world
always are inaccurate, and the resulting error can seldom be ignored.
When building a house or a shed, if we are not aware that our mea-
surements have errors, the errors will gradually accumulate, and parts will
simply not t together. Real world measurements involve making estimates
and keeping track of the resulting errors. If measurements are accurate only
to the nearest millimeter, then adding two such measurements leads to a pos-
sible inaccuracy of one millimeter, and multiplying two such measurements
a mm and b mm leads to a possible error of a +b + 1 mm. Estimations are
routinely discussed in school without reference to the attendant errors of
Thus, students have to make the distinction between the measurements
of types (4) and (5) -measurements made in abstract mathematical situ-
ations and real life situations. All too often neither distinction is done
accurately - or at all. The discussion below recommends ways to improve
this situation.
52 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
Area. Area and perimeter typically are rst considered around the third
grade in successful foreign countries and states like California. At this stage
students are asked to make actual measurements. Such measurements do not
involve the precise, formal measurements of geometry. But none-the-less, it
is very important that students even at this stage understand what area and
perimeter are. Perimeter can be readily understood via direct measurement
of the perimeters of some basic gures, but area is a dierent matter.
One of the most common errors that students make is to be-
lieve that area is dened by formulas, so that if they see a
gure for which they do not know a formulaic method of de-
termining the area, they will have no idea how to proceed.
This type of issue occurs when students rst are asked to dis-
cuss or determine the area of an irregular gure or a rectangle
with non-integer side lengths.
Students should know some basic properties of area. They should begin by
working with gures made out of non-overlapping squares, all of the same
size; for convenience, we will say that those squares pave the gures. The
area of such a gure should be dened for students as the sum of the areas
of the individual squares.
Continuing the discussion, we must consider the numerical measurement
of area. It should be emphasized that, as in the discussion of fractions, one
must x a unit of area throughout the discussion. The most common area-
unit is a unit square, where unit refers to the length of a side and it could
be 1 cm, 1 mm, or 1 of anything.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ............................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...........................................................................................................................................................................................
The area of the unit square is traditionally assigned the value 1 area-unit.
If the side of the unit square is 1 cm, then the area-unit is called 1 sq. cm;
if the side of the unit square is 1 ft., then the area-unit is called 1 sq. ft.,
etc. It follows that the area of a rectangle with sides 5 units and 7 units has
value 57 because it can be paved by 7+7+7+7+7 = 57 unit squares.
In general, if a, b are whole numbers, the same reasoning gives that the area
of a rectangle with sides of lengths a, b is ab area-units.
If two gures overlap, then the area of the resulting gure is less than
the sum of the individual areas. Consider the following example where each
big square is a unit square and each is paved by nine equal smaller squares,
7. REAL MEASUREMENT AND MEASUREMENT IN GEOMETRY 53
as shown:
11
.....................................................................................................
...................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................... . ....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................... . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
The area of the resulting gure can be described as the sum of the areas
of the 17 smaller squares. Since the area of either unit square (which is 1)
is the sum of the areas of 9 congruent smaller squares, each smaller square
has area equal to
1
9
area-units. Consequently, the total area of the gure is
17
1
9
=
17
9
area-units. When the overlap of two gures is more complicated
than a square, then the numerical determination of the total area is not
easy.
The preceding reasoning leads to the numerical determination of areas
of rectangles whose sides have fractional lengths. Suppose a, b are whole
numbers and suppose R is a rectangle with sides of lengths
1
a
and
1
b
, then
the area of R is
1
a

1
b
, according to the denition of the product
1
a

1
b
presented in section 3. Since it takes ab of these Rs to pave the unit square,
the area of the unit square (which is 1) is therefore ab times the area of R.
It follows that the area of R is
1
ab
. Therefore, we have proved the general
assertion that
the area of a rectangle with sides of length and w is w
for the special case =
1
a
and w =
1
b
, where a, b are whole numbers.
From this, it is simple to see why the assertion is true for all fractions.
With the understanding we only deal with rational numbers, we have now
explained why area of a rectangle is length times width. Such a discussion
is necessary to counteract the tendency of students to see area as strictly
dened by formulas.
Practice with measuring the approximate area of more complex regions
can now be given:
The edge of each square in the gure below is 5cm. Count the
number of squares inside the red lines; there are 37. Then count
11
We reiterate the basic assumption that in K - 7 mathematics all arithmetic is with rational
numbers, so care should be taken with overlapping squares that the overlap is, as illustrated, an
easy fraction of (the area of) the two squares.
54 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
the number of squares inside the blue lines; there are 72.
It is intuitively clear that the area of the irregular gure is bigger than the
area of the gure bounded by the red lines, but smaller than the area of the
gure bounded by the blue lines. It follows that the area of the liver-shaped
gure is between 37 5
2
cm
2
and 72 5
2
cm
2
.
If we use smaller squares, that is if the edge of each square is 1 cm or
even 0.01 cm instead of 5 cm, it is also intuitively clear that the area of the
irregular gure will be approximated by two numbers closer together than
37 5
2
and 72 5
2
.
By using smaller and smaller squares, it is believable that, at some point,
the bigger and smaller numbers will get closer and closer together until they
coincide. This common number is formally what is called the area of the
liver-shaped gure. The same can be said for any gure.
Exact Measurement in Geometry. We have seen above how to de-
rive the exact formula for the area of a rectangle with rational side lengths.
From this, students can derive exact formulas for the area of a triangle
and of a parallelogram, by cutting and pasting. (This assumes that area is
unchanged by these operations - something that should be mentioned but
clearly cannot be covered too deeply at the K - 8 level.) Likewise students
should study the surfaces of simple gures such as a cube or rectangular
box, and derive formulas for their area.
We now demonstrate the area formula for a triangle. This requires a
signicant advance on the previous exact determination of area in the case
of gures constructed out of squares with restricted overlaps.
We will take as a given the intuitive fact that if two gures intersect
only at their boundaries, then the area of the combined gure is the sum of
the respective areas. For right triangles, we can use this fact to determine
their area by observing that if a right triangle is doubled in the usual way
to yield a rectangle, then the area of the right triangle is half the area of the
rectangle. Since the height and base of a right triangle are the lengths
of the legs, and hence the lengths of the sides of the rectangle so produced,
7. REAL MEASUREMENT AND MEASUREMENT IN GEOMETRY 55
the area of the right triangle is half the product of height and base (because
the latter is the area of the rectangle). This justies the special case of
the area of a triangle is
1
2
(base height)
when the triangle is a right triangle. For the general case, let triangle ABC
be arbitrary and let AD be the perpendicular from the vertex A to the
line containing BC. Then there are two cases to consider: D is inside the
segment BC, and D is outside the segment BC. See the gures:
....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................................................................................
B B C C
A A
D D
h h
In either case, AD is called the height with respect to the base BC. By
the usual abuse of language, height and base are also used to signify the
lengths of AD and BC, respectively. With this understood, we shall prove
the area formula of a triangle in general. For the case on the left, the area
of triangle ABC is clearly the sum of the areas of triangle ABD and ADC.
Since the latter two triangles are right triangles (whose areas we already
know how to compute), the general formula is easy. For the case on the
right, then we must observe that the area of triangle ABC is now the area
of triangle ABD minus the area of triangle ACD. A similar calculation
again yields the general formula.
It is important not to leave out the case on the right, i.e, the case where
the perpendicular from the top vertex meets the line containing the base at
a point outside the base.
Once we get the area formula of a triangle, one can get all area formulas
for polygons in the plane, including those of parallelograms and trapezoids.
Also, students are expected to be familiar with volume, which can be
developed in a manner similar to that of area. However, it should be made
clear that determining volume is usually much more involved than deter-
mining area. A good example of this is the formula for the area of a right
cone
1
3
Ah with the mysterious coecient
1
3
.
More advanced topics. Around fth grade, angles are also brought
in. At this stage, students need only do experimental geometry in the sense
of verifying geometric assertions by direct measurements (and it is important
that they do). So measuring angles of many triangles should convince them
of the likely truth of the fact that the sum of the angles of any triangle
is 180 degrees. However, too often, these approximate measurements are
presented as an actual proof of this fact. Strenuous eort should be made
to avoid this.
56 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
Around grade 7, further exact properties of measurement are brought
forward. Students are introduced to the Pythagoren theorem and its con-
verse and use them to nd the length of the missing side of a right triangle
as well as in other applications.
With the concept of area developed carefully for students, and assuming
that the sum of angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, one can give one of the
simplest proofs of the Pythagorean theorem without having to appeal to
any algebraic identities. Consider the following picture:
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b
c
a
The area of the big square minus the areas of the four congruent right
triangles is then the area of the inner square, which is c
2
. Now rearrange
the four triangles so that we have the following decomposition of the original
square.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b
c
a
Observe that the area of the big square minus the areas of the same four
congruent right triangles is now the sum of two smaller squares, one in the
upper right and the other in the lower left, and is therfore a
2
+ b
2
. So
c
2
= a
2
+b
2
.
An example of a problem involving idealized measurements in geometry
is the following:
We are given an isoceles triangle with height 7 and base length 12.
What are the lengths of the remaining two edges?
Here, one uses the Pythagorean theorem to observe that the answer is

7
2
+ 6
2
=

85. This is an exact answer, and such an answer only oc-
curs in the idealized world of mathematics. It would be typical to write the
answer

85 as 9.21954, but this is not exact. If one were to draw an isoceles

triangle with the given height and base, and then measure the length of one
of the remaining edges, the measurement would give an answer of about
9.2 units if one is truly precise, so people tend to be quite content with the
approximation 9.21954.
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 57
In summary, we repeat that approximations are characteristic of all real
world measurements. They inevitably have errors. In most current texts,
there is little if any attention paid to the distinction between the precise
measurements in geometry and the approximate measurements that result
when one actually measures real world objects. This results in serious con-
fusion on the part of students.
8. Course Outline for the First Course
Optional for the rst day: Give an arithmetic test to make sure
that students have the prerequisites for this course. They should be able
to carry out whole number computations, decimal computations, calcula-
tions involving percents, and fraction calculations using the four arithmetic
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Many el-
ementary school teachers and prospective elementary school teachers are
unable to carry out arithmetic calculations at the sixth grade level. If a
substantial proportion of the students in this course have serious decits in
arithmetic, they should be redirected to remedial courses which do not use
calculators. This course focuses primarily on the base ten number system
and its consequences, including the principles behind arithmetic procedures.
The focus is not on how to calculate.
About 1 week: Natural numbers, single-digit addition and sub-
traction, story problems up through 2-step problems, student so-
lution strategies, structure of numbers and number words
(1) Explain the concepts of set, subset, the empty set, unions, inter-
sections, one-to-one correspondences, and complements relative to
a given universal set. Discuss addition and subtraction of small
numbers, including:
adding and subtracting one;
combining and disaggregating small groups of similar objects;
comparing sets of objects for less or more.
(2) Explain addition and subtraction in two ways:
in terms of union and subtraction of sets;
by counting up or down from a given number (in some countries
subtraction is also taught using forward counting)
(3) Point out that the English words eleven, twelve, thirteen,
etc. do not reinforce an understanding of the base ten structure.
Initial use of consistent terms like ten-and-one, ten-and-two,
etc., analogous to constructions in other languages, is a possible tool
for lower grade elementary school teachers, with the understanding
that the standard terminology can and should be introduced later.
(4) Emphasize the importance for elementary school children to memo-
rize all single digit addition facts, and all corresponding subtraction
facts. The approaches described below can be helpful in this eort,
58 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
and they illustrate applications of the associative property of addi-
tion. However, there is no substitution for the memorization of the
addition and subtraction facts.
discuss the make-a-ten method for adding single digit num-
bers. For example, 8+5 maybe computed as: 8+5 = 8+2+3 =
10 + 3 = 13. The subtraction 13 8 may be done similarly,
rst subtracting 3 and then 5. These methods are taught in
other nations, and are viewed there as the rst step in learning
multi-digit addition and subtraction algorithms;
discuss how knowing the doubles of numbers may be used in
single digit additions. For example, 6+7 = 6+6+1 = 12+1 =
13, all done mentally and rapidly.
Explain the associative and commutative properties of addi-
tion. Indicate that they can be introduced to students through
working with sets of objects and can be explained in words:
We can push the 4 orange blocks over to the two yellow blocks
or the two yellow blocks to the orange blocks. In either case,
we have six blocks, etc. The associative property can be illus-
trated starting with three piles of blocks. For young children,
there is no point in naming these rules, but teachers need to
know them by name.
(5) Discuss the connection between addition and subtraction. As is
done in many countries, dene a b = c to mean b + c = a. Dis-
cuss and solve 2-step problems involving addition and subtraction,
explaining the solutions in detail. For problems involving small
numbers use methods such as the Singapore bar diagrams to help
both with parsing and modeling the solutions. As an example here
is a discussion from the second grade Russian text translated by
UCSMP:
(a) A goose weighs 4 kg, and a piglet weighs 7 kg. How much do
the goose and the piglet weigh together?
(b) A goose and a piglet weigh 11 kg together. The goose weighs
4 kg. How much does the piglet weigh?
(c) How are these problems similar and how are they dierent?
How is the second problem obtained from the rst? The second
problem is the inverse of the rst problem. Make up one more
problem inverse to the rst problem and solve it.
One and 1/2 weeks: Place value and comparison of whole numbers,
multi-digit addition and subtraction methods
(1) Explain place value and illustrate with examples. E.g., the meaning
of the numeral 743 is 7 hundreds, 4 tens, and 3 ones. Students can
see this more directly by writing 743 in expanded form:
743 = 700 + 40 + 3
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 59
In many cases, elementary school students begin to develop pro-
ciency in multiplication in third grade. Multiplication may be used
to show more directly the meaning of place value. For example,
743 = (7 100) + (4 10) + (3 1)
(2) Review exponential notation together with the basic laws of expo-
nents. Standard form for 743 with exponents becomes
743 = (7 10
2
) + (4 10
1
) + (3 10
0
)
Notation involving exponents is also convenient for discussions of
factoring whole numbers into products of primes.
(3) Explain how place value enables rapid comparison of whole num-
bers: Read each of two numbers from left to right. The rst place
holder where the digits are dierent determines which number is
larger. The reason is that any single (non-zero) digit in a place
holder to the left is worth more than all the digits to its right put
together. The 1 in 1999 represents 1000 and that is greater than the
value of 999 from all of the digits to the right of the 1. To compare
823, 549 to 823, 651, note that the 8 in the hundred-thousands place
is the same for both numbers, as is the 2 in the ten-thousands place
and the 3 in the thousands place. Continuing to read from left to
right, the digits in the next place holder, the hundreds column, are
dierent; in one case there is a 5 and in the other a 6. Since 5 < 6,
823, 549 < 823, 651
Point out that the digits in the tens column and in the ones column
played no role in deciding which of these two numbers is greater
than the other. As another example, compare 1234 to 987. Explain
that a possible mistake children might make is to compare the rst
digits that appear in the two numerals and conclude incorrectly
that 987 is greater than 1234 because 9 > 1. Why is this wrong
and what is the correct way to compare digits? The 1 is in the
thousands place while the 9 is in the hundreds place. The number
987 may be thought of as having a zero in the thousands place,
so that for purposes of this comparison, 987 may be thought of as
0987. Now looking at the corresponding place values of 1234 and
0987 from left to right, we see that 1 > 0 and therefore,
1234 > 987
(4) Discuss historical methods for addition and subtraction, for exam-
ple, the very visual Hieroglyphic Egyptian method, for writing num-
bers and combining them. Include a discussion of Roman numerals
and how one might add CIV and CCMV I. Note the ineciencies
of such methods and their limitations for adding and subtracting
large numbers. This is an intermediate step for an appreciation of
the more ecient standard algorithms in base ten.
60 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
(5) Use fundamental principles of numbers to explain the standard ad-
dition and subtraction algorithms. Emphasize the role of place
value in the algorithms.
(6) Discuss and assign word problems that require more than one ad-
dition or subtraction.
3 weeks: Multiplication and division of counting numbers
(1) Dene multiplication of counting numbers: n m represents the
sum of n addends each of which is m. E.g., 3 2 2 + 2 + 2.
Alternative denitions are also possible. n m can be dened as
the number of objects in a union of n disjoint sets, each of which
contains exactly m elements (informally, the number of objects in
a collection of n groups, each with m objects), or the number of
elements in a rectangular array of n rows and m columns, or as the
area of a rectangle of base m and height n (commutativity is part
of this denition). Starting with one denition, deduce the content
of the other possible denitions, as needed.
An advantage of the area denition is that it carries over to
fractions, but this denition is problematic for the lower grades
because multiplication is usually dened before area is intro-
duced.
Arrays may be used for grade level proofs of the commu-
tative property of multiplication. If the number of dots in
an array of dots is the number of rows times the number of
columns, then a rigid 90

rotation of the array demonstrates

the commutative property.
Extend multiplication to whole numbers; dene multiplication
when at least one factor is zero. Note for example that 3
0 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 is a natural extension of the denition for
counting numbers, and then 0 3 = 0 must also be true if the
commutative property is to hold on the set of whole numbers.
(2) Introduce the associative property of multiplication and the dis-
tributive property for addition and subtraction (A(BC) = AB
AC if B C). Explain that the two versions of the distributive
property can be combined into one version for integers, and this
will be discussed later in the course.
One way to justify the distributive property with pictures is to
separate an array of dots into two arrays of dots, all with the
same number of columns. Then compute the number of objects
in two dierent ways.
The associative property for multiplication may be explained
visually in terms of arrays of arrays or by using rectangular
prisms.
(3) Division should be dened as the inverse operation to multiplica-
tion. If B is not zero, the quotient A/B is that number C (if it
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 61
exists) so that B C = A. Emphasize the importance of the term
if it exists in the denition. Note, for example, that 7/2 does not
exist in the counting numbers. Use the distributive property to
show that for any counting numbers A and B ,= 0, there is at most
one number C such that B C = A.
Explain why division by zero is undened. For example, note
that 5/0 does not exist according to the above denition, be-
cause there is no counting number A for which 0 A = 5. The
quotient 0/0 is more subtle. Any number A satises the deni-
tion 0A = 0 for the expression 0/0. But since A is completely
arbitrary, 0/0 is undened.
(4) Emphasize the need for elementary school students to memorize
the multiplication tables for single digit numbers. Illustrate how
the commutative, associative, and distributive properties may be
used to deduce new facts from old facts, but in the end these facts
must all be committed to memory.
Explain the rule for multiplying a counting number by 10
n
:
write n zeros to the right of the numerals for the other fac-
tor. Deduce this rule by using the distributive and associative
properties, and the base ten structure of the number system.
Explain that for the case of single digit numbers multiplied by
ten, the rule is simply a denition. E.g. 3 10 = 30 because
30 means 3 tens.
Use the associative and commutative properties of multiplica-
tion to multiply factors that are products of 10. For example,
explain that 40 600 is the product of 4 6 and 10 100.
(5) Explain the standard algorithm for multiplication of multi-digit
counting numbers. Emphasize the role of place value and the dis-
tributive and associative properties.
(6) Extend the denition of division to division with remainder. This is
considerably aided by the introduction of the number line. Empha-
size that division with remainder is a new concept. Give examples
such as using a certain number of buses to transport students on
a eld trip, or how many pencils can be bought with one dollar if
pencils cost .07 each, and how much change do you get back? to
illustrate the dierent ways in which division with remainder occurs
and the ways in which the remainder can be used.
12
(7) Look at examples of division. Divide by 2 getting half of an even
number and half of one less than an odd number with a remainder
of 1. Divide by 3, noting that the remainders are 0, 1 or 2. Divide
by 10, 100, 1000: Each time the result shifts one more to the right
and the last block becomes the remainder. Thus dividing 967, 458
12
There is a tendency to equate each of these situations with a dierent meaning for the
remainder in some U.S. textbooks. It is worth taking time to explain that the remainder always
has the same meaning, it is just the use to which it is put that might vary with the situation.
62 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
by 1000 gives 967 with a remainder of 458, and dividing by 100
gives 9, 674 with remainder of 58.
(8) Develop division by a 1-digit divisor. This is intricate, but empha-
size the denition of division with remainder to help explain the
process. One is looking for a number so that
the divisor times this number is the dividend, and
so that the dierence is less than the divisor.
Note, using the number line, that if we are dividing by 8 for
example, we can mark o successive intervals of length 8 until
we get exactly to the number or until adding the next interval
will get past the number:
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................ ................................................................................................ . ............... ............................... ................ ................................................................................. . ............... ............................... ................ .................................................................................. ............... ...............................
........... ...... ............ ...... ........... ................ ...... ........... ...... ........... . ........... .................... . ....................
.....................
...........
...........
...........
.....................
0 8 16 24 28
4
The remainder is the dierence between the last mark and the
dividend, while the number of intervals is the quotient. One
then searches for an ecient way to count the number of inter-
vals. 10 such intervals give 10 the divisor. 100 such intervals
give 100 the divisor.
(9) Explain the standard division algorithm for multidigit whole num-
bers. Using concrete examples, interpret each number in the divi-
sion algorithm as the algorithm proceeds.
(10) Present a wide variety of word problems whose solutions may be
found by using long division.
1 week: Prime Numbers and Factorization (Optional)
(1) Dene prime and composite numbers. Explain and use the Sieve of
Eratosthenes to nd prime numbers.
(2) Introduce divisibility tests for single digit numbers. Explain the
reasons the tests work in terms of place value and basic properties
of numbers.
(3) State and explain the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Use
factor trees to factor whole numbers as products of primes.
(4) Explain the proof that there is no largest prime number.
(5) Dene greatest common factor (GCF) and least common multiple
(LCM). Explain their properties, methods for their calculation, and
application to word problems:
Calculate the GCF for numerical examples by listing all factors
of the numbers. Calculate the LCM for numerical examples by
listing some multiples of the numbers.
Use prime factorization to compute the GCF and LCM of whole
numbers, and explain why the method works.
Use numerical examples to illustrate why ab = GCF(a, b)
LCM(a, b) for any counting numbers a and b.
Introduce the Euclidean Algorithm and use it to compute the
GCF of two counting numbers.
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 63
Assign and discuss word problems whose solution results from
the calculations of the GCF or LCM of counting numbers.
3 weeks: Nonnegative rational numbers
The study of fractions is arguably the most important component of the
elementary school mathematics curriculum. Without mastery of fraction
concepts, students cannot understand decimal numbers and percents, topics
of great practical importance. The arithmetic of fractions also introduces
principles and methods that are essential for algebra courses in middle and
high school.
(1) Explain that the set of nonnegative rational numbers is a larger set
of numbers than the set of whole numbers. The former includes all
whole numbers. Identify fractions as names of points on a num-
ber line with a clearly specied unit. Dene two fractions to be
equivalent if they name the same point on the number line.
Focus on unit fractions, i.e., fractions of the form 1/D where D
is a whole number. Represent them by folding strips, drawing
fraction bars, and decomposing the number line. In each case
carefully identify a unit (how much is 1). Particular attention
should be paid to one-half, one-fourth, one-eighth, one-third,
and one-sixth.
Identify whole numbers as fractions, and D/D = 1 for all D.
Using the number line and area models, explain why
A
B
is equiv-
alent to
AN
BN
, for any counting number N. Show that the
cross-multiply algorithm determines whether two fractions are
equivalent or not.
Explain that the fraction A/B may be intuitively understood
as A B in the following sense. On the one hand, A/B is
the point identied by A segments of length 1/B laid end to
end on the number line, starting at 0. On the other hand,
A/B may also be shown to be the right end point a segment
with left end point 0 such that B copies of this segment, laid
end to end have length A. This intuitive visual argument that
A/B = AB can later be fully justied, once multiplication of
fractions is introduced, by BA/B = A, the dening equation
for AB = A/B.
(2) Explain how to compare fractions.
Consider fractions with the same denominator rst.
Show how fractions may be compared by nding common de-
nominators, and by using the cross multiply algorithm.
Compare dierent unit fractions
(3) Adding and subtracting fractions. Dene addition of fractions using
the number line through concatenation of line segments (essentially
this is a visualization of one dimensional vector addition).
64 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
Review addition and subtraction of counting numbers using the
number line.
Use the number line to dene addition and subtraction of frac-
tions with like denominators. Relate this to addition and sub-
traction of counting numbers, when the unit involved is a unit
fraction. Use drawings and word problems for further illustra-
tions.
Show how to calculate sums and dierences of fractions by
nding common denominators and deduce the formulas
a
b

c
d
=
ad
bd

bc
bd
=
adbc
bd
Dene the notation for mixed numbers using fraction addition.
E.g., 3
4
5
3 +
4
5
. Identify locations of mixed numbers on a
number line. Review calculations of sums and dierences of
mixed numbers, and the principles behind those calculations.
Introduce and discuss word problems whose solutions require
addition and subtraction of fractions. Ask students to invent
such word problems.
(4) Introduce fraction multiplication. Fraction multiplication is a de-
nition, but the denition may be motivated in steps:
Express a non unit fraction as a product. For example, since
3
4
=
1
4
+
1
4
+
1
4
, it is natural to expect that whatever mean-
ing fraction multiplication might have, it should be true that
3
4
= 3
1
4
. If fraction multiplication is to have the commuta-
tive property, then it must also be true that
1
4
3 =
3
4
. More
generally, it should be true that
1
b
a = a
1
b
=
a
b
. This is
a special case that helps to motivate the general denition of
multiplication of fractions.
Use area models to motivate a rule for multiplying unit frac-
tions:
1
a

1
b
=
1
ab
. Point out how this way of multiplying unit
fractions may be considered as a generalization of a way to un-
derstand multiplication of counting numbers, i.e. as areas of
rectangles.
With the above two formulas, the general denition for fraction
multiplication is inevitable if the commutative and associative
properties are to hold:
a
b

c
d
= a (
1
b

1
d
) c = ac
1
bd
=
ac
bd
.
(5) Ask students to justify dierent methods for calculating products
of mixed numbers. Ask students to estimate products and to decide
when the product of two fractions will be larger or smaller than one
of the factors.
(6) Discuss word problems involving fraction multiplication. Ask stu-
dents to solve word problems and to write their own word problems.
(7) Division of fractions.
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 65
Dene multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a non zero fraction.
Give examples, and ask students for other examples including
reciprocals of counting numbers.
Present the formula for division:
a
b

c
d
=
a
b

d
c
. Test the
formula for familiar cases with counting numbers, e.g., 6 2 =
6
1

2
1
=
6
1

1
2
=
6
2
= 3.
Review the denition of division: A B = C means A =
B C. Use it to verify the formula for division of fractions.
Also deduce the formula for division using numerical examples.
E.g., to nd ? if 5
2
3
=?, rewrite the equation as ?
2
3
= 5
and solve for ? by multiplying both sides of this equation by
3/2.
(8) Ask students to calculate quotients of fractions and mixed numbers.
Identify and generate story problems for fraction division versus
fraction multiplication (students tend to confuse these, especially
dividing in half versus dividing by
1
2
).
In working with word problems it is important to keep track of
the units, dimensions or wholes associated with fractions.
For example, suppose that one serving of rice is
2
3
of a cup.
How many servings are in 3 cups of rice? There are 3 divided
by
2
3
, namely 4
1
2
servings in 3 cups of rice. But if we draw a
picture to solve the problem we nd that there are 4 whole
servings and another
1
3
of a cup of rice left. This
1
3
of a cup
of rice is
1
2
of a serving of rice. The
1
3
and the
1
2
both refer to
the same amount of rice, but in the rst case the underlying
whole (unit) is a cup and in the second case the underlying
whole is a serving.
2 weeks: Decimal Arithmetic
(1) Use numerical examples to dene and explain decimal notation in
terms of place value. E.g., 3.45 3 + (4
1
10
) + (5
1
100
). Explain
why 3.4500 = 3.45, along with similar examples.
Use fraction addition to write decimal numerals as mixed num-
bers. E.g. explain why 3.45 = 3
45
100
.
Use notation for money amounts to strengthen understanding
of decimal notation. E.g., in $3.57 3 represents three dollars,
the units; 5 represents ve tenths of a dollar, or 5 dimes; and
7 represents seven hundredths of a dollar, or 7 pennies.
Briey review exponent rules, but just for powers of 10: 10
N
means
1
10
N
, 10
N
10
M
= 10
N+M
,
10
N
10
M
= 10
NM
. Use this
notation to express decimal numerals as sums of multiples of
powers of ten.
Discuss rounding of decimals with reference to a number line
and appropriate scales on the number line.
66 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
(2) Discuss comparison of decimal numbers along the lines of item 3
in the section Place value and comparison of whole numbers, multi-
digit addition and subtraction methods. Explain the standard al-
gorithms for addition and subtraction of nite decimal numbers.
Focus attention on regrouping in problems like 3.4 2.19 and why
it is convenient to replace 3.4 by 3.40.
Explain why multiplying by .1 is the same as dividing by 10;
multiplying by .01 is the same as dividing by 100, etc.
(3) Explain and justify the standard algorithm for multiplying dec-
imal numbers. Explain how multiplying and later dividing the
product by an appropriate power of 10 allows the calculation to
be carried out according to the standard algorithm for multipli-
cation of counting numbers. The key step is to recognize that
(A10
N
) (B 10
M
) = AB 10
M+N
.
(4) Explain the standard algorithm for division of decimal numbers in
terms of the standard algorithm for division of counting numbers.
Initially consider division problems for which the quotient is
a nite decimal (not a repeating decimal). Use fraction arith-
metic to explain why the decimal point for the divisor may be
moved the same number of places as the decimal point for the
dividend.
Discuss and explain intuitively innite decimals. The idea of
convergence can be illustrated with the innite decimal for 1/3.
E.g. Consider the pattern of subtractions:
1
3
0.3 =
1
30
;
1
3

0.33 =
1
300
;
1
3
0.333 =
1
3000
; etc. and notice how the dierences
become smaller as more threes are included in the decimal.
Explain the procedure for computing quotients of decimal num-
bers when the quotient is an innite decimal.
Use the standard long division algorithm to explain why any
fraction may be written as a repeating decimal. Explain and
characterize positive irrational numbers via their decimal rep-
resentations.
Explain scientic notation and its value in dealing with very
large and very small numbers.
Assign and discuss word problems whose solutions involve di-
vision of decimal numbers.
1 week: Ratios, rates, and proportional problems
(1) Examine ratios as a relationship (equivalence classes of ordered
pairs, or in general n-tuples, but this might only be mentioned
and then done more deeply in Number and Operations 2) between
2 rational numbers, where the equivalence class is created from one
ratio by multiplying or dividing that ratio by any rational number.
Examine ratio situations that build up the ratio table by re-
peatedly adding the initial ratio pair (e.g., 0 : 0 becomes 3 : 5
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 67
becomes 6 : 10 becomes 9 : 15 etc.) and see how the ratio table
can be made from 2 columns of the multiplication table;
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................... . .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................ . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................ . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................ .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
7
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
12
14
14
15
15
16
16
16
18
18
18
18
20
20
20
20
21
21
24
24
24
24
25
27
27
28
28
30
30
30
30
32
32
35
35
36
36
36
40
40
40
40
42
42
45
45
48
48
49
50
50
54
54
56
56
60
60
63
63
64
70
70
72
72
80
80
81
90
90
100
Seeing Rows and Columns
see that any 2 rows of such a vertical ratio table give a 4-tuple of
integers that form a proportion (4 cells from the multiplication
table that form a rectangle) and that one can solve proportion
word problems by using this observation - solving it by thinking
of what rows and columns from the multiplication table make
the proportion.
(2) Examine rates as ratios with the units attached: 3 dollars per 5
pounds (of oranges), 60 miles per 1 hour;
most rates given in school problems are unit rates without the
1 stated (60 miles per hour);
examine how to nd unit rates and unit ratios and see that
they are the quotients of the
ratio
rate
[a : b has unit ratios 1 :
b
a
and
a
b
: 1] by nding the unit
ratios
rates
within the ratio table; this
unit
ratio
rate
is the usual quotient notion connected to
ratios
rates
(3) Explore briey similar
rectangles
right triangles
made from a ratio table and
explore slope:
Make rectangles with dimensions from a ratio table (e.g., 3 : 5)
and put them in the positive quadrant of a coordinate graph
with their bases on the x-axis and their lower left vertices all
at the same point.
Observe that their corners lie on a straight line, and estimate
the slope of the line;
rotate the rectangles 90 degrees about their lower left vertices
to represent the opposite ratio (e.g., 5 : 3) and estimate its
slope
68 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
(4) (more will be done on this in Number and Operations 2 including
formal denitions of n-tuples, problems where the
ratios
rates
have frac-
tions or decimals in them, why cross-multiplication is true, useof
unit
ratios
rates
and cross- multiplication for problem solving)
1 week: Percents, fractions, decimals
(1) Use length (100mm), area (10cm 10 cm), and money ($1 = 100
cents) to model per cent and show fraction and decimal equivalents;
show equivalent percents, fractions, and decimals on a number line.
(2) Solve percent problems by multiplying decimals and by setting up
fraction equations.
1 week: Negative numbers
(1) Introduce negative numbers as points on a number line to the left
of zero. Focus on integers initially. Dene order by position on
the number line: A > B means that A is to the right of B on the
number line.
(2) Dene addition of integers using arrows on a number line (essen-
tially one-dimensional vector addition). Generalize to rational and
real numbers.
(3) Dene the opposite of a number as its additive inverse (again focus-
ing initially on integers). Identify A as the point on the number
line obtained by reecting A through the origin. Discuss and iden-
tify (A) for numerical values of A.
(4) Dene subtraction: A B A + (B) and use arrows along the
number line to illustrate examples. Use this denition to calcu-
late positive dierences of positive numbers in order to illustrate
that this denition generalizes, but does not change the previous
denition for positive numbers. Show that this denition may be
expressed in this way: AB = C if and if A = B +C.
(5) Introduce and explain multiplication. Dene multiplication for prod-
ucts of positive and/or negative numbers. Explain and discuss the
denition in stages:
Discuss why the denition of multiplication of a positive and a
negative integer is a generalization of the denition for products
of counting numbers, as repeated addition. E.g., 3 2 =
2 +2 +2 = 6 = (3 2). If the commutative property
is to hold, then it must also be true that 23 = 6 = (32).
This example generalizes to any product for which one factor
is a positive integer and the other is a negative number.
Use the distributive property to justify the part of the denition
of multiplication that requires the product of a positive and a
negative number to be negative: If A and B are positive, then
0 = A 0 = A(B + B) = (A B) + (A B). Therefore
AB = (AB). Use numerical examples to illustrate this
8. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST COURSE 69
argument, and ask students to repeat the argument for other
numerical examples.
Use the result of the previous bullet and repeat the argument
given there, with the change that A < 0, to deduce the re-
quirement that the product of two negative numbers must be
positive if the distributive property is to hold. Use numerical
examples, and ask students to repeat the argument for other
numerical examples.
(6) Explain and discuss the consequences of the denition of multipli-
cation to division.
(7) Dene the set of rational numbers as the set of all possible quotients
of integers.
1 week: Review all systems of number by operation
(1) Look at similarities and dierences of adding, subtracting, and com-
paring (>, <) small whole numbers, multi-digit numbers, decimals,
fractions, integers: you add, subtract, or compare like quantities
within each of these systems of numbers
(2) Look at similarities and dierences of multiplying and dividing and
how multiplying by a whole number is like dividing by a unit frac-
tion or decimal (.1, .01, .001, etc.) and dividing by a whole number
is like multiplying by a unit fraction or decimal (.1, .01, .001, etc.)
General themes that run throughout:
(1) solving and writing word problems for situations in the word for
each operation for each kind of number, learning the types of addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division situations and their
situations with any quantity the unknown;
(2) explaining thinking and solution methods in writing;
(3) relating solutions expressed in words and/or pictures with ones that
use equations/ mathematical expressions;
(4) choosing a denition for a concept (e.g., for multiplication) and us-
ing the denition to explain why the concept applies in a situation
(for example, explaining why a problem can be solved by multiply-
ing).
Notes to add from Dick:
Issues concerning adding 3 numbers and especially making a ten. This
can be related to the method of nding averages by writing positive and
negative numbers from an estimated average (where go data analysis?).
Methods involving making a ten are more important than those involving
doubles.
Some experience with 2-step problems is important.
Mean of division with remainder; problem other than the bus problem.
Division by a decimal can be thought of as renaming both numbers by
shifting to a unit of .01 (for example).
70 2. THE BASIC TOPICS IN K - 8 MATHEMATICS
When writing about dividing fractions, I learned from Lipings book to
refer to multiply by the reciprocal rather than invert and multiply. I
think we should use that or multiply by the inverse. KCF: I like multiply
by the inverse.
9. Course Outline for the Fractions Course
The denition of fractions
(1) Choose a unit on the number line. Fractions are dened on the
number line in terms of this unit. Likewise, emphasize that the
area model requires that any region having area
m
n
times the unit
represents the fraction
m
n
.
(2) Using the very common pie-model, from the beginning teachers
would have to use multiple pies since improper fractions occur from
the beginning.
(3) Depending on the unit used, for example the unit could be the
weight of a certain ham, the interpretation of a fraction will vary.
Immediate consequences of the denition
(1) Two fractions are equivalent if they are represented by the same
point on the number line.
(2) Every fraction is equivalent to a unique fraction in lowest terms,
but it is not necessary, in any grade, to insist that fractions always
be written in lowest terms.
(3) The fraction
a
b
with a and b ,= 0 counting numbers, solves the
problem b
a
b
= a, so can be regarded as the quotient a b.
(4) Positive fractions can be ordered.
a
b
>
c
d
if the point
a
b
lies on the
right of
c
d
on the number line. Using equivalent fractions this then
becomes the statement that ad > bc.
Arithmetic operations with non-negative fractions
(1) Two approaches are possible. The rst involves the direct deni-
tions of the basic operations via formulas:
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
,
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad+bc
bd
.
(2) The second approach denes addition as concatenation of lengths on
the number and veries, in terms of decomposing intervals further,
the addition formula
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad+bc
bd
.
(3) One denes multiplication by taking the unit to represent the area
of the unit square.
(a) Then
1
b
represents the area of one part of the unit square when
the unit square is divided into b parts of equal area.
(b) The product
a
b

c
d
is the area of the rectangle with sides of
length
a
b
and
c
d
.
(c) From the denition one proves that
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
.
(4) Division of fractions is dened as the inverse operation to multipli-
cation - if A and B are fractions then
A
B
is that fraction C (if it
exists) so that BC = A.
9. COURSE OUTLINE FOR THE FRACTIONS COURSE 71
Percents, ratios, rates, and proportions
(1) Percents have to be dened before they can be discussed. The ap-
propriate denition is A fraction A is C percent of another fraction
B (B ,= 0) if C is a fraction and
A
B
=
C
100
. (This is meaningful
since C = 100
A
B
.)
(2) The ratio of two fractions A and B (B ,= 0) is the quotient
A
B
(3) A rate is a ratio of two fractions where each refers to a dierent
unit.
(4) A proportion is is the equality of two ratios.
Finite decimals
(1) Dene a nite decimal as a fraction with denominator a power of
10. Introduce decimal notation
(2) Demonstrate the usual comparison rules for nite decimals.
(3) Discuss the justication of the rules for moving decimal points in
long division and for placing the decimal point in products.
Innite decimals
(1) Carefully discuss what an innite decimal is, perhaps using the
number line to visually see the convergence property of innite dec-
imals
(2) State and carefully discuss the key result Every fraction is equal to a
nite or ultimately repeating decimal, and every ultimately repeating
decimal is equal to a fraction.
(3) Use the result above to demonstrate the existence of irrational num-
bers by constructing innite decimals that do not ultimately repeat
Rational numbers
CHAPTER 3
Topics Needing Special Attention in all Four
Courses
1. Introduction
In this key chapter we discuss the issues of denitions, problem solving,
and teaching mathematics in such a way that the underlying coherent struc-
ture becomes visible
1
. It appears not to be well understood that one cannot
do either of the last two without the rst.
All three of these issues should be constantly in the forefront when de-
signing mathematics courses for pre-service K-8 teachers.
Of these three topics, perhaps it is easiest to discuss problem solving
thanks to the ground breaking work of G. Polya, and that is a main focus
of the discussion in this chapter. Unfortunately, Polya did not have the
audience of K-8 students in mind when he wrote his key works in this area.
As a result, the application of his ideas over the last 30 or so years has
not been entirely successful in school mathematics. We discuss this in some
detail and indicate areas where further instruction is needed. (Polya was well
aware that this would be the case and he tried to discourage the uncritical
adoption of his work in the school curriculum.
2
)
The key observation is that Polyas intended audience - primarily stu-
dents at the ETH in Zurich and at Stanford - could be assumed to be quite
sophisticated mathematically. There were certain things he could take for
granted, mainly that these students could recognize when a problem was
well-posed and when it was not. This distinction never occurs in Polyas
books, and it does not seem to occur in problem solving discussions for
pre-service math teachers currently. Consequently, there are innumerable
instances of ill-posed problems being inadvertently included even in major
tests like high stakes state assessments. The authors of most of these tests
are committees of teachers, and virtually none of the state assessments as
well as very few of the national tests are critiqued by professional mathe-
maticians. Also, if this is the situation for teachers, (and has been for at
least two decades), it is hard to imagine the confusion about these issues
1
Mathematics educators use the term sense making, but what they probably mean by
this is something dierent - that each fact should emerge from either intuition or some sort of
explanation.
2
In discussions with Prof. Paul Cohen, he recounted how Polya had tried to get the new
math project to stop trying to introduce his work on problem solving into the K - 12 curriculum.
Polya asked Cohen for help on this matter.
73
74 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
that most people coming through the K-12 system have. The only reliable
way to improve things is to educate teachers and pre-service teachers about
these issues.
As a result, in this chapter, we take special care to indicate the key
aspects of the discussion of problems, mathematical problems, ill-posed and
well-posed problems before presenting Polyas break-down of problem solv-
ing.
We start the chapter by discussing the overall desired outcome of instruc-
tion in mathematics in K-12, namely that students come to see the subject
as sensible, coherent, and obtain an understanding that, rather than con-
sisting of long lists of disconnected facts, concepts, and techniques (tricks?),
it is actually coherent, consistent, and involves learning well only a small
number of things. Then we discuss the issue of denitions, and after this
turn to problem solving.
2. Precision
There are ve main characteristics of mathematics.
3
(1) Precision. All statements in mathematics are unambiguous.
(2) What you see is what you get. There are no hidden assumptions in
mathematics.
This can be subtle. We tend to make unarticulated assump-
tions all the time. For example consider the problem
What is the fth term in the sequence that starts 1, 2, 4, 8?
Most people in this country would say 16. However, there are
an innite number of rules that can be given which produce
1, 2, 4, 8 as their outcomes at the rst four positions, but pro-
duce dierent results at the fth position. There are hidden
assumptions being made in problems like this - among them
that the rules for sequences like this are linear or quadratic
polynomials in n or are given by simple exponential functions
3
D. Askey, R.J. Milgram, H.-H. Wu, A Panel Discussion of the Mathematics that Should be
Taugth in K-12, (2005)
2. PRECISION 75
like k
n
. By contrast, here is a correct pattern problem from a
Hungarian second grade text.
(3) Denitions are the cornerstone of mathematics.
Precise denitions are not just to be memorized but under-
stood and used. Without precise denitions there cannot be
mathematics. Even in the earliest grades it is possible to give
students precise denitions that they can use and understand.
Indeed, when looking at the programs from countries which
have a history of successful mathematics education, one of the
most persistent dierences from our programs is that they pro-
vide precise denitions from the beginning and we dont. Here
is an example from page 7 of a Russian second grade text:
(4) Logical reasoning is the glue that holds mathematics together.
76 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Logical reasoning is behind every step in mathematics. Logical
reasoning in mathematics can only be carried out with pre-
cisely dened concepts, and this reinforces the need for precise
denitions. Another name for logical reasoning is proof.
(5) Problem solving is what mathematicians do.
Mathematical problem solving is the application of logical rea-
soning to precisely dened concepts and previously proven state-
ments in order to get to desired conclusions. Because all of
mathematics is about problem solving, problem solving cannot
be separated out from the rest of mathematics as a separate
subject.
These ve key characteristics of mathematics will be discussed in this chap-
ter.
Initially, we focus on the rst, precision. Precise use of language is
essential to eective use of mathematics but there are two ways in which
common language works against this. The rst of these involves conventions
in English that cause excessive diculties in instruction. The rst case where
this happens is our non-standard methods for expressing numbers in place
value notation - a theme that will reoccur in the early sections of Chapter 4.
Basically, teachers in the earliest grades tend to focus instruction on how one
reads a base 10 number. For example, given the number 1321, students are
taught to read it as thirteen hundred twenty one, while the number 12131 is
taught as twelve thousand one hundred and thirty one. In Russia, China and
a number of other countries numbers are read much more systematically, so
12131 is read as one ten-thousand, two thousand, one hundred, three tens
and one. This makes it much easier for students to tie the expanded form

i
a
i
10
i
to the shorthand notion for the expanded form that base 10 place
value notation actually represents. Thus there is a critical need from the
very beginnings of the instruction of pre-service teachers in the mathematics
they need for teaching to distinguish between common usage in English and
eective language for teaching. A number of researchers have noted this
issue including Karen Fuson and Liping Ma.
However, there is a second area where common usage in English works
against eective instruction the misapplication of logical structure in com-
mon language, such as the common use of if-then to mean if-(then it is likely
that). This has been discussed by Prof. Susanna Epp in Chapter 16 of the
book Developing Mathematical Reasoning in Grades K - 12 edited
by Curcio and Sti.
At the heart of mathematical discourse are words referring to quan-
tity: all and some, along with variations such as every, any, and
no. Almost all important mathematical facts contain at least one
of these words. ... In order to work eectively with such statements,
students need to have a sense for the logical form. For instance, how
can we gure out if a given all statement is true? What does it mean
2. PRECISION 77
for an all statement to be false? What are other, equivalent ways of
expressing an all statement? If a given all statement is true, what
can be deduced?
She explains further
The ability to rephrase statements in alternate, equivalent ways, to
recognize that other attractive-looking reformulations are not equiv-
alent, and to have a feeling for truth and falsity of universal and ex-
istential statements are crucial mathematical problem-solving tools.
Yet numerous studies show that students do not acquire these abil-
ities spontaneously.
For instance, there is much evidence that a majority of people per-
ceive the statements If A then B and If B then A as equivalent and
do not readily deduce that If A then B implies if not B then not A.
Next she discusses the confusion between common English usage and math-
ematical usage in these areas.
One reason students may have problems using logic correctly in
mathematics and other technical situations is that in informal set-
tings certain forms of statements are often interpreted in ways that
dier from their formal meanings. Here is one example.
Imagine that a teacher promises a class: All those who sit
quietly during the test may go out and play afterwards, and
imagine also that this teacher then allows noisy students to go
outside and play along with the students who were quiet.
Most observers would view the teacher as lacking in consistency and rm-
ness, but from the perspective of logic, her actions are entirely consistent
with her statement.
In the article The role of logic in teaching proof, American Mathematical
Monthly, 110, 886-899, 2003, Prof. Epp takes up these issues in more
depth. In particular, she looks further at the role of language in confounding
instruction in the logical processes underlying mathematics.
One reason student may have problems with formal mathemati-
cal reasoning is that certain forms of statements are open to dif-
ferent interpretations in informal and formal settings. In every-
day speech potential ambiguity occurs frequently, with context and
world knowledge normally determining which interpretation to ac-
cept from among an array of possibilities. By contrast, mathemati-
cal language is required to be unambiguous, with each grammatical
construction having exactly one meaning.
She goes on to illustrate this by considering the dierent uses of if-then
statements in everyday usage. For example, a parent will say something
like If you nish you homework, then you can go to the movie, but the
actual intent of the statement is you can go to the movie if and only if you
nish your homework. Many similar examples can be given that illustrate
the confusion of if-then with if-and-only-if in common language. Moreover,
78 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
there are conventions for using if-then statements in referring to causal rela-
tionships, temporal relationships, counterfactual situations and so forth. Of
particular importance are common language conventions for negating if-then
statements. As an example she mentions If we dispute the statement If
Tom works overtime, then hes paid extra, we might say, No, if Tom works
overtime, hes not paid extra. As another example she points out To
counter the claim that If carbon emissions continue to occur at the present
rate, the earths temperature will increase by 10 degrees, we might say No,
even if carbon emissions continue to occur at the present rate, there does
not necessarily have to be a 10-degree increase in the earths temperature.

Next she points out that

Another set of examples of dierences between formal and informal
discourse concerns quantied statements. In mathematics the dis-
tinction between all and some is crucially important. Whether
a statement begins for all or there exists completely determines
how to tell whether or not it is true and what we can deduce from
it. Yet in ordinary language the statement All A are B is nor-
mally understood to imply the existence of at least one A, whereas
in mathematical discourse we allow the statement to be vacuously
true.
As another example, the statement Some A are B is normally taken to
imply that Some A are not B.
Further, there are problems with recognizing logically equivalent state-
ments. Prof. Epp points out that a signicant number of students interpret
There is a positive number b such that for all positive numbers a, b < a
to have the same meaning as For all positive numbers a, there is a positive
number b such that b < a.
It is also pointed out that Informal ways of expressing negations of
statements containing and and or may also mislead students when they come
to work in a formal mathematical setting. Very likely due to confusion with
negation in common language many students negate 1 x 3 by writing
1 > x > 3.
In instruction in these pre-service math courses, the precise use of lan-
guage in mathematics should be a major and continuing theme. This usage
is unambiguous, but is all to often confounded by the subtly and sometimes
not so subtly dierent usages of the same constructs in common language.
A related issue is the natural tendency of pre-service teachers to try
to t mathematics into the mode of their own K - 8 instruction in the
subject. Since their early grade teachers were very likely to have had weak
backgrounds in mathematics but extensive backgrounds in reading, it is not
surprising that many of them would have been instructed extensively on
vocabulary words in mathematics, rather than the underlying concepts and
how to use them. For such teachers, it is usually much more important
3. MAKING SENSE OF MATHEMATICS FOR STUDENTS 79
that students read 111,213 correctly using the English conventions - so one
hundred eleven thousand, two hundred and thirteen - rather than that
students understand that this is a shorthand way of writing the expanded
notation 10
5
+10
4
+10
3
+212
2
+10+31. Likewise, in such instruction, it
is much more important that students can identify a gure that appears to
be a square in a drawing of a number of geometric gures, rather than that
a student can describe the key items such as line segments that make up
geometric gures, and the particular disposition of such items that makes a
geometric gure a square.
These issues will continue to be at the forefront of our discussion through
this and the next two chapters.
3. Making Sense of Mathematics for Students
One of the weakest aspects of K-8 mathematics instruction is that it
tends to present the subject as lists of disconnected facts and vocabulary
One of the most serious
problems with U.S.
mathematics teaching is
the tendency to teach it
as disconnected lists of
isolated facts.
often with articial distinctions between the objects being considered. As
a result, only the strongest students get the idea that there are a relatively
small number of common underlying concepts and techniques that explain
virtually everything in the subject.
For example, geometry in Grades 35 focuses on learning the names
of various kinds of polygonal gures (parallelogram, trapezoid, kite, etc.)
and other terminology (supplementary angles, complementary angles, adja-
cent angles, exterior angles, interior opposite angles, etc.). Such words are
useful in geometry because they allow one to package ideas: complicated
geometric arguments can be most easily understood when they are seen as
combinations of simple, named ideas. Thus after students have done 10 or
20 problems involving pairs of angles which sum to 180

, they learn the term

supplementary angles and that term encapsulates what they learned. Yet
too frequently, elementary school lessons omit the geometric arguments, and
geometric terms become an end in themselves a list of vocabulary words
to be memorized.
As another example, the standard multiplication and division algorithms
are usually taught purely as processes, rather than being built up over time
in a way which shows how they are inevitable consequences of combining
place value expansions with the distributive property.
My fifth grader "had" the shift-the-decimal-point
rules for multiplication and division this year.
The emphasis was on the rules, so my child had yet
another instance of math being a bunch of rules but
not a bunch of ideas. I did not think she was well
served by this class.
80 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
What we teach teachers may well become what they
teach their students. Sol Friedberg.
A typical further example is the break-up of solving linear equations in
one variable into
(1) one step, x + a = b, ax = b, where only one basic operation is
needed to replace the equation by one of the form x = c (called
isolating the variable),
(2) two step, ax +b = c, ax +bx = c, where two basic operation are
needed, and
(3) three step, ax = cx +d,
(4) four step, ax +b = cx +d.
Here, each equation is taught separately, and typical texts never indicate
the core insight that in all cases there is a common objective, isolating
the variable, the variable can be treated as a number and all the standard
operations with numbers can be applied. Consequently, generalized skills
with symbolic manipulation are not developed.
Almost uniformly, American students are taught to multiply binomials
of the form (a +b)(x +y) by using the mnemonic FOIL (rst, outer, inner,
last). That is the ONLY way they are taught, and the procedure itself
is called foiling.
4
Students become adept at foiling, but are completely
ignorant that this is the distributive rule, and hence are unable to calculate
(a + b)(x + y + z). (In particular, that is the level of knowledge of most
pre-service elementary teachers.
5
)
A convenient way to think of these tendencies is mathematics as lists.
There are underlying reasons why school instruction tends to have this char-
acter.
(1) There are times when memorization is essentialfor example, the
multiplication tableswhen core skills have to be learned to auto-
maticity. Elementary school teachers are not always given sucient
background to distinguish such skills from concepts that require
other approaches.
(2) There is a tendency for K - 8 teachers to treat each topic in mathe-
matics that they are required to cover as equal to every other topic.
The cumulative eect of instruction becomes a vast monotone, and
the only recourse the students have is to make lists and memorize
separate and isolated techniques.
All of these issues make it dicult for students to arrive at any kind of
global understanding of mathematics. The result is that students tend to
memorize the names and techniques they will need on the next exam, and
4
Even the term unfoil is used in some classrooms!
5
At a number of places in the text the common mathematical content knowledge of pre-
service teachers will be commented on. It should, however, be clearly understood that this is not
a comment on these pre-service teachers themselves, but the training they have been given. In
many ways this audience is remarkable, and they can be among the most rewarding students to
teach. See chapter 9 for further discussion.
3. MAKING SENSE OF MATHEMATICS FOR STUDENTS 81
forget the material soon afterwards. Mathematics becomes a long list of
boring facts and processes.
To help counteract these tendencies we have taken pains in the detailed
discussion of the material that we recommend appear in the four courses
to put material into context. For example, in the geometry chapter, when
discussing the fact that the three perpendicular bisectors for a triangle meet
in a point, we make sure that it is understood that this point is the center
of the circle that passes through the three vertices of the triangle. This has
the eect of demystifying this result and removing it from the category of
amusing facts and curiosities.
Of course, this is not to say that lists do not have a place in proper
mathematics instruction. They do. However, the lists should be much more
basic. The tables for adding and multiplying small integers are examples. As
another example, in the seventh grade Japanese text translated by UCSMP,
the handling of equations is systematic. After illustrating equations with
balanced scales, a very standard approach, also common in this country, a
boxed summary of the properties of equalities is given:
Properties of Equalities
(1) If you add the same numbers to both sides of
an equality, it will remain valid.
If A = B then A+C = B +C
(2) If you subtract the same numbers from both
sides of an equality, it will remain valid.
If A = B, then AC = B C
(3) If both sides of an equality are multiplied by the
same number, the equality will remain valid.
If A = B, then AC = BC
(4) If both sides of an equality are divided by the
same number, the equality will remain valid,
provided that C ,= 0.
If A = B, then
A
C
=
B
C
(5) If the sides of an equality are transposed, the
equality will remain valid.
If A = B, then B = A
While these properties of equations, to be sure, are presented as part
of a list, this list is dierent in an essential way from the lists we discussed
previously. This is a list of general principles (with the quantiers under-
stood implicitly) much like a list of axioms. One might object that the list is
redundant since just the rst, third and fth statements are necessary, with
the remaining two items being special cases, but this is a pedagogical choice.
82 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Mathematicians easily distinguish such lists from more routine lists of spe-
cialized methods or vocabulary. However, non-mathematicians, including
pre-service teachers, may have diculty making such distinctions. Thus, a
component of instruction for pre-service teachers could well be distinguish-
ing core mathematical concepts from more routine material, and discussing
how to focus instruction in K - 8 classes on core procedures and ideas.
The Japanese text continues with a detailed discussion of how one uses
the properties of equality to solve equations, illustrated with a large number
of linear equations, including samples of all the forms above, and some that
involve even more steps, though no type is named or singled out. Finally,
the discussion is summarized as follows:
Methods of Solving Linear Equations
(1) When an equation involves fraction or decimal coef-
cients, convert them into integers. And if there are
parentheses, eliminate them.
(2) Isolate the terms with variables on one side of the
equation and the numerical terms on the other side.
(3) If there are terms that you can combine, combine
them and then simplify them. Then write them in
the form ax = b.
(4) Divide both sides by the coecient a of x. The answer
will be x =
b
a
.
Again, this is a list, but at a basic level.
Lists may also serve mathematics instruction in dierent ways. Many
students, even when instructed correctly, misunderstand and make mistakes.
For example, there are the many well cataloged types of errors that students
make when learning the standard stair-step multiplication algorithm, and
there is signicant advantage for teachers to have lists of these errors and
what they imply. (A student who lines up the numbers on the right, for ex-
ample, is very likely to have serious gaps in understanding of basic material,
One of the clearest
dierences between
instruction in the lower
grades in high achieving
countries and in the
United States is the
much greater level of
abstraction present in
the content in the high
achieving countries.
and, though correcting the procedure may allow this student to get correct
answers, it will not address the underlying diculties.)
Throughout these courses, it is essential that connections be made to
the underlying ideas, but respect for issues like that above that are more
pedagogical in nature should be maintained.
4. Abstraction
One of the most striking features of highly successful K - 8 mathematics
programs in those countries where almost everybody graduates from high
4. ABSTRACTION 83
school with a solid background in mathematicsusually including a calculus
courseis that abstraction is a core part of the programs from the earliest
grades on.
The belief in these countries appears to be that young children are very
eective at abstraction and handle it naturally. This is reasonable since,
after all, these young people have just nished one of the greatest feats of
abstraction possible, the creation of an internal model of the world around
them.
Core aspects of abstraction. We can isolate at least two processes
that are key in abstraction. The rst is removing extraneous information and
focusing on what is essential. Thus, if we are given the problem, Johnny has
three siblings, two brothers and a sister. His sister is half the age of his older
brother, and three fourths the age of his younger brother. Johnnys older
brother is four years older than Johnny, and his younger brother is two years
younger than Johnny. How old is Johnny? we will abstract automatically.
If A is the age of Johnnys older brother, and B is the age of his younger
brother, the sisters age is simply a comparison point, allowing us to conclude
that two expressions
1
2
A and
3
4
B are equal. The remaining information
identies A = 4 +J and B = J 2 in terms of J, Johnnys age.
Second, we abstract when we see the same process in dierent contexts.
Thus, when we see the same kinds of linear equation as useful for other
problems, we isolate the linear equation ax +b = cx +d, and study general
methods for solving this equation.
In both of these processes, we do something quite subtle. We group
dierent objects together and treat them as identical. At the most basic
level, this is what students do when they proceed from numbers as adjec-
tives modifying nouns, 3 oranges, 3 blocks, 3 pennies, etc., to the concept of
the number 3. Of course, many students never do achieve this abstraction,
and, as Herb Gross has pointed out, large numbers of students in our ele-
mentary university and community college math classes are capable of doing
quite complex computations with apples and oranges, but are not nearly as
capable when dealing with numbers that dont refer to anything.
Serious consideration should be given to presenting focused instruction
on the process of abstraction. General discussions of how we group objects
and then work with the groupsmaking statements that hold simultaneously
for every object in each group with extensive examples, can and should be
part of early mathematics instruction.
Here is a short sequence of problems from the Russian second grade
text translated by UCSMP that illustrates how one can introduce practice
with abstraction. (The rst three were successive, while the fourth appeared
some pages later):
(1) 18 meters of wire was cut from a reel, and then another 9 meters
of wire was cut. 7 meters of wire then remaind on the reel. How
much wire was there on the reel originally?
84 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
(2) Make up a problem based on the summary below and solve it.
32 cars were
parked
8 and 15 drove o
how many
remained?
(3)
96 (46 + 30) 79 25 + 38 7 + 86 52
96 46 + 30 51 17 17 8 + 35 42
(4) Make up a problem which is solved as follows:
(8 + 2) 2.
What is another way of solving the problem?
Still later in the second grade book one nds the following two problems in
succession:
(1) (a) A dressmaker used 12 meters of material for 3 dresses. How
much material will she need for 2 such dresses?
(b) Make up problems inverse to the one above and solve them.
(2) Find the values of the expressions a b and c k for the values of
the letters given in the table:
a 17 3 30 23
b 5 26 2 4
c 8 17 3 11
k 12 4 32 9
From the third grade Russian text translated by UCSMP we have the
following problem from relatively early in the text:
(1) (a) There were 112 birch trees and x aspens in a forest. Explain
what the following expressions denote: 112+x; 112x; x112.
(b) There are x linden trees and 80 birch trees in a forest. How
many linden trees and birch trees are there in the forest all
together? How many more (or less) birch trees are there than
linden trees in the forest? Make up an expression to answer
each question.
(2) Make up an equation for each problem and solve it.
(a) Some number is 20 greater than 15. Find the number.
(b) 27 is 13 less than some number. What is the number?
And later in the third grade book:
(1) Compare the following expressions:
(a) a 14 and a 10 +a 4
(b) 240 k and 200 k + 40 k
(c) b 42 and (b 40) 2
(d) c 36 and (c 30) 6.
5. DEFINITIONS 85
These problems illustrate the level of abstract reasoning that can be
expected of children in the early grades when problems are phrased in simple,
interesting ways. These high expectations for young students might surprise
pre-service teachers. It is important for them to become familiar with such
problems and to understand that such abstract problems are appropriate
for young students and are extremely important for developing a lifelong
understanding and appreciation of mathematics.
5. Denitions
Introduction. As we are aware, the core of mathematics is working
with precisely dened concepts using the rules of logic and whatever addi-
Precise but age
appropriate denitions
are the foundation of
mathematics -
particularly
mathematical reasoning
and problem solving.
tional postulated rules are assumed to hold. This is not very catchy, and
it is not surprising that students and teachers alike will consider it boring.
How can it be made to seem interesting, and important (indeed, essential)
as it really is?
We could avoid this question by identifying it as a pedagogical issue and
therefore outside of our domain, but there is no doubt that the mathemat-
ical community is the group best equipped to take this on. To that end
illustrations of the way that mathematics is applied to real world subjects
can be helpful. The power of mathematics is that it abstracts those parts of
a problem that can be quantied. This is carried out with the aid of precise
denitions of the mathematical abstractions that are intended to model the
key aspects of the subject. In this volume, we provide some examples of
this process. For example, we indicate the connection between the study of
triangles and quadrilaterals in the plane and the construction of mechanisms
in mechanical engineering in the geometry chapter.
Some concepts in school mathematics are best left undened. For ex-
ample, it is almost certainly not a good idea to dene the counting numbers
in terms of one-to-one correspondences of nite sets for young students (or
maybe any students who are not going to become serious mathematics ma-
jors). Likewise, there is no reasonable way that a precise denition of a line
or the number line can be presented to young students. One counts physi-
cal objects and notes the one-to-one correspondences between three apples,
three oranges, three buttons, etc. at an almost unconsious level, and more
or less naturally it appears that students arrive at the notion of three, or per-
haps less satisfactory, three things. There is no doubt that teachers can help
guide this development, but best practices here are not as well understood
as they should be. On the other hand, it seems that virtually all students
come to understand whole numbers suciently well, though there may be
diculties with larger numbers. Likewise, students seem to easily accept
the abstract notion of a line (though, again, their understandings may be
blurred students sometimes think of a line as having thickness and even
being granular, since these are properties common to the models on which
they base their abstraction.)
86 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Given that some concepts must be left undened, it is important to
identify what can be clearly dened at the school level. Current practice
in teaching K - 5 mathematics results in the denition of key concepts at
Current practice in
teaching school
mathematics in the
United States
discourages denitions,
thus essentially
guaranteeing that
students will not learn
mathematical
reasoning.
best infrequently. As has already been noted, denitions are typically given
for terms like adjacent angles, but not for fractions, and not for the basic
operations with fractions.
Denitions in school mathematics. The current practice of neglect-
ing denitions of key concepts must be addressed. For example, students are
asked to grasp a relatively subtle concept like fractions from seeing instances
of fractions (parts of a whole, equal shares). Likewise, they are asked to un-
derstand fraction addition and multiplication from examples, but they are
not given denitions. The result is, at best, a vague understanding of these
basic topics and a feeling of uncertainty on the part of students. It is nat-
ural for them to hold, in the backs of their minds, the fear that in the next
lessons fractions will take on yet another meaning. The ground on which
they stand appears to always be shifting. This has the eect of limiting how
far many of these students can go with mathematics.
In these notes we devote an entire chapter to fractions. A solid under-
standing of fractions is essential for students to progress from the level of
working strictly with integers to algebra, geometry and beyond.
The core of the approach suggested here is that fractions are modeled
in two ways, initially via area models, but as soon as possible via points
on the number line. More precisely, fractions are dened via the points on
the number line that represent them. A careful discussion of the advantages
of such an approach is given, and some of the issues that have to be given
special care are discussed.
Equivalent fractions are dened in terms of agreement of the representing
points. Addition is dened in terms of the formula,
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad+bc
bd
, and
justied in terms of adding lengths. Multiplication is dened as a formula
and explained in terms of lengths and area models. These approaches are
much closer to the more successful foreign models of instruction than what
the audience of pre-service teachers is likely to have seen in their K - 12
experiences. First dene, then explain the denitions.
Of course, there is no level where everything can be dened. Some
things must be undened and simply characterized by core properties that
they have. But dwelling on this with pre-service teachers is delicate. They
will not instinctively understand what should be left undened and what
dened. So clarity should be brought to this point by indicating, when
possible, what to dene and possible methods to handle student uncertainty
about objects that cannot be dened in an appropriate way at the grade
level where they are introduced.
As an important example, dening lines for second grade students can
be challenging. It is not appropriate to give these students an axiomatic
description of lines, nor is it appropriate to give them a coordinate denition.
5. DEFINITIONS 87
But it is recommended that the number line be introduced as soon as possible
to help students visualize whole numbers and the order relationships between
them. Thus the line is best introduced in terms of student experience with
lines around them and with rulers. It is not dened.
But as much as possible, denitions are needed and pre-service teach-
ers should learn throughout these courses the power of the precision that
denitions give. Throughout these courses appropriate denitions should
be stressed so that pre-service teachers can become more comfortable with
them, and can begin to understand that without them, mathematics in-
struction is bound to fail for a majority of students. On the other hand
it cannot be suciently emphasized that denitions, when given in actual
classrooms, have to be grade appropriate, and have to be illustrated so that
students come to understand what the denition means, what it excludes,
and why it is given in that way.
Here are some examples of how one gives grade appropriate denitions in
the earliest grades. The initial discussion comes from the rst grade Russian
Examples of grade
appropriate but precise
denitions from Grades
1 - 3 in the Russian
mathematics program.
text translated by UCSMP. We review the sequence of denitions that occur
over a number of pages which starts with right angles and ends with squares.
Initially, (p. 109), the book gives a grade appropriate denition of right
angles as
and this is reinforced with exercises like the following (p. 109):
Find the right angles.
88 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Then a number of pages later we nd the following grade appropriate de-
nition of a rectangle (p. 117):
followed by reinforcement (p. 117):
At this point a notion that has been informally used a few times previously,
squares, is dened (p. 155):
Find the rectangles with equal sides. These are called squares.
Next we consider multiplication and division, as they are dened in the
second grade text in this series. The initial denition of multiplication is
given in terms of equal sets in the second grade Russian text translated by
5. DEFINITIONS 89
UCSMP:
Here is a problem from the text translated by UCSMP that shows how they
help children understand what the denition means:
Write down the multiplication problems and calculate the results
after you have replaced them with addition problems:
(1) take 4 sets of 9
(2) take 6 sets of 4
(3) take 3 sets of 10
(4) take 2 sets of 15
Then the denition of division is given as a suitable inverse operation to
multiplication:
90 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
In the third grade text in this series, multiplication is again dened, (p.
89)
To multiply the number 18 by 3 is to take the number 18 as
an addend 3 times:
18 3 = 18 + 18 + 18.
To multiply a number k by 4 is to take it as an addend 4
times.
To multiply a number a by a number b is to take the
number a as an addend b times.
Then division is dened (p. 110):
Division is related to multiplication; to divide 48 by 4 means
to nd a number which multiplied by 4 gives 48. This number
is 12. That is, 48 4 = 12. What does it mean to divide 72
by 9? 100 by 25?
With a precise denition of division available, this third grade text in-
troduces long division
If it is dicult to do a division orally, it can be done on paper,
thus:
Explanation: The rst partial dividend is 8 hundreds. This
means that there will be three digits in the quotient. We nd
out how many hundreds there will be in the quotient: we
divide 8 by 3, obtaining 2. We nd out how many hundreds
were divided: we multiply 3 by 2, obtaining 6. We nd out
how many hundreds were not divided: we subtract 6 from
8, getting 2. Two hundreds cannot be divided by 3 so as to
obtain hundreds; therefore, the digit 2 was chosen correctly.
We now form the second partial dividend: 2 hundreds amount
to 20 tens and to the 20 tens we add 6 tens, getting 26 tens.
We nd out how many tens there will be in the quotient.
Continue the explanation. Explain how to divide 376 by 4.
Note the change in denition from grade two to grade three. Both denitions
are correct for the numbers available to students in these grades, but the
5. DEFINITIONS 91
grade three denition is much more precise. Denitions must be grade-
appropriate.
Grade appropriate denitions. Let us further illustrate the issues
here with the denition of a polygon. In grades 3 - 5 students are introduced
to polygons, but one will seldom if ever see a careful denition. Indeed,
if one looks in the dictionary, one is apt to see an incorrect denition
Polygon: a closed plane gure bounded by line segments. This denition is
not satisfactory since it includes gures like these below:
These are not examples that we would commonly regard as polygons, so we
should reject this denition as insuciently restrictive. We can give a better
denition, but it is somewhat complicated:
A polygon is a closed plane gure with boundary composed of an
ordered union of directed line segments, s
1
, s
2
, . . . , s
n
, so that the
left end point of the i
th
segment is the right endpoint of the (i+1)
st
,
1 i n 1, and the left endpoint of the n
th
segment is the right
endpoint of the rst, s
1
. Moreover, distinct segments touch only at
the endpoints, and each segment touches only two other segments.
This denition, while mathematically precise, is clearly not appropriate for
fourth grade students, and constructing an appropriate denition for these
students is a problem that is hard to resolve. But a skilled teacher should
be able to get across to these students that the key points are
(1) that the boundary consists of a single closed circuit,
(2) that edges in the circuit intersect other edges only at their end-
points,
(3) that two and only two edges are incident on each endpoint.
A related issue is that denitions, when given, are often too vague to be
of much use. At the time of this writing, several widely used programs in this
country discuss convexity in third and fourth grade with descriptions like
convex means push out and concave means push in. Students cannot
92 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
use such denitions, but even in these grades most students can use and
understand the rigorous denition in terms of line segments connecting any
two points of a gure.
6. Problem Solving: Overview
Introduction. A key phrase that one has to consider designing math-
Nobody knows how to
teach high level
problem solving, though
we can describe many
of the processes that are
necessary to prepare for
the solutions of routine
problems. It is possible
that the current focus
on problem solving in
school mathematics was
introduced as an
alternative to the
mathematics as lists
approach of most
instruction, but current
teaching in this area
has also become part of
mathematics as lists.
ematics courses for pre-service K - 8 teachers is problem solving. It sounds
strange to mathematicians to separate this out, since whenever we do math-
ematics we are solving problems and we regard it as so central that it cannot
be separated out. Additionally, when we talk about solving problems, we
tend to mean major problems like the Poincare conjecture or Fermats the-
orem, and we are aware that we have no idea of how to quantify the process
of solving a major problem. However, we can, to a large degree, quantify the
process of solving more routine problems. This is a big part of what we are
doing when we are teaching basic courses at the university level. Moreover,
Polya made a systematic study of these processes, extending his work even
to the kinds of basic day to day problems that graduate students need
to be able to handle - slightly non-routine issues that arise in the course of
research.
From the perspective of K-8, as indicated earlier, mathematics tends
to be viewed in terms of lists of isolated facts and specialized techniques
(tricks). Such formal lists are antithetical to the processes that we use
when doing serious mathematics, and it is becoming more and more im-
portant that students graduate from high school with some ability to deal
with more challenging problems. Perhaps the term problem solving was
introduced as a separate aspect of K-12 mathematics to help break through
this mathematics as lists mind-set.
Unfortunately, problem solving itself has also become subject to list
making. In the section, Polyas Four Step Problem Solving Model near the
end of this chapter, we present Polyas 1944 summary discussion of the most
basic quantiable steps in solving problems and follow it with a list, typical
of those appearing in current mathematics methods texts for pre-service
teachers, that is taught as problem solving.
Such lists, while stultifying and limiting if taught as the totality of what
one needs in order to solve problems, should not be rejected out of hand.
For pedagogical reasons, it may be advantageous to separate some aspects
of mathematics and call them problem solving (though better terminology
would strongly be wished for). Consequently, we accept this usage with the
caveats listed above.
Focusing on problem solving as a separate and vital part of mathematics
instruction does have a purpose and makes sense when we remember, as
discussed above, the tendency of school instruction in the subject to present
mathematics as lists of memorized facts.
In any case, before we can provide pre-service teachers with indications
of what should be done to help focus students on how to systematically
6. PROBLEM SOLVING: OVERVIEW 93
approach solving problems, we need a clear idea of how this is currently
handled. This will be the focus of much of the rest of this chapter. It is not
a pleasant discussion, but one that we cannot avoid.
Preliminary discussion of problem solving. Problem solving is one
of the most badly misunderstood aspects of mathematics in the current K -
12 curriculum. At the highest levels, when we think about problem solving,
we tend to remember that very often, the solutions to the really dicult
problems we are thinking about come to us when we are doing something
else, sleeping, exercising, driving, etc. (This is also common in science and
engineering. It is remarkable how many professionals in these areas report
the same thing.) We understand that there are two levels of problem solving,
the verbal level, where we work out (relatively easy) problems consciously,
and the much more powerful non-verbal level where problems are worked
out behind the scenes.
Unfortunately, we can say very little about the latter aspects of problem
solving. We tend to believe that one triggers these non-verbal methods by
working out examples and drilling on basics, but actual scientic study is
badly lacking. Even for the verbal aspects of problem solving, little has
been done to understand the underlying processes. The key work here lies in
the discussions by G. Polya contained in ve books that he published from
the mid-1940s on. Polya tended not to separate the two processes, but he
was fully aware of them
6
.
We started this discussion by pointing out that virtually all of mathe-
matics is problem solving, and then we focused on the aspect that we tend
to think about when we use the term - the solutions of really dicult prob-
lems. In school mathematics, problem solving is regarded as process. It
takes the form of attempts to codify the (mostly verbal level) processes that
are involved in solving set problems.
In research level mathematics this kind of problem solving is an inter-
mediate skill that is crucial for research. It is what we do when we ll in
all the details in writing a paper. We see a consolidating principal or a new
way of thinking about things in an area, and then ll in. Many of us do
not to think of the main insights as problem solving, but Polya did include
6
There is a wealth of insight in Polyas books, and for mathematicians who are involved
in teaching these courses, at least his just reprinted classic, How to Solve it, should be a basic
reference. For example, on page 9 there is the marvelous paragraph:
We know, of course, that it is hard to have a good idea if we have little knowledge
of the subject, and impossible to have it if we have no knowledge. Good ideas are
based on past experience and formerly acquired knowledge. Mere remembering is not
enough for a good idea, but we cannot have any good idea without recollecting some
pertinent facts; materials alone are not enough for constructing a house but we cannot
construct a house without collecting the necessary materials. The materials necessary
for solving a mathematical problem are certain relevant items of our formerly acquired
mathematical knowledge, as formerly solved problems, or formerly proved theorems.
Thus, it is often appropriate to start the work with a question: Do you know a related
problem?
94 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
initial insights in his discussion. Indeed, he regarded these as the core, but
most mystifying aspect, of problem solving. However, we must focus on the
conscious part of this process for the audience of pre-service teachers that
these courses are designed to serve.
In How to Solve It, Polya tried to explain the quantiable steps in prob-
lem solving in mathematics. The discussion there could be summarized in
his four step model:
(1) Understand the problem
(2) Devise a plan
(3) Carry out the plan
(4) Look back.
The rst step, understand the problem, deserves elaboration.
A core skill in problem solving is reading. If a student
cannot understand what a problem is asking, he or she will
have no chance to solve it. But more is involved here than
just reading skills. The student must be able to parse the
problem, extract the relevant parts, evaluate whether they
are giving information that is needed or not, determine
what is being asked, and nally convert everything into a
series of precise mathematical statements. These are core
skills that have to be developed, and discussion of how
to do this should be an important topic in each of these
courses.
Unfortunately, if one stops with these observations, the door is left open
for serious misconceptions. This has actually happened in school mathe-
The rst step,
Understand the
Problem also includes
understanding whether
the question is a
sensible problem in
mathematics, whether
it is well-posed, rather
than just understanding
what the statement
means and is asking.
matics, and is one of the biggest blanks that has to be lled in in these
courses. Before we can talk about the second, third, and fourth steps in
Polyas model, we have to talk further about the rst. Mathematicians are
very aware of the biggest diculty with this rst part not all problems
are problems in mathematics, and not all problems admit solutions but it
seems that a large segment of the population does not realize this.
A key aspect of instruction across all four of these courses has to be
guiding pre-service teachers to the point where they can understand the
distinctions between well-posed and ill-posed problems. For the latter case
we should keep in mind that they will also need some ability to create well-
posed problems out of ill-posed problems when this is reasonable, and to
discard such problems when it is not. We expand on this topic in the next
section.
At a minimum, we need to focus pre-service teachers on two basic ques-
tions that should be asked before attempting to solve a problem. The rst
is the query, Is the question a problem in mathematics? and the second is
If the question is not a problem in mathematics, can it be sensibly made
so?
6. PROBLEM SOLVING: OVERVIEW 95
For the rst query, pre-service teachers should understand what a prob-
lem in mathematics is.
There are dierent kinds of problems that we see. Perhaps the most
common types are the set problems that demand little more than plugging
explicit numbers into given equations or procedures. These are typically
meant to illustrate and provide practice with newly presented material, or
to provide review of such material. It often seems that people equate such
problems with mathematics, hence the terms drill and kill, or drill and
skill, that naturally associate to such questions.
What is not as well understood as it should be is that such problems are
more properly regarded as necessary preparation for attacking actual mathe-
matical problems. Actual problems in mathematics typically have the prop-
erty that the solution or the goal is not immediately achieved and there is
no clear algorithm to use in order to arrive at the solution.
However, there is a distinction that must be made. Many questions
that mathematicians are asked to solve come from other areas ranging from
the hard sciences and engineering through economics and an ever growing
range of social sciences. Most questions of this kind do not come to us
posed as actual questions in mathematics. They tend to be vaguely stated
and overly general. Before we can even begin to help with these kinds of
questions we have to go through a number of steps. We must replace vague
statements by precise statements, overly general goals by focused ones that
have a reasonable chance to be achieved, and yet, in this translation process
we have to arrange things so that the answers will be of use in the original
areas.
Pre-service teachers should understand that questions in mathematics
must be well-posed, but all too often the questions that come from outside
mathematics are not.
Currently, there is virtually no distinction between these levels - ques-
tions in mathematics and questions from outside mathematics - in K-8 math-
ematics instruction or in the problem solving parts of existing mathematics
methods courses. This has the unexpected eect that many problems, even
on current state and national assessments, have hidden assumptions, or are
so poorly stated that multiple interpretations are possible, but only one an-
swer is accepted. Thus students tend to see key aspects of mathematics as
trying to guess what the questioner had in mind what is unstated.
More and more often at the college level the students we see tend to
try to guess what we are hiding when we ask relatively straightforward
questions. They have learned through their past experiences that not only
is mathematics done by learning lists, it is also a guessing game lled with
trick questions and obscure puzzles.
96 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
As teachers, we want to convey the clear message to our students
that in mathematics, no guesswork is needed for its mastery. We
want to let them know that it is an open book that everybody can
read. Among all branches of knowledge, mathematics is character-
ized by its WYSIWYG quality what you see is what you get
and you have no need to assume anything that is not already ex-
plicitly stated. This is another way of expressing the fact that every
conclusion we draw in mathematics depends completely on what is
stated explictly up front. In order to convey this message clearly,
it is absolutely essential that every problem we give can be solved
strictly by using the information within the problem, no more and
no less. No hidden agenda. H.-H. Wu
7. Well-Posed and Ill-Posed Problems in K-8 Mathematics
Before we can talk about the (mathematical reasoning) procedures in-
volved in problem solving we need to discuss the question of conversion into
A critical step in
problem solving is
recognizing whether a
given problem is
well-posed. One of the
most advanced skills in
mathematical problem
solving is creating
sensible well-posed
problems from ill-posed
questions.
a precise mathematical statement.
Often, one is handed a problem that is vaguely stated, e.g. classify all
linear equations in two variables. Before such a problem can be attacked
mathematically, it must be recast so that it is well-posed.
We recognize that a problem is well-posed when we have a precise math-
ematical denition for each term in the problem, and all the terms refer
to a single universe where mathematics can be done. Thus, in the ques-
tion above, we need precise denitions for classify, linear equation, and
2 variables. We can reasonably assume that we know the last two, but
the rst, classify, is problematic. We understand classify to mean set up a
sequence of types, so that a given equation ts into one or more of these
types. The problem is that linear equations, and two variables, are already
type restrictions in a classication of equations into polynomial and non-
polynomial, and within polynomial into degree, and number of variables.
So what more might be required of classify in this question? Without fur-
ther information we cannot proceed.
At this point, one attempts to consider the context in which the question
was asked to get an idea of what should be meant by classify for this problem.
But without that context, we are stumped. We cannot make a sensible well-
posed problem out of the original question.
Similarly, problems given to mathematicians from outside the subject
are usually ill-posed. Here is an example. In many factories work areas
are islands scattered on the factory oor. Guide wires are embedded in the
oor that go between these various areas and vehicles carry material from
one area to another guided by these wires. How do we program this system
so that material can be moved around most eciently? Before one can start,
one must clarify and give precise meanings to all the terms. In doing so,
we abstract - guide wires become lines, work areas points, and the system
a graph. Likewise, vehicles likely become points moving along the graph.
7. WELL-POSED AND ILL-POSED PROBLEMS IN K-8 MATHEMATICS 97
Then we produce a denition of ecient, perhaps just focusing on total
distance traveled, or perhaps just minimizing time. However, we do have
to take care that our assumptions, particularly this last, are relevant to the
question actually asked. It might well be that the people asking have a clear
idea of what they mean by ecient, and we should be guided by their views.
It might also be that modeling vehicles by points misses a critical aspect of
what is needed. The precise reformulation of the problem that we come up
with needs to be guided by the context in which it was asked.
In summary, we see that there are two steps that must be carefully
considered before we can begin the process of problem solving.
(1) The rst is to determine if the problem is well-posed.
(2) The second is, if the problem, as given, is not well-posed, to de-
termine how to make it so. (This depends on context, and is very
delicate. Perhaps it is fair to say that this is one of the most basic
processes in mathematics, but one that is typically not discussed.)
If we are to provide the training that pre-service K-8 teachers need in order
to handle the current requirements for educating their students, these two
aspects of problem solving have to be a major focus throughout the entire
sequence of courses.
We should not lose sight of the fact that, though professional mathe-
maticians clearly understand these issues and handle them almost without
conscious thought, this is far from the case for most people, and is far from
the case in K-12 school mathematics in this country. (We will give examples
of the kinds of diculties that have to be addressed below. The pre-service
teachers in these courses will initially accept these problems without ques-
tion, and produce solutions, but it must be understood that one should
not regard these diculties as anything more than a failure in their previous
educations, not as personal failures.)
We now look at a representative sample of ill-posed problems from many
sources. It is worth noting that in a recent study of state assessments (Ac-
countability Works ...), more than 25% of the problems were not well-posed
or had other diculties in a signicant number of these states eighth grade
assessments. Understanding the kinds of widely held misconceptions about
mathematics prevalent in K - 12 instruction is essential in guiding sound
instruction in these courses.
Examples of non-well-posed problems from state assessments,
textbooks, and other exams.
(1) Here is a classic example of a non-well-posed problem: Two friends
are in dierent third grade classes that meet in dierent rooms.
They want to know which room is bigger. How do they decide?
In this case, the term bigger is not dened. It could refer to
98 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
volume, area of oor space, number of students, or have some other
meaning.
(2) Here is an example of a question that appeared in a state mathe-
matics framework:
The 20% of . . . families with the lowest annual earnings pay an aver-
age of 14.1% in state and local taxes, and the middle 20% pay only
8.8%. What does that dierence mean? Do you think it is fair?
What additional questions do you have?
What meaning can be assigned to fair?
(3) This question is from a state eighth grade assessment exam.
The diculty here is that no rule is specied for generating the next
term. The question is better than average in that the meaning of n is
specied. In many questions of this type we are even required to speculate
on whether n is the input value or whether it is the position of the element
in the sequence. However, since no rule is given we are required to guess
that the actual rule is contained in the list of possible answers. The question
could be xed by rephrasing it: The chart above gives the rst four input,
output pairs for one of the rules below. If the input is n, which rule is it?
(1) This is another question from the same eighth grade exam.
This has exactly the same kinds of diculties as the problem above. This
time the variable n, the ordinal number above, has been vaguely indicated
as the input, but no idea of the way in which the pattern is to be generated
7. WELL-POSED AND ILL-POSED PROBLEMS IN K-8 MATHEMATICS 99
is given, and the problem is a short response question, which means that
there is no help to be had from a list of possible answer choices.
Once more, whether this is a well-posed or ill-posed question depends
on the context and the background of the audience. However, on a state
assessment, it is unlikely that one can assume a common understanding of
the missing assumptions.
(1) Here is a problem from another state assessment.
A clear attempt was made to make the question unambiguous, but
it fails. To someone familiar with binary numbers the intent of
the question is obvious. However, implicit in this question is at
least an acquaintance with them. If a student has not seen them
s/he will be at a loss. On the actual test a number of ingenious
alternative suggestions did appear as justications for incorrect
answers. But there is yet another diculty with a problem of this
kind. It gets back to instruction in mathematics as lists. The point
of binary numbers is that the various places represent powers of
2, not powers of 10, and this is reasonable for computers, since
standard switches have only two states, on and o. But the core
issue, the use of powers of two, is not even hinted at in the statement
of the problem.
In all these examples, the diculty is that the question is not and cannot
be unambiguously made well-posed. In four of the problems a nite sequence
is presented, and the question has the form continue the pattern, with an
implicit assumption that there is only one way to do this. The remaining
two are harder to categorize.
In general it is very important that instruction address issues with pat-
terns, their role in doing and understanding mathematics, and the pitfalls
involved in treating them too rigidly. We devote a section in this chapter to
a discussion of this topic.
It is important that pre-service teachers learn how to construct solid
problems. They will use these for assessment and for instruction. As ways
100 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
of developing the kinds of precise patterns of thought needed for this, it
is recommended that some assignments contain well-posed problems inter-
spersed with a few that are not well-posed. The instructions might be that
if a problem is not well-posed, this is to be pointed out, and at least one
method for making it well-posed be given.
We now turn to other issues with problem formation that are frequent
in school mathematics.
8. Problems with Hidden Assumptions
Here is a problem from a version of a national assessment exam.
Many years ago the
discussion of hidden
assumptions often took
place in English classes.
Today, they must be
discussed in
mathematics classes,
but the evidence shows
that this discussion is
not always present or
well done.
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...........................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................. ...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 12 13
20 21 22
29 30 31
The picture shows a 5 5 section of
an array of lockers with only the
3 3 center group numbered. Fill in
the missing locker numbers.
The diculty here is that there is a hidden assumption in the problem,
namely that the lockers are arranged in numerical order in a rectangular
array. Such an assumption may well be legitimate in a situation where
everyone understands this, for example a small class where questions can
be asked and discussed during the exam. However, on a state or national
exam, it is not legitimate to make such assumptions.
Problems with hidden assumptions are also extremely common in texts,
as well as tests, and pre-service teachers must become familiar with them
and the diculties that they pose for students. Sometimes the assumptions
are relatively subtle, so this can be tricky. Here is an example from an eighth
9. PROBLEMS WHERE PSYCHOLOGY AFFECTS THE OUTCOME 101
grade state assessment.
The diculty is that The points A, B, C, and D on the graph are not
given as explicit coordinates. We are asked to infer that they are at integer
coordinates, a hidden assumption. Usually, one can get away with a problem
like this. Most students will make this assumption, but this is not good
training in mathematics nor in the kind of precise thinking that we would
like students to learn. Consequently, examples like this should be discussed
during the sequence, and pre-service teachers should be led to understand
why they are not desirable.
9. Problems where Psychology Aects the Outcome
Related to the issues of the previous section there are often extraneous
Students are also not
taught to always
distinguish extraneous
material from material
that matters. Problems
with included
illustrations often give
dramatic examples of
this failure. Here we
discuss the classic
Marcys Dots problem.
factors in problems that distort our perceptions of what the problems are
asking. A classic problem of this kind is:
MARCYS DOTS
A pattern of dots is shown below. At each step more
dots are added to the pattern. The number of dots added
at each step is more than is added in the previous step. The
pattern continues indenitely.
102 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Marcy has to determine the number of dots at the 20th
step but she does not want to draw all 20 pictures and then
count the dots. Explain or show how she can do this and
give the answer that Marcy should get for the number of
dots.
Oddly enough, this version of the problem is well-posed, but the picture is
completely misleading. Even professionals tend to reach the wrong conclu-
sion inuenced by the picture, and not the given data. They give the answer
as n (n + 1) = n
2
+n for the number of dots, C(n), at the n
th
stage.
The actual assumption simply says that the number of dots at the n
th
stage satises C(n + 1) > C(n), (C(n + 1) C(n) > C(n) C(n 1))
with C(3) = 12, and C(3) C(2) = 6. From this one can only conclude
that C(20) is at least 267, but that any whole number greater than 266 is
possible for C(20). Indeed, the smallest increase possible between C(3) and
C(4) is 7, so C(4) > 18, between C(4) and C(5) is 8, so C(5) > 26, and in
general an easy induction shows that
C(n) > (n + 3)(n + 4)/2 10.
It is quite important that prospective teachers see such problems, but
they must be carefully discussed with them. Preconceptions should be care-
fully discussed and the kinds of diculties they lead to brought forward.
It is worth noting that the version of the Marcys dots problem above is
only one of many that one can currently nd on the web. Here is another,
with the same picture and the same instructions preceeding the picture. It
continues as follows:
Describe the change that takes place to get from one
step to the next. Make your discription in general terms,
so that it is good for each succeeding step in the pattern.
Marcy has to determine the number of dots in the 20
th
step, but she does not want to draw all 20 pictures and then
count the dots. Her friend told her that there were 399 dots
in the 19
th
step. How can she use this to nd the number
of dots in the 20
th
step?
9. PROBLEMS WHERE PSYCHOLOGY AFFECTS THE OUTCOME 103
Marcys teacher knows that her friend helped her. So
she asks her to explain or show how she could nd the num-
ber of dots in the 30
th
step without drawing all 30 pictures.
Explain how Marcy can do this AND give the answer that
Marcy should get for the number of dots in the 30
th
step.
Does any step in this pattern contain exactly 1000 dots?
Explain your reasoning.
As we can see, the misunderstanding is compounded, but this extension
makes clearer the basis for the confusion. Once one assumes that there is a
unique rule for the sequence given by studying the rst three terms (and that
the formula is a quadratic polynomial in n), this extension is entirely logical.
Thus, there is rst a psychological aspect, in that the picture is not entirely
representative of the actual assumptions, and second, a misconception about
what is needed to determine the rules for dening sequences.
Here is a useful example that might be used with pre-service teachers
to clarify this issue. I am thinking of a sequence of numbers. The rst ve
terms are 3, 1, 4, 1, 5. What is the next term? The class will, almost
certainly suggest that the answer is 1. You say, No. For my sequence the
next number is 9! When the confusion abates, point out that what you were
thinking of were the digits in the base 10 decimal expansion of . Using this
as an introduction, a useful discussion of what is needed to determine a rule
can be carried out.
Here is another problem that illustrates the eect preconceptions have on
problem solving. This problem comes from Russia, and is generally regarded
as appropriate (but quite dicult) for seventh or eighth grade students there.
Two ladies started walking at sunrise each from her vil-
lage to the others village. They met at noon. The rst
lady arrived in the seconds village at 4:00PM, while the
second lady arrived at the rst ladys village at 9:00PM.
They walked at constant rates. What time was sunrise?
One has a tendency to expect that there is missing data in this problem.
But the problem is well-posed, so, before actually stating that the problem is
not solvable, pre-service teachers should be encouraged to attempt to solve
it. In fact, if d is the distance between the villages, r
1
is the rate at which
the rst lady walks, r
2
is the rate the second lady walks, s is the time of
sunrise, and L the time spent to arrive at the meeting point is L = 12s,
then the data in the problem translates into three equations:
d = L(r
1
+r
2
)
d = (L + 4)r
1
d = (L + 9)r
2
.
Subtracting the second from the rst gives 4r
1
= Lr
2
, subtracting the third
from the rst gives 9r
2
= Lr
1
. Hence
L
4
=
r
1
r
2
, while
L
9
=
r
2
r
1
. Multiplying
gives
L
2
36
= 1, and, since L is non-negative, L = 6, so sunrise was at 6:00AM.
104 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
H.-H. Wu pointed out another example that appears to run along the
same lines the answer is not what one would expect:
Fresh cucumbers contain 99% water by weight. 300 lbs.
of cucumbers are placed in storage, but by the time they are
brought to market, it is found that they contain only 98%
of water by weight. How much do these cucumbers weigh
at the time they are brought to market?
What the rst problem really illustrates is the non-intuitive nature of non-
linear problems, especially for students who tend to have only seen linear
problems previously. The second problem could be thought of as linear
but there is an assumption being made that the only part of the weight
that changed is the weight of the water in the cucumbers. This is, strictly
speaking, not quite true, but is close enough to true for us to routinely
assume it. However, we should be aware that we do make such assumptions,
since prospective teachers may not, and some of the students they will teach
may not. Note that without such an assumption, the problem cannot be
solved, so this is an example of a problem that is not well-posed but can be
made into a well-posed problem with reasonable assumptions.
10. Patterns in School Mathematics
In the previous two sections we have seen a number of examples of
egregious misuses of what we might call pattern problems in school math-
Detecting and
conjecturing about the
structure of
continuations of data
sequences is a very
important part of the
creative process in
doing mathematics. As
we have seen it is very
easy to misunderstand
it. However, in a
balanced curriculum it
should not be ignored
or rejected, but
carefully put into the
correct context.
ematics. One should not however, simply say something to the eect that
one cannot determine a sequence uniquely from only the rst few terms,
and abolish such patterns from the school curriculum. They serve a very
important purpose in mathematics, the sciences, and many other areas. As
Polya points out in How to Solve It,
Induction and mathematical induction. Induction is the pro-
cess of discovering general laws by the observation and combination
of particular instances. It is used in all sciences, even in mathemat-
ics. Mathematical induction is used in mathematics alone to prove
theorems of a certain kind. It is rather unfortunate that the names
are connected because there is very little logical connection between
the two processes. There is, however, some practical connection; we
often use both methods together. (p. 114)
When one studies some structure to try to understand how it works and what
the rules that govern it are, experimentation and guesswork are an essential
part of the process. They should not be discouraged, but overly rigid rules
of the kind You cannot do ... have exactly this kind of discouraging eect.
10. PATTERNS IN SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 105
Likewise, formal rules of the form
If the rst few terms of a series are given, rst check successive dif-
ferences. If they are constant the sequence is arithmetic, if they in-
crease linearly, the n
th
term in the sequence is given by a quadratic
polynomial. If the dierence is the previous term, it is a Fibonacci
sequence, and if the successive terms are powers of a xed number it
is a geometric series.
are destructive. Pre-service teachers must be guided to an understanding
that any kind of over-rigid rules in problem solving are to be avoided.
Both formal (or deductive) reasoning and informal reasoning are critical
aspects of doing mathematics. But these are dierent processes, and one
of the things we have to be especially careful about is to make sure that
the pre-service teachers in these classes do not confound the two. It is too
common in classrooms that students learn to check the rst few cases and
verify that they t a single rule. They then conclude
(1) that this rule determines all cases
(2) that they have veried this.
However, here too, there should be some exibility.
Here is a quote from the introduction to Polyas book Mathematics and
Plausible Reasoning
7
that describes the balance needed:
A serious student of mathematics, intending to make it his lifes
work, must learn demonstrative reasoning; it is his profession and
the distinctive mark of his science. Yet for real success he must also
learn plausible reasoning; this is the kind of reasoning on which his
creative work will depend. The general or amateur student should
also get a taste of demonstrative reasoning: he may have little op-
portunity to use it directly, but he should acquire a standard with
he can compare alleged evidence of all sorts aimed at him in modern
life. But in all his endeavors he will need plausible reasoning. At
any rate, an ambitious student of mathematics, whatever his fur-
ther interests may be, should try to learn both kinds of reasoning,
demonstrative and plausible.
I do not believe that there is a foolproof method to learn guessing.
At any rate, if there is such a method, I do not know it, and quite
certainly I do not pretend to oer it on the following pages. The ef-
cient use of plausible reasoning is a practical skill and it is learned,
as any other practical skill, by imitation and practice. I shall try
7
It is the distinction of these two dierent kinds of reasoning that is the core of Polyas
work here. He describes them thus: We secure our mathematical knowledge by demonstrative
reasoning, but we support our conjectures by plausible reasoning. A mathematical proof is demon-
strative reasoning, but the inductive evidence of the physicist, the circumstantial evidence of the
lawyer, the documentary evidence of the historian, and the statistical evidence of the economist
belong to plausible reasoning.
106 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
to do my best for the reader who is anxious to learn plausible rea-
soning, but what I can oer are only examples for imitation and
opportunity for practice.
The study of patterns in school mathematics, typically begun in Kinder-
garten with sequences of shapes, colors, and sounds, is crucial to solid edu-
cation and good outcomes for students. But there is always the spector of
list making lurking in the background. Even more so than is the case with
other areas of the subject, it threatens this area.
Here are some suggested discussions. First, in the earliest grades, if
teachers are presenting simple repeating patterns like circle, block, circle,
block, ..., they vary it by showing that the pattern can also be continued
by circle, block, reverse, block, circle, and so on. Then with three they can
again do extensions by simple repeats circle, block, triangle, circle, block,
triangle, ..., but should again reverse it, and class discussions of all kinds of
dierent ways of extending the pattern should be carried out. In rst and
second grade the same kinds of discussions should be developed, but now
with even more complicated ways of extending the pattern.
Similarly, with number patterns, students should be exposed, from the very
beginnings to dierent types of extensions. So if students see 1, 3, 5, 7, they
should be able to extend it as 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . . , also as 1, 3, 5, 7, 5, 3, 1, 3, 5, . . .
and 1, 3, 5, 7, 1, 3, 5, 7, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . , and indeed, in any way for which they can
devise a rule. The same, of course should hold for more involved patterns.
This being said, the pre-service teachers also need to understand that
when one is asked, for example, to determine a formula for some process, one
should evaluate a number of cases, see if there appears to be structure in the
data, and if structure is identied, be willing to conjecture a formula as an
appropriate continuation of this pattern. But it is crucially important that
they be taught to be exible on this point, and also that, once an answer is
conjectured, to recognize that it must be veried.
As an example of how one might handle this subject in the rst course
where the handshaking problem might well come up is to rst encourage the
11. PARSING WORD PROBLEMS 107
audience to work out a number of cases explicitly: two people, one hand-
shake, three people, three hand-shakes, four people, six hand-shakes, ve
people, 10 hand-shakes. They might then guess
_
n+1
2
_
, for the answer, but
it would be critical not to stop there. The discussion is not complete until
an actual demonstration of this fact is achieved. If this is too involved for
a single class, then a simpler problem might be attempted. A suggestion
might be to count the number of ways in which a toss of n pennies will have
exactly one of them come up heads, or two, three, and nally m.
11. Parsing Word Problems
Parsing Word Problems is often dicult for students and for pre-service
teachers. Here one must really begin at the most basic level.
For example, a third grade set of problems from e.g., the Singapore texts
could be studied to see how, step by step, students can be taught to parse
word problems and extract the data, the question, and convert things into
a mathematical context. Here are some problems from such an assignment
Primary Mathematics 3A, p. 43. The sequence begins with twelve routine
set problems, just involving simple multiplication and division, 4, 56, 70,
16 2, 21 3, etc. Then and only then are word problems introduced. The
language is very simple so that the students can easily do the parsing. Also,
the layout is designed to make this direct, the problems are very carefully
set up so as to be unambiguous, and the skills involved are represented in
the previous problems:
Mrs Fu bought 3 packets of strawberries.
There were 8 strawberries in each packet.
How many strawberries did she buy altogether?
Sumin arranged 24 toy soldiers in 4 rows.
There were an equal number of toy soldiers in each
row.
How many toy soldiers were there in each row?
Devi saved $5 a week for 8 weeks.
How much did she save altogether?
As a device to help students parse word problems and convert them to
mathematical questions, the Singapore texts introduce bar diagrams in third
grade, and carry them forward throughout the curriculum.
108 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Example: Meihua has $16.
She has twice as much money as Sulin.
How much money does Sulin have?
................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................... ..................................................................................................... . .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................................................
Meihua
Sulin
?
Example: 4 children bought a present for $28.
They shared the cost equally.
How much did each child pay?
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. ...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................
........................ .................
$28
?
Fourth grade example: Mrs. Chen bought a sh for $5.25.
She also bought some prawns for $11.80.
She paid with a $50.00 note.
How much change did she receive?
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................... ........................................... ............... ............................................................................................. ........................................ .............................................................................. ............... ............................................................................................................................................................................................ ....................................................................................................................................................
$50
$5.25 $11.80 ?
One of the best ways for pre-service teachers to learn parsing is to try to
construct word problems that have specied properties. They will initially
nd this challenging. However, since problem construction is a critical skill,
essential in eective mathematics instruction, it is strongly advised that
exercises in constructing word problems be interspersed throughout all these
courses.
Here is an example from a class at Michigan State University for pre-
service teachers who had passed or placed out of a college algebra course.
It illustrates the initial skill levels of many pre-service teachers. But, as
confused as these answers are, with systematic practice, this is a skill that
can be taught and learned.
Problem: Using a measurement model, create a word problem which builds
the expression 12x 3.
Some answers from the class:
11. PARSING WORD PROBLEMS 109
(1) The weight w of the child at age 12 is the weight times 2 and then
subtracted by 3, so 2w 3.
(2) Susan buys 12 tickets of x dollar, but 3 students cant attend. What
is the algebraic equation? 12x 3
(3) Maria bought 12 pumpkins at x dollars each. She gave 3 away. If
x = $1, how much did she spend on the pumpkins she kept? 12x3
(4) Amy has 12 times more pennies than Sally. Carla has 3 pennies
less than Sally. Express how much Carla has in terms of x?
(5) Rat has 8 coins and Al has 4. Together they have 12 coins of value
x. Al gave way 3 pennies. How many coins do the boys have left?
V. I. Arnold wrote a short booklet in Russian, the title of which translates as
Problems for Children from 5 to 15 Years of Age. The book was translated
into English and edited by Tatiana Shubin, and here are some sample prob-
lems. In solving them one must constantly be aware of both the necessity
to parse precisely and the tendency to make unwarranted assumptions.
(1) In order to buy a book Amy needed 7 more cents, and Bob needed
1 more cent. They decided to combine their money, but even then
they did not have enough to buy the book. How much did the book
cost?
(2) A bottle with a cork costs 10 cents, and the bottle costs 8 cents
more than the cork. How much does the bottle cost?
(3) A brick weighs one pound and half the brick. How many pounds
does the brick weigh?
(4) Suppose we have a barrel of wine and a cup of tea. A teaspoon
of wine is taken from the barrel and poured into the cup of tea.
Then the same teaspoon of the mixture is taken from the cup and
poured into the barrel. Now the barrel contains some tea and the
cup contains some wine. Which volume is larger - that of the tea
in the wine barrel or of the wine in the teacup?
(5) The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10 inches and the correspond-
ing height of the triangle is 6 inches. Find the area of the triangle?
(This is more advanced, but even advanced students should be care-
ful.)
(6) The number of Basils sisters is two more than the number of his
brothers. How many more daughters than sons do Basils parents
have? (Be very careful parsing this question.)
(7) Once there was a man who had to take a wolf, a goat, and a cabbage
across a river, but his boat was so small that it could only hold him
and one other thing. The man didnt know what to do. How could
he take the wolf, the goat, and the cabbage over one at a time, so
that the wolf wouldnt eat the goat and the goat wouldnt eat the
cabbage?
110 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
12. Real World Problems
In the workplace and other situations in everyday life much of what is
done is to solve problems of varying degrees of complexity. Some of these
problems involve decision making. Others involve design and construction.
Some involve budgeting. But most involve some aspects of mathematics.
Consider problems involved in allocation of a xed budget. For example:
A family of 4 has a monthly take-home income of $5,200.00. They have
base costs as follows; mortgage and tax payments, $2,450.00, food averaging
about $535.00, car payments and other transportation expenses of $935.00,
utilities on average $355.00. College will come up for the two children in 3
and 5 years respectively. How do they allocate the remaining money to best
eect?
This problem is ill-posed as it stands. Before sensible decisions can be
made, it is necessary to make precise the term best eect. It need not be
given a unique denition. A number of dierent scenarios could well be
explored.
Other kinds of problems that can occur might involve things like building
a storage shed. For example, one might have a 12 14 foot area of the yard
where a storage shed could be constructed. The total square footage of the
shed cannot be more than 80 due to building restrictions, but a number of
big garden tools like a rototiller and a chipper-shredder have to be stored
there. Also, access is a problem. The problem is to design a storage shed
that will maximize access and hold the tools at minimal cost.
Here, there are quite a few missing pieces though the problem is (mostly)
well-posed. These have to be researched and added to the information avail-
able. As information is collected, one gets more and more precise questions
to answer.
One way or the other, the rst steps are to make well-posed problems
out of the real-world problem and solve them. Throughout these courses it
is essential that problems like these be presented and discussed. Pre-service
teachers should become comfortable with the process of constructing sensible
well-posed problems out of real world problems. But there is something that
has to be treated with care here. The process that one wants to ultimately
encourage is to work from the problem:
(1) Create well-posed problems from the given problem. If necessary
research aspects of the problem to help guide this.
(2) Research the issues in the resulting problem. Have problems like
this been solved before? If so how, what techniques are needed?
What techniques do I have to learn? Does the problem accurately
reect what I want to know? Will the answer be useful?
(3) Is the problem something that can be solved with the mathematical
tools available.
It is the third item that will create the most diculty, though all three steps
are challenging. Instruction should emphasize that eective problem solving
13. POLYAS FOUR STEP PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL 111
demands a broad understanding of mathematics. One does not know what
kinds of problems will arise. They must be reminded that before one can
work at this level, solid foundations have to be present.
There is a risk is that pre-service teachers will jump into this process
too soon, and that they will not properly prepare the groundwork with
their own students unless instruction is carefully sequenced. It is strongly
The American Diploma
Project, see. e.g.
http://www.achieve.org/-
achieve.nsf/-
AmericanDiplomaProject
is a useful source of
valid real-world
problems.
recommended that when problems like this are presented, they almost always
occur as nal problems in a carefully graded list of set problems, designed
so as to help guide the audience towards successfully resolving the nal
questions.
Problems: The following are two problems that actually arose.
(1) You are building an addition to a house. The interior of the new
room will be a right rectangular prism 28 feet, 6 inches long, 11 feet,
3 inches wide, and 8
1
2
feet high after the walls are in place. The
suboor will be constructed from 4 foot by 8 foot sheets of
3
4
inch
plywood. The ooring joists will be 16 inches on center, will run
at right angles to the longer base dimension, and will be supported
at the two ends only. Determine a parts list for this project using
local building codes. Do not include the ceiling, or the foundations.
(2) When rebuilding the heating system of a house, it was found that
the main air-return duct had to be replaced. This was a 14 inch
diameter vent with a circular cross-section, and 33 feet of it were
exposed with three right angle turns - though even in the turns the
cross section remains a 14 inch diameter circle. The exposed parts
have to be insulated, and insulation comes in six inch wide rolls.
How many linear feet of insulation are needed?
13. Polyas Four Step Problem Solving Model
First.
You have to understand
the problem.
UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM
What is the unknown? What are the
data? What is the condition? Is it
possible to satisfy the condition? Is the
condition sucient to determine the
unknown? Or is it insucient? Or
redundant? Or contradictory?
112 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Second.
Find the connection
between the data and
the unknown.
You may be obliged to
consider auxiliary
problems if an
immediate connection
cannot be found.
You should obtain
eventually a plan of the
solution.
DEVISING A PLAN
Have you seen it before? Or have you
seen the same problem in a slightly
dierent form?
Do you know a related problem? Do you
know a theorem that could be useful?
Look at the unknown? And try to think
of a familiar problem having the same or
a similar unknown.
Here is a problem related to yours and
solved before. Could you use it? Could
you use its result? Could you use its
method? Should you introduce some
auxiliary element in order to make its use
possible? Could you restate the problem?
Could you restate it still dierently? Go
back to denitions.
If you cannot solve the proposed problem
try to solve rst some related problem.
Could you imagine a more accessible
related problem? A more general
problem? A more special problem? An
analogous problem? Could you solve a
part of the problem? Keep only a part of
the condition, drop the other part; how
far is the unknown then determined, how
can it vary? Could you derive something
useful from the data? Could you think of
other data appropriate to determine the
unknown? Could you change the
unknown or the data, or both if necessary,
so that the new unknown and the new
data are nearer to each other?
Did you use all the data? Did you use the
whole condition? Have you taken into
account all essential notions involved in
the problem?
13. POLYAS FOUR STEP PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL 113
Third.
Carry out your plan.
CARRYING OUT THE PLAN
Carrying out your plan of the solution,
check each step. Can you see clearly that
the step is correct? Can you prove that it
is correct?
Fourth.
Examine the solution
obtained.
LOOKING BACK
Can you check the result? Can you check
the argument? Can you derive the result
dierently? Can you see it at a glance?
Can you use the result, or the method, for
some other problems?
It is instructive to compare Polyas problem solving steps above with the
following parallel, but more detailed list, taken from pages 19 and 20 of A
The following material,
taken from a current
mathematics text for
pre-service teachers
shows how problem
solving becomes just
another long list.
Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers,
by R. Billstein, S. Libeskind, J. Lott, Addison Wesley, (1998). Some of the
techniques identied in this list have received special emphases and undo
isolation in K-12 mathematics texts and in classroom practice.
(1) Understanding the problem
(a) Can you state the problem in your own words?
(b) Whare are you trying to nd or do?
(c) What are the unknowns?
(d) What information do you obtain from the problem?
(e) What information, if any, is missing or not needed?
(2) Devising a plan
(a) Look for a pattern
(b) Examine related problems and determine if the same technique
applied to them can be applied here
(c) Examine a simpler or special case of the problem to gain insight
into the solution of the original problem.
(d) Make a table.
(e) Make a diagram.
(f) Write an equation.
(g) Use guess and check.
(h) Work backward.
(i) Identify a subgoal.
(j) Use indirect reasoning.
(3) Carrying out the plan
(a) Implement the strategy or strategies in step 2 and perform any
necessary actions or computations.
114 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
(b) Check each step of the plan as you proceed. This may be
intuitive checking or a formal proof of each step.
(c) Keep an accurate record of your work.
(4) Looking back
(a) Check the results in the original problem. (In some cases, this
will require a proof.)
(b) Interpret the solution in terms of the original problem. Does
your answer make sense? Is it reasonable? Does it answer the
question that was asked?
(c) Determine whether there is another method of nding the so-
lution.
(d) If possible, determine other related or more general problems
for which the technique will work.
One gets the impression, looking at a number of K-8 texts, that the
various methods listed under (2) are not given equal weight. The greatest
emphasis is given to use guess and check. For example, one typically
nds problems asking for solutions of linear equations with integer coe-
cients, that have small positive integer solutions. The recommended solution
method is guess some values and check whether they work. Implicit in
these exercises is the understanding that students will try small positive
integers and after one or two guesses, will arrive at a correct guess. The
absence of problems that require more systematic methods tends to give
K-12 students the belief that nothing more than guess and check is really
needed. Since this is very possibly the chief method that the pre-service
teachers will have learned to solve problems, there is a compelling need to
place this method into an appropriate context, and to justify the need for
more sophisticated methods.
It may also be pointed out to pre-service teachers that it is often useful
and appropriate to substitute numerical values in place of the variables in
an equation or a system of equations. This is appropriate if the objective
is to get some idea of the general behavior of the equations, rather than
merely to guess solutions. For example, in the case of linear equations prior
to the introduction of slope, it is instructive for students to ask and answer
the questions, Is y increasing, decreasing, or constant as x changes, and
roughly how much is y increasing or decreasing? The general directives,
make a table and use guess and check should not be isolated techniques.
A more general approach like test the given problem by looking at a small
number of special cases is more powerful in the long run.
14. Working With Problems for Elementary Teachers
Sybilla Beckmann
Prospective elementary teachers must know not only how to carry out
the basic operations of arithmeticadding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing whole numbers, fractions, and decimalsbut they must also know
14. WORKING WITH PROBLEMS FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 115
when these operations apply. In particular, teachers must be able to give
story problems for the various operations, and they must be able to identify
when a given story situation can or cannot be solved by a certain operation.
But how do we decide whether or not we can or cannot solve a given
story situation with a certain operation? In the simplest situations, it is
often intuitively clear to adults which operation applies. For example, how
many apples do you have in all if you have 2 apples and then get 3 more?
For adults, it is clear that we solve this problem by adding 2 + 3, and a
detailed discussion is probably superuous.
But what about the following problem?
One third of the boys in Mrs. Scotts class want to have a peanut
butter sandwich for lunch. One fourth of the girls in Mrs. Scotts class
want to have a peanut butter sandwich for lunch. What fraction
of the children in Mrs. Scotts class want to have a peanut butter
sandwich for lunch?
Can we solve this problem by adding
1
3
+
1
4
or not? (For that matter, can
we solve this problem at all?) It may not seem so clear. But we should not
have to guess or to rely on vague feelings in order to answer this question.
What do we need to know in order to determine in a reliable way whether
or not we can solve the problem above by adding
1
3
+
1
4
?
First, we need a denition of addition. We can dene addition for non-
negative numbers A and B as:
A+B represents the total number of objects you will have if you
start with A objects and then get B more objects.
Next, we must interpret the denition carefully. In the above denition of
addition, we must understand that the objects that A + B, A, and B refer
to are to be considered equivalent. In other words, the underlying wholes
that these numbers refer to must be identical wholes. Therefore problem (1)
above cannot be solved by adding
1
3
+
1
4
because the whole that the
1
3
refers
to is the boys is Mrs. Scotts class, whereas the whole that the
1
4
refers to
is the girls in Mrs. Scotts class, and the whole for the desired answer is all
of Mrs. Scotts class. Therefore we have a rational argument determining
that problem (1) cannot be solved by adding
1
3
+
1
4
. In fact, we can see that
because we dont know the relative sizes of the dierent wholes involved in
this problem, we cannot solve the problem at all.
The denition of addition is familiar and intuitive and poses no problem
for students. But in our experience, students benet from repeated discus-
sions about the importance of the whole associated to a fraction. (When
only whole numbers are involved, the underlying whole never seems to be
the source of confusion.) Such discussions enable students not only to see
clearly why the problem above cannot be solved by adding
1
3
+
1
4
, but also
why Figure 1 does not justify adding fractions by adding the numerators
116 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
and adding the denominators.
Figure 1: Why Isnt
2
3
+
2
3
=
4
6
?
Similarly, in the case of subtraction, students must pay close attention
to the underlying wholes when fractions are involved. Otherwise, miscon-
ceptions such as thinking that Figure 2 is an appropriate way to represent
2
3

1
2
may arise.
Figure 2: Denises Idea For
2
3

1
2
Or students may identify the following problem as a story problem for
1
3

1
4
.
There is
1
3
of a pie left over from yesterday. Julie eats
1
4
of the
leftover pie. Now how much pie is left?
Exposure to problems that cannot be solved or that have a trivial solu-
tion teaches students that they must read problems carefully and that they
must pay careful attention to wording when they pose story problems. For
14. WORKING WITH PROBLEMS FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 117
example, consider the following problems:
There is
3
4
of a cake left. One half of the children in Mrs. Browns
class want cake. How much of the cake will the children get?
Carla is making snack bags that each contain
1
4
package of gummi
worms.
2
3
of Carlas grab bags have been bought. What fraction of
Carlas gummi worms have been bought?
You have
2
3
of a container of chocolate syrup and a recipe that
calls for
1
2
of a cup of chocolate syrup. How many batches of your
recipe can you make (assuming you have enough of the other ingre-
dients)?
When multiplication or division are involved, students shakier concep-
tions of these operations present an additional obstacle for posing correct
story problems or for determining whether or not a given story problem can
be solved by multiplication or division.
In our experience, students benet from using the denitions of multipli-
cation and division to explain why relatively simple problems can be solved
by multiplying or dividing. For example, suppose we dene multiplication
as follows (for non-negative A and B):
AB means the total number of objects in A groups when there
are B objects in each group.
Now consider the problem:
How many two-letter acronyms are there? (Double letters, such
as AA are allowed. The acronym AB is not considered the same as
BA.)
Rather than simply asking students to solve the problem, we can ask them
to draw explicitly on the meaning of multiplication in order to explain why
the problem can be solved by multiplying. For example, we can ask:
Use the meaning of multiplication to explain why the following
problem can be solved by multiplying.
How many two-letter acronyms are there? (Double letters, such
as AA are allowed. The acronym AB is not considered the same as
BA.)
To solve this problem, students can explain that the acronyms can be placed
into 26 groups (for example, each group consisting of those acronyms that
have the same rst letter) with 26 acronyms in each group. In order to give
such an explanation, students must be consciously aware of what multipli-
cation means and must think about how to establish that a situation can
be described by multiplication. In our judgment, the ability to explain why
a problem can be solved by multiplying (or by using another operation)
rather than simply knowing that it canis an essential skill for teachers.
Furthermore, when we ask students to make an argument by starting from
118 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
a denition, we are asking them to engage in a fundamental form of math-
ematical reasoning. Therefore we encourage the practice of asking students
to use the meaning of an operation to justify why a problem can be solved
by that operation.
Once students are used to explaining why problems can be solved by
whole number multiplication, then they can turn their attention to frac-
tion multiplication problems. For example, which of the following are story
problems for
1
2

3
4
and which are not?
(1) A brownie recipe used
3
4
of a cup of butter for a batch of brownies.
You ate
1
2
of a batch. How much butter did you consume when you
ate those brownies?
(2) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats
1
2
of a pan
of brownies. Now what fraction of a pan of brownies is left?
(3) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats
1
2
of what
is left. How many brownies did Johnny eat?
(4) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats
1
2
of what
is left. What fraction of a pan of brownies did Johnny eat?
Once again, it should not be a matter of guessing or of vague feelings about
whether or not a problem can be solved by multiplying. Students should
be able to draw on the denition of multiplication or on some fundamen-
tal result about fraction multiplication in order to be able to answer with
certainty. The denition of multiplication above applies to (non-negative)
fractions as well as to whole numbers, although we can change the wording
a little in order to clarify the meaning for the case of fraction multiplication:
a
b

c
d
of an object means the fraction of an object in
a
b
of a group
when one whole group contains
c
d
of an object.
If instead, multiplication of whole numbers was dened as repeated addition,
then at this point, the denition must be extended to cover the case of
fractions. If multiplication was dened in terms of areas, then some result
that allows multiplication to be applied to other situations will be needed.
Regardless of how one arrives at a denition for fraction multiplication,
students must understand that a story problem for
1
2

3
4
should involve
nding
1
2
of
3
4
of an object, as in problems (1) and (4). In particular, the
whole associated to the fraction
1
2
must be
3
4
of the whole associated to
3
4
.
This is implicit in the above denition of multiplication, but students benet
from having this drawn to their attention. In problem (2), both fractions
refer to the same whole, namely the full pan of brownies. Therefore problem
(2) cannot be solved by multiplying
1
2

3
4
. Students must also recognize
that the fraction that is the answer to
1
2

3
4
must have the same associated
whole as does the fraction
3
4
. This way students can rule out problem (3) as
being solved by multiplying
1
2

3
4
, even though the problem is a situation
of nding
1
2
of
3
4
.
14. WORKING WITH PROBLEMS FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 119
In the case of division, story problems fall into two categories: those in
which a number of objects are to be divided equally among a given number
of groups and one wants to know how many objects are in each (or one)
group?, and those in which a number of objects are to be divided equally
into groups of a given size and one wants to know how many groups? there
will be. Therefore, rather than giving a single denition of division it seems
natural to give two denitions and to prove that they are equivalent. An-
other approach would be to automatically rephrase any division problem as
a multiplication problem. For example, a story problem for 6 3 =? would
be rephrased either as 3? = 6 or ? 3 = 6, depending on the nature of the
problem. When fractions are involved, attention to the underlying wholes is
essential, just as it is in the cases of addition, subtraction, and multiplica-
tion. For example, we must pay attention to the underlying wholes in order
to determine that the following problem cannot be solved:
You have
2
3
of a container of chocolate syrup and a recipe that
calls for
1
2
of a cup of chocolate syrup. How many batches of your
recipe can you make (assuming you have enough of the other ingre-
dients)?
On the other hand, consider the problem
You have
2
3
of a cup of chocolate syrup and a recipe that calls
for
1
2
of a cup of chocolate syrup. How many batches of your recipe
can you make (assuming you have enough of the other ingredients)?
This problem can be rephrased as asking how many
1
2
cups of syrup are in
2
3
of a cup of syrup?, which is a how many groups? division problem for
2
3

1
2
.
In the case of certain story problems involving fractions, students can
easily become confused between multiplication and division because of lin-
guistic similarities. Dividing in half is often misinterpreted as dividing by
one half. For example, some students may incorrectly write the following
type of problem when asked to produced a story problem for
2
3

1
2
:
If you have
2
3
of a pound of candy and you divide the candy in
1
2
, then how much candy will you have in each portion?
Students must therefore learn to read and interpret problems carefully, and
to think carefully about the exact meanings of multiplication and division.
Mathematics requires a much more careful and precise use of language than
is common in daily life.
Lack of care in the use of language is especially common in discussions of
size. For example, a state rst grade standard in geometry and measurement
reads as follows:
Compares or orders shapes by size (same size as, larger than,
smaller than, largest, or smallest).
120 3. TOPICS NEEDING SPECIAL ATTENTION IN ALL FOUR COURSES
Students can come to see that such a statement is problematic by working
on problems like the following:
Explain why each one of the two blocks in Figure 3 can be consid-
ered the biggest of the two by rst comparing the blocks surface
areas and then comparing the blocks volumes.
Figure 3: Two Blocks
Explain why either of the two rectangles in Figure 4 can be con-
sidered the larger of the two.
Figure 4: Two Rectangles
Every list of state standards, every test, and every book, no matter
how carefully written and carefully scrutinized, is bound to contain errors.
Prospective teachers must learn to become critical consumers of educational
products. For this, a solid knowledge of the relevant mathematics is essen-
tial.
CHAPTER 4
Issues in the Basics Course
1. Introduction: Foundational Mathematics in the Early Grades
This chapter is concerned with the basic mathematical material - cen-
tered around numbers - that pre-service teachers must know. In terms of
content that will transport into the classroom it focuses on the mathematics
of K - 4, but the material is presented in a multi-dimensional way. First, the
basic sequencing of the introductions of the crucial concepts, whole numbers,
fractions, addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. are developed guided by
the approaches in the countries that have had the most success in educating
all their citizens in mathematics. Second, the core material in these areas
is developed. Typically this material is not necessarily directly importable
into the classroom, but it is crucial for teachers to know if they hope to be
successful in properly teaching these grades. Third, at a few key points we
include detailed discussions of things like typical student constructions that
will actually occur in the classroom, that practicing teachers need to be able
to evaluate.
Guided by the considerations above, this chapter includes material that
may surprise some people. For example there is an extensive discussion
of place value. It has become clear that this knowledge is far too often
insucient to support successful classroom teaching in both pre-service and
in-service K - 8 teachers. Mathematics professionals and other who use real
mathematics on a daily basis understand the intricacies and subtleties of
place value and the standard operations. They realize that, beyond the most
primitive concepts of numbers and operations, everything else ows from a
solid understanding of the place value system. But this area is usually given
scant attention in most math courses for pre-service teachers. The common
misconception seems to be that there is nothing to it. It is very important
that these courses correct this view and provide pre-service teachers with a
rock-solid background in this area.
Another point of emphasis is the basic algorithms. It has become clear
that a major reason why there is such heated disagreement among educators
on the treatment of the basic algorithms in K - 8 instruction is due to the
fact that people who work with and create algorithms on a daily basis and K
- 8 education professionals have distinctly dierent understandings of what
the term algorithm means and how algorithms are used.
121
122 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
The discussion of algorithms in this chapter starts out in 10 with a
detailed discussion of what they are and how they work. Crucial to this
discussion is a description of the degree of specicity that is needed in an
algorithm. It is noted that what math professionals typically mean by an
algorithm is, relative to what is meant by education professionals, often
quite non-detailed. When math professionals ask that students understand
the standard algorithms, they actually mean something quite dierent from
what education professionals mean, and this distinction is crucial to bringing
the key mathematics that students need to the K - 8 classrooms.
Sections two and three end with a list of the relevant Singapore mathe-
matics grade level standards. This is to provide crucial information on the
expected instructional pacing in these subjects to the course designers that
this material is designed for. The second appendix contains similar lists for
many of the other basic topics. These Singapore standards are not signi-
cantly dierent from the standards of a number of other successful countries
such as the former iron curtain countries, but they are more accessible. They
are highly challenging when compared with typical U.S. standards, but these
are expectations that virtually all students can handle, as the outcomes in
Singapore and these other countries show.
It is fair to say that much of the following discussion is structured around
the grade-level standards in Singapore and is lled out by an analysis of how
these standards are achieved by examining materials developed for elemen-
tary students in both Singapore and Russia. While we are discussing what
students need to do in each grade to build the conceptual and mechanical
foundations they need for later achievement in mathematics, we will include
a discussion of what pre-service teachers need to know to help students learn
this material. Thus, as the structure of the elementary curriculum unfolds
before us, we will discuss the mathematical level that pre-service teachers
need to achieve in order to support student learning.
Many of the pre-service teachers in these classes will come in with very
low condence in their abilities in mathematics. They should be helped
to understand that this is almost certainly because they have not had the
exposure and opportunities they need to have had and because expectations
for both students and teachers in this country are lower than other successful
countries. Stress that they really do have the ability to understand as much
mathematics as they will need if not much more, and explain that a key
objective of these courses is to bring them to the levels they should and can
be at.
2. Whole Numbers: First Steps
Counting is basic. It is easy to count and number objects, but the
abstraction to counting numbers and their use in addition and subtraction
is a signicant step that is not always successfully made by children.
2. WHOLE NUMBERS: FIRST STEPS 123
The typical steps for teaching counting in the Singapore Grade 1 text-
book is to have students practice counting small numbers of dierent kinds
of objects, moving from objects in the real world to marks on paper.
Students are then asked to identify less or more and to combine and
subtract small numbers of like objects of the same types, again moving from
concrete to successively more abstract concepts.
Even some adults have trouble with problems like What is the sum of
15 and 37? but when given an explicit problem like A baker has 15 apples
and receives a delivery of 37 more apples. How many apples does the baker
have after the delivery? they can determine the answer. Thus, special care
has to be taken from the beginning in initiating the process of abstraction
leading to the concept of number.
Grade one Singapore Text. Students:
count small numbers of dierent objects
translate object quantities in the real world to pictures
make simple marks on paper to represent numbers
identify less or more
combine and subtract small numbers of similar objects
Here are two sample problems from the earliest part of the Singapore
rst grade text.
Teaching discussion. The equations for the partner situation repre-
sented in Figure 2 are 5 = 2 + 3 and 5 = 4 + 1. It is important that students
recognize the form for these facts as breaking apart the number 5 in two
ways. The objective is to ensure that students do not form a misrule that
124 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
only one number combination can appear on the right side of an equation.
Pictures that are vague or present images that assume prior life or cul-
tural experience confuse many students when they come from dierent back-
grounds. Examples like the following, again from the Singapore program,
do not have this kind of diculty.
2. WHOLE NUMBERS: FIRST STEPS 125
Number notation. The diagram below illustrates a learning sequence
Instructor note: The
learning sequence for
building up number
notation can proceed as
follows: (1) Present a
pictorial representation
for the number. (2)
Write the word for the
pictorial representation
below the number (3)
Read the word for the
pictorial representation.
(4) Write the numeral
for the pictorial
representation. (5)
Orally test what the
picture represents when
labels are removed.
for building up number notation, directly showing the process of abstraction:
................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
one
............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............
............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............
............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............
............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............
............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............
. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . .
ten ones
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................ . .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................ . .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................ . .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................ . .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................... . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................... . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................ ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
ten
................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
ten one hundred
A sequence of pictorial representations of numbers
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A square denotes 100
100
The structure of numbers and of number words. Students gener-
ally learn to say the names of the numbers being studied and to write them
in the base ten notation at the same time that the concept of whole numbers
is being developed.
There is a strong tendency to assume that because students can properly
read the name of a number - for example given the written number 15, they
say fteen, or given 309 they say three hundred and nine - that the
student then understands the actual number as a representation of sets with
126 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
that many objects. This is often wrong, especially with all the special rules
for saying numbers in English.
Instructor note:
Pre-service teachers
must learn that reading
a number is not
synonymous with
understanding the place
value representation of
the number.
Problems with English way of saying numbers. It has been pointed out
that students in China have an easier time with the base ten number system
than students in this country because there are no exceptions in the counting
sequence: one, two, ..., ten, ten-one, ten-two, ..., two-tens, two-tens-one, . . . ,
5-tens three (for 53), etc. The peculiarities of the structure of number words
in English - eleven, twelve, but especially the teens, thirteen, fourteen etc.
with the reversal of words and numerals - are a big hindrance to student
understanding. Hence, numbers might be initially said in class, not in the
normal English form, but in the regular form - instead of eleven, one ten
and one, instead of twelve one ten and two, instead of twenty, two tens and
one, . . . - and only later introducing the regular pronunciation.
It is strongly suggested
that this be followed up
with exercises for
pre-service teachers
that require them to
describe and support an
initial teaching
sequence for saying
numbers.
In rst grade the students should model the numbers being studied and
be aware of the meaning of the place value notation in terms of sums of blocks
of 10s and 1s.
1
They should also combine and decompose numbers, for
example understanding the dierent ways of combining two whole numbers
to make 5, 1 + 4, 2 + 3, 3 + 2, 4 + 1.
Zero should not be treated as a place-holder. English will again present
students with a tricky problem in second grade. A number like 207 is read
as 2 hundred and 7 in English. A much better way for students to initially
learn numbers like these is to say all the places - 2 one hundreds plus no
(or 0) tens plus 7 ones. (In the usual method zero is a place-holder,
which is somewhat confusing. In the second, 0 is treated as just another
number multiplying a power of 10.) After students have understood the
meaning of such numbers, the usual English method for reading them can
be introduced as shorthand. The English vocabulary for numeration, and
the meaning of whole numbers written in place value notation should be
carefully distinguished. This may be a dicult point for many pre-service
teachers.
Ordering whole numbers. Another thing that is initially dicult is the
concept of order for the whole numbers. Students will understand that a
set with more objects is bigger than one with fewer, but it will be dicult
for them to understand the way in which the place value notation for whole
numbers tells us which is bigger or smaller. One way of handling this is via
the number line, but we defer the discussion of these issues to sections six
and seven in this chapter.
1
There is a strong tendency for pre-service teachers to underestimate the subtlety and com-
plexity of place-value and place-value notation. Special attention needs to be given to making
sure they understand it properly. The key issues are covered in sections 5 - 8 of this chapter.
2. WHOLE NUMBERS: FIRST STEPS 127
Singapore grade level standards: numbers. We conclude this sec-
tion with the list of Singapore mathematics standards involved with devel-
oping number and place value organized by grade. This is to clarify the
sequencing of this critical topic.
Grade 1
(1) read and write numbers up to 100 in numerals and in words
Include completing sequences of consecutive numbers
Include counting in tens and completing sequence
(2) give a number to indicate the number of objects in a given set
Exclude the term cardinal number
(3) represent a given number by a set of objects
Include visualizing small sets up to 5 objects instead of counting
one by one
(4) use ordinal numbers such as rst, second, up to tenth
Include symbols, e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
Exclude the term ordinal number
(5) compare two or more sets in terms of the dierence in number
Include the concept of one-to-one correspondence
Include use of the phrases more than, less than and fewer
than
Include nding How many more/less?
(6) compare numbers up to 100
Include use of the words: greater, greatest, smaller, smallest
Exclude use of the symbols > and <
(7) arrange numbers in increasing and decreasing order
Grade 2
(1) count to 1000
Include counting in tens and hundreds
(2) read and write numbers up to 1000 in numerals and in words
Include the use of zero as a place holder
Include completing number sequences
(3) compare and order numbers up to 1000
Include nding the dierence
(4) read and write money using decimal notation
Grade 3
(1) read and write numbers up to 10,000 in numerals and in words
(2) compare and order number up to 10,000
Grade 4
(1) read and write numbers up to 100,000 in numerals and in words
(2) compare and order number up to 100,000
Grade 5
(1) read and write number up to 10,000,000 in numerals and in words
128 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
3. Addition and Subtraction
Addition and subtraction are naturally part of the teaching of whole
numbers from the beginning, as students combine sets of objects and count
the results.
Addition should be dened as the counting number asso-
ciated to the combined set, so if one has three oranges and
separately, ve oranges, then the number of elements in the
combined set will be 8 oranges. Likewise, if one has ve ap-
ples and three oranges, the number of the combined set will
be 8 fruits. In both cases, the number associated to the com-
bined set will be the same, though the label has changed. In
both cases the same break-apart model can be used:
............................................... ............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................
............................................... .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................
............................................... .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................
8
5
3
Associativity and commutativity. Students also have to learn that
addition is an operation that satises the associative and commutative rules,
where these are presented as methods for making the counting of combined
sets easier, not as formal rules.
The Grade 1 Singapore textbook focuses on teaching stu-
dents to understand basic concepts associated with numbers
through 100 and on skills development, but not on generali-
ties such as the commutative or associative properties. These
properties appear in the Grade 2 textbook.
Problems do appear in the Grade 1 Russian textbook
where A+B and B+A are shown under each other (though
no explicit point is associated with these examples).
We conclude that instruction should, by second grade,
lead students to understand that addition is commutative,
but there seems to be real hesitancy about explicitly stating
and naming the commutative law thougg teachers can and
should discuss with rst grade students things like the fact
that 2 + 8 = 8 + 2.
There is no indication in these programs that the associa-
tive law has been explicitly named, but students are expected
to be able to use it.
Subtraction should be introduced in parallel with addition as the inverse
operation:
if a +b = c, then a = c b,
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 129
so the combination rules are treated symmetrically when numbers are broken
apart as in the make a ve or make an eight problems of the previous
chapter,
............................................... ............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................
............................................... .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................
............................................... .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................
5
3
2
Students should learn that this denotes the addition statements 5 is the sum
of 2 and 3, the sum of 2 and 3 is 5, the sum of 3 and 2 is 5, 5 is the sum of
3 and 2, as well as the subtraction statements 5 minus 2 is 3, 5 minus 3 is
2, 3 is 5 minus 2 and 2 is 5 minus 3. Already in rst grade, students in high
achieving countries learn the mathematical forms of such statements
2 + 3 = 5
3 + 2 = 5
5 = 2 + 3
5 = 3 + 2
5 2 = 3
5 3 = 2
3 = 5 2
2 = 5 3.
Adding and subtracting two digit numbers. Students should learn
to add and subtract two digit numbers using their base ten representations.
In the teaching
sequence be sure to
label the pictures. For
the picture here, label
each block of 10 with a
ten and the block of 6
with a 6 so that it is
natural to write 10 +
10 + 10 + 6 = 36. This
is to model for
pre-service teachers
what they should do
with students.
Initially, this is done with models, thus the number 36 is modeled as three
10s and six ones:
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................... . .......................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ........................................... . .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ........................................... . .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...........................................
similarly for 23 and 25. When 36 and 23 and separately 36 and 25, modeled
in this way, are combined students will see, for the rst, ve 10s and 9 ones,
while for the second there will be ve 10s and 11 ones. For the second case,
special care should be taken to insure that students understand that the 11
ones is the same as one 10 and a one, so that the total in the second case is
six 10s and one.
The same procedure can be applied to subtraction, making use of the
same pictures. Initially this should be done for problems where borrowing
is not necessary, and then seeing borrowing as the same procedure that was
observed above for addition.
130 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Adding and subtracting multi-digit numbers. Some discussion using the
same kinds of pictures for three digit numbers and their sums should be
It is worth noting here
that teachers tend to
rely on commercially
developed materials
whether good or bad.
This would be a good
point for instructors to
briey provide
pre-service students
with information about
how to prepare their
own presentation
materials. For example
they can use drawing
and table making tools
in a word processing
program to prepare
pictorial
representations. They
can can also use
materials created with a
computer to prepare
transparency masters.
Another simple, but
often overlooked, tool is
the use of graph paper.
In the Russian program
students are expected to
always use graph paper.
The grids are helpful
both for graphing and
for organizing numbers.
given, but these pictorial methods for showing addition should show the
audience that there is nothing new except for an increase in the number of
steps. It might be worth while making the drawing for a sum where two
carries occur, such as 378 + 225. In this case, one can do the addition in
two ways. First one takes 5 hundreds plus 9 10s and then one adds the
1s, showing a double carry. One can compare this with the addition from
smallest to largest, where there is no changing of the coecients already
determined.
The standard addition and subtraction algorithms. The addition and
subtraction algorithms will be discussed in section 11. The introduction
of algorithms for pre-service teachers should be preceded by a careful dis-
cussion of what algorithms are, as there is often deep confusion on this
point. The issues involved in discussing algorithms are discussed in sec-
tion 10, Algorithms and their Realizations. Pre-service teachers have often
learned the addition and subtraction algorithms as strict procedures that
have been taught to them by rote, without understanding why they work.
Since it is natural for people to teach the way they have been taught, this
is an issue that has to be handled with special care.
Exercises
(1) Tomaslav has learned the following sums well:
all the sums of whole numbers that add to 10 or less; Tomaslav
knows these sums forwards and backwards, for example, he
knows not only that 5 + 2 is 7, but also that 7 breaks down
into 5 + 2
10 + 1; 10 + 2; 10 + 3; : : : ; 10 + 10
the doubles 1 + 1; 2 + 2; 3 + 3; : : : ; 10 + 10
Describe three dierent ways that Tomaslav could use
reasoning together with the sums he knows well to solve
8 + 7. Draw pictures to support your descriptions. In
each case, write equations to go along with the strategies
you describe. Take care to use parentheses appropriately
and as needed.
Here are ve problems from the latter part of the rst grade Russian
text:
From here on, exercises
that model the kinds of
exercises pre-service
students should be
attempting are placed
either at the end of the
chapter on in the
relevant sections.
P. 161
(1) A barrel contained 15 buckets of water. 10 buckets were used to
water owers, and then another 15 buckets of water were added to
the barrel. How much water is there now in the barrel?
(2) 55 kg of sugar were sold from a bag. 5 kg were left. How much
sugar did the bag contain originally?
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 131
(3) 24 bricklayers and 4 fewer painters than bricklayers were employed
at a construction site. How many bricklayers and painters in all
were employed at the site?
P. 170
(4) n 7 = 12 n + 9 = 16 14 n = 8.
2
In the second grade Russian text one nds problems like these that
indicate students are expected to understand the basic workings
of the commutative laws for addition and the associative law for
addition and subtraction
P. 25
(5) Explain these dierent methods of subtracting a sum from a sum:
(a) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = 12 7 = 5
(b) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = (7 3) + (5 4) = 4 + 1 = 5
(c) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = (7 4) + (5 3) = 3 + 2 = 5.
(d) Compare the results. How can a sum be subtracted from a
sum?
(e) Solve the following problem in several dierent ways: (10+6)
(3 + 2).
The following two problems illustrate the deeper knowledge of
these processes that are needed for pre-service teachers.
(6) Figure 8 indicates a strategy for adding 6 + 7.
(a) What is the value of this strategy? What is its point? Is it a
general method?
(b) Write equations that correspond to the strategy for adding 6 +
7 ( 8 + 6)! depicted in Figure 8. Your equations should make
careful and appropriate use of parentheses. Which property
of arithmetic do your equations and the picture of Figure 8
illustrate?
(c) Draw a picture for 7+5 that illustrates the strategy of Figure
8. Write equations that correspond to the strategy indicated
in your picture. As before, your equations should make careful
and appropriate use of parentheses.
2
In the text x was used for the variable, but due to possible confusion with the multiplication
sign, , it is better to use some other notation for the variable.
132 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(d) What 3 sub-skills are needed for using this method? Which of
these do the use of regular words for numbers (as in Korean or
Chinese) make easier?
It should be emphasized that the last exercise is not for the class-
room, but to give the pre-service teachers basic expertise.
Teaching sequence: Singapore, Grade 1. In the students initial
study of numbers and counting, they are given extensive practice with
putting numbers together and taking them apart in preparation for addition
and subtraction
The next section starts out with the denition of addition.
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 133
The teaching sequence then moves through direct application of the deni-
tion
through the connection with number bonds
and then counting on, that is adding on one at at time until the requisite
number has been added. At the same time the process is abstracted
134 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
and the students are prepared for subtraction.
The subtraction sequence starts with an accurate denition:
then mirrors the teaching sequence for addition. First direct examples of
the denition are studied, though now students see, for the rst time, an
example that involves combinations of objects of dierent types
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 135
After this, dierent methods of subtraction are developed including number
bonds
and counting backwards
Instructor note: This is
a good point to add
information about
symbol identication
and reading equations.
It is not unusual for
elementary students to
treat the equal sign as
signifying an operation
- that something has to
be done - rather than as
an indicator of equality.
Students at all grade
levels become confused
about how to read
inequalities. Students
may have diculty
reading and
understanding problems
such as 7 3 > x even
though they can
identify each symbol
separately. Symbol
meanings need to be
directly taught and
reviewed in the context
of equations and
inequalities.
Teaching sequence: Russia, Grade 1. From the very beginning
addition and subtraction are introduced in the study of very small numbers,
and without words
136 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
and very quickly becomes abstract
From the beginning, addition and subtraction are presented as inverse op-
erations
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 137
Also, very early in the instruction sequence the commutative rule for addi-
tion is emphasized
The word problems at this stage are quite sophisticated:
(1) There were 6 raspberry bushes in the garden. 3 bushes dried up
and died. How many raspberry bushes were left in the garden?
(2) There were 6 raspberry bushes in the garden, and 3 more currant
bushes than raspberry bushes. How many currant bushes were in
the garden?
(3) Roman was supposed to draw 5 red circles, and 3 more blue circles
than red circles. How many blue circles was Roman supposed to
draw?
(4) A roll and a glass of milk together cost 10 kopecks. The roll costs
6 kopecks. How much does the glass of milk cost?
But by about the middle of the book they become even more sophisticated.
Singapore grade level standards: addition and subtraction. As
was the case in 2 of this chapter, we include the Singapore standards on
addition and subtraction, organized by grade level to give a clear idea of the
pacing and detailed topics covered in this area.
Grade 1
(1) illustrate the meaning of addition and subtraction
138 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Include comparing two numbers within 20 and nding how
much greater/smaller
(2) write mathematical statements for given situations involving addi-
tion and subtraction
(3) build up the addition tables up to 9 + 9 and commit to memory
Include writing number stories for each number up to 10
Include sums such as the following:
(a) + 2 = 7
(b) = 12
Exclude box sums which are beyond 18 such as 9 + = 22
(4) recognize the relationship between addition and subtraction
(5) add and subtract numbers involving
2-digit numbers and ones
2-digit numbers and tens
2-digit numbers and 2-digit numbers
Exclude formal algorithm
Include addition/subtraction with renaming
(6) add 3 one-digit numbers
(7) carry out simple addition and subtraction mentally involving
2-digit number and ones without renaming
2-digit number and tens
(8) add and subtract money
in cents only
in dollars only
Include nding How much more/less
(9) solve 1-step word problems on addition and subtraction
Use numbers within 20
Include adding and subtracting money in dollars only or in
cents only
Grade 2
(1) add and subtract two numbers up to 3 digits
Include formal algorithm
(2) carry out addition and subtraction mentally involving
3-digit number and ones
3-digit number and tens
3-digit number and hundreds
(3) add and subtract money in compound units
Include making change
Include cases such as $2.50 + 60 and $5.75 - $3
Exclude cases such as $2.50 + $3.20 and $5.75 - $2.55
Grade 3
(1) add and subtract numbers up to 4 digits
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 139
Include use of terms sum and dierence
(2) carry out addition and subtraction mentally involving two 2-digit
numbers
(3) add and subtract money in compound units using the decimal no-
tation
140 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Description of Childrens Single-Digit Addition
and Subtraction Solution Methods
Karen Fuson
Young children will solve word problems and number problems in many
dierent creative ways. Encourage them to explain their methods as they
This is a brief example
of a discussion by an
expert in early
childhood learning of
mathematics that lists
some of the key issues
that must be handled
by the teacher. Such
information is needed
by pre-service teachers.
work, and lead them in nding and discussing conceptual errors. You can
have interesting conversations about these dierent approaches. Be sure to
discuss counting on/adding on methods because they are easy and general
for both addition and subtraction. Some students are ready to use the more
advanced and general make a ten method.
Solving addition/subtraction problems with numbers 20 is primarily
about understanding all of the problem language and situations and dis-
cussing students dierent solution methods. The general additive solution
methods that are suggested here (counting on and make a ten) can also be
used later in solving multi-digit addition and subtraction problems within
each place value.
The following solution methods are ones that children almost universally
create or understand. Children all over the world use these methods even
if they are not taught them in the classroom. Teaching these methods can
help less-advanced children.
Seeing Subtraction Problems as Unknown Addition
Thinking of subtraction problems as unknown addition problems helps
students use easier forward solution methods. The key to this is to take
away the rst items from a drawing instead of the last items. Taking away
the rst items encourages students to see the embedded addition problem.
They can then count on to nd the remaining items that make the other
quantity. For example:
Alison had 13 cookies. Then she ate 9 cookies.
How many cookies does she have left? 13 9 =
Drawing:
o o o o o o o o o o o o o
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
10 11 12 13
Counting on is much easier than counting down (13, 12, 11, etc.)
Most other countries teach students to solve subtraction problems by
counting on or adding on: 9 + = 13. Even rst graders can think of and
solve subtraction problems this way. This method makes subtraction easier
than addition because you can see the number to which you are counting
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 141
on.
.................................................................................... .......................................................................................
4
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................ .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Levels of Childrens Addition and Subtraction Methods
8 + 6 = 14
14 - 8 = 6
Count all
Count on
Recompose
I took away 8
8 to 14 is 6
6 + 8 = 14
(6 + 6) + 2
12 + 2 = 14
Make a ten (gen-
eral): one addend
breaks apart to make
10 with the other
addend
Make a ten (from
5s within each ad-
dend)
Doubles n
Note: Many children attempt to count down for subtracton, but counting down is di-
cult and error-prone. Children are much more successful with counting on which makes
subtraction easier
Count all
Take away
Count On 14 - 8: I count on 8+? = 14
Recompose: Make a Ten
14-8: I make a ten for 8+? = 14
1
o
1
2
o
2
3
o
3
4
o
4
5
o
5
6
o
6
7
o
7
8
o
8
1
o
9
2
o
10
3
o
11
4
o
12
5
o
13
6
o
14
1
o
1
2
o
2
3
o
3
4
o
4
5
o
5
6
o
6
7
o
7
8
o
8
9
o
1
10
o
2
11
o
3
12
o
4
13
o
5
14
o
6
................................................................................................................................................
8
ooooo ooo o
9
o
10
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
14
ooooo ooo ooooo o
10 + 4
ooooo ooo ooooo o
ooooo ooooo oooo
................................................................................................................................................
8 + 2 +4
6
8 + 6 = 14
................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.............
.............
.............
............. .............
.............
.............
........
10
Counting On
The term partner
here refers to a paired
number, not counting
the ngers on another
students hand.
Counting on diers from counting all in that a student abbreviates the count-
ing of the rst addend and then counts mentally or on ngers up to the total
or counts on the partner. This allows the student to add numbers whose
totals are greater than ten. Counting on to nd the total (adding) and
142 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
counting on to the total to nd an unknown partner (substituting) are the
two variations of counting on. They look the same to an observer, but the
student is monitoring either the known partner (adding) or the known total
(subtracting) to know when to stop.
Counting on a second number to nd the total. For 9 + 4 = I
think 9 and stop when I have counted on 4 more. The total is 13.
Counting on to the total to nd an unknown partner. Find the
unknown second number. For 9+ = 13, I think 9 and stop when
I have counted on to 13. I have counted on 4 more.
Make a Ten
When students make a ten, they must add on in two steps: add on to
get to ten then add on above ten. The benet of this method is that adding
on below and above ten is easy. Fingers or drawings may be used initially,
but it becomes a rapid mental method. It is very useful for adding and
A key point to make
here is that this step is
not necessarily
automatic. Teachers
need to systematically
and continuously help
students commit basic
facts to memory.
subtracting in multi-digit addition and subtraction because it gives the new
10 that needs to be grouped.
Find the total.
For 9 + 4 = , the 4 gives 1 to the 9 to make 10. Youre left with
3 and the new 10. 10 + 3 = 13.
Find the unknown second number.
For 9 + = 13, add 1 to the 9 to make 10. You need 3 more to
get to 13. 1 + 3 = 4, so 4 is the unknown second number.
Addition/Subtraction Word Problem Situations
There are three types of addition/subtraction word problems. Within
these types, three variations occur depending on which of the three quan-
tities in the situation is unknown. The key to solving all these problems
is understanding the situation and knowing which amount is the unknown.
Initially, key words are important for understanding the situation, though
these keys will not determine the solution method; that depends on which
number is unknown.
In the Magic
Mountain diagrams it
is important to discuss
with pre-service
teachers the signicance
of the direction in
which arrows in the
diagram point and the
placement of box that
represents the unknown
quantity. Neither is
arbitrary.
Situation equations can be solved using bar diagrams (see the discussion
in Chapter 3, section 10 Parsing Word Problems), counting or adding
on, or thinking about the relationship between the numbers (perhaps using
diagrams of the form below to represent the relationships)
9 9 9 4 4
13
......................................... . . . . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............
............. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. .
..............
........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. .
..............
........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . ...
A possible name for such diagrams, appropriate for rst grade children might
be Magic Mountains, and we will use that terminology in what follows.
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 143
Change Problems: Change Plus and Change Minus
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Change Plus Change Minus
Change
Start then + or - Change gives the Result.
Unknown start
Unknown change
Unknown result
+ 4 = 13 4 = 9
9 + = 13 13 = 9
9 + 4 = 13 4 =
There is an amount at the start of the problem. That quantity is somehow
changed (either added to or taken from), which leads to a result
Start + Change = Result
OR
Start - Change = Result
When the Result is the unknown, these problems are simple because the
Instructor note: The
teaching sequence for
helping students solve
word problems might
be (1) Students read a
word problem aloud.
(2) The teacher guides
the class through
parsing the problem.
(3) The teacher models
how to use the
underlined values to
write an equation. (4)
The teacher directs
students to solve the
equation and solicits an
answer. (5) The process
is repeated with several
examples. The teacher
gradually reduces the
directions until students
can complete the
problems independently.
situation equation is the same as the solution equation. When the Start is
unknown, these problems are complex because the situation equation must
be undone to nd the solution. For small numbers, students can solve with
drawings.
Change Plus and Change Minus problems are directly represented by equa-
tions, which can show change over time. For example:
Alison had 9 cookies. Then she bought 4 more. How
many cookies does she have now? 9 + 4 =
Unknown Result situations:
Alison had 9 cookies. Then she bought 4 more. How
many cookies does she have now? 9 + 4 =
Alison had 13 cookies. Then she ate 4 as a snack.
How many cookies does she have now? 13 4 =
Unknown Change situations:
Alison had 9 cookies. Then she bought some more.
Now she has 13 cookies. How many cookies did she
buy? 9 + = 13
Alison had 13 cookies. Then she ate some as a
snack. Now she has 9 cookies. How many cookies
did she eat? 13 = 9
Unknown Start situations:
Alison had some cookies. Then she bought 4 more.
Now she has 13 cookies. How many cookies did she
start with? + 4 = 13
Alison had some cookies. Then she ate 4 as a snack.
Now she has 9 cookies. How many cookies did she
start with? 4 = 9
144 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Collection Problems: Put Together, Take Apart, and No Action
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................. ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Two quantities come together or separate to make a third
Two quantities are
a third quantity
Put Together Take Apart
No Action
Collection
Unknown
Partner
Unknown
Total
13 13 13
9 9 9
9 9 9 4 4 4
....................................... . . . . . . . . ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............
.......... . . . .
................................... . . . . . . . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............
............. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . .
..............
........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. .
..............
.................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................................
9 + = 13 13 9 = 13 = 9 +
9 + = 13 9 + = 13
9 + 4 = 9 + 4 =
9 + 4 = 9 = 4 = 9 + 4
Put Together and Take Apart problems: Two groups or amounts are com-
bined to create a new total, or one total is separated into two groups.
First + Second = Total
OR
Total - First = Second
No Action problems. The total is the two parts (addends).
When using these
examples with students,
the teacher should rst
direct students to add
directional arrows and
ask them to explain
why a particular
direction was selected.
Next, students should
convert the Magic
Mountains into
equations and solve
them.
Put Together, Take Apart, and No Action problems
are represented best by Magic Mountains, which
show two quantities as parts of a total quantity.
13
9
......................................... .........................................
Unknown Partner situations:
Put Together: Mother put 13 owers in her vase. 9
were tulips, and the rest were daodils. How many
daodils are in her vase?
Take Apart: Alison had 13 cookies. She put 9 in
her lunch bag and the rest in the freezer. How many
cookies are in the freezer?
13
9
......................................... .........................................
No Action: Alison has 13 cookies altogether. 9 are
chocolate chip, and the rest are peanut butter. How
many cookies are peanut butter?
Unknown Total situations:
Put Together: Mother put 9 tulips and 4 daodils
in her vase. How many owers are in her vase?
3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 145
Take Apart: Alison put 9 cookies in her lunch bag
and 4 cookies in the freezer. How many cookies did
she have altogether?
......................................... .........................................
9 4
No Action: Alison has 9 chocolate chip and 4 peanut
butter cookies. How many cookies does she have al-
together?
Comparison Problems
Two groups or amounts are compared to nd which has more/less and
how much more/less.
Quantity A + Dierence = QuantityB
OR
Quantity B Dierence = Quantity A
............................................................................. ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..................................................
A
.............................................................................................................................. . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
B
.............................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
di
Compare problems are most easily represented with mini bar graph draw-
ings, shown above
Ann has 5. Bill has 7.
How many more does Bill have than Ann?
How many fewer does Ann have than Bill ? ............................................................................ . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
5
.............................................................................................................................. . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
7
.............................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
?
Ann has 5. Bill has 2 more than Ann.
Ann has 2 fewer than Bill.
How many does Bill have? ............................................................................ . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
5
.............................................................................................................................. . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
?
.............................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Bill has 7.
Ann has 2 fewer than Bill.
Bill has 2 more than Ann.
How many does Ann have? ............................................................................ . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
?
.............................................................................................................................. . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
7
.............................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
These problems can be solved directly by looking at the drawing or by
writing an equation or Magic Mountain and solving it. The comparing
question can always be stated in 2 ways that reverse the comparison. For
the unknown small or unknown big quantities, one form directs the solution
and one form is misdirecting. Comparison language is dicult for young
students.
146 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
4. Multiplication and Division
Introducing multiplication. Multiplication is introduced as a quick
means of counting the elements in a equal groups of b elements. The opera-
tion can be introduced, as is done in the Russian second grade text translated
by UCSMP via a picture like this
or, as is illustrated next in this text, via an array:
To be denite, an appropriate denition of multiplication for whole numbers
a and b is as the number of elements in a groups of b. Given this denition,
then if we construct a rectangular array with a elements in each column
and b columns, we can count the number of elements in two ways. One can
group the elements as rows, obtaining a groups of b elements, and equally
they can be decomposed as columns, obtaining b groups of a elements. Thus,
pre-service teachers understand that
a b = b a.
Similarly, by amalgamating arrays with the same number of rows, one sees
the distributive law
(a b) + (a c) = a (b +c).
Next, basic properties of multiplication should be discussed. Teachers should
Course instructors
should also use simple
values with pre-service
teachers when
illustrating properties.
check some small products like 3 4 and 3 7. They should understand
that multiplication by 10 just adds a single 0 to the right end of a whole
number written in base 10 place-value notation. They should also discuss
multiplication by 0, and become aware that, according to the denition a0
means a groups each having no elements, which gives no elements in all. It
also means no groups each of which has a elements, again no elements, so
0 a = 0 for any whole number a.
Introducing division. Division is introduced in parallel with multi-
plication as was the case with addition and subtraction, . Division can be
4. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 147
introduced as the inverse operation to multiplication for whole numbers after
the discussion of multiplication described above.
If a and b are whole numbers and ab = c, then ca = b,
and cb = a. If there is no whole number b so that ab = c,
then c a is not dened.
In other words, the quotient c a, for whole numbers a and c, if it exists is
the whole number b so that a b = c. Make sure to give plenty of examples
where the quotient exists like 12 3 and others where it doesnt like 15 7.
A particularly important example is a0, which, given the precise denition
of division, is quickly seen not to be dened. At this point, the terminology
exact division should be introduced for the inverse operation just discussed,
because a second type of division now needs to be developed.
Division with remainder. There is a separate notion of division with
remainder.
The quotient with remainder b a with a and b whole
numbers is rst, the largest whole number c so that ac b
and a (c +1) > b, and second the remainder, r = b a c.
There is a tendency to confuse the two concepts, exact division and division
with remainder, since both are called division. And the situation is made
even worse with fraction division.
One way to get the importance of distinguishing these dierent deni-
tions across is to consider an example like 68 divided by 8. This is
not possible for exact division with whole numbers
8 with remainder 4 for division with remainder
the fraction
68
8
for division of fraction,
On the other hand,
68
8
=
34
4
=
17
2
while division with remainder gives
68 divided by 8 is 8 with a remainder of 4
34 divided by 4 is 8 with remainder 2,
17 divided by 2 is 8 with remainder 1.
Have pre-service teachers try to explain why the remainder is dierent in
division with remainder for each of these cases. This also should help with
clarifying the importance of denitions.
Here is another important distinction between exact division and division
with remainder. Exact division of whole numbers has the property that if a
divides b, and a divides c, then a divides b+c, and the quotient is the sum of
the separate quotients, (b/a) +(c/a). Examples such as 32/4 = 24/4 +8/4.
Indicate that this is also a property that fractions have. (a+b)/c = a/c+b/c.
Then look again at division with remainder. Note that 3 does not divide 7
and does not divide 11, but it does divide the sum 7 + 11.
Exercises:
148 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(1) For each of the following story problems, write a division problem
that solves the problem, give an appropriate answer to the problem,
and say which version of division is being used.
(a) If a box of laundry detergent costs $5 and washes 38 loads
of laundry, then how much does the detergent for one load of
laundry cost?
(b) If a box of laundry detergent costs $5 and washes 38 loads of
laundry, then how many loads of laundry can you wash for $1.?
(c) If a box of laundry detergent costs $5 and washes 38 loads of
laundry, and if you wash 6 loads of laundry per week, then how
many weeks will a box of laundry detergent last?
(2) What day of the week will it be 100 days from today? Use math-
ematics (that is to say, do not count day by day), to solve this
problem. Explain your solution.
(3) If January 1, 2003 is on a Wednesday, then what day of the week
will January 1, 2004 fall on? Use mathematics to solve this problem.
Explain your solution.
(4) What is 1 billion seconds in terms of years, days, hours, and min-
utes? Explain why you can solve this problem the way you do.
(5) Make up and solve three dierent story problems for 9 4.
(a) In the rst story problem, the answer should best be expressed
as 2, remainder 1.
(b) In the second story problem, the answer should best be ex-
pressed as 2
1
4
.
(c) In the third story problem, the answer should best be expressed
as 2.25.
Teaching sequence - grade 2, Russia. In the Russian second grade
text translated by UCSMP multiplication is introduced early in the course
via sums of equal groups.
Just a few pages later, division is introduced using basically the same
diagram of groups of apples as indicated on page 14 of the problem solving
chapter. Thus, from the beginning, division is seen by the students as inverse
to multiplication: count the groups, rather than count the total number of
elements in the groups. Next, the array associated to multiplication is used
4. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 149
to justify the fact that multiplication is commutative:
Four pages later, factors are introduced using the example of three groups
of two, noting that 2 3 = 6 and explaining that 2 and 3 are factors and 6
is the product. At the same time it is noted that 6 3 = 2 and 6 3 = 2.
Then the same is noted for 6 3, and 5 4. In each case it is noted that
dividing by one of the factors gives the other, and the following is stated:
If the product of two numbers is divided by one
of the factors, the other factor is obtained
Seven pages further on, the following principle is developed in a similar way
If the dividend is divided by the quotient, the di-
visor is obtained. If the divisor is multiplied by the
quotient, the dividend is obtained.
The following quarter of the book develops, in tandem, multiplying and
dividing by 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9.
After this, the book develops multiplying and dividing without intro-
ducing the algorithms. In succession the following topics are covered:
Multiplying a sum by a number
Multiplying and dividing by 0
Multiplying and dividing numbers that end in 0
Multiplying a one digit number by a two digit number, and a two
digit number by a one digit number
Dividing a sum by a number
Dividing a two-digit number by a one digit number and a two-digit
number by a two-digit number.
Division with remainder
Teaching sequence: grade 1, Singapore. We have noted that mul-
tiplication and division rst appear in the second grade Russian book trans-
lated by UCSMP. However, in the Singapore program multiplication and
division are already introduced in the rst grade, keeping their focus on
150 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
groups of ves. The following three problems are on adjacent pages:
4. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 151
Singapore Grade 2. Multiply and divide by 4, 5, 10. There continues to be
great care taken in getting students to see the relationship between multi-
plication and division: m = ns then
m
n
and
m
s
pair up.
Exercises:
(1) Use the denition of multiplication to explain why the following
problem can be solved by multiplying.
How many two-letter acronyms can be made using only the let-
ters A, B, C, and D? (Double letters, such as AA are allowed.
The acronym AB is not considered the same as BA.)
(2) Karen buys 4 skirts, 5 blouses, 6 sweaters, and 7 pairs of shoes, all
of which are coordinated to go together. How many dierent outts
consisting of a skirt, a blouse, a sweater, and a pair of shoes can
Karen make? Explain why you can solve the problem the way you
do.
(3) Allie and Betty want to know how many three-letter acronyms, such
as BMW, or DDT are possible (letters are allowed to repeat, as in
DDT or BOB). Allie thinks there can be 26 +26 +26 three-letter
acronyms while Betty thinks the number is 262626. Which girl,
152 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
if either, is right and why? Explain your answer so as to convince
a skeptic.
(4) How many two-entry security codes can be made using only the
digits
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
and the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H (so for example, 3G is
one such code, so are CA, GG, B5, 57, and 00)? Explain your
solution so as to convince a skeptic.
(5) What is the commutative property of multiplication? Use a picture
to help you explain why the commutative property of multiplication
makes sense.
(6) In a 3
rd
grade math book, the commutative property of multipli-
cation is explained by using a number line to show that 5 + 5 + 5
is equal to 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3. Why is this not a good explana-
tion? What is a better way to explain the commutative property of
multiplication?
(7) You have 15 containers, each of which is lled with 3 tennis balls.
If you calculate the total number of tennis balls that you have by
calculating 3 fteens, then what property of arithmetic have you
used? Explain.
(8) Give an example of a story problem that can be made easy to
solve mentally by using the commutative property of multiplica-
tion. Write equations that show how the commutative property of
multiplication can be used to solve your arithmetic problem.
(9) Write at least two dierent expressions for the total number of
triangles in the gure below. Each expression is only allowed to use
the numbers 3, 4, and 5, the multiplication symbol, and parentheses.
In each case, use the meaning of multiplication to explain why your
5. MAGNITUDE AND COMPARISON OF NUMBERS 153
expression represents the total number of triangles in the gure.
(10) Use the meaning of multiplication and some of the pictures in the
gure below to explain clearly why
3 (5 2) = (3 5) 2.
Be specic when you refer to the pictures.
(11) What is the distributive property? Using a specic example, ex-
plain why the distributive property makes sense. Draw a picture to
support your explanation.
5. Magnitude and Comparison of numbers
Introduction. The notion of big for numbers is reasonably natural.
But this has to be sharpened for both pre-service teachers and students to
how big to more clearly illustrate relative magnitudes. In 2 it was shown
how very young students could be given a notation for base ten numbers
through hundreds that allows them to easily see magnitude. A circle or
small square represents 1, a column of ten small squares, then just a narrow
154 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
rectangle represents 10, and a square with ten times the area of the 10-
rectangle represents 100.
In common United States texts this representation of 1, 10 and 100 is
almost always given. Usually, 1000 is then represented by a solid 101010
cube with each face a 100-square, but this is probably a bad idea for showing
students a consistent picture of the magnitude of base-ten numbers. A better
notation for 1000 would be a rectangle with ten times the area of the square
that represents 100:
............................................................................... . ....................................................................... . . . . . . . ....................................................................... ....................................................................... . ....................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ....................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visual Symbols for 10, 100, 1000
10 100 1000
While this is non-standard, it much more accurately represents the relative
magnitudes of these numbers. The main issue is that volume is a dierent
measure than area, so representing 1000 by a solid gure gives an impression
of comparing apples and oranges. It is very likely to contribute to the general
confusion about magnitude rather than clarify things when we use a volume
model for 1000 when we have represented, 1, 10 and 100 via area models.
One can understand that the exponent 3 in 10
3
often is associated with
volume, while the exponent 2 in 10
2
is associated with area, but in this case
the exponent 1 in 10
1
is associated with linear measure and the exponent
0 in 10
0
is associated with points. So even from this perspective the usual
approach is awed.
As exercises, the pre-service teachers could be asked to draw correspond-
ing rectangles for 10,000 and then 100,000 to get an idea of how quickly these
powers of 10 grow. This should transport well to the classroom in helping
students develop a conception of the magnitude of numbers.
The next step is to introduce comparisons between numbers. Typically,
even in Kindergarten, students recognize more and less - four oranges is
more than three oranges, etc. - but it is a signicant step to go from this to
four is more than three, and three is less than ve.
Of course, more and less are intimately tied in to addition and subtrac-
tion.
These denitions are for
pre-service teachers, not
students. Also, the
number line can be
used to help pre-service
teachers understand the
denitions.
Teaching sequence. The topic should start with a careful denition.
Denition:
A whole number B is more than A if it is the sum of A and another
whole number.
A whole number A is less than the whole number B if B is greater
than A.
The standard notation should also be introduced
If the whole number A is greater than the whole number B we write
A > B.
5. MAGNITUDE AND COMPARISON OF NUMBERS 155
If the whole number A is less than the whole number B we write
A < B.
Thus, if we are given two whole numbers A and B there are exactly
three possibilities, and exactly one of them holds:
(1) A < B
(2) A = B
(3) A > B
Examples:
If A is a whole number then A+ 1 > A.
If A is a whole number greater than 1, then A1 < A.
If A is a whole number then 2 A > A and 3 A > 2 A.
If A, B, and C are whole numbers with A > B and B > C, then
we can verify that A > C.
Exercises:
(1) Which of the following inequalities can the gure below be used to
illustrate? Circle all that apply.
120 > 45 120 > 450 1200 > 450 1200 > 45.
(2) (a) Show that if C is a whole number then 3 +C < 5 +C.
(b) Show that if A, B, and C are whole numbers with A < B, then
A+C < B +C.
(3) Suppose that A, B, and C are whole numbers with A < B. Show,
using the distributive law, that C A < C B.
Exponents and powers of 10. We can multiply the same whole num-
ber or 0 by itself, obtaining A A, or we can multiply it by itself 3 times,
obtaining A A A, and, indeed, we can multiply it as many times as we
want, obtaining
AA A
. .
ntimes
.
For example, with 0, we have 00 = 000 = 0, but 22 = 4, 222 = 8,
2 2 2 2
. .
12times
= 4096.
156 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
These examples of repeated multiplication of the same number happen suf-
ciently often that we introduce special notation for them.
Let A be a whole number or 0, and let n be a whole num-
ber, then A
n
is shorthand notation for the repeated product
of A with itself n-times
A
n
= AA A
. .
ntimes
.
A special case is A
1
= A, so 5
1
= 5, 7
1
= 7. Also, note the special property,
A
n
A
m
= A
n+m
,
since both expressions A
n
A
m
and A
n+m
denote the product of A with
itself (n +m) times. In the expression A
m
we call m the exponent, and we
also say A raised to the power m for A
m
.
Many pre-service teachers struggle with exponential notation
- even powers of 10 - and especially with negative exponents.
Do not assume it is known or understood. We will discuss
negative exponents in 7. Even more care is needed at that
point.
Exercises
(2) Calculate 2
3
, 2
6
, 2
10
, 2
15
.
(3) What is 1
n
for n any whole number n?
(4) If A > 1 show that A
n+1
> A
n
for any whole number n.
Note that we have not dened A
0
. We are free to do this in whatever way
we like, or simply leave it undened. However, since we know that n+0 = 0
for any whole number n, and since the property A
m
A
n
= A
m+n
is quite
elegant, we choose to dene A
0
so that this continues to hold: A
0
A
m
=
A
0+m
= A
m
. But this implies that A
0
= 1, and this is how we dene A
0
for
any whole number A. It is also how we dene 0
0
:
0
0
= 1.
Exercises
(5) Show by direct calculation that 2
3
2
6
is the same as 2
9
.
(6) Evaluate 3
3
, 3
6
, and show that 3
3
> 2
3
and 3
6
> 2
6
.
(7) Suppose that n is any whole number. Show that 3
n
> 2
n
.
(8) Let n be a whole number show that 10
n+1
> 10
n
.
(9) (a) Show that 9 10
3
< 10
4
(b) Show that 9 10
3
+ 9 10
2
< 10
4
(c) Show that 9 10
3
+ 9 10
2
+ 9 10 + 9 < 10
4
.
At this point the most important examples of powers are the numbers
10
n
: 1, 10 = 10
1
, 100 = 10
2
, 1000 = 10
3
, and so on. It doesnt take too
many powers of 10 to obtain enormous numbers. For example one light year
is a bit less than 10
16
meters.
6. PLACE VALUE 157
Denition: A google is dened as the number 10
100
, the product of 10 with
itself 100 times.
It is estimated that there are between 10
72
and 10
87
particles in the
known universe. Hence there are less than a google total particles, and no
set in the entire universe could contain a google elements.
Denition: A googleplex is the number 10
10
100
.
Also, numbers such as the following might be helpful.
Mass of Earth 5976 10
21
Kg
Mass of Sun 2 10
30
Kg
Mass of Known Universe 5 10
11
Mass of Sun
One Light Year 5878 10
9
Miles
2
64
18447 10
15
6. Place value
Introductory comments. One of the areas where we do a very poor
job in our classrooms is in helping students to understand the subtleties of
the base ten place value system. This should not be surprising when we
realize the place value system was originally developed by Chinese mathe-
maticians, and then later, in its modern form, by Hindu and Arab math-
ematicians, and that this later work took over two hundred years before
everything was completely understood. Though this happened over one
thousand years ago, that does not diminish the magnitude of those accom-
plishments, nor the subtlety of the system that resulted. From the beginning
of the discussion of this subject it is important to emphasize the fact that
what is being done is not elementary at all, but is so basic to our society
that all students must learn it, and learn it very well.
Children spend many years learning the intricacies of our place value
system, typically, in the rst years extending their experience one digit at a
time. In Kindergarten they learn numbers through 10, and usually also two
digit numbers through 20 or thirty. Possible exercises here include counting
the total number of days of class during the semester, incrementing the count
by one each day, with the teacher writing down the number each time, and
breaking individual numbers into sums of blocks of tens and blocks of ones.
Then rst grade includes the counting numbers to 100, second grade the
counting numbers through 1000, and by fourth or fth grade numbers with
decimal points are included, usually introduced using money. By the end of
fourth grade students are expected to have a clear idea of the place value
system. However, the outcomes are typically not too good.
We have already indicated the diculties that the inconsistent vocab-
ulary for naming numbers that English puts in the way. Here are further
problems.
One issue is that, even by fourth or fth grade, students are not
given a clear denition of the place-value system. While there are,
158 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
typically, a few lessons devoted to decomposing numbers, for exam-
ple
5, 217 = 5 thousand + 2 hundred + 1 ten + 7 ones
this does not, suciently, get at the underlying concept.
Confusion about the role of 0 in the place-value expansion of num-
bers. For example the number 3, 107 is read as three thousand, one
hundred and seven. We do not say the 0, and teachers call it a
place-holder. But because of this it is not evident to students that
the number is actually written
3 1000 + 1 100 + 0 10 + 7 1,
so more complex numbers like 31687000147 and 3168700147 are not
always properly distinguished, since the signicance of the 0s is not
fully appreciated.
Teaching sequence for pre-service teachers
The number 0. Before one can discuss place-value one needs the num-
ber 0. It should be regarded as a number like any other. We say that
someone has three oranges and, equally, we can say that someone has no
oranges, or 0 oranges. We can talk about adding 0 oranges to 3 oranges,
and it is evident that we still have 3 oranges. Likewise, we can talk about 0
groups, with each group containing 3 oranges. The result is 0 oranges since
there are no groups being counted. Similarly, we can talk about 3 groups,
with each group containing 0 oranges. Again we will have no oranges. Thus,
we see that 0+A = A+0 = A, and 0A = A0 = 0 for any whole number
A. Note, from this that when we subtract 0 from A we also get A, A0 = A
using the denition of subtraction as the inverse operation to addition when
it makes sense. (At this point, though, the only number that we can sub-
tract from 0 is 0 since 0 + 0 = 0. The inverse operation for multiplication
is also clear. Since 0 A = 0 we see that 0 A = 0, but 0 0 is not a
single number, since the denition would give that 0 0 = A for any whole
number A. Thus, we say that 0 0 is undened. Likewise, we cannot solve
0 A = B for B ,= 0, so B 0 is also undened.
The discussion above has to be presented to pre-service teach-
ers in detail. There is considerable confusion about opera-
tions involving 0 in school mathematics. Teachers may often
understand that A 0 is undened for A a whole number,
but will believe that 0 0 = 1 for example.
Base-10 place-value.
Base-10 place-value form. A whole number or 0 is written in base 10
place-value form if it is given as a nite sum like 7 10
3
+ 3 10
2
+ 0
10
1
+ 5 10
0
where three special properties hold.
6. PLACE VALUE 159
Each summand is a product of one of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9 multiplied by a power of 10, for example 2 10
0
, 7 10
1
,
. . . .
If a summand a 10
m
is present with m > 0 then there is also a
summand b 10
m1
.
Either the number is 0 and it is written as 0 10
0
, or there is an
m 0, and a > 0 so that a 10
m
is a summand and there is no
summand b 10
m+1
.
This denition needs to be carefully understood, and each of the three con-
ditions needs to be expanded and explained. Examples of sums like
Instructor note: Many
pre-service teachers
may have diculty with
the denition and the
three conditions. The
content in this section
should be carefully
explained are reviewed.
0 10
4
+ 3 10
3
+ 2 10
2
+ 5 10
1
+ 6 10
0
need to be considered, and it should be pointed out that such a sum is not
in base 10 place-value form since, though it satises the rst and second
criteria above, it does not satisfy the third. Likewise
6 10
3
+ 3 10
1
+ 7 10
0
is not in base 10 place-value form since it satises the rst and third condi-
tions but not the second. Finally,
11 10
3
+ 0 10
2
+ 13 10
1
+ 0 10
0
is not in base 10 place-value form since it satises the second and third
conditions, but not the rst.
Writing and operating with whole numbers in base-10 place-value form.
Students should practice adding and multiplying numbers in base-10 place-
value form. Thus, 10
2
(3 10
1
+ 2 10
0
) should be written
3 10
3
+ 2 10
2
+ 0 10
1
+ 0 10
0
,
even though the product, using the distributive law, is simply
3 10
3
+ 2 10
2
.
Particular attention should be paid to what happens when one adds 1 = 1
10
0
to a number in base-10 place-value form, with examples where iterated
carries occur being given special attention, for example
(110
0
)+(710
3
+910
2
+910
1
+910
0
) = 810
3
+010
2
+010
1
+010
0
.
The students should be able to articulate rules for adding 1 to a number in
base-10 place-value form in such a way that the result is again in base-10
place-value form. Additionally, there should be some discussion of how one
can do the same thing when adding two numbers, both written in base-10
place-value form.
Exercises:
(1) Evaluate in detail the sum 1 10
0
+ (6 10
2
+ 2 10
1
+ 9 10
0
)
and write the answer in base-10 place-value form.
(2) Evaluate in detail the sum 2 10
1
+ (6 10
2
+ 5 10
1
+ 9 10
0
)
and write the answer in base-10 place-value form.
160 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(3) Evaluate in detail the sum 3 10
1
+ (9 10
2
+ 8 10
1
+ 5 10
0
),
and write the answer in base-10 place-value form.
(4) Evaluate in detail the sum (310
1
+6 10
0
) +(2 10
3
+9 10
2
+
710
1
+510
0
) and write the answer in base-10 place-value form.
(5) Evaluate in detail the sum 3 10
2
+ 9 10
1
+ 9 10
0
) + 1.
Writing whole numbers in base-10 place-value notation. Once pre-service
teachers understand base-10 place-value form, it is an easy step to base-10
place value notation. Simply write down the multipliers of the powers of
ten that occur in a number written in base-10 place-value form, in the order
in which they occur starting on the left with the multiplier of the largest
power of 10, 10
n
, then the multiplier of 10
n1
to its right, and so on, till the
multiplier of 10
0
becomes the rightmost digit. Thus, the number
7 10
3
+ 0 10
2
+ 6 10
1
+ 9 10
0
is written 7069. 10
6
, when written in base-10 place value form is
1 10
6
+ 0 10
5
+ 0 10
4
+ 0 10
3
+ 0 10
2
+ 0 10
1
+ 0 10
0
so it is written 1000000. Similarly
10
19
= 10000000000000000000
and a google would be written as a 1 followed by 100 zeros. However, if a
number is suciently big, we cannot, physically, write it in base-10 place-
value notation. For example 10 to the power a google, 10
(10
100
)
would be
written in base-10 place-value notation as a 1 followed by a google zeros.
But since there are fewer particles than a google in the known universe, even
if every particle were a drop of ink, there would not be enough ink to write
this number.
Exercises:
(6) What is the sum of 37000 and 291? What is the sum of 7605 and
30? What is the dierence 357631 7030?
(7) If G and H each represents a dierent digit in the (correct) subtra-
tion problem below, what does G represent?
G H H 5
5 H H G
1 9 9 8
(8) Is a googleplex the largest number there is? Explain your answer.
(9) Show that
_
10
10
_
100
= 10
1000
.
6. PLACE VALUE 161
Tables like
971
..
trillions
, 432
..
billions
, 275
..
millions
, 479
..
thousands
, 857
should be clearly understood as only giving vocabulary for
communicating with others about common numbers. They
should not be understood, as is very common today, as being
how we represent these numbers. (The problem is that stu-
dents, not having a name for numbers larger than 10
15
1,
will often lack a concept of them.)
Comparison of numbers in the base-10 place-value system. Pre-
service teachers can now be given clear instruction on why we can order non-
negative integers written in the place value notation by comparing successive
places from left to right as a consequence of the core denition of more and
less for numbers in 5.
It is very common for pre-service teachers to be quite con-
fused about how we use the base-10 place-value notation in
comparing numbers. If two numbers have approximately the
same number of places they will often simply look at the
leading coecient.
Emphasize the importance of giving students precise denitions of less than
and greater than.
It should be noted that when we write a whole number A in base-10
place-value form, there is a largest power of 10, 10
n
, with multiplier a
n
in the
expression. a
n
is called the leading coecient of A, while n is the exponent
associated to the leading coecient. The numbers a
n
and n together give
us a good estimate of the magnitude of A.
Exercise:
(10) What are the leading coecients and exponents in the following
numbers?
(a) 2765
(b) 27658
(c) 957
(d) 99
(e) 276985614
(f) 19253812317
At this point the details of how we compare whole numbers written in
base-10 place-value notation should be presented. Instead of just giving the
rules, it is important to give a complete discussion and demonstration of the
result. This can be decomposed into 3 separate steps. First demonstrate
the result
Theorem: If two whole numbers have dierent exponents of their leading
coecients, then the number with the greater exponent is greater than the
number with the smaller exponent.
162 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(Suppose that the exponent of the leading coecient in A is n. Construct
B so that A + B = 10
n+1
explicitly, so for A = 763 which expands as
7 10
2
+ 6 10 + 3 10
0
the number 237 works.)
Students should be given plenty of practice with distinguishing num-
bers that have dierent exponents associated to their leading coecients.
Examples like 3718200004516 and 371820004516 are helpful.
Once the importance of the position of the leading coecient in the
base-10 place-value notation for the number is appreciated students should
see the next result and a demonstration
Theorem If two whole numbers have dierent leading coecients but the
same exponents for their leading coecients, then the number with the
greater leading coecient is greater than the other number.
(First note that if n is the common exponent of and a
n
< b
n
are the leading
coecients, then the rst whole number A with leading coecient a
n
can
be written as a
n
10
n
+ D where D has leading coecient d
m
with m < n.
From the previous theorem there is a whole number E which is less than or
equal to 10
n
so that D + E = 10
n
. But then A
n
+ E = (a
n
+ 1)10
n
, and
since a
n
< b
n
it follows that a
n
+ 1 is either less than b
n
or is equal to b
n
.
So A < A+E is less than or equal to B, so A is less than B.)
Exercises:
(11) Which is larger, 271458 or 310089?
(12) Order the following four numbers, 271945, 59143, 9177, 71123,
300100.
Finally, students should see a demonstration of
Theorem If two whole numbers, A and B have the same leading coecients
and the same exponents for their leading coecients, so each has the form
a
n
10
n
summed with terms b
i
10
i
where i < n, then A is greater than B if
and only if Aa
n
10
n
> B a
n
10
n
.
With this last result in hand, a complete discussion of how to compare
and order numbers in base-10 place-value notation is available, and students
can gure out how to compare numbers like 214817 and 214821.
Exercises
(13) Which is larger?
(a) 214817 or 214821
(b) 326199 or 326211
(c) 21000201 or 2100299
(14) Put the following numbers into increasing order
71317, 71299, 8133, 8911, 91100.
Remarks
(1) It is worth noting that the usual diculty pre-service teachers have
with comparing and ordering numbers written in base-10 place-
value notation is that there are three separate steps, as indicated
6. PLACE VALUE 163
above, and typically they have just been given a sequence of rules
without sucient justication for comparing numbers.
(2) It is typically in fth or sixth grade that students in this country
learn about non-negative exponents, so in earlier grades one would
do this by making a point of writing a number like 7, 143 as
7 (10 10 10) + 1 (10 10) + 4 10 + 3
and pointing out that each of the terms 10, 10 10, etc. is exactly
ten times larger than the previous term. At this point, one can look
at revising the expression above to
7 (10 10 10) + 1 (10 10) + 4 10 + 3 1
and explain that this makes the expression more systematic, so now
each term really IS 10 times larger than the previous, (in the sense
that 7 (10 10) is ten times larger than 7 10). Be careful to
explain that, naturally, it is not true that 5 (10 10) is 10 times
larger than 7 10.
(3) It should be explained that in base-10 place-value notation 1
(10 10) is just 100, and 1 10 is another way of writing 10. More
generally, if we have a 0 at the right hand end, for example 740, then
this is 710
2
+410, while the number 74 is 710+41, so, since
each term is multiplied by 10 to go from 74 to 740, putting a zero
on the end makes the number 10 times larger. While the example
used is just an example, an in class discussion should result in an
understanding of why this is generally true, and focus pre-service
teachers on the need to carefully cover this core fact in their classes.
First grade teaching sequence: Russian text. Here are some ex-
amples from the rst grade Russian text translated by UCSMP. Page 86 -
87:
(1) n + 7 = 17 10 +n = 14 n + 9 = 19 n + 1 = 16
(2) Write down and calculate:
(a) Subtract the sum of the numbers 7 and 3 from 15.
(b) Add the dierence of the numbers 16 and 10 to 4.
(3) 8 + (6 + 4) 19 (1 + 8) 7 + (15 5) 16 (6 0)
(4) Write down 6 one-digit numbers. Increase each number by 10.
Write down your answers.
(5) 10+7 = 17 10+2 = 10+9 = 13+1 =
17 = 10 +7 = 10 +2 = 10 +9 = 13 +1
From page 94 of the rst grade Russian text:
(1) How many units in the tens column and how many units in the ones
column are there in the following numbers:
80, 18, 19, 90, 69, 70, 53, 35?
(2) The number one hundred is written 100. What does each digit
in the number stand for?
164 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(3) (a) Write a number which containes 2 tens and 9 ones and another
which containes 9 tens and 2 ones.
(b) Write a number which is 1 greater than 49, and another number
which is 1 less than 90.
By about the middle of the rst grade in the Russian texts base ten numbers
are being decomposed and recombined in very sophisticated ways using the
commutative law and the associative law quite explicitly. From page 111 -
114:
(1) 80 70 + 9 18 10 + 2 50 + 40 1 27 20
69 9 + 40 16 6 + 8 90 70 1 39 39
30 + 50 + 6 19 + 1 + 5 10 + 80 + 3 69 + 1
(2) Sove and explain you answers:
6 + 30 65 + 3 65 + 10 16 + 2
(3) Father carried a suitcase which wighed 6 kg. and a bag of groceries
which weighted 2 kg less. How much did the suitcase and the bag
of groceries weigh together?
(4) Calculate, using an appropriate method:
(70 + 8) + 2 (20 + 7) + 3 (40 + 5) + 5
6. PLACE VALUE 165
(5) Solve in three dierent ways:
(4 + 2) 1 (6 + 3) = 2 (4 + 5) 3
Then on page 125-126 there is a further step:
(6) Solve in three dierent ways:
7 + (2 + 1) 2 + (1 + 4) 4 + (2 + 4)
166 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Finally, on pps. 142 - 144 we have
(1) Solve using dierent methods
9 (4 + 3) (9 + 4) 3 7 (3 + 1) (7 + 3) 1
Second grade teaching sequence: Russian text. Then, in the be-
ginning of the Russian second grade book translated by UCSMP the subject
is taken up again. Pp 25-26:
(1) Explain these dierent methods of subtracting a sum from a sum:
(1) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = 12 7 = 5
(2) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = (7 3) + (5 4) = 4 + 1 = 5
(3) (7 + 5) (3 + 4) = (7 4) + (5 3) = 3 + 2 = 5
Compare the results. How can a sum be subtracted from a sum?
(2) Solve the following problem in several dierent ways: (10 + 6)
(3 + 2).
(3) Solve the following problems using any convenient method:
(20 + 5) (10 + 2) (26 + 40 (7 + 3)
(60 + 7) (40 + 5) (56 + 35) (26 + 15)
6. PLACE VALUE 167
Second grade teaching sequence: Singapore text. Here are some
examples from the Grade 2 Singapore workbook for book 2B.
168 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
and the beginning of the third grade rst workbook for book 3A
7. Decimals
The next stage in the development of place-value is to discuss how one
writes decimal numbers in this form. Logically, this should be deferred until
after fractions have been introduced and discussed, but this is impractical,
since decimals, justied by making change and handling money, are typically
introduced as early as rst grade. However, simple fractions such as
1
2
,
1
5
and
1
10
are usually introduced and discussed in second grade.
Extending base-10 place-value to decimals. When we extend base-
10 place-value to decimals we nd that there is a problem with timing. We
would like to use negative exponents to make the notation consistent, but
negative numbers are introduced no earlier than the fourth grade in the
United States, and they are completely integrated into the number system
only in sixth or seventh grade. On the other hand, two place decimals, as
used in money, are typically introduced in second or third grade. Thus,
initial instruction has to be in terms of extending the powers of 10 so that
each higher power of 10 is 10 the previous one, not in terms of negative
exponents.
Thus one might consider the following pattern of decreasing powers:
2
3
= 8
2
2
= 4
2
1
= 2
2
0
= 1
= ??
7. DECIMALS 169
and it should be pointed out that each row above is obtained by multiplying
by 2, so a good way of continuing is to replace ?? by
1
2
and then the next
row would be
1
4
and so on. Likewise the same argument can be applied to
powers of 10.
10
2
= 100
10
1
= 10
10
0
= 1
=
1
10
=
1
100
=
This gives a reasonable way of extending base-10 place-value forms and
notation.
Denition: A base-10 place-value decimal number is a number of the fol-
lowing kind
A+b
1

1
10
+b
2

1
100
+b
3

1
1000
+ b
n

1
10
n
where A is a whole number or 0 written in base-10 place-value form and each
of the coecients b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, , b
n
are one of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
In each base-10 place-value decimal number there is a smallest m so that
b
m
,= 0 but b
i
= 0 for i > m. If this m = 0 so b
i
= 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n,
then the decimal number is just a whole number or 0. Otherwise the number
can be written in the form
A+
b
1
10
n1
+b
2
10
n2
+ +b
n
10
n
,
so each base-10 place-value decimal number is a whole number or 0 summed
with a fraction with denominator a power of 10. Thus
1
3121+ 2
1
10
+ 7
1
100
+ 0
1
1000
= 3121 +
210
n1
10
n
+
710
n2
100
+
010
0
1000
= 3121 +
270
1000
Note that in the denition b
n
need not be non-zero. In case b
n
= 0, the
fraction that results is not in reduced form, but this is not to be regarded
as incorrect. Also, we should note that decimals do not give all fractions,
only those with denominators that can be written as powers of 10. As an
example
7
8
=
7125
8125
=
875
1000
but
1
3
is not a base-10 place-value decimal number.
As was the case with ordinary place-value, we introduce base-10 place-
value notation for these decimal numbers, by starting with a decimal point
., then taking the base-10 place-value notation for the denominator of the
fraction with numerator a power of 10 b
1
b
2
. . . b
n
and placing it to the right
of the decimal point while we place the base-10 place-value expansion of A
170 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
to the left of the decimal point. Hence, for (1) above we write 3121.270. In
this example the fractional part
270
1000
=
27
100
, hence we see that
3121.270 = 3121.27,
and if a zero appears as the right most term after the decimal point in a num-
ber written in base-10 place-value decimal notation, then we can suppress
it.
Exercises:
(1) What does it mean to say that the decimal system uses place value?
(2) How are the values of adjacent places in a decimal related?
(3) Describe a way to represent 12.3 with physical objects so as to show
clearly the meaning of the digits 1, 2, and 3 in 12.3.
(4) Give three dierent decimals that the bundled toothpicks in Figure
1 could represent. In each case, explain why the bundled toothpicks
can represent that decimal.
(5) Show that 7 56.821 is a base-10 place-value decimal number and
determine it.
(6) Show that if we have a base-10 place-value decimal number then
we can multiply it by any whole number and the result is a base-10
place-value decimal number.
(7) Determine 56.821 10.
(8) Show that we can divide a base-10 place-value decimal number by
10 and the result is a base-10 place-value decimal number.
(9) Show that 7.2 3 is a base-10 place-value decimal number and
determine it.
(10) How high would a pile of one million pennies be if each is stacked
on top of the previous one, given that a single penny is .05 inches
or 1.27mm thick.
(11) How much would 1,200,000 pennies weigh given that a single post
1982 penny weighs 2.5 grams.
Extending ordering to decimals. Given two decimals A and B we
extend the denition of order by A < B if there is a non-zero decimal C so
that A + C = B. (Remember that at this point we do not have negative
numbers.) Note that there is a power of 10, 10
m
so that both 10
m
A and
10
m
B are whole numbers, then 10
m
C is also a whole number so that
10
m
A < 10
m
B if A < B. Conversely, if A and B are whole numbers with
8. BRINGING IN THE NUMBER LINE 171
A < B then the denition gives that
A
10
m
<
B
10
m
as well for m = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
It should be veried that the key properties
If A and B are decimals then exactly one the following three prop-
erties is true
(1) A < B
(2) A = B
(3) A > B
If A, B, and C are decimals and A < B, then A + C < B + C. If
also, C ,= 0, then AC < BC.
If A, B and C are decimals with A < B and B < C, then A < C.
continue to hold.
Negative exponents. At this point one can bring in negative expo-
nents as a notational convenience.
Denition: Let n and A be whole numbers, then A
n
is
1
A
n
.
Note that 0
n
is not dened. This denition should be explained by
indicating that it makes the formula A
m+n
= A
m
A
n
work even when n is
negative. But it should also be explained that negative exponents are not
generally taught till sixth grade or more likely seventh or even eighth grade,
so the material that will transport to the classroom will be the material
discussed above that does not involve negative exponents.
8. Bringing in the Number Line
At this point it is useful to introduce the number line. This helps stu-
dents see that all whole numbers can be written in base-10 place-value no-
tation. It also helps students understand decimals.
Preparation for the number line already occurs in rst grade in both the
Russian and Singapore texts: In the Russian text this is done through the
introduction of rulers. But when teaching this be aware
Some pre-service teachers will not understand how rulers
work, confusing tick marks and intervals, for example. Confu-
sion between intervals and tick marks points and distances
is fundamental, and must be overcome in order for the
number line to be a successful pedagogical tool. Special care
should be taken here.
The number line and place-value. The number line is very helpful
in supporting place-value. One thing that can be done here is to explain
why the base ten number system lists all counting numbers via the number
line. Clarify this by counting by 10s and lay the numbers out on the number
line:
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................... ..................................................................................................................... ........... ..................... ................................................................................................................ ........... ....................
...................... ............................................................................................................... . .......... ..................... ........... ..................................................................................................... . .......... .....................
.....................
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
172 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
then expand out and magnify a single region or two:
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................
.....................
...................... ...................................................................................... . ..................... ........................................
........................... ........................................................................................... . ........... ..................... ...................................................................................... . ........... ....................
...................... ....................................................................................... ........... ..................... ....................................................................................... ........... ....................
.....................
20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30
Finally, discuss, briey the same process but starting with intervals of 100.
It is also worth noting that the same process can be continued for unit
intervals:
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................
.....................
...................... ...................................................................................... . ..................... ........................................
........................... ............................................................................................ ........... ..................... ....................................................................................... ........... ....................
...................... ....................................................................................... ........... ..................... ....................................................................................... ........... ....................
.....................
2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
3.0
and just for emphasis
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................
.....................
...................... ...................................................................................... . ..................... ........................................
........................... ........................................................................................... . ........... ..................... ...................................................................................... . ........... ....................
...................... ....................................................................................... ........... ..................... ....................................................................................... ........... ....................
.....................
2
2
1
10
2
2
10
2
3
10
2
4
10
2
5
10
2
6
10
2
7
10
2
8
10
2
9
10
3
Thus, students should see that if we have a whole number A and have
identied its place on the number line, we can look for the interval associated
to the largest power of 10, 10
n
, that is less than or equal to the interval from
0 to A, and lay out, end to end a sucient number of these intervals, say
a
n
of them, so that the next one would end up on the right of A. Note
that this number will be less than 10 since otherwise we could have used the
interval for a larger power of 10. Next, from the end of a
th
n
interval lay out
intervals of length 10
n1
and so on. Later a very similar backwards process
of decomposing the interval from 0 to A on the number line will be used to
help explain long division.
Remark It is also important to tie the number line to the order of whole
numbers and decimals by noting that a number A represented by a point P
on the number line is less than a number B represented by a point Q if P
is to the left of Q, and conversely.
Teaching sequence: Singapore texts. In the rst grade Singapore
texts the concept of the number line is prepared for as follows:
8. BRINGING IN THE NUMBER LINE 173
Teaching sequence: Russian grade 3 text. By grade three in the
Russian texts the number line is essentially in place. Page 149 has the
following sequence of problems:
(1) Show
1
10
;
2
10
;
3
10
; ;
9
10
and
10
10
of the segment.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...................... .............................................................. ........... ..................... ............................................................. . ........... ....................
...................... ............................................................. . ........... ..................... ............................................................. . ........... .................... ...................... ............................................................. . ........... ..................... ............................................................. . ........... ....................
.....................
..................... .....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. . ............
.............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. . ............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
(2) Show
1
5
;
2
5
;
3
5
;
4
5
and
5
5
on the segment.
(3) Compare the following fractions (using the line segment):
1
5
and
1
10
;
2
5
and
3
10
;
2
5
and
5
10
3
5
and
6
10
;
1
5
and
2
10
;
2
5
and
4
10
.
On page 257 we nd
(4) Represent a century (or one hundred years) by segments on a straight
line, as shown in the drawing. Find in the drawing the segments
corresponding to 4 centuries, 14 centuries, 17 centuries, and 20 cen-
turies.
Teaching sequence: Singapore, grade 4. By fourth grade, Singa-
pore has the full number line in place. For example on page 61 of the 4A
174 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
text (second edition) we have
Remarks
(1) As these examples indicate, both these programs use the number
line to support the introduction of fractions. Such an approach to
fractions is very common in high achieving countries, and will be
the basic approach taken here in the next chapter which very closely
mirrors the methods used in countries like Romania to teach this
subject.
(2) Pre-service teachers need to study the number line in great detail
to understand both the general layout and the fact that we can
expand the level of detail at any point we want. The rst point of
the following exercises is to give practice with expanding the number
line to dierent levels, and the second point is to help prepare to
bring this material into the classroom.
Exercises:
(1) Label the tick marks on the three number lines in the gure below
in three dierent ways. In each case, your labeling should t with
the fact that the tick marks at the ends of the number lines are
longer than the other tick marks. You may further lengthen the
tick marks at either end as needed.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................... .......................................................................... ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ....................... .............................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................... .......................................................................... ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ....................... .............................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................... .......................................................................... ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ....................... .............................................
7.1
7.1
7.1
Label These Number Lines
(2) Label the tick marks on the three number lines in the gure below
in three dierent ways. In each case, your labeling should t with
the fact that the tick marks at the ends of the number lines are
longer than the other tick marks. You may further lengthen the
9. OTHER SYSTEMS FOR WRITING NUMBERS 175
tick marks at either end as needed.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................... .......................................................................... ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ....................... .............................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................... .......................................................................... ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ....................... .............................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................... .......................................................................... ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ................ ............................... .................................................................. . ................ ..............................
................................ .................................................................. . ....................... .............................................
7.1
7.1
7.1
Label These Number Lines
(3) Label the large tick marks on the number line in the gure below so
that both 1.3784 and 1.37521 can be plotted visibly and distinctly.
Plot the two numbers.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................
.....................
.........................................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.........................................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.........................................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.........................................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.........................................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.....................
.........................................
.....................
.....................
Figure: A number line
(4) Find a number between 3 and 3.001 and plot all three numbers
visibly and distinctly on a copy of the number line in the gure
above. Label all the longer tick marks on your number line.
(5) Find a number between 3 and 2.9999 and plot all three numbers
visibly and distinctly on a copy of the number line in a copy of the
gure above. Label all the longer tick marks on your number line.
(6) Find a number between 3 and 2.9999 and plot all three numbers
visibly and distinctly on a copy of the number line above. Label all
the longer tick marks on your number line.
9. Other systems for writing numbers
It is helpful for pre-service teachers to see a few other systems of numer-
ation, and their advantages and disadvantages. This typically is material
that can translate well to the classroom as long as it doesnt involve too
much class time. Particularly, the Mayan system and the Egyptian hiero-
glyphic system can be useful, though the discussion of Roman numerals can,
mathematically speaking, be entirely suppressed.
Over the course of thousands of years dierent societies have used dif-
ferent systems of numeration, and traces still live in our languages. For
example, 12 inches in a foot, 12 months in a year, dozen and gross hint at a
time when a base-12 system was in use, and the breakdown of one hour into
sixty minutes and each minute into 60 seconds is a reminder of the Babylo-
nians use of a base-60 number system. Likewise the phrase four-score and
seven years and the French quatre-vingts for 80 hints at the use of the base
20 numeration at one time.
Place-value type notation was far from usual previous to about 1000
years ago, and strictly additive representations of numbers were not always
used. For example the Roman numeral system, I, II, III, IV , etc., does
176 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
not involve place-value and involves both addition and subtraction in rep-
resenting numbers. This system is limited in terms of the numbers that can
be written, and in terms of being able to do basic operations with these
symbols.
Instructor note: It is
probably important to
preface the discussion of
historical place value
systems by explaining
what such history is
important. Pre-service
teachers may think the
discussion is not
germane to what they
must learn in order to
teach students.
The Egyptians during the period from 3000 to 2000 years ago used a
base-10 system that was strictly additive but had a dierent symbol for each
power of 10 up to 10
6
instead of using place-value, and similar systems were
used in a number of other societies during that time. Sums and products
were relatively direct, but the need for large numbers of symbols to denote
numbers larger than 10
7
1 limited their exibility.
The Mayan system was an additive place-value system nominally based
on 20, but to conform to their 360-day calendar it was modied so that the
third position was multiples of 18 20 rather than 20
2
to conform to their
360-day calendar. The Mayans also had a 0 and they were able to do very
sophisticated astronomical calculations in this system.
One should not entirely dismiss non-place value systems. If one has a
long number like 63,992,991,911,111 and another long number, for example
12, 412, 461, 232, 437, 216,
but we place them far from each other, students will typically not count
digits to check magnitude, but will guess that the second number is smaller
since the rst digit is smaller. One advantage of a non-place value base 10
system like the Egyptian hieroglyphic number system is that magnitude is
easy to understand:
10. ALGORITHMS AND THEIR REALIZATIONS 177
These are the basic symbols for the powers of 10. Then, using these symbols,
numbers are determined by direct addition:
It is very easy to learn the system as far as it goes. Here are some examples
of how numbers are constructed and read.
(1) Using the example 305 7 written in hieroglyphic notation explain
the logic behind the regrouping process.
(2) Same problem for 412 98.
(3) Explain clearly and concretely how one would construct a subtrac-
tion algorithm for whole numbers written in hieroglyphic notation.
10. Algorithms and their Realizations
Introduction. An algorithm, roughly speaking, is a systematic pro-
cedure involving operations and objects in a mathematical universe that
produces output data using only a nite number of steps for each datum.
The output data can be the answer to a mathematical question, or simply
data of a specic kind. The procedures and operations involved in algo-
rithms have been an area of intense study in mathematics, and algorithms
are closely related to computer programs. In fact, one can think of virtually
all computer programs as extremely detailed algorithms.
178 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
It is unexpected that algorithm would be a red-ag word in K - 8 edu-
cation in the United State in view of what algorithms are. However, today
there is a huge argument about whether the so called standard algorithms of
arithmetic should be taught to students. Many educators claim that there
is no such thing as a standard algorithm. Many resist teaching them, argu-
ing that they are no longer necessary or that student developed algorithms
are better. For some sample discussion of teaching algorithms taken from
current mathematical methods texts see Appendix C.
Part of the backlash against the standard algorithms comes from a de-
sire to move mathematics-education away from a purely rote and mechanical
approach to mathematics and towards a conceptual approach. The funda-
mental misunderstanding is that because teachers in the US often teach the
standard algorithms in a way that is devoid of understanding, it is thought
that the standard algorithms exist as purely mechanical operations, which
couldnt be farther from the truth. In fact, a true conceptual understanding
of the standard algorithms requires an expert understanding of the math-
ematics of the elementary grades that is rarely found in the US, simply
because it is not systematically studied at any level, K-16. Consider the
following comparisons of a US teacher and a Chinese teacher discussing how
they might help a student understand a multi-digit multiplication problem.
3
US teacher: I would go back to place value and tell them that
when they are multiplying by the ones, it is lined up with the num-
bers above. And when they moved to the next number, which is the
tens, it lines up with the tens. And then the next number would be
lined up with the hundreds, and so forth. (p. 34)
Chinese teacher: Since the 5 in 645 is at the ones place, it stands
for 5 ones. 123 5 = 615, it is 615 ones. So we put the 5 at the
ones place. The 4 in 645 is at the tens place, it stands for 4 tens.
123 4 = 492, it is 492 tens. So we put the 2 at the tens place...
(p. 42)
An example of an algorithm. We are given 100 blank sheets of paper
arranged in a long row. Each paper is visited in turn by a student with a
pencil. The rst student puts a mark on every paper. The second student
puts a (distinct) mark on every second paper. The third student puts a
(distinct) mark on every third paper, and in general the n
th
student puts
a (distinct) mark on every n
th
paper. Since there are only 100 papers, the
process will stop after the 100
th
student.
The output is an ordered sequence of 100 papers, each with at least
one mark on it.
The total number of marks on the n
th
paper is the number of whole
number divisors that the whole number n has.
3
Liping Ma, Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics: Teachers Understanding of
Fundamental Mathematics in China and the United States, Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Inc., 1999
10. ALGORITHMS AND THEIR REALIZATIONS 179
The algorithm could be modied so that the n
th
student puts the number
n on every n
th
paper. In this case the n
th
paper would contain a list of the
divisors of n. So the fth paper would contain only 1 and 5, but the twelfth
paper would contain 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
The lack of total precision in describing the algorithms above is worth
noting. We do not describe the method for placing the papers in a row.
We do not describe the way we get the students to move from paper to
paper, nor the exact process by which each student determines whether to
mark the current paper or not. On the other hand, if we were to write
a computer program that realizes the algorithm, we would have to specify
all those details, yet both would be considered algorithms. Mathematicians
are generally only interested in describing the algorithm to the level of de-
tail given here, and when they talk about constructing and understanding
algorithms, this is what they mean.
Exercises
(1) Construct an algorithm that gives as its output all numbers less
than 100 that are divisible by 5.
(2) Construct an algorithm that gives as its output all numbers less
that 200 that are divisible by 11.
(3) Construct an algorithm that gives as its output all numbers less
than 100 that are not divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7, or 11.
The standard algorithms. By the standard algorithms we mean the
procedures for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole
numbers and decimals written in base-10, place-value notation, that are
commonly taught in the United States public school system, described at
a conceptual level as was the case in the examples above. The algorithms
that educators regard as distinct, mathematicians regard as simply dierent
implementations of these algorithms.
In this and the next four sections we will discuss the standard algorithms
in more detail and ll in their descriptions. For the moment it suces to
point out that
All the fundamental properties of addition, subtraction, multiplica-
tion and division for decimals are reected in these algorithms.
They are correct and extremely ecient, so they provide wonderful
examples for students to study.
The processes underlying these algorithms appear again and again
in more advanced areas of mathematics, so understanding the stan-
dard algorithms properly provides students with core preparation
for learning and understanding more advanced material.
Both teachers and students need to understand the concepts underlying
the standard algorithms and why these algorithms work. While students
will sometimes nd clever ways to solve specic problems and teachers need
180 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
to be exible and accommodating of this when it happens,
4
it is a huge
disservice to a child to not teach them generally applicable tools supported
by the understanding of why they work. Additionally, as has been dis-
cussed in Chapters 1 and 3, procedural eciency is crucial if a student is
ever to use the basic arithmetic operations in new contexts, such as alge-
bra, geometry, statistics, or calculus as well as use either the algorithms or
their understanding of the algorithms in problem solving situations. (For
an in-depth look at topics related to this discussion, see Basic Skills Versus
Conceptual Understanding; A Bogus Dichotomy in Mathematics Education
by H.-H. WU). Also, the discussion in Appendix C gives a clearer picture
of the degree to which many educators perspectives on algorithms and their
uses diverge from those of mathematicians.
Algorithms, functions, and computer programs. It is worth giv-
ing a short discussion of the distinction between an algorithm, thought of
as a somewhat loosely dened procedure and a realization of the algorithm,
such as a computer program, which is precisely dened, with all steps given.
5
In mathematical terms we understand by an algorithm a sequence of
steps usually nite - that, when followed with appropriate initial data, result
in clearly dened output data. The dierence between an algorithm and a
function is only in the degree of specicity in the description. Thus, one
can dene the function sin(x) without giving any concrete procedure for
calculating the value of sin(x) for each value of x. An algorithm for sin(x) is
then a relatively detailed procedure, that, when x is given, produces sin(x),
or an approximation of sin(x) to a predetermined degree of precision.
An algorithm can be completely described or not. As mathematicians,
we tend to only describe them to the point where it would be straightforward
to write computer programs that would, in eect, describe them completely.
6
The general form of the standard addition algorithm. A math-
ematician might well think of the standard addition algorithm for adding a
nite set of whole numbers in base 10 notation in the following way:
(1) rst, write the numbers in expanded form, thereby obtaining a nite
collection of (single) digits, each attached to a power of 10,
4
Some of the best learning opportunities present themselves when students come up with a
dierent way to solve a problem
5
The following is a typical dictionary denition of algorithm. It is not quite what mathemati-
cians generally mean when they use the word. Algorithm: a procedure for solving a mathematical
problem (as of nding the greatest common divisor) in a nite number of steps that frequently
involves repetition of an operation: broadly a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or
accomplishing some end esp. by a computer.
6
Math Educators tend to take a much more detailed view. The algorithm of the classroom
is completely described in every way. To distinguish between these two viewpoints one could
introduce the terminology general algorithm for the mathematicians algorithm and specic algo-
rithm for the classroom algorithm. This distinction is explored further in Appendix C. It has
unexpectedly profound consequences for instruction.
10. ALGORITHMS AND THEIR REALIZATIONS 181
(2) second, add the digits attached to a xed power of 10 in the ex-
panded forms, and do so from the smallest power of 10 to the
largest,
(3) third, if the sum of the digits attached to a xed power of 10 in
the second step exceeds a single digit, carry the excess to the sums
involving the higher powers of 10. (It may happen that these over-
ows involve more than just one power of 10.)
The standard algorithm for addition of a nite set of whole numbers could
be described at a greater level of detail as follows: Assume that all numbers
are already written in base 10 notation. We begin with a whole number
to be called Total. This Total is initially set equal to 0, but after each
iteration of the six steps below it will be reset until eventually it ends up
being the sum of all the numbers in the given list.
(1) Find the smallest power of 10 so that at least one number in the set
has a non-zero digit attached to this power of 10, and call it 10
min
.
(If there is no such number, then stop.)
(2) Add all the terms involving 10
min
in each number in the list.
(3) Write the sum as A10
min
where A is a single digit whole number,
plus w 10
min+1
, where w is a whole number.
(4) Add the term A10
min
to total
(5) Set all the digits attached to the power 10
min
to 0 in each number
in the list, and adjoin w 10
min+1
to the list.
(6) Repeat with the new list and total.
182 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
As an example consider the sum of the following 24 terms:
1 2 3 0
3 1 2 0
2 3 1 0
3 1 2 0
2 3 1 0
1 2 3 0
3 4 5 0
5 3 4 0
4 5 3 0
4 5 3 0
3 4 5 0
5 3 4 0
5 6 7 0
7 5 6 0
6 7 5 0
7 6 5 0
5 7 6 0
6 5 7 0
8 7 9 0
9 8 7 0
7 9 8 0
7 8 9 0
9 7 8 0
+ 8 9 7 0
The least power of 10 with at least one non-zero digit attached to it is 1
(i.e., min = 1) because the ones digit in every number is 0. When we add
all the tens digits we get
2(3+2+1+5+4+3+7+6+5+9+8+7)10 = 12010 = 1210
2
+010
so that, in the above notation, A = 0 and w = 12. Thus the total remains
0, and the number 1200 is adjoined to the original list. The new sum is
10. ALGORITHMS AND THEIR REALIZATIONS 183
therefore
1 2 0 0 rst carry
1 2 0 0
3 1 0 0
2 3 0 0
3 1 0 0
2 3 0 0
1 2 0 0
3 4 0 0
5 3 0 0
4 5 0 0
4 5 0 0
3 4 0 0
5 3 0 0
5 6 0 0
7 5 0 0
6 7 0 0
7 6 0 0
5 7 0 0
6 5 0 0
8 7 0 0
9 8 0 0
7 9 0 0
7 8 0 0
9 7 0 0
+ 8 9 0 0
The least power of 10 with at least one non-zero digit attached to it is now
10
2
, (so that min = 2). When we add all the terms involving 10
2
we obtain
12 10
3
+ 2 10
2
. Thus A is now equal to 2 and w = 12. So we reset the
total from 0 to 0 + 2 10
2
= 200, change every digit attached to 10
2
in
each of the numbers in the list to 0, and adjoin
7
12 10
3
= 12000 to the
7
It might seem odd to pre-service teachers to be changing the problem as we go by adding
these carries to the list. Depending on the implementation of the algorithm, one could handle
the carries as a separate sum or by placing them at the bottom of the list. To a mathematician
this is immaterial, but there might be pedagogical reasons to prefer a dierent implementation.
It should also be understood that this is not necessarily something that should import directly
into classroom instruction. However, it is very important that pre-service teachers have a deeper
understanding of these basic algorithms than is currently expected. A careful study of this example
should help here.
184 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
list. The new list is now
1 2 0 0 0 second carry
1 0 0 0 changed rst carry
1 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
7 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
7 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
8 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
7 0 0 0
7 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
+ 8 0 0 0
10
min
is now 10
3
and when we add the terms in each expansion involving
10
3
we obtain 123000 = 12 10
4
+ 3 10
3
. Thus w = 12, A = 3, and the
new total is 200 + 3 10
3
= 3200. By setting all the digits attached to
10
3
equal to 0, every number becomes 0 except the rst one, which changes
from 12000 to 10000. Now adjoin 1210
4
to the list and suppress the terms
which are 0. Then the sum just involves the carries and becomes
1 2 0 0 0 0 third carry
+ 1 0 0 0 0 changed second carry
So the total is 3200 + 130000 = 133, 200.
Note that the algorithm works for the addition of any nite set of whole
numbers. The example above is meant to show this. It is also meant to
show the delicacy involved in handling the carries. They can be quite large
if there is a suciently long list of numbers to sum, but a good algorithm
should work equally well no matter how large the set of numbers may be.
Some of the pre-service teachers may object that one would never sum such
a long list by hand if this example is used. This would be a very good time
10. ALGORITHMS AND THEIR REALIZATIONS 185
to discuss averaging real data where such long sums arise naturally. It is
worth noting that entering a long list into a calculator with the problems
of key-press errors could well be slower than adding by hand.
8
But, above
all, it should be strongly emphasized that sometimes one has to work a
somewhat extreme example to break through restrictive mind-sets. This
type of material is basic for
showing students the core concepts involved in understanding how
computers and algorithms work, how one writes computer pro-
grams, and why one should avoid addition programs that only work
with, say, two numbers,
algorithms and the ability to construct correct and ecient algo-
rithms underlie virtually all applications of mathematics and much
of mathematics itself. It is far more important that students under-
stand this material than that they become highly skilled at things
like, for example, mental math.
It should be made clear to the pre-service teachers that there are a number
The term mental
math as often used in
school mathematics
refers to the use of
simplifying tricks to
enable mental
calculation of sums,
dierences, and
products. It does not
refer to automaticity
with basic arithmetic
facts.
of dierent ways one could realize the program but that, mathematically,
they all represent the same algorithm.
A completely detailed description of exactly how one does all the steps,
for example, putting the overow above or below the existing summands,
would not, mathematically, represent a dierent algorithm, simply a dier-
ent realization of the algorithm. Moreover, it would generally assume that
lower level algorithms, such as adding two numbers between 0 and 9, are
known. A fully detailed realization of an algorithm could be translated, line
by line, into a computer program, (assuming the computer had the same
built in core knowledge), while many processes have to be lled in with
most algorithms.
When one has an algorithm, it is important to know that it is correct,
and to know when the algorithm is valid. Knowing that an algorithm is
correct means two things. The rst is that it will give the correct result for
the range of inputs where it is valid. The second is that it yields the correct
answer in nite time. An algorithm that runs forever is not useful.
These considerations often color our preferences. For example, it is very
easy to verify that the addition algorithm, described above, stops. On the
other hand, it is sometimes suggested that students should learn an addition
algorithm that involves adding the coecients of the largest powers of 10,
in other words, adding from left to right. While it is possible to realize an
addition algorithm which starts from the left with the largest power of 10
8
It is also worth pointing out that these algorithms are actually realized as the internal
programming in the very calculators that one might use to produce these sums.
186 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
in this manner, such an algorithm would be much less ecient.
9
(It suces
to compare the actual proofs of stopping for the two cases to see this.)
As an example consider the left to right algorithm applied to, e.g.,
7 3 5 8 3 1
+ 2 6 4 1 9 9
Exercises:
(1) Construct an example using three digit numbers where each deter-
mined digit in the left to right algorithm changes at each stage.
What is the least number of terms that have to be added for this
to happen?
(2) Can the determined digits in the right to left addition algorithm
change after further steps? Explain why or why not. If they cannot
change, explain why this behavior is dierent in the left to right
algorithm.
It might be argued that such considerations are not as important today as
they were for earlier generations due to the ready availability of technology
to do calculations for us. But such an argument misses a crucial point. It is
true that students no longer need to develop massive facility with the basic
operations of arithmetic. They do not have to be able to uently divide
six digit numbers by four digit numbers, but students, if they are to be
given equal access to top level jobs, do need to develop a real understand-
ing of how to eciently implement and develop algorithms and computer
programs. Without seeing ecient algorithms, and understanding why they
are ecient, it is unlikely that students will be able to go further in these
directions.
Moreover, as will be shown in the detailed discussions that follow, un-
derlying a complex algorithm like long division are ideas that become ever
more important in higher level classes in mathematics and its applications.
Students exposure to these concepts in learning standard algorithms is rea-
sonably natural, and starts the process of preparation for more advanced
material. However, if these processes are not initiated in developing stan-
dard algorithms, they will have to be developed separately.
Flow charts. One of the most useful methods for seeing the organi-
zation of an algorithm is a ow chart. It is unlikely that the pre-service
teachers have seen this, but its value both as a teaching tool and as an or-
ganizational tool indicates that some thought should be given to possibly
including instruction on ow charts and ow charting.
9
Left to right addition algorithms are common in Europe, so it may happen that students
will bring this method to the classroom. Pre-service teachers should understand that the method
is correct and as long as students are able to get correct answers in a reasonable time using this
method it should not be discouraged.
11. ALGORITHMS: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 187
The basic notation in a ow chart is as follows:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................... . ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................
................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................
........................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . .
...........
..................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................................................................... . ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........
...........
............................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STOP
Initial
Conditions
Test
N Y
Operate
Operate
Small Flow Chart Showing Standard Notation
11. Algorithms: Addition and Subtraction
Introduction. Learning the standard algorithms involves several steps.
Students must learn how to apply the algorithm, given two multi-
place decimal numbers.
Students must become uent with the algorithm, so they do not
have to consciously think about each separate step.
Students must understand what the algorithm is doing and the
reasons why it works.
For each standard algorithms there are certain base skills that are as-
sumed. For the addition algorithm the key skill is adding two numbers
between 1 and 10. Students must also understand that the order in which
numbers are summed does not matter. With these basic understandings in
place instruction in the addition algorithm can begin.
Teaching sequence: addition, grade 2, Russia and Singapore.
Here is a discussion from page 22 of the second grade Russian text that
Instructor note: It is
worth noting to
pre-service students the
importance of having
students explain how
problems were solved.
Student explanations
provide teachers with a
rich source of
knowledge that can be
used to address
misunderstandings.
explains the underlying ideas behind the addition algorithm.
Explain how the following problems have been solved:
(1)
35 + 21 = (30 + 5) + (20 + 1)
= (30 + 20) + (5 + 1)
= 56
(2)
27 + 16 = (20 + 7) + (10 + 8)
= (20 + 10) + (7 + 6)
= 43
In adding two-digit numbers,
tens can be added to tens and
ones to ones.
(a) Solve the following problems, an explain your answers: 62 +34
28 + 35
188 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Teaching sequence: Singapore, grades 2 and 3. Here is
the corresponding lesson from Book 2A of the Singapore program:
The next lesson does subtraction without renaming. The following
lesson in book 2A develops addition with carries
11. ALGORITHMS: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 189
Finally, students should see the sum of two numbers in the
following way:
Instructor note: When
discussing these
examples instructors
should point out that
the algorithms is not
presented as a
mechanical operation
without a rationale.
During the initial
presentation of new
algorithms teachers
must provide many
examples as well as
explaining why things
happen. Also, to
demonstrate complete
understanding of an
algorithm, assessments
should include questions
that require students to
explain their thinking.
371 + 468 means (300 + 70 + 1) + (400 + 60 + 8)
which rearranges as (300 + 400) + (70 + 60) + (1 + 8)
so equals (300 + 400) + (100 + 30) + (9)
so equals (700 + 100) + 30 + 9
which is 839.
and they should be able to explain what each step is and why it
works.
Here is the discussion of this step in the second grade Russian
text translated by UCSMP. (pp. 253 - 257)
(3) Explain how the three-digit numbers are added together:
246 + 123 = (200 + 40 + 6) + (100 + 20 + 3)
= (200 + 100) + (40 + 20) + (6 + 3)
= 300 + 60 + 9
= 369
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5 7 3
3 4 2
2 3 1
+
It is easier to add three-digit numbers if the terms are written one
below the other in columns, units under units, tens under tens, and
hundreds under hundreds. Using the rule for adding a sum to a
sum, add units to units , tens to tens, and hundreds to hundreds.
In writing out an addition problem, begin with the units.
(4) How should two terms be written correctly in columns if one of
them is a two-digit number and the other a three-digit number?
One student wrote the problem 64 + 625:
6 4
+ 6 2 5
and another wrote
6 4
+ 6 2 5
Which of them wrote the problem correctly? Why?
190 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(5) Read the explanation and write the solution to the following prob-
lem:
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 3 5
4 2 5
+
We add 5 units to 5 units and obtain 10, or 1 ten. There are no
individual units, so in the sum we write zero in the units place and
add 1 ten to the tens. 2 tens + 3 tens = 5 tens, and another ten
makes 6 tens. In the tens place in the sum we write 6. We add 1
hundred to 4 hundred, obtaining 5 hundred. In the hundreds place
we write 5. The sum equals 560.
(6) Explain the solutions to the following problems:
3 4 6
+ 2 6 3
6 0 9
2 5 4
+ 4 4 6
7 0 0
7 2 9
+ 2 7 1
1 0 0 0
(7) Solve the problems, writing them in columns whenever you have
trouble adding them orally:
127 + 503 626 + 83 53 + 227 448 + 160
264 + 306 732 + 64 27 + 843 528 + 200
(8)
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5 2 6
2 3 7
+
Explanation: We add 6 units to 7 units, obtaining 13 units, or 1
ten and 3 units. We write 3 units beneath the units, and add 1 ten
to the tens. Complete the explanation on your own.
Then, students should do the same calculation with the standard algo-
rithm and explain what each step corresponds to in the breakdown above,
11. ALGORITHMS: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 191
paying particular attention to the carried 1.
1
3 7 1
+ 4 6 8
8 3 9
Here is the way in which this lesson is handled in the third grade Singapore
text, Book 3A
One reason why some
teachers in U.S.
classrooms gloss over
why during teaching
and focus instead on
how to solve
problems is related to
classroom management
concerns. It is easier to
show students how to
solve problems and get
them quietly working
rather than taking more
time with the why. It
requires skillful
presentation and pacing
to keep students from
becoming distracted
when explaining why
something works.
Course instructor who
have never taught a
classroom lled with
energetic children may
not appreciate the
tendency for teachers to
engage in teaching
strategies that are less
likely to punish them
with student
misbehavior.
Exercise:
(1) Describe advantages and disadvantages for each of these regrouping
methods for implementing the addition algorithm:
(a)
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
4 0 0
1 2 0
1 4
5 3 4
(b)
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
1
4

1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
1 1
3 4

1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
1 1
5 3 4
192 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(c)
1
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
4
1 1
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
3 4
1 1
1 7 8
+ 3 5 6
5 3 4
[Note that (c) changes the problem as you go and addition is slightly
more dicult because you increase the top number, hold it in your
head rather than see it, then add it to the bottom number.]
Teaching sequence: subtraction, grade 3, Russia. The develop-
ment of the subtraction algorithm, together with a clear understanding of
why and how it works mirrors the development of the algorithm for addition
in the second and third grade Russian texts translated by UCSMP.
On p. 27 of the second grade text we nd the following discussion:
(1) Solve the following problems using any convenient method:
(70 + 8) (30 + 6) (50 + 9) (20 + 7)
(2) Explain how the following problem has been solved:
37 14 = (30 + 7) (10 + 4)
= (30 10) + 7 4)
= 23
(3) Solve the following problems, and explain how you solved them:
65 21 87 53
(4)
76 34 18 + 45 9 + 16 7 76 + 24 83
89 51 28 26 8 + 39 5 17 + 38 44
From page 263 - 268, subtraction is thoroughly developed.
(1) Explain how to subtract a two digit number
64 23 = (60 + 4) (20 + 3)
= (60 20) + (4 3)
= 40 + 1
= 41
Explain how to subtract a three-digit number:
485 231 = (400 + 80 + 5) (200 + 30 + 1)
= (400 200) + (80 30) + (5 1)
= 200 + 50 + 4
= 254
11. ALGORITHMS: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 193
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2 4 2
3 2 1
5 6 3

It is easier to subtract a three-digit number if the subtrahend is

written in columns under the minuend (as in addition). First the
units are subtracted, then the tens, and then the hundreds.
(2)
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 2 6
5 4 0

Explanation. 6 units cannot be subtracted from zero, so we take

1 ten from the 4 tens. So that we dont forget, we place a dot above
The Russian dot
method is a good way
to reduce the confusing
clutter students create
when they regroup.
Course instructors
should tell pre-service
teachers than when
students rst learn to
regroup in problems
they should use the
conventional procedure
so they can see and
understand what is
taking place.
Eventually then can
transition to the dot
method - provided they
are facile with basic
arithmetic facts.
the tens in the number 540. There are 10 units in one ten. From 10
units, we subtract 6 units and write the answer under the units. We
now subtract the tens. The dot above the digit 5 is a reminder that
we took 1 ten in subtracting the units. From 3 tens we subtract 2
tens and write the answer under the tens. Now write the problem,
complete its solution, and explain your answer.
(3)
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5 3 8
8 7 5

Explanation. 8 units cannot be subtracted from 5 units. There-

fore, we take 1 ten from the 7 tens and place a dot above the digit 7
as a reminder. 1 ten and 5 units is 15 units. We subtract 8 from the
15 units and write the answer under the units. We then subtract
194 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
the tens, recalling that 1 ten has already been taken in subtract-
ing the units . . . . Complete the solution and explanation of this
problem.
Most students will not
read, attend to, or
remember such long
explanations as these
Russian textbook
examples.
Consequently, their
explanatory value is
primarily for teachers.
A good exercise for
pre-service teachers is
to have them modify
lengthly explanations
using fewer words
carefully sequenced
steps. This is what
teachers need to do for
current students when
preparing handouts or
giving directions.
(4) Explain the solutions to the following problems:
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 9 5
7 1 4
9 0 9

....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4 7 5
3 5 1
8 2 6

Exercises:
(2) Explain clearly and concretely why we regroup the way we do when
we use the standard subtraction algorithm to subtract
1 0 2
8
(3) Using the example 305 7, explain the logic behind the regrouping
process.
(4) What specic feature of the decimal systems use of place value do
we use when we regroup in addition or subtraction? Explain.
(5) A store owner buys small, novelty party favors in bags of one dozen
and boxes of one dozen bags (for a total of 144 favors in a box). The
store owner has 7 boxes, 2 bags, and 1 individual party favors at the
start of the month. At the end of the month, the store owner has 2
boxes, 8 bags, and 6 individual party favors left. How many favors
did the store owner sell? Give the answer in terms of boxes, bags,
and individual favors. Solve this problem by working with a sort of
expanded form for these party favors, in other words, working with
7 boxes + 2 bags + 1 individual
2 boxes + 8 bags + 6 individual
Solve this problem by regrouping between the boxes, bags, and indi-
vidual party favors.
11. ALGORITHMS: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 195
The instructor should, of course, be aware that the problem above is just
straightforward subtraction but in base 12, and it should be pointed out
that the diculties pre-service teachers have with this problem will be mir-
rored by students working with base 10 numbers. It takes time to develop
prociency, and it doesnt transfer very well. The next two problems expand
on this theme.
(6) Erin wants to gure out how much time elapsed from 10:55 am to
11:30 am. Erin does the following:
0 12 10
1 ,1 : ,3 ,0
1 0 : 5 5
0 : 7 5
and says the answer is 75 minutes. Is Erin right? If not, explain
what is wrong with her method and show how to modify her method
to make it correct.
(7) A class of students is given the following problem:
Jane has 3 pieces of rope, of lengths 5

, 2

, 4

. If she joins
the pieces end-to-end, how long a piece of rope will Jane have?
George hands in the following work:
5.6
2.3
+ 4.7
12.6
saying that Jane will have a piece of rope that is 12

long. Is
George right? If not, explain what is wrong with his approach and
explain how George can modify his method to make it correct.
(8) To solve 201 88, a student writes the following equations
200 90 = 110 + 1
= 111 + 2
= 113.
Although the student has a good idea for solving the problem, the
equations are not correct. In words, describe the students solution
strategy and discuss why the strategy makes sense. Then write
a correct sequence of equations that correspond to this solution
196 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
strategy. Write your equations in the following form:
201 88 = some expression
= some expression
=
.
.
.
= 113.
(9) To solve 201 88, a student writes the following equations:
88 + 2 = 90 + 10
= 100 + 100
= 200 + 1
= 201
2 + 10 = 12 + 100
= 112 + 1
= 113.
Although the student has a good idea for solving the problem, the
equations are not correct. In words, describe the students solution
strategy and discuss why the strategy makes sense. Then write
correct equations that correspond to this solution strategy.
(10) To solve 201 88, a student writes the following:
8 8
+ 2
9 0
+ 1 0
1 0 0
+ 1 0 0
2 0 0
+ 1
2 0 1
2
+ 1 0
1 2
+ 1 0 0
1 1 2
+ 1
1 1 3
201 88 = 113
In words describe the students strategy and discuss why the strat-
egy makes sense.
(11) Two students want to solve 4.231.97 by rst solving 4.232.00 =
2.23. The rst student says that they must subtract .03 from 2.23,
but the second says that they must add .03 to 2.23.
(a) Which student is correct and why. Explain in words which
answer is correct and why it is correct. Do not just say which
answer is numerically correct. Use reasoning to explain why
it is correct. Imagine that you are giving this explanation to
actual students.
(b) Use the number line to help you explain which answer is correct
and why it is correct. (You may wish to use a number line that
12. ALGORITHMS: MULTIPLICATION 197
is not drawn perfectly to scale, but that helps you illustrate the
ideas.)
12. Algorithms: Multiplication
Introduction. Multiplication is associative and commutative as is ad-
dition. The basic property that relates multiplication and addition is the
distributive rule a(b + c) = ab + ac. If we have a way of expanding num-
bers in terms of simpler terms as we do when we write numbers in base-10
place-value notation, then we can expand the resulting product
(A
1
+A
2
+ A
m
)(B
1
+B
2
+ B
s
)
as a sum
A
1
B
1
+A
1
B
2
+ A
1
B
s
+A
2
B
1
+ +A
2
B
s
+ A
m
B
s
In turn we can regroup this sum in any way that is convenient and, perhaps
perform the addition more eciently.
The algorithms that we are aware of for multiplying two decimal numbers
all have this form. We begin this section with a discussion of three dierent
ways of using the distributive rule to produce multiplication algorithms.
The standard multiplication algorithm. The essence of the stan-
dard multiplication algorithm for multiplying two decimal numbers written
in base-10 place-value form
a
n
10
n
+a
n1
10
n1
+a
0
1 +b
1

1
10
+b
2

1
100
+ +b
m
1
10
m
is to choose one of the two as the rst number and, using the distributive
rule, decompose the product as
a

k
10
k
(a
n
10
n
+ +b
m
1
10
m
) + +b

s
1
10
s
(a
n
10
n
+ +b
m
1
10
m
)
Since 10
t
10
w
= 10
t+w
the powers of 10 in the above expansion just shift
answers to the left t places, while multiplication by
1
10
t
shifts answers to the
right t places. Thus evaluating each term
a

s
10
s
(a
n
10
n
+ +b
m
1
10
m
)
just involves multiplying by a
s
where a
s
is one of 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9 and shifting left
s places or, if multiplying by b

j
1
10
j
, then multiplying by b
j
and shifting right
j places. This method of decomposing the product reduces multiplication to
addition of shifted decimal numbers and multiplication of decimal numbers
by only the integers 0, 1, . . . , 9.
198 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
The diagonal multiplication algorithm. Other decompositions of
the product are possible. The diagonal method is one that is used for in-
struction in some programs. It is best described only for whole numbers
in base-10 place-value form. In this case one uses the distributive rule in a
much more sophisticated way and regroups the product as a sum of terms
of the form
a
s
a

0
10
s
+a
s1
a

1
10
s
+a
s2
a

2
10
s
+ +a
0
a

s
10
s
which is
(a
s
a

0
+a
s1
a

1
+ +a
0
a

s
)10
s
and then adds. Special instruction has to be given to students on which
elements to sum for each s, and the algorithm is quite inecient.
Exercises:
(1) Use the diagonal method to calculate the following products:
57 31.2 23.11 37.23 312.4 78.39.
(2) Use the standard multiplication algorithm to calculate each of the
three products above. Do the calculation two ways, rst as AB,
and then as B A.
(3) Use the diagonal method and the standard multiplication algorithm
in base 12 to calculate 57 372 where each of these numbers is
written in base 12 (57 = 5 12, 372 = 3 12
2
+ 7 12 + 2).
The Egyptian multiplication algorithm. An alternative method of
multiplication that dates back to ancient Egypt, the so called Egyptian
algorithm, (also called the Russian peasant algorithm) works as follows. We
This algorithm needs to
be presented slowly and
carefully to pre-service
students because it will
be new and confusing
to them.
assume that A and B are both whole numbers.
Set the tally register to 0. If B is odd, add a copy of A to the
tally register, and replace B by B 1. Divide the new B by
2 and multiply A by 2, placing the new B in the B register
and the new A in the A register. Repeat these two steps until
the B register becomes 0.
For example, to multiply 31 by 9 proceed as follows: 9 is odd so T = 31,
and B = 8. A is replaced by 62 and B = 4. A is replaced by 124 and B = 2.
A is replaced by 248 and B = 1 is odd so T = 248 + 31 = 279, and B = 0.
It follows that 279 is the answer.
This algorithm appears to be completely dierent from the standard
algorithm at rst glance. However, this is not the case.
What is actually happening here is that B is being represented in base 2,
and, if A is also represented in base 2, then for each 1 in the binary expansion
of B, A is multiplied by the corresponding power of 2 (shifted left that many
times), and these terms are added. This is just the standard multiplication
algorithm, but in base 2, not base 10. It is just that the numbers involved
are written in base ten throughout the calculation. One of the diculties
with this algorithm is that since the number of 1s in the diadic expansion of
12. ALGORITHMS: MULTIPLICATION 199
B can vary wildly even though the number of digits in the base 10 expansion
is held xed, the number of operations needed to calculate the product can
also vary wildly.
Exercise:
(4) Apply the Egyptian algorithm to the following products 63 5,
63 15, 63 31.
Teaching sequence: standard algorithm, Russia. Let us now look
at the way the standard algorithm is introduced in practice.
In chapter 3 4, we give the denitions and a discussion from the Russian
third grade text translated by UCSMP related to multiplication and division,
culminating in a discussion of the long division algorithm. We expand on
that discussion now.
Shortly after the denition of the product ab as the number of elements
in a equal groups of b, we nd the following problem:
(1) Explain the method of solution:
426 3 = (400 + 20 + 6) 3
= 400 3 + 20 3 + 6 3
= 1, 200 + 60 + 18
= 1, 278
This notation may be replaced by a more compact notation, as
below. The sign denotes the multiplication operation.
Note the consistent use
of grid paper rather
than notebook paper in
the Russian program.
Many errors in
multiplication and
division are caused
when students write
products and quotients
in the wrong columns.
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 2 7 8
3
4 2 6

(2) Perform the indicated multiplications and explain your answers:

312 3 2, 315 3 23, 486 2 862, 562 4
(3) A train traveled s km in t hr. What distance will it have traveled
at the same speed after 5 hr.? Make up an expression and nd its
value when s = 240km and t = 4hr.
At this point, consistent with the view that division is just the inverse
operation to multiplication, there is a discussion of division by a 1-digit num-
ber, and throughout the following discussion the inverse division problem
always directly follows the multiplication problem. We will discuss division
in the next section. For now we concentrate on the steps in multiplication
which are broken down in the Russian program as follows:
200 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(1) Multiplying by a one-digit number
(2) Multiplying a number by a product such as (2 3) 6 (associative
law, but no use of the distributive law)
(3) Multiplying numbers that end in zero (both the multiplier and the
multiplicand can end in multiple zeros)
(4) Multiplying by two and three-digit numbers.
We look more closely at the last part. The following explanation initiates
the section:
(1) Suppose we wish to multiply 46 and 38. For this purpose, we use
the rule for multiplying a number and a sum:
46 38 = 46 (30 + 8) = 46 30 + 46 8.
Perform the indicated multiplications on paper:
Two multiplications
and then add the
results.
4 6
8
3 6 8
4 6
3 0
1 3 8 0
3 6 8
+ 1 3 8 0
1 7 4 8
....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................... ...........................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4 6
3 8
3 6 8
1 3 8
1 7 4 8
368 and 1380 are partial
products. 1748 is the com-
plete product, or the prod-
uct of the number 46 and
38. The computations may
be abbreviated, as shown
on the left.
Explanation. First we multiply 46 by 8, obtaining the rst partial
product (368). Then we multiply 46 and 30; to do so, we need only
multiply 46 and 3 and add a zero to the end of the resulting number.
But this zero will not be written; instead we leave its place empty,
since the number of units does not change if a zero is added. We
begin to write the product of 46 and 3 in the tens column. The
second partial product is 136 tens, or 1, 380. We add the partial
products and obtain the nal result: 1, 748.
(2) A library bought 16 tables at 24 rubles each. What was the total
cost? Using the
2 4
1 6
1 4 4
2 4
3 8 4 rubles
written problem at the left, answer the
following questions: How much do 6 ta-
bles cost? 10 tables? 16 tables?
12. ALGORITHMS: MULTIPLICATION 201
Teaching sequence, Singapore. In book 3A of the Singapore texts,
once the basic multiplication tables have been learned, the multiplication
algorithm is developed relatively quickly for multiplying an n-digit number
by a 1-digit number.
and later in the same lesson
202 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
In book 4A of the Singapore texts multiplication by a 2-digit number is
introduced in much the same way
Finally, in 4B multiplication of decimals by a 1-digit number is developed.
Remark: It is likely to be a good idea to drive the lesson home that there
is, at present, basically only one way to eciently take advantage of the
structure of the base ten number system in multiplication, i.e., only one
ecient multiplication algorithm, given our conventions for writing numbers.
Remark: It is probably helpful to justify the process for multiplying deci-
mals by noting that
(a 10
i
) (b 10
k
) = (a b) 10
i+k
.
Point out that if a is a decimal number with no more than i places to the
right of the decimal point while b is a decimal with k places to the right
of the decimal point, then a 10
i
is a whole number as is b 10
k
. Thus,
the displayed expression above represents the product of two whole numbers
on the left being equal to 10
i+k
times the desired product. It follows that
to obtain the desired product one can do the whole number multiplication
(a 10
i
) (b 10
k
), and then move the decimal place (i + k)-places to
the left, since multiplying this product by 10
(i+k)
undoes the original
conversion.
(5) Use the associative property of multiplication to make the problem
16 25 easy to solve mentally. Write equations to show your use of
the associative property of multiplication.
(6) Use the associative property of multiplication to make the problem
24 .25 easy to solve mentally. Write equations to show your use
of the associative property of multiplication. Explain how your
solution method is related to solving 24 .25 by thinking in terms
of money.
(7) Give an example of how the associative property of multiplication
can be used to make a calculation easier. Full credit will only be
12. ALGORITHMS: MULTIPLICATION 203
given if your use of the associative property genuinely makes the
problem easier to solve.
(8) Keisha says that its easy to multiply even numbers by 5 because
you just take half of the number and put a zero on the end. Write
equations that incorporate Keishas method and that demonstrate
why her method is valid. Use the case 5 8 for the sake of con-
creteness. Write your equations in the following form:
5 8 = some expression
= some expression
.
.
.
.
.
.
= 40.
(9) What property of arithmetic are you using when you think of the
5 multiplication table as half of the 10 table? Explain.
(10) To calculate 4 60 mentally, we can just calculate 4 6 = 24 and
then put a zero on the end to get the answer, 240. Use the gure
below to help you explain why this method of calculation is valid.
(11) Which property or properties of arithmetic do you use when you
calculate 3 70 by rst calculating 3 7 = 21 and then putting a
zero on the end of 21 to make 210? Write equations to show which
properties are used and where.
(12) Give an example of how the distributive property can be used to
make a problem easier to solve mentally.
204 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(13) Ashley knows her 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 multiplication tables
well.
(a) Describe how the three pictures in the gure below provide
Ashley with three dierent ways to determine 68 from multi-
plication facts that she already knows well. In each case, write
an equation that corresponds to the picture and that shows
how 6 8 is related to other multiplication facts.
(b) Draw pictures showing two dierent ways that Ashley could
use the multiplication facts she knows well to determine 6 7.
In each case, write an equation that corresponds to the picture
and that shows how 6 7 is related to other multiplication
facts.
(14) Tamar calculated 41 41 as follows:
Four 4s is 16, so four 40s is 160 and forty 40s
is 1600. Then forty-one 40s is another 40 added on,
which is 1640. So forty-one 41s is 41 more, which is
1681.
(a) Explain briey why it makes sense for Tamar to solve the prob-
lem the way she does. What is the idea behind her strategy?
(b) Write equations that incorporate Tamars work and that show
clearly why Tamars method calculates the correct answer to
41 41. Which properties of arithmetic did Tamar use (know-
ingly or not) and where? Be thorough and be specic. Write
your equations in the following format:
41 41 = some expression
= some expression
.
.
.
.
.
.
= 1681.
(15) Jamal calculates 7 48 in the following way: 7 times 5 is 35, times
10 is 350. Now I need to take away 7 times 2, which is 14. So 350,
340, 336. So the answer is 336.
(a) Explain briey why it makes sense for Jamal to solve the prob-
lem the way he does. What is the idea behind his strategy?
(b) Write a string of equations that incorporate Jamals ideas.
Which properties of arithmetic did Jamal use (knowingly or
not) and where? Be thorough and be specic. Write your
12. ALGORITHMS: MULTIPLICATION 205
equations in the following format:
7 48 = some expression
= some expression
.
.
.
.
.
.
= 336.
(16) Briey describe two dierent ways to make the problem
25 48
easy to solve mentally. For each of your two methods, write a
corresponding string of equations.
(17) (a) Use properties of arithmetic to show that
(10 + 4) (10 + 3) = 10 10 + 10 3 + 4 10 + 4 3
(FOIL is not a property of arithmetic.)
(b) Draw a picture on graph paper to show that
(10 + 4) (10 + 3) = 10 10 + 10 3 + 4 10 + 4 3
(c) Relate the steps in your equations in part (a) to your picture
in part (b).
(18) (a) Use the partial products algorithm to calculate 34 27
(b) Use the meaning of multiplication and a picture to give a clear
and thorough explanation for why the partial products algo-
rithm gives the correct answer to the multiplication problem in
part (a). (Use graph paper for your picture.)
(c) Show why the partial products algorithm calculates the correct
answer to the multiplication problem in part (a) by writing
equations that use properties of arithmetic and that incorpo-
rate the calculations of the partial products algorithm. (FOIL
is not a property of arithmetic.) Write your equations in the
following format:
34 27 = some expression
= some expression
.
.
.
Identify the properties of arithmetic that you used and show
where you used them.
(d) Relate your equations for part (c) to your picture for part (b).
206 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(19) When we multiply
2
3 4
2 7
using the standard longhand method,
we start the second line by writing a zero:
2
3 4
2 7
2 3 8
0
Explain why we place this zero in the second line. What is the
rationale behind the procedure of placing a zero in the second line?
(20) Suppose you have a calculator which displays only 8 digits (and if
you have a fancy calculator, you will be allowed to use only 8 dig-
its!), but you have to calculate 856164298 65. Discuss an ecient
method to make use of the calculator to help with the computation.
Explain. Do the same for 376241048 872.
(21) A student thinks that because 30 40 = 1200, and 1 1 = 1, it
follows that 31 41 = 1200 + 1 = 1201. Draw a picture and use
your picture to help you explain to the student how 30 40 and
31 41 are actually related. (A rough picture will do, your picture
does not have to be drawn perfectly to scale.)
(22) Explain the rationale for the following rule: if you multiply a num-
ber that has 3 digits to the right of its decimal point by a number
that has 4 digits to the right of its decimal point, you should place
the decimal point 3+4 = 7 places from the end of the product that
is calculated by ignoring the decimal points. Work with powers of
10 to explain why this rule makes sense.
(23) Explain the rationale for the following rule: if you multiply a num-
ber that has M digits to the right of its decimal point by a number
that has N digits to the right of its decimal point, you should place
the decimal point M + N places from the end of the product that
is calculated by ignoring the decimal points. Work with powers of
10 to explain why this rule makes sense.
(24) Lameisha used a calculator to determine that 1.5 1.2 = 1.8.
Lameisha wants to know why the rule about adding up the num-
ber of places to the right of the decimal point doesnt work in this
case. Why arent there 2 digits to the right of the decimal point
in the answer? Is Lameisha correct that the rule about adding the
number of places to the right of the decimal points is not correct
in this case? Discuss this. Include a careful statement of the rule
about where to put the decimal point in a decimal multiplication
problem.
13. ROUNDING, APPROXIMATION, AND ESTIMATION 207
13. Rounding, Approximation, and Estimation
A critical aspect of long division is a sequence of approximations involv-
ing single digit multipliers. So, before discussing the long division algorithm
it is necessary to discuss approximation and estimation.
In most situations where mathematics is used there are diminishing re-
turns achieved from being too accurate. For example, the internal arithmetic
on a computer is usually carried out with numbers that are a xed size in
memory - written in binary, usually 32 or 64 bits with information carried
along that indicates where the decimal point is. (Since 2
32
= 4, 294, 967, 296
and 2
64
= 1.84467441 10
19
we see that such numbers will be accurate to
respectively around 10 or 20 places.) If larger numbers are used, then more
memory is needed and more time is required for each operation. Since it
is seldom necessary to be more accurate, the costs generally outweigh any
benets.
However, using approximate numbers and making iterated calculations
tends to build up errors, so that even if the errors in the original numbers
occur at the 10
th
place, after thousands of calculations, the errors in the
resulting calculations will have built up to the point that they occur much
sooner, and could have signicant implications.
We use dierent approaches to try to minimize these errors, though
no approach can eliminate them. Chief among these approaches, at the
elementary level, is round-o. Generally, we carry one or two more places
in calculations than we will need and then round the answer to the degree
of precision required, using strict but arbitrary round-o rules. The usual
rule is to round a number down if the next coecient in the next smallest
position, e, satises 0 e 5 and to round up if 5 < e 9.
This should be contrasted with simple truncation, where we just ignore
all digits involving powers of 10 less than the last one we wish to keep. But
note that in nite calculations, we are almost always dealing with truncated
numbers.
(1) Round 134.546 to the nearest tenth. Explain in words why you
round the decimal the way you do. Use a number line to support
your explanation.
208 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(2) Round 124.56 to the nearest ten. Explain in words why you round
the decimal the way you do. Use a number line to support your
explanation.
(3) Maya has made up her own method of rounding. Starting at the
right-most place in a decimal, she keeps rounding to the value of
the next place to the left until she reaches the place to which the
decimal was to be rounded. For example, Maya would use the
following steps to round 3.2716 to the nearest tenth:
3.27163.2723.273.3.
Is Mayas method a valid way to round? Explain why or why not.
In the above problem, get students to see the importance of a denition for
rounding, and to distinguish what one wants to accomplish in the process
from the denition being used. Also, it should be pointed out that the pro-
cess above is closely related to what happens in calculators due to truncation
errors.
(4) The distance between two cities is described as 2100 miles. Should
you assume that this is the exact distance between the cities? If
not, what can you say about the exact distance between the cities?
(5) Johnny is solving the multiplication problem 13.8 1.42 by multi-
plying longhand. Ignoring the decimal points, Johnny gets 19596,
and now he must gure out where the decimal point goes. Explain
how Johnny could use reasoning about the sizes of the numbers to
gure out where the decimal point should go in his answer if he
doesnt know the rule about adding the number of places behind
the decimal points in 13.8 and 1.42.
At this point we return to a discussion of division with remainder, now
from the point of view that writing b = ma +c with 0 c < a gets as close
to b with multiples of a as we can, though we have, somewhat arbitrarily
decided that we will not allow ma to be larger than b even though it could
happen that the product (m + 1)a is actually closer to b than is ma. For
example 33 7 = 4 with a remainder of 5 though 5 7 = 35 is closer to 33.
One can then ask the question, what happens if we try to nd even closer
approximations - division with remainder to tenths instead of integers? We
could take the problem above 33 7, and note that
4.1 7 = 28.7
4.2 7 = 29.4
4.3 7 = 30.1
4.4 7 = 30.8
4.5 7 = 31.5
4.6 7 = 32.2
4.7 7 = 32.9
4.8 7 = 33.6
4.9 7 = 34.3
14. ALGORITHMS: DIVISION 209
so 33 = 4.67 with a remainder of .1. Draw this on the number line. This is
sucient preparation for long division which is discussed in the next section.
14. Algorithms: Division
One of the most important summative steps in preparing students for
algebra and higher mathematics generally is understanding why the long di-
vision algorithm works. Underlying it are all the properties, commutative,
associative and distributive of addition and subtraction, as well as a precise
understanding of the base-10 place-value representation of numbers and a
precise undertstanding of the denitions of addition, subtraction, multipli-
cation and division. The following points should probably be discussed:
(1) The method of successive approximation that students learn here
will, later, help students understand convergence. It also is one of
the most important applications of approximation,
(2) Looking ahead to algebra, long division is the method used to divide
polynomials, and, if students do not understand the process of long
division, then it will be that much harder for them to succeed in
understanding polynomials.
(3) Properly presented, it leads students to an appreciation of one of
the key points of mathematics - putting things into their cleanest
form so they can be done most eciently. At the same time, when
one does this, one is often able to see deeper aspects of the situation
more clearly.
(4) It should not be necessary that students drill on the algorithm ex-
cessively or learn to use it in every circumstance. If they can han-
dle long division by a single digit number uently, and have some
practice with long division by a two digit number, as well as some
excercises that involve the decimal place, this should be sucient.
Teaching sequence: long division.
Since pre-service teachers often have great diculty with long
division it is almost certainly essential to cover the process
in detail.
We completely unfurl an explicit example of the long division algorithm to
illustrate how the basic properties of numbers and the operations of addition,
subraction, and multiplication are put together to produce long division.
Consider the division of 3712 by 9. We are looking for whole numbers q
and r so that 3712 = q 9 + r, where r is less than 9. This is the precise
way of writing down the division-with-remainder of 3712 divided by 9 with
quotient q and remainder r.
The long division algorithm gives a step-by-step approximation to the
quotient q, one digit at at time, starting with the digit corresponding to
the largest power of 10 in q and working downwards exactly the opposite
order from the way in which we usually do addition, subtraction, and mul-
tiplication. First, can q be a 4-digit number? No, because if it were, then
210 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
q 9 would be at least 9,000, which is larger than 3712 whereas the equality
3712 = q 9 +r implies that q 9 is smaller than 3712. However, q must
have three digits because 100 9 = 900 < 3712 < 8100 = 900 9. The
rst digit of q has place value 100, so that if it is 1, q 9 would be at least
900, and if it is 2, then q 9 would be at least 200 9 = 1, 800, etc. Now
400 9 = 3600 < 3712, while 500 9 = 4500 which is larger than 3712. We
conclude that the leading digit of q is 4. Remembering that q is a 3-digit
number, we may write q as q = 400 +q

, where q

is a 2-digit number.
From 3712 = q 9 +r, we obtain
3712 = (400 +q

) 9 +r,
which, by the distributive property, leads to 3712 = (3600 +q

9) +r, and
by the associative property, we have:
3712 = 3600 + (q

9 +r).
We can rewrite this as:
3712 3600 = q

9 +r,
i.e., 112 = q

9 + r. In terms of the usual representation of long division,

we have:
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 3712
3600
4
112
Now look at 112 = q

9 + r. This is the division-with-remainder of 112

divided by 9 with q

as quotient and r as remainder. We repeat the reasoning

above and search for the leading digit of q

(recall that this is the tens digit

of q). We do the same approximations as before and conclude that the
leading digit of q

must be 1. Thus, q

= 10 + Q, where Q is a single-digit
number. So 112 = q

9 + r becomes 112 = (10 + Q) 9 = r, which is

112 = 90+Q9+r, or, 11290 = Q9+r. Thus we have 22 = Q9+r.
In the usual representation, we have
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
..................................................................
...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 3712
3600
41
112
90
22
Finally, we look at 22 = Q9 +r, which is the division-with-remainber of
22 by 9. We get q = 2 and r = 4. This means the ones digit of q is 2, and
the remainder at this step of 3712 divided by 9 is 4, which is less than
14. ALGORITHMS: DIVISION 211
9, so we are done and the quotient for 3712 divided by 9 is 412.
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
..................................................................
........................................................
...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 3712
3600
412
112
90
22
18
4
Unfurling the details of the algorithm and understanding the why of each
step gives pre-service teachers and, ultimately, students crucial experience
with the core types of reasoning that are essential for success in algebra as
well as experience with multistep processes.
Summary of the steps. When we summarize the division above we see
more clearly the steps involved. They are all simple and direct, and it is
hard to see how any one can be skipped:
3712 = (400 +q

) 9 +r
= (400 9) + (q

9) +r (distributive property)
= (400 9) + (10 +Q) 9 +r (q

= 10 +Q)
= (400 9) + (10 9) + (Q9) +r (distributive property)
= (400 9) + (10 9) + (2 9) + 4 (22 = 3712 3690 = 2 9 + 4)
= (400 + 10 + 2) 9 + 4 (distributive property)
= 412 9 + 4
Teaching sequence: grade 2, Russia. In the second grade Russian
text from UCSMP, in preparation for long division with multiple digits in
the divisor, the following is done rst.
(1) Dividing a number by a product. For example 12(2 3) is 12 3
and then divided by 2, and it is also 12 6 and (12 2) 3.
212 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
(2) Dividing numbers that ends in zero.
48060 is the same as 480(610) which is (48010) 6 or 486 equals
8. Explain why 480 can be divided by 10 and the result 48 divided by 6, in
order to nd the quotient. Reasoning in the same way, divide:
720 90 1, 600 800 3, 600 900 5, 400 600
(a) The same technique can be used in the case of a division which
leaves a remainder: 152 40
Explanation. There will be one digit in the quotient. Let us nd out how
many units there will be in the quotient. We divide 152 by 10 and divide
the resulting quotient 15 by 4, obtaining 3.
Let us nd out how many units were divided. We multiply 40 by 3, obtaining
120.
Let us nd out how many units were not divided. We subtract 120 from
152, obtaining 32. This is the remainder.
152 40 = 3 (Remainder 32).
Teaching sequence: grade three, Singapore. The corresponding
This example shows a
tens bundle being
unwrapped so two equal
groups can be formed.
Pre-service teachers
need to be told that
this step should be
explained to students in
detail.
material from Book 3A of the Singapore texts is as follows. It is worth
noting that each of these lessons is juxtaposed with the corresponding lesson
on multiplication, emphasizing the relationship between long division and
long multiplication.
14. ALGORITHMS: DIVISION 213
Teaching sequence: grade three, Russia. In the Russian third
grade UCSMP text a more advanced discussion of division - now with multi-
digit divisors - occurs on pages 202 and 203.
214 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
and on the next page
However, as indicated in the Singapore standards, their expectations are
somewhat less. In book 4A we have
Exercises:
(1) Pretend that you dont know any kind of longhand method of divi-
sion. Explain how you can use reasoning to solve 495 35. It may
help you to work with a story problem.
(2) Wu has been making errors on his division problems. Here are some
samples of Wus work:
150 7 = 21.3
372 8 = 46.4
154 12 = 12.10.
What is Wu likely to be confused about? Explain.
(3) A year that is not a leap year has 365 days (leap years have 366
days and generally occur every four years). There are 7 days in a
week and 52 whole weeks in a year. How many whole weeks are
there in three years? How many whole weeks are there in seven
years? Is the number of whole weeks in three years three times the
number of whole weeks in one year? Is the number of whole weeks
in seven years seven times the number of whole weeks in one year?
Explain the discrepancy!
15. FACTORING, MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 215
15. Factoring, Multiplication and Division
Many current texts in this country give division rules such as a num-
ber is divisible by three if and only if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3,"
but they do not give any explanations, and this reinforces the development
of mathematics as lists" that we have been trying to discourage. Conse-
quently, we start this section by discussing such divisibility properties
more systematically.
Teaching sequence: numbers divisible by 3 and 9. Note that for
any whole numbers a and b if a3 and b3 then (a+b) 3 and (ab)3.
Note that if a 3 then ab 3 as well. Show that if a 3 and b ,3 then
(a b) ,3.
Exercises:
(1) 51 = 21 + 30. Show that this implies 51 is divisible by 3 and nd
the quotient 51 3.
(2) 52 = 1 +21 +30. Use this to nd the remainder on dividing 52 by
3.
(3) Use the decomposition 51 = 24+27 to show that 9 does not divide
51, and to nd the remainder on dividing 51 by 9.
Next demonstrate the decompositions below for powers of 10.
10 = 9 + 1,
100 = 99 + 1,
1000 = 999 + 1
.
.
. =
.
.
.
10
k
= 99 . . . 9
. .
ktimes
+1.
To guide students to use these decompositions, note, for example, that
56 = 5 10 + 6 = 5 (9 + 1) + 6 = 9 5 + (5 + 6) and this is the sum of
the digits plus 9 an integer. It is not divisible by 3 or 9 since 5 + 6 is not
divisible by 3 or 9. In detail,
56 = 9 5 + (5 + 6)
56 9 5 = 5 + 6
should be written down. But since this difference is 11, and 11 is not
divisible by 9, 9 does not divide 56. Indeed, the remainder on division of
56 by 9 is 2 which is the remainder of 11 divided by 9. It is important that
every step be written down here and, as needed, discussed.
Now put things together to arrive at the conclusion that every counting
number can be written as the sum of a number divisible by 9 plus the sum
of the digits. Thus 371 is the sum of 3 99 +7 9 and 3 +7 +1. Conclude
that a counting number is divisible by three if and only if the sum of the
digits is divisible by 3. Similarly, it is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum
of the digits is divisible by 9.
The next simplest case is 11.
216 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Numbers divisible by 11. Note that
10 = 11 1,
100 = 99 + 1
= 11 9 + 1
1000 = 1001 1
= 11 91 1,
10, 000 = 99 101 + 1,
.
.
. =
.
.
.
10
k
= 11 N
k
+ (1)
k
.
Be specic about this last step. Point out that
1000 = 100 10
= (99 + 1) (11 1)
= 99 11 + 1 11 99 1 1
= 11 90 + 11 1 1
= 11 91 1
and from this get the class to generalize so that they see the result
10
k
= 11 N
k
+ (1)
k
.
Use this to show that a counting number is divisible by 11 if and only
if the alternating sum of its digits is divisible by 11. Thus 473 = 43 11
and 374 = 34 11 are both divisible by 11.
Exercises:
(4) Using only the digits 2, 4, and 6, write down the six three digit
counting numbers that use each of these three digits exactly once
in their base 10 expansion. Show that each number is divisible
by 6. Is 6 the largest number that divides all six of these numbers
evenly?
(5) (a) Show that a two digit counting number such as 56 is divisible
by 7 if and only if 3 the tens digit added to the ones digit
is divisible by 7. (In the case of 56, three times the tens digit
plus the ones digit is 15 + 6 = 21 which is divisible by 7, and
56 = 7 8.)
(b) Show that a three digit counting number such as 252 is di-
visible by 7 if and only if two times the hundreds digit plus 3
times the tens digit plus the ones digit is divisible by 7.
(6) Show that 4 divides a counting number if and only if, when the
number is written in base 10 two times the 10s digit added to the
1s digit is divisible by 4. Example: for 3672, two times the tens
digit plus the ones digit is 14 + 2 = 16.
(7) What is the condition that 6 divide a counting number?
(8) Show that if a counting number with base 10 expansion a
0
+10a
1
+
100a
2
+ + a
k
10
k
is divisible by 11, then the counting number
15. FACTORING, MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 217
with the digits reversed: a
k
+ 10a
k1
+ 100a
k2
+ 10
k
a
0
is also
divisible by 11.
Possible extensions of this discussion. There are any number of
extensions of this discussion possible. Among other things some problem
solving projects could be developed. For example, division by 25, 8 or 16.
It should be noted that these exercises prepare well for the discussion of
the ultimately periodic decimal expansions of fractions in chapter 5, 10 =
12.
Factoring and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.
420
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................................................................
2 210
.......................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 105
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................................................................
3 35
..............................................................................................................................................
5 7
..............................................................................................................................................
7 1
Prime Factoring the number 420
Perhaps describe (or better, get the class to describe) an algorithm for
factoring a number by dividing the number by the smallest prime that
divides it, so N = p
1
N
1
, and point out that no prime smaller than p
1
can
divide N
1
since, otherwise, this smaller prime would divide N.
Point out that this material, in a very real sense, represents one of the
main beginnings of algebra as does the material on place value.
Exercises:
(9) Explain what it means to give the prime facter decomposition of a
number.
(10) Which of the numbers 63, 71, 72, 77, 101, 111, 169, 181 and 207
are prime. What are the prime decompositions of the composite
numbers in this list?
The key fact that needs to be stated here is the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic - every counting number is written uniquely as a product of
primes p
1
p
n
with p
1
p
2
p
n
. That is to say, any two
methods of obtaining a prime factorization for the counting number n will
give exactly the same set of prime factors, though the order in which the
factors are found might differ.
218 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Least Common multiples and Greatest Common Factors. This
material should be discussed, but it should be emphasized that, histori-
cally, the main use of this topic was in simplifying fractions, and putting
fractions over least common multiples so as to make adding and subtract-
ing fractions as efcient as possible when doing hand calculations. The
need for such processes has been greatly diminished, so the development
of these topics is now more important theoretically.
Exercises:
(11) We have 25 chocolate chip cookies, and 30 cream lled cookies.
We want to distribute the cookies so that everyone who gets any
cookies gets the same number of each kind.
(a) What is the maximum number of people that can be given
cookies if there are to be no left over cookies. Suppose we
have eight people and want to distribute the cookies so that
each person gets the same number of cookies of each kind.
(b) What is the smallest number of cookies of each kind that will
be left over.
(12) There are 24 girl scouts dolls, all the same, and 18 identical cub
scout dolls on a table.
(a) In how many different ways can you make an array of girl
scout dolls so that there will be the same number of dolls in
each row and column? (Do not regard as different, different
orderings of the dolls.)
(b) Same question for the cub scout dolls.
(c) Same question for both groups so that there are, in each row,
the same number of girl scout dolls, and the same number of
cub scout dolls.
(13) The number of teeth on the wheel attached to the pedals of a one-
speed bicycle is 44. The number of teeth on the back wheel is 20.
Determine the least number of complete turns (360 degrees) that
the pedals must make before both these wheels are in the same
position as when they started.
16. Fractions: First Steps
Introduction. In this introductory fractions section we discuss the
approach in to fractions in grades 2- 4 in the Russian/Singapore approach
to fractions. It starts with the area model, then quickly goes over to line
models, while the statements of the basic properties of fractions are given
as denitions.
Teaching sequence, Singapore, grades 2 - 4. The initial presen-
tation of fractions in the Singapore programs occurs in the second half of
second grade, and is developed using an area model where care is taken
to be sure that the regions that decompose a geometric gure are have the
16. FRACTIONS: FIRST STEPS 219
same area:
In the second part of the grade three text fractions continue to be de-
veloped using an area model, but the level of sophistication as increased
signicantly:
and equaivalent fractions are introduced
In the fourth grade the area model is moved systematically towards seeing
fractions on the number line as the basic operations of addition and sub-
traction of fractions are developed:
220 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Remark: In the Russian texts translated by UCSMP the sequencing is very
similar except that representing fractions on the number line is already
present in grade 3.
Remark: The introduction of fractions above via parts of a whole should
not be the last word. It is basically only a hueristic showing the need
for more numbers than just the counting numbers. The same can be
said for the basic operations with fractions. The hueristic justications
for addition and subtraction are reasonable using area models, but the
justications for multiplication and division are not quite as convincing.
The best illustrations for these hueristics are of the type below. First, give
a picture for multiplying unit fractions:
17. AVERAGE, RATES, RATIOS, PROPORTIONS, AND PERCENTS 221
Then, extend the picture to illustrate the general situation:
Remark: If possible, pre-service teachers should understand that frac-
tions are an extension of the counting numbers.
Exercises:
(From the sixth grade Russian text by Nurk and Telgmaa) P. 88-89:
(1) 600 kg of our were deliverd to a grocery store.
1
4
of the our was
sold during the rst half of the day and
2
5
of the remainder was
sold durning the second half. How much our remained unsold
at the end of the day?
(2) Rye bread contains
3
250
parts fat,
13
25
parts protein, and
9
230
parts
carbohydrates. Butter contains
4
5
parts fat,
1
250
parts protein, and
1
200
parts carbohydrates. How much fat, protein and carbohy-
drates are in 5 kg of bread, and how much are there in 500 g of
butter?
(3) Four numbers add up to 210. The rst number is
2
5
of the total
sum, the second number is
1
4
of the rst number, and the third
number is
3
5
of the sum of the remaining two numbers. Find these
four numbers.
17. Average, Rates, Ratios, Proportions, and Percents
As the Singapore grade level standards on page 7 show, the serious
development in this area starts in grade 5. However, it is instructive to
detail how the Singapore program prepares for these topics in the earlier
grades. We will also look at the preparation in the early grades in the
Russian texts for grades 1 - 3 translated by UCSMP.
The Early Development of these topics in the Singapore Pro-
gram. The earliest preparation for these topics occurs in the rst half of
222 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
the second grade:
and preliminary steps towards dimensional analysis are taken as well
Mrs Tan bought 2 kg of grapes. 1 kg of grapes cost $ 5. How much
did she pay for the grapes?
Cik Aminah made 24 curry pus for a party. She placed 3 curry
pus on a plate. How many plates did she use?
Mr Chen packs 16 kg of coee powder equally into 4 bags. How
many kilograms of coee powder are there in each bag?
17. AVERAGE, RATES, RATIOS, PROPORTIONS, AND PERCENTS 223
and volume is also included in the later part of second grade:
A tank has a capacity of 30 litres. It contains 12 litres of water.
How many litres more water are needed to l up the tank?
The capacity of a jug is 3 litres. Mrs Chen needs 18 litres of fruit
juice for her party. How many jugs of fruit juice does she have to
make?
Early in grade 3 we nd problems like
There are 9 white owers. There are 3 times as many red owers
as white owers. How many red owers are there?
Hassan weighs 36 kg. He is 4 times as heavy as his brother. How
heavy is his brother?
Cik Fatimah bought 15 kg of rice. She bought 3 times as much rice
as sugar. How many kilograms of sugar did she buy?
A bookseller sold 30 books on the rst day. On he second day, he
sold 8 times as many books as on the rst day. How many books
did he sell on the second day?
224 4. ISSUES IN THE BASICS COURSE
Preparation for proportion also occurs in the rst part of grade 3.
There were 7 boxes of blue pens and red pens. Therre were 12 pens
in each box. If there were 36 red pens, how many blue pens were
there?
After the discussion of equivalent fractions we nd problems like
this:
Find the missing numerator or denominator.
(1)
1
4
=
12
(2)
2
3
=
6
(3)
8
10
=
4
Early development, Russian program, grade 3. While the Singa-
pore standards would be highly challenging for US students according to
current expectations, the Russian expectations are even more challenging.
In the third grade Russian text, the notions of speed and the relationship
between speed, time and distance are introduced on page 82.
(1) A train traveled for 3 hours and covered a total of 180km. Each
hour it traveled the same distance. How many kilometers did the
train cover each hour
........................................................................................................................................................ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................................................................................................................................................
...................................................
................
................
...................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............
..............
.................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(2) In 10 minutes a plane ew 150 km. covering the same distance each
minute. How many kilometers did it y each minute?
We may say that the train traveled at at velocity (speed) of 60
km per hour, and that the plane ew at a velocity of 15 km per
minute.
(1) Make up two problems in which it is necessary to nd the velocity
when we know the distance and time of travel. Solve them.
17. AVERAGE, RATES, RATIOS, PROPORTIONS, AND PERCENTS 225
(2) How can we nd a velocity if we know the distance and the time of
travel? The velocity is equal to the distance divided by the time.
This may be written a a formula:
v =
s
t
where the letter v denotes the velocity, s is distance and t is time.
(1) A pedestrian walked for 3 hours, traveling at a speed of 5 km per
hour. What distance did the pedestrian cover in this time?
(2) Write the problem out in a table and solve it
(3) How can distance be found if the velocity and travel time are
known?
Distance is equal to velocity multiplied by time. This may be
written as a formula:
s = v t
(1) Make up a problem in which it is necessary to nd a distance from
a known velocity and time. Solve it.
(2) A freight train covered a distance of 240 km in 6 hr., and a passenger
train covered the distance in 4 hr. How much greater is the speed
of the passenger train than the speed of the freight train?
(3) A passenger traveled 90 km by us. The speed of the bus was 45 km
per hour. How long did the passenger travel by bus? Write out the
problem in a table an solve it.
(4) A lauch traveled a distance of 90 km at a speed of 30 km per hour.
It spent one hour more on the return trip. How many hours did it
take the launch to complete the return trip?
Methods for directly approaching proportions in fourth and fth grade
are discussed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 5
Fractions, Ratios, Percents, and Proportion
The subject of fractions is the bane of the mathematics of grades 4 to 7.
Rudimentary aspects of fractions may be taught earlier, but it seems that
students begin to experience severe diculties in the transition from initial
encounters with fractions to their systematic mathematical discussion. It is
hard to pinpoint the reasons for this failure, but results from TIMSS and
other international tests, as well as anecdotal evidence, indicate that di-
culties in this area are infrequent in high achieving countries. Consequently,
we believe that the most likely explanation for these problems lies in the
way fractions are currently presented in the grades 4 - 7 in U.S. schools.
When we look at current instruction a number of issues stand out.
Nowhere is a fraction ever dened clearly, for example, so students
are never too sure what they are dealing with.
Even more serious is the generic absence of explanations of what
each arithmetic operation with fractions means and why the fraction
algorithms are what they are.
There is an additional issue of the lack of continuity in the transi-
tion from whole numbers to fractions. Students do not see that the
addition of fractions is, conceptually, no dierent from the addition
of whole numbers, and that the same goes for the other three op-
erations. Thus, if fractions are presented only as pieces of a pie, it
would be unrealistic to ask for deep understanding when the mean-
ing of multiplying two pieces of a pie together is never explained.
1
The situation is similar for the closely related topics of ratios, rates, percents
and proportions. Given this state of aairs, asking students to achieve a
deep understanding of fractions and these other topics is akin to starving a
marathon runner on the morning of a race but demanding peak performance
anyway. It tends not to work.
What we try to do in this chapter is outline a way to teach fractions,
ratios, percents and proportions to prospective teachers that is correct math-
ematically, and suciently simple pedagogically. Alternate approaches will
also be discussed. But, in all cases we attempt to make the mathemat-
ics as rigorous and consistent as possible, given the requirement for grade
appropriate denitions and concepts.
1
This delightful observation was made by Kathleen Hart, Mathematics Content and learning
issues in the middle grades, in Mathematics Education in the Middle Grades, National Academy
Press, 2000, 5057.
227
228 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
Additionally, we should keep in mind that school mathematics is ulti-
mately the mathematics of rational numbers, so that the development of
fractions during the second four years of instruction becomes especially im-
portant as it builds the foundations for almost all of the mathematics and
its applications all the way through high school.
2
A second reason for the importance of fractions is that students are
not given a second chance to revisit fractions after grade 7, except those few
who will become mathematics majors in college. Even our math majors only
revisit fractions around their junior year in college when they take a course
in abstract algebra. For the overwhelming majority of school students, what
they learn about fractions (i.e., rational numbers in general) in grades 4 to
7 must serve them for the rest of their lives.
3
A third reason for a mathematically careful treatment of fractions is that
as students progress through the school curriculum, algebra would be the
stop right after fractions. The subject of fractions is therefore the bridge to
algebra. If the bridge is not robust, the learning of algebra can be gravely
compromised.
A nal reason why the teaching of fractions matters is that (nite) deci-
mals are a special class of fractions,
4
so that when fractions are badly taught,
students knowledge of decimals also suers. Because scientic data are ex-
pressed in nite decimals, the failure in the teaching of fractions not only
reinforces math-phobia but science-phobia as well. In 8 - 10 we give a
careful discussion of decimals, distinguishing nite from innite decimals,
and giving examples of ultimately periodic decimals that initially appear to
have one period, then another, and only after a long time nally exhibit their
actual period. Such examples need to be seen and studied by pre-service
teachers.
The need for mathematical rigor in the teaching of fractions is well justi-
ed. The rst step in achieving this rigor is to give a denition of a number
that applies simultaneously to whole numbers, integers and fractions. This
insures that there is continuity in going from whole numbers to fractions,
an issue that was already mentioned above. Why this kind of continuity
is important can be inferred from a statement made by a teacher, to the
eect that fractions are so dicult for a child because they are a totally new
kind of number. We have to minimize this misconception, and by so doing,
we are likely to help provide stability for childrens learning processes. Un-
less she understands through experience that what she learns today will not
be superseded tomorrow, a child has little incentive to learn material more
deeply than is required for the next exam.
2
School mathematics can use some clarication of the relationship between rational numbers
and real numbers; see 14 below for further discussion.
3
For this reason, when university professors complain about the inability of calculus students
to compute correctly, they are unwittingly criticizing the teaching of fractions back in grades 5 to
7.
4
Keep in mind that there are fractions which are not (nite) decimals.
5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION 229
There are many ways to dene a number. We believe that the simplest
one for school mathematics is to realize a number as a point on the number
line. Once we have a denition of a number, fractions can be dened, in
We emphasize the need
to give a denition of
numbers that applies
simultaneously to whole
numbers, integers, and
fractions. A consistent
use of the number line
makes this easier. It is
worth keeping in mind
that instructors in the
courses for pre-service
teachers need to
emphasize that
pre-service teachers
must use instructional
models that are not
only clear but also
consistent. The number
line as a unifying
principle meets these
criteria. The reason to
use models in teaching
is to help students
integrate information
and build
understanding.
Teachers should always
keep in mind that the
objective is for students
to understand the
concepts, not an
assortment of
instructional models.
the sense that we actually put our cards on the table and tell teachers and
students alike that from now on, this is what we mean by a fraction and,
moreover, we will all abide by this single meaning of a fraction. Any future
statement about fractions will be traced to this one single meaning and
justied in terms of this meaning.
We have explained why it is necessary to achieve some measure of rigor
in the teaching of fractions and why, in the discussion below, some abstrac-
tions are inevitable. On the other hand, the need for rigor in the teaching
of fractions must be moderated by the needs of teachers and students in
grades 4 to 7. From a university perspective, one can dispose of the issue
of rigor quite trivially by pointing to the treatment of fractions in abstract
algebra. The idea of introducing fractions as equivalence classes of ordered
pairs of integers was in fact tried out during the New Math. This proved
dicult because students coming to grade ve are grounded in their concep-
tion of fractions as parts of a whole. In a vague sense, Ordered pairs
and equivalence classes t students experiences of ratios (e.g., as 3 : 5)
rather than as fractions. Our proposed treatment of fractions in pre-service
professional development must therefore respect this reality and address the
subject in a way that is at once correct and appropriate for this grade level.
Therefore we will start with the denition of fractions as parts of a whole.
It is here that the number line enters and makes possible a formulation of
this naive concept into a more precise one. Using the interval from 0 to 1
as the whole, fractions become points or intervals on the number line de-
ned in a specic manner. There is no room for ambiguity in this denition,
and there is also no need in this approach to invoke any extra-mathematical
considerations in explaining all that needs explanation in the subject of
fractions.
The specic needs of elementary teachers aect professional develop-
ment not only on this global level, but with respect to many subtle details
as well. Consider the simple example of asking how long a piece of wood is
if it is one of the parts when a two-yard stick is cut into three equal parts
(in terms of length). A mathematician would reply without thinking that
it is two-thirds of a yard and, if asked why this is correct, would probably
be tongue-tied for a few seconds because the problem is too trivial for an
explanation. After some struggle, the response might be that 2 divided by
3 should give the equi-division of 2 into 3 parts, and 2 divided by 3 is what
the fraction
2
3
means. To a mathematician, a fraction is division. To a fth
grader, however,
2
3
is not a division. Rather, it is 2 parts when a pie is di-
vided into 3 equal parts, or at least this is what every student is taught. But
by using this division interpretation as a meaning of
2
3
, we create doubts
in the minds of children about what a fraction really is at a time when the
progression from whole numbers to the shadowy concept of part-whole is
230 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
already shaky. Here mathematics must step in to oer help to prospective
teachers in resolving this dilemma. What is the relationship between the
Course instructors can
address this issue by
instructing pre-service
teachers to initially
introduce fractions as
division statements, for
example
1
2
could
initially be read as one
divided by two, and be
very clear that the term
one-half is just a
common name for one
divided by two.
part-whole meaning of a fraction and its meaning in terms of division? This
is not something we teach in university mathematics departments. More-
over, the existing literature would have you believe that it is a measure of
a students conceptual understanding of fractions to be able to accept both
meanings of a fraction. A mathematician who takes seriously the charge
of educating teachers would quickly come to the conclusion, however, that
there is a mathematical theorem to be proved here, namely, that a part-whole
denition when properly formulated implies the division interpretation when
the latter is given a precise denition. So mathematics can shed light on a
pedagogical issue. Students can acquire part of the needed understanding
of fractions by doing straightforward mathematics: learn the theorem and
its proof by simply following logical arguments.
This is then what we should teach elementary teachers about fractions:
it is the kind of mathematics that meets their classroom needs. It may not
be the mathematics we teach our math majors, but it is challenging and
interesting in its own way, as we hope to show in the rest of this chapter.
1. Denition of fractions and immediate consequences
We begin by dening a number as a point on the number line. Just as
integers are singled out on the number line in discussions of integer arith-
metic, we now proceed to single out another class of points by performing
certain explicit operations on the integers; these will be the fractions.
In this section, we are only concerned with positive fractions which reside
in the right side of the number line. These will be numbers of the form
a
b
,
where a, b are whole numbers and b ,= 0, and their denition is as follows.
Divide the segment from 0 to 1 into b equal parts, which in this con-
text means b non-overlapping congruent sub-segments (here con-
gruent simply means two sub-segments can be made to coincide
completely by sliding one on top of the other).
Do this for the segment between 1 and 2, between 2 and 3, and so
forth. These divisions create a special collection of points, namely,
the totality of the endpoints of these smaller segments. The left-
most of these division points is 0, and the rest of them form an
equi-spaced collection to the right of 0 and they include the whole
numbers.
We now give names to these division points: starting with 0, the
rst one to the right of 0 will be
1
b
, the second
2
b
, the third
3
b
, etc.
In general, if a is any nonzero whole number,
a
b
is the a-th of these
division points to the right of 0.
To be consistent, we also assign the name
0
b
to 0. Notice that
b
b
coincides
with 1,
2b
b
coincides with 2, etc. The totality of all these numbers
a
b
, for all
1. DEFINITION OF FRACTIONS AND IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES 231
whole numbers a and b, with b not equal to 0, is the fractions. The number
a
b
is called the fraction with numerator a and denominator b.
It is more intuitive to express the above by using the language of length.
The segment [0,
a
b
] from 0 to
a
b
is said to have length
a
b
, as is every segment
congruent to [0,
a
b
]. Then we can describe the fraction
a
b
as the point on the
number line obtained by reproducing a segment of length
1
b
a-times to the
right of 0. The segment [0, 1] is called the unit segment.
As a consequence of the denition, we see that the whole numbers are
part of the positive fractions.
This denition of fractions is a transcription to the number line of the
usual conception of fractions as parts of a whole, the whole in this case
being the unit segment, or in fact any segment of the same length. When
the location of the number 0 is understood, then the role of the number 1
deserves special attention. The location of each fraction
a
b
on the number line
depends on the location of the numbers 0 and 1. Thus fractions cannot
be dened until the unit segment has been xed on a given number
line. This fact is fundamental in any discussion of fractions,
5
and needs to
be emphasized for teachers: the size of any fraction
a
b
depends on the size
of the 1 whole that has been equi-factored into equal parts.
To illustrate the ecacy of this denition of a fraction, suppose we let the
unit 1 be the area represented by a pie. The fraction
1
2
would then be any
subset of the pie with area equal to half of the pie. So it could be one of the
two portions when the pie is cut along a diameter, or it could be the union
of any two sectors when the pie is cut along perpendicular diameters into
four sectors, etc. With this unit in place, the concept of a fraction can now
be illustrated along the line of the traditional presentation, but with three
pronounced dierences. First, we can aord to look at this presentation as
an illustration of a precise concept but not as the concept itself. Second, in
this example, a fraction is the area of a particular subset of a pie, not just
the subset itself, because the unit 1 is, we repeat, the area represented by
the pie. When this fact is made clear to students, we would at least be in
the position of explaining why none of the three pieces of pie below is
1
3
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5
Mathematicians would readily perceive a sleight of hand here: in any discussion of fractions
(or numbers in general), we are assuming a number line has been xed during the discussion.
Strictly speaking, what we call the number 1 should really be the equivalence class of all the 1s
on all the number lines.
232 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
If we use the area of a square as the unit 1, then many fractions would
It is recommended that
course instruction
present the three
models here in the
following order (1)
fraction bars on the
number line, (2)
squares, and (3) pies.
This is important
because many
pre-service students
have a poor
understanding of
fractions, and this
course is likely to be
their rst opportunity
to actually understand
them. Course
instructors should not
confuse pre-service
students by rst
discussing the more
problematic
representations of
fractions.
be conveniently represented as a collection of small rectangles inside the
square, e.g., the following is one way to represent
1
4
:
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
In this case, the square that represents 1 is called the unit square and this
way of representing fractions is said to be the area model representation of
fractions.
Finally, with the concept of a fraction clearly dened, even lessons on
fractions using the so-called pie-model unfortunately the most popular
method of discussing fractions in classrooms will be taught dierently in
the context of the number line. For example, because all fractions, proper
or improper, are introduced in one stroke, fractions such as
7
4
or
11
3
would
be a natural part of any lesson. A teacher using the pie-model would have
to draw many identical pies instead of just one pie. The exclusive focus on
just one pie, which is what one usually nds in the elementary classroom,
is what leads many students to think that a fraction is a small fraction
(both numerator and denominator are small numbers, with the numerator
smaller than the denominator). It would benet students to be introduced
to all
a
b
from the beginning, with a and b being arbitrary whole numbers.
Whole numbers are built up from whole things, each of which is taken
to be a unit. Fractions are built up from unit fractions, each of which is a
particular kind of equal fracture of some whole unit. Seeing and working
with unit fractions as entities and as written representations (e.g., 1/5 or
1/9) is the core of a meaningful approach to fractions. Showing labeled
unit fractions on top of a number line (see the example below) can indicate
how any fraction is composed of unit fractions. The solid unit fraction
bars clarify that the model is using length and make the referent for the
unit fraction clear. Longer number lines clearly show whole numbers and
improper fractions as composed of unit fractions and generalize to these
cases immediately and easily.
Teachers and students can make unit fractions by folding equal lengths
of paper, and they can make the drawing shown by equal divisions of the
unit interval on the number line. Both of these exercises demonstrate the
inverse relationship between unit fractions and their denominators. It is
often dicult for students to grasp, for example, that
1
5
<
1
4
because students
know so readily that 5 > 4. Folding, drawing, and labeling unit fractions will
students to overcome such misunderstandings, and to grasp the idea that
1. DEFINITION OF FRACTIONS AND IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES 233
more equal parts of the same whole means that each part must be smaller.
The related representations of unit fractions on the number line can be used
to show all of the core fraction concepts. They form a unifying theme in
this chapter, though of course other visual representations of fractions can
be useful.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
...................................................
................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................
................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. .......................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................. ......................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................. .............................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................ .................................................. ............................................................................................................................................. . ..................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................. ........................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................. .......................................................................................................................... .................................................. . ............................................................................................................................................................................ ..................................................
................................................... .......................................................................................................... . ............................................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................ . .................................................. . ............................................................................................................................................................. .................................................. .......................................................................................................... . ..................................................
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
0
2
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
3
3
3
0
3
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
2
4
3
4
4
4
0
4
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
0
5
2
5
3
5
4
5
5
5
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
0
6
2
6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6
6
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
7
7
0
7
2
7
3
7
4
7
5
7
6
7
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
0
8
2
8
3
8
4
8
5
8
6
8
7
8
8
8
Unit fraction bars on a number line
If we let the unit 1 be something else, say the weight of a ham, then
fractions would have quite dierent interpretations. For example, if the
weight of the ham is 3 pounds, then the length
4
3
would represent the weight
of 4 pounds. In this fashion, the precise denition of a fraction as a point on
the number line provides a central framework for a multitude of interpreta-
tions of fractions in everyday life. The existence of this central perspective
234 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
facilitates learning.
The importance of the unit in any discussion of fractions should be prop-
erly emphasized.
Exercises:
It is recommended that
students also be given
exercises that require
them to (1) construct
fraction bars on the
number line to
represent dierent
fractions, and (2) use
fraction bars on the
number line to solve
word problems. This is
to lend additional
support to the model
that teachers should
ultimately use in actual
instruction.
(1) Anna says that the dark blocks pictured below cant represent
1
4
because there are 5 dark blocks and 5 is more than 1 but
1
4
is
supposed to be less than 1. What must Anna learn about fractions
in order to overcome her confusion?
(2) Frank says that
2
3
+
2
3
=
4
6
and uses the picture below to justify
his assertion. Explain why Franks method is not a valid way to
add fractions. Be specic. (Do not explain how to do the problem
correctly, explain where the aw is in Franks reasoning.)
(3) The 5 rectangles below represent 5 rectangular plots of land. Two
thirds of the total land in these 5 plots is to be used for a neighbor-
hood garden. Shade a portion of the 5 rectangular plots that could
1. DEFINITION OF FRACTIONS AND IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES 235
be used for the neighborhood garden.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(4) You showed Johnny the picture below to help him understand the
meaning of the fraction
5
3
.
But Johnny doesnt get it. He says the picture shows
5
6
, not
5
3
.
(a) How could you help Johnny interpret the picture as showing
5
3
?
(b) What is another way to show
5
3
to Johnny, other than with
parts of objects?
(5) (a) Give three dierent fractions that you can legitimately use to
describe the shaded region in the gure below. For each frac-
tion, explain why you can use that fraction to describe the
shaded region.
(b) Write an unambiguous question about the shaded region in
the gure below that can be answered by naming a fraction.
Explain why your question is not ambiguous.
(6) Discuss why it can be confusing to show an improper fraction such
as
7
3
with pieces of pie or the like. What is another way to show
the fraction
7
3
? This is a culminating problem, make sure it
is present.
236 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
(7) If
3
4
of a cup of a food gives you your daily value of potassium, then
what fraction of your daily value of potassium is in 1 cup of the
food? Draw a picture that helps you solve this problem. Use your
picture to help you explain your solution. For each fraction in this
problem, and in your solution, describe the whole associated with
this fraction. In other words, describe what each fraction is of.
Until further notice, in the rest of this chapter the symbol
a
b
should be
understood to mean that a and b are whole numbers and that b is not zero.
Three immediate consequences of the denition of a fraction deserve a
discussion. The rst is the concept of equivalent fractions: two fractions
a
b
and
c
d
are said to be equivalent if they are the same point. In symbols:
a
b
=
c
d
. (Thus equality among fractions means exactly that they are the same
point.) In the language of school mathematics, equivalent fractions name
the same amount.
The fundamental fact in this connection is known under the name of
cancellation law: for any fractions
a
b
and for any nonzero whole number n,
a
b
and
na
nb
are equivalent. The fact that any fraction
a
b
(which is a point on
the number line) is the same point as the fraction
na
nb
for any nonzero whole
number n is the basic building block of the whole discussion of fractions,
and needs to be developed for teachers and for students.
A simple application of the cancellation law shows that two fractions
a
b
and
c
d
are equivalent exactly when ad = bc. This is known as the cross-
multiply algorithm for equality, and the proof is simply a repeated applica-
tion of the cancellation law:
a
b
=
ad
bd
and
c
d
=
bc
bd
,
and the desired conclusion follows. We have more to say about the cross-
multiply algorithm presently.
It is useful for students to know that every fraction is equivalent to a
unique fraction in lowest terms, in the sense that the greatest common di-
visor of the numerator and denominator is 1. This requires the use of the
Euclidean algorithm. This piece of information is usually given to students
without any explanation and, just as often, students are required to write ev-
ery answer in fractions in lowest terms. We can make two recommendations
on mathematical grounds.
Students in the sixth or seventh grades should be taught the essence
of the argument of why a fraction can be brought to lowest terms.
It is not necessary, in any grade, to insist that in every answer the
fraction must be in lowest terms. While an overabundance of
2
4
s
or
9
3
s can be annoying, one should be aware that sometimes it is
not so easy to decide whether a fraction is in lowest terms or not,
much less to actually reduce it, e.g.,
171
285
. A teacher should be able
1. DEFINITION OF FRACTIONS AND IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES 237
to strike a golden mean on this issue. Insistence on simplifying can
actually interfere.
A second consequence is the interpretation of a fraction
a
b
as a divided
by b. Notice that, until fractions are dened, the preceding phrase has no
meaning except for the case of whole numbers where a is a multiple of b,
e.g., 15 divided by 5. Yet in the standard literature, the sentence
a
b
also
has the interpretation of a divided by b is uttered without a moments
thought, and in so doing, two sins have been committed: the rst is making
a mathematical statement without explaining clearly what it means, and
the second is asserting that something is true without any justication. It
must be said that the usual attitude regarding this interpretation of frac-
tion is that it is beyond the mundane concern of explanations because it
is part of the deep understanding of fractions young kids are supposed to
have. Insofar as we are doing mathematics, we take the attitude that under-
standing can be acquired if mathematics is taught correctly, and that not
oering understanding leads to confusion and discouragement. We oer two
approaches. One approach requires the development of multiplication and
division of fractions, as in 3, before a/b may be interpreted as a divided by
b. Once division of fractions is developed, it may be pointed out to students
that a/b = a b. This may be seen from a simple direct computation:
It is important to
illustrate arguments like
these by using simple
numerical values
followed by, or in
parallel with, the
algebraic arguments in
order to minimize
confusion and provide
pre-service teachers
with good models for
K-8 instruction.
a b =
a
1

b
1
=
a
1

1
b
=
a
b
Alternatively, we may temporarily dene what a divided by b means in
terms of a number line, and later relate this temporary denition to division
of rational numbers. To that end, we dene a divided by b as the following
point on the number line. Divide the segment from 0 to a into b segments of
equal length. The rst division point after 0 is the number a divided by b.
Notice the critical dependence of this denition on having a general concept
of a number as a point on the number line. Once dened, the fact that this
number equals
a
b
is proved simply by partitioning the segment from 0 to a
into ab segments each of length
1
b
and then taking every a-th division point.
Then the rst of the latter division points will be both
a
b
and the point a
divided by b.
Let us illustrate with the fraction
4
5
(thus a = 4 and b = 5). To follow
the reasoning above, we divide the segment from 0 to 4 into 4 5 = 20
segments of equal length and then take every 4-th division point, as the
vertical arrows in the following picture show.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................
.......................
.......................
.......................
.......................
...............................
.......................
.......................
.......................
.......................
...............................
...............................
.......................
.......................
.......................
.......................
...............................
.......................
.......................
.......................
.......................
0 1 2 3 4
............................... ..............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................... ..............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.............................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
238 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
The discussion of the last paragraph accounts for the essential abandon-
ment after elementary school of the division symbol a b in favor of the
fraction symbol
a
b
. We know that the result of doing the operation a b is
the fraction
a
b
.
A nal consequence is the possibility of ordering fractions. The standard
literature does not dene what it means for a fraction
c
d
to be bigger than
a
b
. For us, it is both simple and unambiguous: we say
c
d
is bigger than
a
b
,
in symbols
c
d
>
a
b
, if the point
c
d
is to the right of
a
b
or if the length
c
d
is
greater than the length
a
b
. Because
c
d
=
bc
bd
and
a
b
=
ad
bd
, we see that
c
d
is
the bc-th division point on the number line when the latter is divided into
segments of length
1
bd
. Likewise,
a
b
is the ad-th division point on the number
line when the latter is divided into segments of the same length. Therefore,
c
d
>
a
b
exactly when the bc-th division point is further to the right of the
ad-th division point, i.e., when bc > ad. This is the cross-multiply algorithm
for inequality.
Very often, the cross-multiply algorithm (for both equality and inequal-
ity) is either presented with no explanation, or not presented at all in school
texts. Neither is an acceptable alternative. In particular, the usual reason
given for barring the algorithm is that it promotes learning by rote. One
may surmise that, in this instance, learning-by-rote takes place in the fol-
lowing fashion. Without being able to say what a fraction is, one cannot
articulate clearly what it means for one fraction to be bigger than the other
(e.g., which angel is taller, Peter or Gabriel?). Under the circumstance,
the cross-multiply algorithm becomes the rst clear-cut statement of when
a fraction
c
d
is bigger than another fraction
a
b
. The cross-multiply al-
gorithm therefore becomes the de facto denition of when one
fraction is bigger than the other. Because without precise denitions
no logical reasoning is possible, the cross-multiply algorithm would there-
fore have to be presented as an article of faith and students are forced to
memorize the algorithm by brute force. This is of course what we mean by
learning by rote. By contrast, the present approach to fractions explains
precisely what it means for one fraction to be bigger than the other, and the
cross-multiply algorithm then becomes a simple logical consequence of this
denition. This is valid mathematics from any angle and should therefore
be taught.
One way to emphasize the importance of the cross-multiply algorithm
is to check, for example, whether
84
119
is equal to
228
323
? (It is.)
Exercises:
(1) Susie wants to know why its true that
3
4
=
32
42
but its not true
that
3
4
=
3+2
4+2
: Susie says that in both cases you are doing the
same thing to the top and the bottom of
3
4
, so she wants to know
1. DEFINITION OF FRACTIONS AND IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES 239
why one way is correct but the other is not. Explain this to Susie,
using pictures or diagrams to support your explanation. Susie does
not know about multiplying fractions.
(2) Frank says that when you do the same thing to the top and bottom
of a fraction you get an equivalent fraction. Is Frank right, or is
it possible to do the same thing to the top and the bottom of a
fraction and not get an equivalent fraction?
(3) Using the fractions
1
3
and
3
4
, describe how to give two fractions
common denominators. In terms of a number line, what are you
doing when you give fractions common denominators?
(4) Plot
5
6
,
5
4
, and
4
3
on the number line below in such a way that each
number falls on a tick mark. Lengthen the tick marks of whole
numbers.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
(5) Explain clearly and in detail why we can determine which of two
fractions is greater by giving the two fractions common denomina-
tors. What is the rationale behind this method? What are we really
doing when we give the fractions common denominators?
(6) Show how to use the cross-multiplying method to determine which
of
5
8
and
7
12
is greater.
(7) Explain clearly and in detail why we can determine which of two
fractions is greater by using the cross-multiplying method. What is
the rationale behind this method? What are we really doing when
we cross-multiply in order to compare fractions?
(8) Find three dierent fractions in between
3
4
and
4
5
.
(9) Conrad says that
3
8
>
2
7
because 3 > 2 and 8 > 7. Regardless of
whether or not Conrads conclusion is correct, discuss whether or
not Conrads reasoning is valid.
(10) Minju says that fractions that use bigger numbers are greater than
fractions that use smaller numbers. Make up two problems for
Minju to help her reconsider her ideas. For each problem, explain
how to solve it, and explain why you chose that problem for Minju.
(11) Use reasoning other than converting to decimals, using common
denominators, or cross-multiplying to determine which of
19
94
and
19
107
is greater. Explain your reasoning clearly and in detail.
(12) Use reasoning other than converting to decimals, using common
denominators, or cross-multiplying to determine which of
38
39
and
45
46
is greater. Explain your reasoning clearly and in detail.
(13) Use reasoning other than converting to decimals, using common
denominators, or cross-multiplying to determine which of
21
43
and
41
81
is greater. Explain your reasoning clearly and in detail.
(14) Indicate the approximate position of each of the following on the
number line, and also write it as a mixed number.
240 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
(a)
67
4
,
(b)
459
23
, and
(c)
1502
24
.
(15) Write down a fraction that is between
31
63
and
32
63
, and one between
5
8
and
8
13
.
(16) Which fraction is greater:
94
95
or
311
314
? (No calculator allowed.)
(17) An alcohol solution mixes 5 parts water with 23 parts alcohol. Then
3 parts water and 14 parts alcohol are added to the solution. Which
has a higher concentration of alcohol, the old solution or the new?
(18) Let A and B be two fractions such that A < B. Show that there is
always a fraction C so that A < C < B. (After nding what you
think is a good candidate for C, don t forget to actually prove that
A < C < B.)
2. Negative fractions
At this point, the subject of fractions can be developed along dierent
paths. One way is to go on and develop the subject of positive fractions
in more depth before turning attention to negative fractions. The other is
to treat negative fractions right now and discuss the rational numbers (i.e.,
both positive and negative fractions) all at once the rest of the way. Either
way, one has to make sense, for example, of why
a
b
=
a
b
=
a
b
.
For deniteness, and because it is easier to think only about positive
fractions, we shall follow the rst path, that is to say, we will go on to
treat positive fractions in greater depth before getting around to treating
rational numbers. However, one may identify fractions of integers as points
on the number line as follows. For positive a and b, dene
a
b
as a point
on the number line that is
a
b
units to the left of the origin,
a
b

a
b
, and
a
b

a
b
. The cancellation law and cross multiply algorithm for fractions of
integers then follow from their analogues for fractions of counting numbers.
Following the denition of addition (see the next section),
a
b
may be dened
as the additive inverse of
a
b
. The identication
a
b
=
a
b
then follows from
a
b
+
a
b
=
a+a
b
= 0. One may develop the arithmetic of rational numbers
along the lines of the following section, taking care to use the cancellation law
to prove that the standard formulas for the arithmetic operations are well
dened, and dealing with separate cases of positive and negative fractions
as needed.
3. Arithmetic operations
Again there are several possible approaches to the arithmetic operations
on fractions. One way is to rst dene them by formulas: if
a
b
and
c
d
are
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS 241
(positive) fractions, then by denition,
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad +bc
bd
a
b

c
d
=
ad bc
bd
It is understood that for the third formula,
a
b
>
c
d
. One then goes on to
explain why these formulas are reasonable and what they mean in everyday
contexts. For example, the rst formula dening the multiplication of
a
b
and
c
d
is a natural extension of the multiplication of whole numbers because if
b = d = 1, then both sides of this formula reduce to ac, and if b = 1, then the
left side becomes a
c
d
which should mean the repeated addition of a copies
of
c
d
, i.e., equal to
ac
d
, which is exactly the right side. Notice that in this
approach, the formula for multiplication is simpler than that for addition
(with unequal denominators). It is therefore natural to do multiplication
rst.
For division of fractions, one discusses the meaning of division as the
inverse operation of multiplication and then denes it just as in the case of
the division of whole numbers without remainder. In other words, if A, B
are fractions with B ,= 0, then
A
B
is the fraction C so that A = CB. Of
course the existence and uniqueness of C has to be proved rst. Once this
is done, the invert-and-multiply rule follows.
We now outline another approach which emphasizes the continuity in
progressing from the arithmetic operations on whole numbers to those on
fractions. For addition, we know that if a, b are whole numbers, then a+b is
exactly the length of the segment obtained by concatenating two segments
of length a and b. With this in mind, we dene:
the sum
a
b
+
c
d
is the length of the segment obtained by
concatenating a segment of length
a
b
with a segment of
length
c
d
.
Illustrate this denition
using the number line
so as to reinforce the
utility of the number
line in instruction.
One then proves by using the cancellation law that
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad+bc
bd
. This is
the basic formula for the addition of fractions. The common denition of
fraction addition in terms of the least common multiple of the denominators
has played havoc with the mathematics education of generations of school
students (and many a college freshmen), and deserves to be retired at this
point. (Naturally, as a special shortcut for adding fractions in some situa-
tions, it should be taught.) A discussion of the subtraction of fraction can
be given in like manner
6
.
6
Special care must be taken here. This approach is quite distinct from what is typically
taught in school mathematics today, and prospective teachers will need considerable explanation
to justify it.
242 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
An important footnote to the addition of fractions is the explication of
the meaning of so-called mixed numbers. First, the meaning of 25
2
7
(say)
is 25 +
2
7
, i.e., the whole number 25 and two unit fractions
1
7
. This is
the denition of a mixed number, and nothing more than that. Second, if
we are given an improper fraction, say,
38
5
, then the division-with-remainder
denition of multiplication says that we can change these 38
1
5
unit fractions
to a whole number with unit fractions by 38 = 7 5 + 3, so that
38
5
=
7 5 + 3
5
=
7 5
5
+
3
5
= 7 +
3
5
= 7
3
5
.
This is the standard conversion of an improper fraction to a mixed number,
and it has been accomplished by use of standard and straightforward rea-
soning.
At this point, we wish to make a remark on the computational aspect
of adding fractions. The whole point of using the number line to model
fractions is to make plain that one fraction is as meaningful as any other,
regardless of the size of the numerator or denominator. The clear-cut de-
nition of addition and the logical explanation of the formula for addition of
fraction, together with the de-mystication of mixed numbers, should make
any kind of computation involving the addition of fractions or mixed num-
bers entirely routine
Exercises:
(1) Explain how to convert a mixed number, such as 5
3
4
, to an im-
proper fraction, and explain why this procedure makes sense, in
other words, explain the rationale behind the procedure.
(2) Which of the following problems can be solved by adding
1
3
+
1
4
?
For those problems that cant be solved by adding
1
3
+
1
4
, solve the
problem in another way if there is enough information to do so, or
explain why the problem cannot be solved.
(a) One third of the boys in Mrs. Scotts class want to have a
peanut butter sandwich for lunch. One fourth of the girls in
Mrs. Scotts class want to have a peanut butter sandwich for
lunch. What fraction of the children in Mrs. Scotts class want
to have a peanut butter sandwich for lunch?
(b) One third of the pizzas served at a party have pepperoni on
them. One fourth of the pizzas served at the party have mush-
rooms on them. What fraction of the pizzas served at the party
have either pepperoni or mushrooms on them?
(c) The pizzas served at a party all have only one topping. One
third of the pizzas served at the party have pepperoni on them.
One fourth of the pizzas served at the party have mushrooms
on them. What fraction of the pizzas served at the party have
either pepperoni or mushrooms on them?
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS 243
(3) Can the following story problem be solved by subtracting
1
3

1
4
? If
not, explain why not, and solve the problem in another way if there
is enough information to do so.
Story problem: There is
1
3
of a pie left over from yesterday.
Julie eats
1
4
of the leftover pie. Now how much pie is left?
(4) Write a story problem for
2
3

1
2
.
(5) Show how to solve 3
2
5
+ 1
2
3
in two dierent ways. In each case,
express your answer as a mixed number. Explain why why both of
your methods are legitimate.
(6) (a) Find a fraction A so that 17
5
62
= A+ 8
4
25
.
(b) Find a fraction B so that 4
2
5
B = 1
3
4
.
For multiplication of fractions, again we look at the corresponding situ-
ation in whole numbers. If a rectangle has sides of length a and b where
a and b are whole numbers, then its area is ab. Recall that this answer is
obtained by counting the number of squares with a side of length 1 that tile
the rectangle . We would like to say that the product ab of two whole
numbers a and b is just the area of the rectangle with sides of lengths a and
b. But there is a subtle point here that should be cleared up before we can
go forward. If the number ab on the number line is to be the area of ,
then it would mean that the unit 1 is an area, in fact that area of the square
with side of length 1. The numbers a and b are therefore no longer lengths
of segments but areas. With this in mind, we give a coherent formulation of
the denition of the product ab as follows:
On the number line, choose the unit 1 to be the area of
the square with side of length 1 (our unit square). Then a
whole number b is now be the (total) area of b unit squares,
and the product ab of two whole numbers a and b is the
area of the rectangle which has sides of length a and b.
We are now in a position to dene the product of two fractions
a
b
and
c
d
. We again let the unit 1 be the area of the square with side of length 1.
Then from our denition of a fraction,
1
b
is the area of one part when the
unit square is divided into b parts of equal area. Because the simplest way of
doing this is to divide one side of the square into b segments of equal length,
then the rectangle formed by one of these segments and a segment of length
1 has area equal to
1
b
. It follows that
a
b
is the area of the rectangle formed by
a segment of length
a
b
and a segment of unit length. A similar statement of
course holds for
c
d
. So with this choice of the unit 1 understood, we dene:
the product
a
b

c
d
is the area of the rectangle with sides of
length
a
b
and
c
d
.
244 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
One then proves using this denition that
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
.
As soon as we have the formula
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
, the algebraic properties of
It might be better to
use alternating colors or
shade the fraction bars
instead of circling the
approximate areas in
the classroom
discussion.
the multiplication of fractions such as commutativity, associativity, and dis-
tributivity, can all be easily veried. For computations, this formula has
obvious importance.
It may be asked if a less clumsy denition than this geometric one should
not be used instead. An algebraic one will be outlined presently, but let us
confront the clumsiness issue. The ultimate answer is that by the time
we have rounded out students understanding of this concept, we would
have done the same amount of work no matter what our starting point
(i.e., denition) is. If we dene this multiplication
a
b

c
d
algebraically, for
example, then the preceding clumsy geometric discussion must still be
given in order to show that
a
b

c
d
is the area of the rectangle with sides
equal to
a
b
and
c
d
.
7
Special attention should
be paid here. It is
important that this
sequence -
manipulatives, then
geometric models, and
nally algebra - be
conveyed directly to
pre-service teachers.
Otherwise there will be
a great likelihood that
teachers will think they
cannot dene these
terms until students are
adept at algebra.
On the other hand, the advantages of the geometric denition of frac-
tion multiplication should also be pointed out. The continuity from whole
number multiplication to fraction multiplication that this approach empha-
sizes is pedagogically valuable. The geometric denition also makes possible
the modeling of fraction multiplication by the use of the common manipula-
tive base ten blocks. This manipulative is sometimes helpful for beginners.
Moreover, the understanding of multiplication for almost two thousand years
after Euclid was exclusively in terms of the area of rectangles, so without
entering into any unwarranted psychological analysis of learning, we should
simply let this fact speak for itself.
Instead of using geometry, we now indicate how to use algebraic con-
cepts to dene the multiplication of fractions. Starting with the reasonable
interpretation of a
c
d
for whole numbers a, c, d as repeated addition of a
7
There is a kind of principle of conservation of work in doing mathematics. Assuming that
everything is done the right way, then no matter which starting point is chosen, at the end of the
journey one would have done the same amount of work.
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS 245
of the fraction
c
d
, we know from the above denition of addition that
a
c
d
=
c
d
+ +
c
d
. .
a times
=
ac
d
This formula,
a
1

c
d
=
ac
d
, is already halfway towards our goal. If we further
assume that the multiplication of fractions is associative and commutative,
then the general formula
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
can again be proved. A third method is
the following. If we dene
a
b

c
d
to be the length of the segment obtained by
dividing the segment of length
c
d
into b equal parts and take a of them, then
once again the general formula of the product can be proved. The virtue of
the last denition is that it directly relates fraction multiplication to ordi-
nary linguistic usage: one third of a ham of 12 pounds does mean
1
3
12
pounds. Each of these denitions, including the earlier one by formula, is
a viable option provided it is done correctly.
8
For the division of fractions, let A, B be fractions, and we want to give
meaning to A divided by B, which on account of the interpretation of a
fraction as division will henceforth be written as
A
B
. The main idea as usual
is that if A, B are whole numbers and A is a multiple of B, then we already
know what
A
B
means, namely,
A
B
is the whole number C so that A = CB.
It makes sense to model the case of fractions on the case of whole numbers.
So we dene:
Given two fractions A and B, with B ,= 0, the quotient
A
B
is the fraction C (if such a C exists) so that A = CB.
This denition has to be complemented by the fact that if B ,= 0, then no
matter what the fraction A may be, there is always such a fraction C, that
is, one that satises A = CB. In fact, one simply writes down such a C:
if A =
a
b
and B =
c
d
, then clearly C =
ad
bc
has the requisite property. This
means
A
B
always has a meaning for any nonzero B. Put another way, we
always have
a
b
c
d
=
ad
bc
.
This is then the invert-and-multiply rule, but the main point here is that
the formula is the consequence of a correct understanding of the meaning of
division among fractions.
It is instructive at this point to look at one approach to the division of
fractions that seems to be gaining popularity. It goes as follows. Given
k/l
m/n
,
we use the cancellation law for fractions to get
k
l
m
n
=
k
l
ln
m
n
ln
=
kln
l
mln
n
=
kn
lm
,
8
And it is very easy to do it incorrectly. Look at some standard textbooks.
246 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
and therefore (so the argument goes) this proves that
k
l
m
n
=
kn
lm
.
This line of reasoning will be seen to contain the germ of a correct method
to introduce fraction division, but as it stands, there are serious logical
diculties. Consider the rst step:
k
l
m
n
=
k
l
ln
m
n
ln
Now recall that at this point, we are still trying to give meaning to the
division of fractions. For example, we as yet have no idea what dividing
k
l
by
m
n
means. The preceding equality, however, claims that the two separate
divisions of fractions lead to the same number. We have therefore done the
remarkable deed of equating two quantities without knowing what either
means. Furthermore, even if we know that both sides are fractions, there is
no reason to believe (as yet) that they are equal, for the following reason.
Up to this point, the cancellation law applies only to those
A
B
where A and
B are whole numbers, not fractions. Therefore the reference to cancellation
law in the above is misleading.
This argument can be resurrected if we agree to exercise a little care.
We shall imitate the algebraic approach to multiplying fractions outlined in
3. We start by assuming that the quotient
k
l
m
n
make sense as a fraction and that it behaves like an ordinary fraction when
both numerator (
k
l
) and denominator (
m
n
) are multiplied by the same frac-
tion. In other words, we assume that
A
B
=
AC
BC
even when A, B, C are
fractions and not just whole numbers. We will go on this assumption and
work with such a quotient for a while to see if the results we get are reason-
able. If they are, then the assumption would be seen to be a good one and
we would proceed on this basis. With this clearly understood, the preced-
ing argument now makes sense, and we obtain the invert-and-multiply rule.
Once this is done, we see in a straightforward manner that for fractions A,
B and C,
A
B
= C exactly when A = CB.
The particular assumption we have made concerning the division of fractions
is therefore seen, a posteriori, to be consonant with our understanding of
the division-without-remainder among whole numbers. We conclude that
our working assumption (that the quotient of fractions is a fractions, and
that when the denominator and numerator of this quotient is multiplied by
the same fraction, the quotient remains the same) is a good one and will
henceforth be adopted.
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS 247
It may be beyond the capability of most fth or sixth graders to know the
dierence between these two ways of dealing with fraction division. However,
teachers must have a clear conception in their own minds of this dierence
in order to guard against making wrong pronouncements in the classroom.
They need to know that the rst way tells lies and the second doesnt. In-
stead of believing in a fallacious proof of the invert-and-multiply rule (the
rst argument), they would be better o knowing what precise assumptions
one makes in order to make sense of the invert-and-multiply rule (the second
argument). It is a worthwhile trade-o.
The division of fractions can be viewed in a broader context. Suppose
we are in possession of whole numbers but do not know about fractions.
When we come across the equation ax = b where a and b are given whole
numbers and x is an unknown, we recognize that there is no solution for
x except under the restrictive circumstance that b is a multiple of a. For
example, there is no whole number x so that 2x = 5. If we insist that this
equation ax = b must be solvable for all a and b, then the solutions so pro-
duced (which we know with hindsight are
b
a
) are exactly the fractions. In
other words, we may look at (positive) fractions as the numbers that solve
the equation ax = b for whole numbers a and b.
Exercises:
(1) Which of the following are story problems for
1
2

3
4
and which are
not? Explain briey in each case.
(a) There is
3
4
of a cake left. One half of the children in Mrs.
Browns class want cake. How much of the cake will the children
get?
(b) A brownie recipe used
3
4
of a cup of butter for a batch of brown-
ies. You ate
1
2
of a batch. How much butter did you consume
when you ate those brownies?
(c) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats
1
2
of
a pan of brownies. Now what fraction of a pan of brownies is
left?
(d) Three quarters of a pan of brownies is left. Johnny eats
1
2
of
what is left. What fraction of a pan of brownies did Johnny
eat?
(2) Write a story problem for
1
3

2
3
.
(3) Write one story problem for 4
2
3
and one story problem for
2
3
4.
Say which is which.
(4) Ken ordered
4
5
of a ton of sand. Ken wants to receive
1
3
of his order
now (and
2
3
of his order later). What fraction of a ton of sand
should Ken receive now?
(a) Solve the problem numerically and explain why you can set the
problem up numerically the way you do.
248 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
(b) Draw a picture to help you solve the problem. Explain how
your picture helps you to solve the problem. Discuss how the
way you set the problem up numerically is related to your pic-
ture.
(5) Write a simple story problem for
3
4

3
5
: Use your story problem and
use pictures to explain clearly why it makes sense that the answer
to the fraction multiplication problem is
33
45
: In particular, explain
why the numerators are multiplied and why the denominators are
multiplied.
(6) Explain why it would be easy to interpret the picture below incor-
rectly as showing that 3
3
4
=
9
12
. Explain how to interpret the
picture correctly and explain why your interpretation ts with the
meaning of 3
3
4
.
(7) Write a story problem for
2
3

1
2
and draw pictures to help you solve
the problem. Explain clearly how to interpret the pictures.
(8) Write one story problem for
3
4

1
2
and another story problem for
3
4

1
2
, making clear which problem is which. In each case, draw
pictures to help you solve the problem. Explain clearly how to
interpret your pictures.
(9) A rectangle has area 3
1
3
and one side of length
2
3
. What is the
length of the other side?
4. Complex fractions
In this section, a fraction continues to mean a positive fraction.
If A and B are fractions, then
A
B
is called a complex fraction in the
school mathematics literature. In 3,
A
B
was dened as A divided by B. It
is important to remark that the notation is well chosen, in the sense that if
A and B are whole numbers instead of fractions, then we saw in 1 that
A
B
also has the interpretation of A divided by B.
In any serious application in the school mathematics curriculum, com-
plex fractions play a dominant role. For example, if your sales tax is 5.5%
from the state, 1.2% from the county, and 1.8% from the city, then each
time you make a purchase, (5.5 + 1.2 + 1.8)% = 8.5% of your payment is
sales tax. The addition we have just made is then an addition of complex
4. COMPLEX FRACTIONS 249
fractions:
55
10
100
+
12
10
100
+
18
10
100
=
55
10
+
12
10
+
18
10
100
=
85
10
100
Unfortunately, the important role of complex fractions in school mathe-
matics does not seem to be recognized at all in elementary mathematics
education. One obvious consequence of this neglect shows up in the lack
of a precise denition of percent in school mathematics textbooks and
standard professional development materials. We shall deal with percent in
the next section.
We are going to make a clean break with tradition by calling explicit
attention to the arithmetic of complex fractions. They are extremely well-
behaved, so much so that one could wave ones hands and say: Just do
unto complex fractions as you would ordinary fractions.
9
Precisely, let A,
B, . . . F be fractions (which will be assumed to be nonzero in the event
any of them appears in the denominator). In the following, we shall omit
the multiplication symbol between letters. Thus A B will be simply
written as AB. With this understood, then the following are valid:
(a) A
B
C
=
AB
C
.
(b) Cancellation law: if C ,= 0, then
AC
BC
=
A
B
(c)
A
B
>
C
D
(resp.,
A
B
=
C
D
) exactly when AD > BC (resp., AD = BC).
(d)
A
B

C
D
=
(AD) (BC)
BD
(e)
A
B

C
D
=
AC
BD
(f) Distributive law :
A
B

_
C
D

E
F
_
=
_
A
B

C
D
_

_
A
B

E
F
_
As noted above, these rules (which can all be proved in an entirely me-
chanical manner) are exactly the same as those for ordinary fractions if A, B,
etc., are read as ordinary fractions. Their importance however will emerge
in the next two sections and in 14.
9
This could very well be the reason why complex fractions are not emphasized in the school
curriculum: students can be lured into the false belief that what they know about the arithmetic
of ordinary fractions is true automatically for anything that looks like a fraction. This kind of
misconception is nothing new in school mathematics.
250 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
5. Percent
A fraction is still a positive fraction in this section.
Students failure to achieve prociency on the topic of percents, both
with regard to computations and problem solving, is a banner topic in any
discussion of mathematics education. Proposals for improvements usually
center on pedagogy and the use of manipulatives. Scant attention is paid
to the fact that students are not given any reason why they should learn
about percents, and that the concept itself seems to be never dened in
school materials. A little reection would reveal that it is dicult to learn
It would be a good idea
to include exercises and
resources to help
pre-service teachers
understand the value of
mathematics. A
possible assignment
would be to highlight
references to
percentages in a daily
newspaper. Also, there
are web-sites such as
www.micron.com/k12/math/
that give useful
examples.
something with this double handicap. The fact that percent is not clearly
dened is a natural consequence of the lack of emphasis on complex fractions
because, as will be seen presently, a correct denition requires the use of
complex fractions.
What is meant by what percent is 4 of 17? It means: what is the
fraction C so that
4
17
=
C
100
?
The answer: by the preceding section (e.g., (e)), we have
C = 100
4
17
= 23
9
17
.
Note that no amount of picture drawing which is the current method of
choice for promoting the conceptual understanding of percent can pro-
duce this answer of (23
9
17
)%. Picture drawing has its place in mathematics
education, but only if precise mathematical denitions are also made avail-
able to students.
In general, we say a fraction A is C percent of another fraction B (where
B ,= 0) if C is a fraction and
A
B
=
C
100
.
From the discussion of the division of fractions in 3, we know that such a
fraction C exists and is unique. In fact,
C = 100
A
B
=
100A
B
.
This denition of percent is therefore meaningful. Notice that everyday
situations often demand that we make sense of percent for one fraction A
with respect to another fraction B. For example, if a bag of our has only
about two-and-a-half cups of our left, and you need to use a third of a cup,
about what percent of the our in the bag are you using?
Why should anyone bother learning about percent? It is because society
has miraculously reached the consensus of using percent to express part-
whole relationships in everyday life. This then makes the comparison of
part-whole relationships a painless task. Comparing
5
7
with
11
15
, for example,
5. PERCENT 251
is unpleasant because, even with the cross-multiply algorithm available, it
is not obvious at a glance that
5
7
<
11
15
. This is because these fractions refer
to dierent units:
5
7
is 5 copies of
1
7
, and
11
15
is 11 copies of
1
15
, so any
comparison must begin with a comparison of the units of reference,
1
7
and
1
15
. On the other hand, nobody would have diculty comparing
7
299
and
8
299
: the latter is bigger because these fractions have the same denominator
299.
Therefore the idea was born that we all should agree on some common
denominator and then express every fraction in terms of (complex) fractions
with this xed denominator. And it came to pass that 100 was the chosen
denominator and the concept of percent was born.
10
For example,
5
7
=
_
71
3
7
_
% and
11
15
=
_
73
1
3
_
%.
It is then clear at a glance that
11
15
is the bigger of the two.
Exercises:
(1) James gave a riddle to his friends: I was on a hiking trail, and
after walking
7
12
of a mile, I was
5
9
of the way to the end. How long
is the trail? Help his friends solve the riddle.
(2) Helena walked to school from home but quit after having walked
21
2
of a mile. She was
5
8
of the way to school. How far is her home
from School?
(3) What percent is 18 of 84? 72 of 120? What is 15 percent of 75?
And 16 percent of what number is 24?
(4) A shop plans to have a sale. One suggestion is to give all customers
a 15% discount after sales tax has been computed. Another sug-
gestion is to give a 20% discount before sales tax. If the sales tax
is 5%, which suggestion would give the customer a greater saving?
(5) Explaining your reasoning clearly, use pictures to help you answer
the following:
(a) What percent of
1
5
is
2
5
?
(b) What percent of
2
5
is
1
5
?
(6) A farmer has two plots of land. Twenty percent of the rst plot
is planted with cotton and 40% of the second plot is planted with
cotton. Can we calculate the percentage of the farmers (total) land
that is planted with cotton by adding 20% + 40%? Explain your
answer.
(7) A farmer has two plots of land, both of the same size. Twenty
percent of the rst plot is planted with cotton and 40% of the second
10
With hindsight, we can see that the choice of 100 as the xed denominator is not all that
surprising: we are in a decimal numeral system, and 10 is a trie too small while 1000 is obviously
too big.
252 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
plot is planted with cotton. What percentage of the farmers (total)
land is planted with cotton? Explain your answer.
(8) The price of a gizmo went from $2.50 down to $1.50. Find the
percent decrease in the price of the gizmo in two ways:
(a) by calculating (show your work), and
(b) by using pictures and words.
(9) A community goes from producing 2
1
2
tons of waste per month to
producing 3
1
2
tons of waste per month.
(a) Show how to use a picture to help you calculate the percent
increase in a communitys monthly waste production.
(b) Show how to calculate the percent increase in the communitys
monthly waste production numerically.
(10) Fill in the blanks so as to make the statements below correct:
(a) 600 is % of 500.
(b) 100 is % more than 40.
(c) 68 is % less than 80.
(11) If the price of a barrel of oil goes up by 20%, and then goes back
down by 20% (of the new, raised price), will the nal price of oil (af-
ter raising and lowering) be equal to the original price of oil? If not,
which will be greater, the original price or the nal price? Deter-
mine the answers to these questions without doing any calculations.
Explain your reasoning clearly.
6. Ratios and Rates
The word fraction will continue to denote a positive fraction in this
section.
Ratio and rates are among the most confusing topics in elementary math-
ematics. Here are a random collection of denitions that can be found in
the literature:
A ratio is a comparative index; it always makes a state-
ment about one measurement in relation to another.
A ratio is a comparison of any two quantities. A ratio
may be used to convey an idea that cannot be expressed
as a single number.
A ratio is a comparison of two quantities that tells the
scale between them. Ratios may be expressed as quotients,
fractions, decimals, percent, or given in the form of a : b.
A ratio is a way to describe a relationship between num-
bers. If there are 13 boys and 15 girls in a classroom, then
the ratio of boys to girls is 13 to 15.
A rate is a special ratio. Its denominator is always 1.
A rate can be thought of as an extended ratio, a ratio
which enables us to think beyond the situation at hand, to
6. RATIOS AND RATES 253
imagine a whole range of situations in which two quantities
are related in the same way. In this sense, a ratio can be a
specic instance of a rate.
None of these explanations would seem to shed light on these baing
concepts. We now present two dierent approaches to remedy the situation.
The rst approach derives ratios from fractions (and denes a ratio as
the division of two fractions) and thus follows the main development of this
chapter. The second approach views ratios and fractions as dierent kinds
of entities, and it derives ratios separately from fractions. This approach to
ratios is simpler than viewing them as the division of two fractions, which
is one of the most complex ideas in elementary school mathematics. In the
second approach, such a division of fractions is seen to be the result of solving
a ratio situation to nd an unknown. In particular, such a division is often
required to nd the unit ratio or the unit rate. The second approach retains
the a:b notation and uses vertical ratio tables to preserve the horizontality in
the notation. This horizontality enables learners to distinguish ratios from
fractions initially. Eventually ratios and fractions are related, and of course
fraction calculation is used in solving ratio and proportion problems.
The rst begins by oering the following precise denitions:
Ratio. The ratio of two fractions
11
A and B is the
division of A by B,
A
B
, in the sense of 3.
Intuitively, the ratio of A and B is the multiplicative
way of comparing the two fractions A and B (in contrast
with the additive way of comparing, which would ask for
the dierence A B instead). By tradition, this ratio is
also written as A : B, and this notation may have been
responsible for some of the misunderstanding connected
with this concept (but see the historical discussion below)
Rate. A rate is a ratio of two fractions each referring
to a dierent unit, e.g., a person running 100 meters in 12
seconds runs at a rate of
100
12
meters per second. Here we
divide 100 meters by 12 seconds. In general the concept of
speed, in terms of distance per unit time is a prototypical
example of rate
12
.
11
Strictly speaking we should be dening the ratio of two numbers and not just fractions.
But as we said, school mathematics is really the mathematics of fractions so that there is no real
loss if we just use fractions for the denition here. Furthermore, what is said about fractions
carries over verbatim to general numbers; see the next section.
12
Here we see that the division of fractions is needed to nd the unit rate from the given rate
of 100 meters: 12 seconds. Unit rates actually are also an ordered pair, but the 1 is usually omitted,
in this case, 100/12 meters: 1 second. This division of fractions is seen to be an answer to a problem
(nding the unit rate) and not the inherent dening feature in the ratio/rate relationship.
254 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
We mention in passing that a proportion is the equality of two ratios.
In symbols, a proportion is the statement that
A
B
=
C
D
, where A, . . . , D
are fractions. Once the concept of a ratio is cleared up, understanding
proportions is not a problem. Let us therefore concentrate on ratios (and
rates).
The main point here is that, because we already have a clear conception
of what a fraction is and what it means to divide (i.e., form the quotient of)
two fractions, we are in a position to dene ratio and rate in terms of the
division of fractions. To convince you that such a simple denition of ratio
is all-sucient, consider a typical ratio problem: If the ratio of boys to girls
in an assembly of 224 students is 3 : 4, how many are boys and how many
are girls? This is an easy problem, but what is important is that we are
going to present a solution using strictly the preceding denition of a ratio,
no more and no less.
Thus the ratio of boys to girls being 3 : 4 means exactly that if B denotes
the number of boys and G denotes the number of girls in the audience, then
B
G
=
3
4
. This means 1 +
B
G
= 1 +
3
4
, so that
B+G
G
=
7
4
. Now we are given
that the total number of students B + G is 224, so we have
224
G
=
7
4
. The
cross-multiply algorithm of 1 then gives 7G = 4 224, and G = 128.
Consequently, B = 224 128 = 96. In other words, there are 96 boys and
128 girls.
As for the usual notation of, e.g., A : B : C = 2 : 3 : 4, it is an abbrevia-
tion of two proportions: A : B = 2 : 3 and B : C = 3 : 4.
We now lay out the rationale behind this approach, and it is based on
an understanding of the origin of the concept of ratio. We rst briey
review, from a historical perspective, how the simple concepts of ratio and
rate manage to have so many layers of obfuscation laid on them. The word
ratio appears in Euclids Elements (The Thirteen Books of the Elements,
Volumes 1-3, Dover Publications, 1956). Before quoting Euclid, we must
know some history. First of all, Euclid (or rather, mathematicians in Euclids
time) did not have the concept of a number, so he could not even say
two numbers are said to be in the same ratio. To him, a number was
what we now call a whole number. So what are magnitudes? Greek
mathematicians before Euclid had already discovered that fractions were
not enough for writing down all the measurements of lengths of segments
because, regardless how the unit of measurement was chosen, they always
found line segments whose length was not a fraction. In our terminology,
they had discovered irrational numbers (see 9 and 14). But they did
not know precisely what there was out there beyond fractions. So Euclid
summarily created another concept called magnitude in the Element to
include everything that was not a whole number. He didnt know what a
magnitude was, and he was merely doing the best he could. He could not
have anticipated that, twenty-two centuries later, one would be able to freely
multiply and divide his magnitudes. So laboring under the handicap of
7. ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF RATIOS, RATES, AND PERCENTS 255
his ignorance about magnitudes, he wrote at the beginning of Book V the
following:
A ratio is a sort of relation in respect of size between
two magnitudes of the same kind.
Magnitudes are said to be in the same ratio, the rst
to the second and the third to the fourth, when, if any equi-
multiples whatever be taken of the rst and the third, and
any equi-multiples whatever of the second and the fourth,
the former equi-multiples alike exceed , are alike equal to,
or alike fall short of the latter equi-multiples respectively
taken in corresponding order.
From Euclids writing, we can see why school textbooks would call the ratio
of two numbers of dierent types, such as distance and time, a rate
rather than just a ratio, because Euclid specied that ratio is a relation
between two magnitudes of the same kind. We also come to understand
why these books would speak of ratios in such mystifying language (see the
quotes at the beginning of the section): it is because Euclid said A ratio
is a sort of relation . . . between two magnitudes. So the thinking among
textbook writers must be that, if such a vague statement was acceptable
to Euclid, it should be acceptable to school students too. It then came to
pass that almost all school textbook writers in the twenty-three centuries
after Euclid simply copied Euclid in the matter of ratio.
13
What the
modern textbook writers forget is that, since the second half of the nine-
teenth century, mathematicians have achieved a robust understanding of
(real) numbers that makes Euclids writing on ratio obsolete. Were Euclid
alive today, he would have rewritten the preceding two passages as follows:
A ratio of two numbers is the number obtained by di-
viding one by the other.
Two pairs of numbers are said to be in the same ra-
tio if the ratio of the rst pair is equal to the ratio of the
second pair.
7. Alternative Development of Ratios, Rates, and Percents
This section is a departure from the mainline development of this chap-
ter. The section following this one resumes the development of rational and
real numbers undertaken in the previous sections. In this section we identify
a ratio of two numbers as an equivalence class of ordered pairs and as a line
in the plane. Often the units in ratios and rates enter symmetrically. For
example when exchanging money one wants both the exchange rates franks
13
And of course also in many other things in which Euclid excelled.
256 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
per dollar and dollars per frank. Likewise, when working with scale drawing
or scale models one wants to determine the lengths in the original from the
lengths in the model and vice-versa. In this treatment of ratios, rates, and
proportions, this symmetry is revealed in a natural way.
In the rst variant of this approach, which has been used successfully
Since many pre-service
teachers will have only
a limited understanding
of ratios it is
recommended that an
initial presentation of
these topics should use
the multiplication table
model described in this
section. It serves at
least two purposes: (1)
to help them
understand ordered
pairs, and (2) it
provides a model that
they can use in
instruction.
with several classes of fth graders who varied from little understanding of
multiplication of whole numbers to partial understandings of fractions, lines
are derived from the numerical ordered pair approach. The multiplication
table is used to ground and concretize the notion of ordered pair to make
it accessible to teachers and to students. In the second variant, a ratio is
dened as a line, and the ordered pair is used to describe the line. General-
izing this approach, we also describe ratios of three numbers as three tuples
and as lines in three space.
There are eective lesson sequences employing these ideas which have
been used with success already for fth graders.
14
One such approach begins
with the denition of a ratio a : b as the equivalence class of all ordered pairs
such that for t ,= 0, a : b = ta : tb. This equivalence class is given meaning
by rst looking for ratios as 2 columns in the multiplication table. Columns
preserve the a : b notation and create a vertical ratio table. A proportion
can be seen in the four corners of any rectangle in the multiplication table
(i.e., each ratio comes from a dierent row of the ratio table. Here are some
sample illustrations:
14
See e.g., Karen C. Fuson and Dor Abrahamson, The multiplication table as the ground-
ing for understanding ratio and proportion, in J. Campbell (Ed.) Handbook of Mathematical
Cognition. New York; Psychology Press.
7. ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF RATIOS, RATES, AND PERCENTS 257
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................... .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................... . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................... ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .......................................................................................................... . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 14
15 35
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
Seeing Numbers in
a Proportion
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................... . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................... ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .......................................................................................................... . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................... . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................... . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 14
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
35
........................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... ........................................... . ........................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................................
........................................... . .......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... ........................................... . ........................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................................
.............................................. . .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ............................................. .............................................. . .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............................................
.............................................. . .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ............................................. .............................................. . .............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............................................
............................................ . ........................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................ ............................................ . ............................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................
............................................ . ........................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................ ............................................ . ............................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................
......................................... . ........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................ ......................................... . ......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................
......................................... . ........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................ ......................................... . ......................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................
Knowing Three Numbers,
Find the Fourth Using
Rows and Columns
Students solve proportion problems by setting up a multiplication table
puzzle: the numbers from the four corners of the proportion rectangle, one of
which is unknown. Students solve the multiplication table puzzle by writing
the rows and columns of the multilication table from which the rectangle
comes. But care should be taken to ensure that students understand that
the vertices in the rectangle represent numbers that are in proportion, and
what proportion means.
..................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
2 2
5 5
3
3
7
7
6 14
N 35
Then N = 3 5 = 15. Cross multiplication can be seen to hold since the
same four factors are used.
Exercises for this
section should begin by
explicitly asking
pre-service students to
prepare a multiplication
table to solve
proportion problems,
and then graphing
order pairs to solve rate
problems. Indeed, the
rst exercises in any
section should ask
students to apply the
presented teaching
models.
..................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
2 2
5 5
3
3
7
7
23 72
53 75
2 3 7 5 = 5 3 7 2. Then, thinking of a multiplication table
with fractions inserted generalizes this approach. Percents are just special
ratios with b = 100. Finally, ratios are graphed to see that they fall on a
line. Similar shapes have proportional sides, so such problems are solved
using multiplication table puzzles.
We turn now to a more systematic treatment of ratios as ordered pairs
and lines through the origin. For convenience of exposition, we make free use
of real numbers. We note, however, that with only minor modications, this
258 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
development can be carried out using only nonnegative rational numbers, in
keeping with the organization of this chapter up to this point.
The key is to note that if two or more pairs of numbers such as (4, 5)
and (8, 10) give the same quotients
4
5
=
8
10
for example then, as points
in the coordinate plane, these number pairs lie on the same line through the
origin.
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
............................................................................
...................................................
..........................
..........................
...................................................
............................................................................

(40, 20)
(20, 10)
(20, 10)
(40, 20)
In fact they lie on the same (non-horizontal or non-vertical) line through the
origin if and only if their quotients taken in the same order are the same. We
take as a denition of ratios the lines through the origin in the coordinate
plane. Thus the ratio associated to the pair (2, 3) is the line consisting of
all the points of the form (2t, 3t) as t varies over all real numbers. Of course
the same ratio is associated to any point dierent from the origin on this
line. It is customary to denote the ratio that contains the point (a, b) as
a : b and note that for t ,= 0, a : b = ta : tb.
When we assign dimensions to the two coordinates, for example the rst
coordinate representing minutes and the second miles, then the ratio (a, b)
is called a rate, and is read a minutes per b miles, or b miles per a minutes.
A unit rate is the pair in the rate (a, b) where either a or b is 1. Thus we
have the two unit rates (a/b, 1) read a/b minutes per mile, or (1, b/a) read
b/a miles per minute.
We can also specify the meaning of percent in this notation. In a ratio,
the point (c, 100) in the ratio a : b gives a ratio of c percent. If the ratio
contains (4, 5) then (100, 125) is on the line through (4, 5) and (0, 0), so
the associated percent is 125%. Similarly, the ratio that contains (4, 3) also
contains (100, 75) and the associated percent is 75%. Conversely, if we want
to determine 75% of 16 we nd the y coordinate in the pair (16, y) in the
ratio associated to 100 : 75, hence 12 since (16, 12) is in this ratio.
Ratios involving three (or more) numbers also arise in everyday situa-
tions and in schoolwork. As an illustration, consider a recipe for chocolate
chip cookies that requires
1
2
cup butter, 1
1
8
cups our, and
1
2
cup chocolate
chips to make 45 cookies. If we wanted to make 90 cookies we would need
1, 2
1
4
, 1 cups butter, our, and chocolate chips. Similarly, if we wanted to
make 180 cookies we would need 2, 4
1
2
, 2 cups of the respective ingredients.
7. ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF RATIOS, RATES, AND PERCENTS 259
The following 3-tuples are all of the form (
1
2
t, 1
1
8
t,
1
2
t):
_
_
1
2
1
1
8
1
2
1 2
1
4
1
2 4
1
2
2
_
_
Varying t over all real numbers generates a straight line that passes through
(0, 0, 0) and (
1
2
, 1
1
8
,
1
2
) in three dimensional coordinate space.
This straight line can be visualized using the following picture.
.................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................
.............
.............
.............
.............
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . ........
.............
.............
.............
..........................
.............
.............
...

The generalization of this example and the concept of a ratio of three num-
bers relies on the following denition.
Denition. Given an ordered 3-tuple (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
), the straight line through
the origin, (0, 0, 0), and this 3-tuple is the set of all the ordered 3-tuples of
numbers of the form
(a
1
t, a
2
t, a
3
t).
Here t runs over all real numbers.
Example: The line through the origin in 3 dimensions dened by (1, 2, 3)
consists of all points of the form (t, 2t, 3t). It follows that (2, 4, 6) and
(
1
2
, 1,
3
2
) are on this line, but (1, 2, 5) is not.
This denition may be generalized to arbitrary tuples of numbers, including
2-tuples.
Denition. Given an ordered n-tuple (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
n
), the straight line
through the origin, (0, 0, 0, . . . , 0), and this n-tuple is the set of all the ordered
n-tuples of numbers of the form
(a
1
t, a
2
t, a
3
t, . . . , a
n
t).
Here t runs over all real numbers.
The fundamental idea of this section is the following denition:
Denition. Given a non-zero ordered n-tuple of numbers (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
)
the Ratio dened by this ordered n-tuple is the straight line through the ori-
gin that passes through this ordered n-tuple.
260 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
A key property of ratios is that any non-zero point on the line determines
all of the other points. That is, given any point X on a line through the origin
in n-dimensions, we can obtain any other point on the line by multiplying
the coordinates of X by an appropriate xed number t.
As an example, if the ratio contains (1, 3, 5) and we want the point whose
third coordinate is 20 that is in this ratio, we multiply each coordinate by
20
5
= 4, obtaining (4, 12, 20).
By way of notation, the ratio dened by the non-zero ordered 3-tuple
(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) is sometimes written as
a
1
: a
2
: a
3
.
Thus the ratio dened by the 3-tuple (2, 1, 2) would be written 2 : 1 : 2,
though it could equally well be written 4 : 2 : 4 or more generally 2t : t : 2t
for any non-zero t.
The two ordered n-tuples are said to be proportional if they dene the
same ratio. Thus, (3, 4, 5) and (6, 8, 10) dene the same ratio and are there-
fore proportional, but (3, 4, 5) and (6, 8, 11) do not dene the same ratio and
are not proportional.
Rates dier from ratios in that the dimensions associated to the coordi-
nates are part of the data in a rate.
Denition: When we are given dimensions, and we have a non-zero ordered
n-tuple, the line through the origin that this n-tuple denes, together with
the dimensions associated to the coordinates, is called the rate associated
to the n-tuple, and the dimensions are an integral part of the denition.
Now that rate has been dened, we may extend our denition of pro-
portion to rates. Two ordered n-tuples are proportional if they dene the
same ratio or rate.
If we have two rates for example, (2, 1, 2) with dimensions feet, pounds,
dollars and (2, 1, 2) with dimensions inches, ounces, pesos they are not to
be regarded as proportional even though the ordered 3-tuples dene the
same ratio because the dimensions are not the same.
What About Slope?
Now we make the connection between the discussion here and the de-
nition of ratio as a quotient of two numbers given in 7. In the special case
when we are describing ratios for a non-zero ordered pair of numbers, (a, b)
then the line through (a, b) and (0, 0) can be described by its slope
b
a
. This
provides us with an alternative way of describing rates, ratios, and propor-
tions in this special case. We can specify the line through the origin
via its slope in the coordinate plane. When the slope, m, is given, a
convenient point in the ratio is (1, m). However, as was noted earlier, in
dealing with ratios there is no a priori reason to take the slope with respect
7. ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF RATIOS, RATES, AND PERCENTS 261
to x. We could equally well take the slope with respect to y, so m(y) =
x
y
,
and a convenient point on the ratio would be (m(y), 1).
In the case of ordered pairs, we often have to solve problems where the
ratio is described by giving the slope and we are required to nd a point
with given x or y coordinate in this ratio. Suppose, for example, that we
know the slope is
1
4
and the y coordinate is 7. Then (1,
1
4
) is in the ratio,
and we see that the required point is (28, 7).
Lines for ordered 3-tuples cannot be described by a single number such as
the slope. For that case, we require 2 independent numbers. For example,
if we require the second coordinate to be 1, we can determine the line by
giving the 2 quotients
a
1
a
2
,
a
3
a
2
.
Changing Dimensions
When we change dimensions, for example from feet to centimeters, miles
to kilometers, and gallons to liters, we multiply each coordinate of a rate by
a scale-factor. This may be given as an example of a map from the space of
ordered three tuples of numbers with dimensions of feet, miles, gallons to
the space of ordered three tuples of numbers with dimension of centimeters,
kilometers, liters. These dierent sets of n-tuples should be understood as
dierent sets, and the multiplication of the coordinates by the scaling factor
is the rule that maps points in the rst set to points in the second.
Exercises:
(1) Shawna used to spend
2
3
of an hour driving to work. Now that her
rm has moved 12 miles farther from her home, she spends
5
6
of an
hour driving to work at the same speed. How far is her rm from
her home?
(2) You give your fth grade class a problem: A faucet lls a bucket
with water in 30 seconds at a constant rate, and the capacity of the
bucket is 12 gallons. How long would it take the same faucet to
ll a vat with a capacity of 66 gallons? How would you explain to
your class how to do this problem?
(3) I drove from Town A to Town B at a constant speed of 50 mph,
and I drove back from Town B to Town A at a faster speed of 60
mph. The roundtrip took 14
2
3
hours. How far apart are the towns.
(4) A train goes between two towns in constant speed. By increasing
the speed by a third, the travel time is shortened by what percent?
(5) A water tank contains 271 gallons of water when it is
19
23
of its full
capacity. What is its full capacity?
(6) Because of drought, each faucet is tted with a water-saving device
to reduce the rate of water ow by 35%. How long does it take to
ll a tank if it used to take 15 minutes (assuming the faucet is fully
open in either case)?
262 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
(7) Tyrone is making a recipe that calls for
3
4
of a cup of ketchup.
Tyrone only has
1
3
of a cup of ketchup. Assuming that Tyrone has
enough of the other ingredients, what fraction of the recipe can
Tyrone make?
(a) Draw a picture to help you solve the problem. Explain how
your picture helps you to solve the problem.
(b) What are the dierent wholes that the fractions in this problem
refer to? For each fraction in the problem and in the solution
to the problem, describe the corresponding whole.
(8) If your full daily value of potassium is 3600 milligrams, then how
many milligrams is 45% of your daily value of potassium?
(a) Show how to solve the problem with the aid of a picture. Ex-
plain how your picture helps you solve the problem.
(b) Explain how to solve the problem numerically.
(9) If the normal rainfall for August is 2.5 inches, but only 1.75 inches
of rain fell in August, then what percent of the normal rainfall fell
in August?
(a) Show how to solve the problem with the aid of a picture. Ex-
plain how your picture helps you solve the problem.
(b) Explain how to solve the problem numerically.
(10) If the full capacity of a tank is 25 liters and the tank is lled with
only 15 liters, then what percent full is the tank?
(a) Show how to solve the problem with the aid of a picture and
common fractions. Explain how your picture helps you solve
the problem.
(b) Explain how to solve the problem numerically.
(11) If $85, 000 is 40% of the budget, then what is the full budget?
(a) Show how to solve the problem with the aid of a picture. Ex-
plain how your picture helps you solve the problem.
(b) Explain how to solve the problem numerically.
(12) If
3
4
of a cup of juice gives you 100% of your daily value of vitamin
C, then what percent of your daily value of vitamin C will you get
in 1 full cup of juice? Solve this problem by drawing a diagram.
Explain how your diagram helps you to solve the problem.
(13) If Company A sells 30% as many cars as Company B, then what are
Company Bs car sales, when they are calculated as a percentage
of Company As sales? Draw a picture or diagram to help you solve
the problem. Use your picture to help you explain your answer.
(14) Alice and Jose are planning to mix red and yellow paint. They are
considering which of the two following paint mixtures will make a
more yellow paint
a mixture of 2 parts red to 7 parts yellow
a mixture of 3 parts red to 8 parts yellow
Alice says that both paints will look the same because to make
the second mixture you just add one part of each color to the rst
8. FINITE DECIMALS 263
mixture. Because you add the same amount of each color, the
second mixture should look the same as the rst mixture. Jose
says that the second mixture should be more yellow than the rst
because it uses 8 parts yellow and the rst mixture only uses 7 parts
yellow. Discuss the childrens ideas. Is their reasoning valid or not?
Which paint will be more yellow and why?
(15) A dough recipe calls for 3 cups of our and 1
1
4
cups of water. You
want to use the same ratio of our to water to make a dough with
10 cups of our. How much water should you use?
(a) Set up a proportion to solve the problem. Explain why you
can set up the proportion as you do. What is the logic behind
the procedure of setting up a proportion? What do the two
fractions that you set up mean and why do you set those two
fractions equal to each other?
(b) Solve the proportion by cross-multiplying. Explain why it
makes sense to cross-multiply. What is the logic behind the
procedure of cross-multiplying?
(c) Now solve the problem of how much water to use for 10 cups of
our in a dierent way, by using the most elementary reasoning
you can. Explain your reasoning clearly.
8. Finite decimals
Here we return to the main discussion. Fractions mean positive frac-
tions in this section.
Dene a nite decimal (sometimes called a terminating decimal) to be
a fraction whose denominator is a power of 10. Because we know how
to add, subtract and multiply fractions, we know how to do the same to
nite decimals. The notation with the decimal point for nite decimals
(i.e., writing 5.12 for 512/10
2
, etc.) requires that we systematically re-write
the results of the addition, subtraction, and multiplication of these special
fractions in terms of the decimal-point notation. This is easily accomplished
because once these special fractions are expressed in terms of a common
denominator in a suitable power of 10, these operations become operations
on the whole numbers in the numerators. These are the so-called rules
This is another point
where one of the main
themes in the previous
chapter, the confusion
between the informal
usage in everyday
language and the need
for precision in
mathematics
instruction are at odds.
about the decimal point in decimal computations. A clear explanation of
these rules should be a major emphasis in professional development.
There are many stories concerning students failure to deal with the
comparison or computation of decimals, yet the most likely explanations for
these anecdotes are defects in mathematics instruction, not student inabil-
ity.
15
It is dicult for students to learn about decimals if they are never told
what a decimal is. For example, there are textbooks that introduce decimals
as numbers with a decimal point, and proceed to teach decimals before
15
This is based on the much larger success rate in teaching these concepts in other countries
264 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
discussing fractions.
16
As another example, teachers commonly permit stu-
dents to read a decimal like .04 as point oh four. This practice contributes
to the inability to recognize the relationship between fractions, decimals and
percents as it permits both students and pre-service teachers to believe that
.04 is fundamentally dierent from
4
100
or 5 percent because they are read
dierently. Under these circumstances, the rules concerning the arithmetic
of decimals would have to be taught by rote. And of course in the absence of
mathematical explanations, students also have to learn these rules by rote.
Now it is time that the subject of nite decimals be properly recognized as
a part of the subject of fractions. A possible teaching sequence could go as
follows:
(1) Read decimals representing tenths and hundredths,
(2) Write decimals representing tenths and hundredths,
(3) Several minimally dierent sets such as .07, .70, .7, .4, .04, .40
should be included among the examples to focus attention on the
number of digits following the decimal point,
(4) Reading and writing decimals representing thousandths
(5) Combining all these steps including minimally dierent sets through
thousandths and even ten thousandths.
Just as in the case of arithmetic operations, nite decimals can be or-
dered in the same way as whole numbers. For example, to order 0.1103 and
0.098, it suces to order
1103
10
4
and
980
10
4
,
and therefore 0.1103 > 0.098 because 1103 > 980. Again, one can formally
interpret this method of comparison directly in terms of the decimal-point
notation. For use in science, it is essential to go one step further and interpret
this comparison in terms of the scientic notation for nite decimals. Careful
explanation should be given to the following rule: if a 10
k
and b 10

are
two nite decimals in scientic notation, then:
if k = , then a < b implies a 10
k
< b 10
k
,
if k < , then a 10
k
< b 10

.
In a similar vein, the justication of rules for moving decimal points
in long division calculations for decimals rely on principles discussed in 3,
such as this general statement:
a
b
c
d
=
a
b
n
c
d
n
,
where n is a nonzero fraction (or whole number). From this it follows, for
example, that
16
This had often been the case in California before 2000, though it may not have been as
frequent in other states.
9. INFINITE DECIMALS 265
25.56
0.004
=
25560
4
.
Exercises:
(1) Plot
22
7
, 3.14, and 3.15 on the number line below in such a way that
each number falls on a tick mark. Lengthen the tick marks of whole
numbers (if any).
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
...............................
(2) When Mary converted a recipe from metric measurements to U.S.
Customary measurements, she discovered that she needed 8.63 cups
of our. Mary has a 1 cup measure, a
1
2
cup measure, a
1
4
cup
measure, and a measuring tablespoon, which is
1
16
of a cup. How
should Mary use her measuring implements to measure the 8.63
cups of our as accurately as possible? Explain your reasoning.
(3) Use the large, subdivided square below to help you explain why the
decimal representation of
1
8
is 0.125.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................. ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................. . ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................. ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................. . .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Show
1
8
(4) Show how to use pennies and dimes to help you explain why
1
5
= .2,
1
4
=, 25, and
1
8
= .125.
(5) Order the following numbers:
8
7
, 0.9998,
6
5
, 1.13.
9. Innite decimals
Fractions continue to mean positive fractions in this section.
The division of nite decimals was conspicuous by its absence in the
discussion of the arithmetic of decimals in the preceding section. This is
because such divisions do not always lead to nite decimals, and the reason
for this comes from the theorem that a fraction
a
b
is a nite decimal (i.e.,
equals a fraction with a power of 10 in its denominator) exactly when the
266 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
prime factors of the denominator b are 2 or 5, or both. Therefore, for
example, the division
.1
.3
=
1
10
3
10
=
1
3
does not lead to a nite decimal because 3 is not a product of 2s or 5s.
The proof of this theorem about fractions is a nice application of the Fun-
damental Theorem of Arithmetic. This proof shows how the uniqueness of
the prime decomposition can play a crucial role in such a down-to-earth
theorem. (See 15 of Chapter 4 for a short discussion of the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic. At this point it could be mentioned to students that
the Fundamental Theorem can be extended to the rationals by the simple
expedient of allowing the exponents of the primes to be positive or negative
integers and including the sign of the number. However, it could also be
pointed out that there are very natural generalizations of the integers for
which the Fundamental Theorem does not hold.)
To discuss the division of nite decimals in general, one must introduce
innite decimals. First, we introduce the so-called complete expanded form
of a nite decimal. We will try to do so without resorting to the use of
complicated notation. The nite decimal 35.2647, which is
352647
10
4
for
example, can be written as
35.2647 = (3 10
1
) + (5 10
0
) + (2 10
1
)
+(6 10
2
) + (4 10
3
) + (7 10
4
).
Similarly,
0.00004975 = (4 10
5
) + (9 10
6
) + (7 10
7
) + (5 10
8
).
The complete expanded form of a decimal is then the expression of a nite
decimal as a sum of products of single digit whole numbers and integer
powers of 10.
17
One may think of this as the ultimate statement about
place value in our decimal numeral system.
An innite decimal is a natural extension of the concept of the complete
expanded form of a nite decimal: instead of ending the complete expanded
form in a certain negative power of 10, we allow an innite progression to
the right using arbitrary negative powers of 10. This leads to the expression
of a sum of an innite sequence of terms, each being a product of a single
digit with a power of 10, starting with a xed power of 10 and goes innitely
to the right in decreasing powers of 10. If an innite number of these single
digits is nonzero, then we have an innite sum, and we call such an innite
sum an innite decimal (or more simply, decimal). For example, the number
17
Notice that we are forced to use the integers whole numbers and their negatives
at this juncture before we discuss them in the next section. However, the knowledge of integers
needed for this purpose is extremely primitive. Basically one only needs to know how to add them.
Nevertheless, the intrusion of negative numbers here is one reason why some would prefer to adopt
the alternative approach to numbers described in 2 and 4. Each approach has its advantages.
9. INFINITE DECIMALS 267
is an innite decimal:
= 3 10
0
+ 1 10
1
+ 4 10
2
+ 1 10
3
+ 5 10
4
+6 10
5
+ 2 10
6
+ 6 10
7
+ 5 10
8
+ 3 10
9
+5 10
10
+ 8 10
11
+ 9 10
12
+ 7 10
13
+ ,
which, according to our notation convention, is usually written as
= 3.14159265358979323046 . . .
As another example,

2 = 1 10
0
+ 4 10
1
+ 1 10
2
+ 4 10
3
+ 2 10
4
+1 10
5
+ 3 10
6
+ 5 10
7
+ 6 10
8
+ 2 10
9
,
which is normally written as

2 = 1.414213562373095048 . . ..
A precise denition of what an innite sum means is neither possible
in this context nor indeed necessary. It suces to give a heuristic argument
to explain why such an innite decimal (regardless of what the single digit
numbers may be) must correspond to a unique point on the number line.
One may also wish to round o the picture by stating the fact that every
point on the number line can be expressed as an innite or nite decimal.
It can happen that the digits of an innite decimal repeat periodically,
and there is a standard shorthand notation for these:
0.888888 0.8
16.41976767676 16.41976
0.285714285714285714 0.285714
Here the serves as a reminder that a notation is being dened, and
the bar (e.g., 523) indicates that the digits under the bar are repeating. We
adopt the convention that at least one of the digits under the bar is nonzero.
Such innite decimals are called repeating decimals.
Two facts concerning repeating decimals are basic to elementary school
mathematics:
Theorem A Every fraction is equal to a nite or repeating decimal.
Theorem B Every repeating decimal is equal to a fraction.
Both theorems deserve to be explained clearly. The explanation of The-
orem A depends critically on the long division algorithm. It suces to
consider proper fractions
a
b
where 0 < a < b (as explained in 3, every im-
proper fraction is the sum of a whole number and a proper fraction). This
algorithm, as performed on fractions for conversion to decimals, is summa-
rized in three steps:
(L1) Write the division-with-remainder for b dividing 10a.
268 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
(L2) Write the division-with-remainder for b dividing 10r,
where r is the remainder of the division-with-remainder of the
preceding step.
(L3) Repeat (L2) as many times as necessary.
It goes without saying that time should be spent in verifying that these
three steps indeed capture the usual computations using the long division
algorithm taught in schools.
For this volume, we shall explain in symbolic notation how these three
steps lead to a proof of Theorem A, but this kind of explanation would
be inappropriate for a general course in the professional devel-
opment for elementary teachers. For such courses, an explanation in
terms of concrete examples would be more to the point. For example, one
might carry out the steps of the procedure given below for the fraction
3
7
,
while simultaneously performing the long division calculation in parallel for
3 7, with corresponding steps compared.
This said, (L1) says to write
10a = q
1
b +r
1
, with 0 r
1
< b,
where q
1
is the quotient and r
1
is the remainder of the division of 10a by b.
Then (L2) says to write
10r
1
= q
2
b +r
2
, with 0 r
2
< b,
where q
2
is the quotient and r
2
is the remainder of the division of 10 r
1
by
b. If we wish, we may follow (L3) to write
10r
2
= q
3
b +r
3
, with 0 r
3
< b,
and then
10r
3
= q
4
b +r
4
, where 0 r
4
< b,
in self-explanatory notation. And so on.
Now one proves that each of the quotient q
1
, q
2
, . . . above is a single
digit number. It is then simple to pull all these equations together (e.g.,
the rst equation can be written as
a
b
=
q
1
10
+(
1
10
)(
r
1
b
) ) to arrive at the fact
that
a
b
=
q
1
10
+
q
2
10
2
+
q
3
10
3
+
= 0.q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4

It remains to observe that each of these decimal digits q
i
s is the quotient
of a division of 10r
i
by the same b. But the r
i
s all satisfy 0 r
i
< b, so
that among r
1
, r
2
, . . . , r
b+1
, two of them must be the same, say r
5
and r
15
.
Then q
6
and q
16
must be the same, and therefore the sequence (q
6
, . . . , q
15
)
must be identical to the sequence (q
16
, . . . , q
25
). And so on down the line.
This exhibits the repeating phenomenon in the above decimal expansion of
a
b
.
9. INFINITE DECIMALS 269
Two additional facts are worthy of note. One, any of the q
i
s could
be 0. So if, for example, q
1
= q
2
= 0, then
a
b
would be a decimal whose
rst nonzero digit appears no earlier than the third decimal digit. Two, the
usual rule about where to put the decimal point is explained precisely by
this algorithm: it appears right before q
1
.
Theorem B can be explained using either the geometric series or the
fact that every decimal (nite or innite) is a number and can therefore be
added or multiplied.
18
The latter approach is the one most commonly found
in school texts, but the presentation is usually garbled and students are not
explicitly told that they are operating on the assumption that decimals are
numbers. Take a simple example: 0.12. Let x = 0.12. Then 100x = 12.2
and 10x = 1.2. Subtracting gives 90x = 12.2 1.2 = 11. Therefore, x =
0.12 = 11/90. There is opportunity here to emphasize how each decimal is
treated like a number in terms of arithmetic operations.
We started this discussion by noting that nite decimals do not produce
nite decimals through the process of division. We now bring closure to this
discussion by drawing the obvious conclusion that division of nite decimals
leads to either a nite decimal or a repeating decimal. Indeed, if A and B
are nite decimals, then they are fractions and therefore by 3, the division
A
B
is a fraction. By Theorem A,
A
B
is a nite or a repeating decimal.
Theorem B has another important consequence that has a bearing on
our understanding of numbers. Assuming as usual the stated fact that any
innite decimal is a number, we can now produce at will an innite collection
of numbers that are not fractions: consider for instance the innite decimal
0.1010010001000010000010000001 . . . ,
where the number of zeros between successive 1s increases by one as we
go from left to right. Then this is clearly not a repeating decimal and, by
Theorem A, is not a fraction. We therefore see that there are many numbers
which are not fractions. These are called irrational numbers.
We can also produce irrational numbers by using the Fundamental The-
orem of Arithmetic. For example, we can easily prove that if n is a whole
number which is not a perfect square, then

n is irrational.
Exercises:
(1) Write each of the following decimals as a fraction in lowest terms:
(a) .6.
(b) 0.583.
(c) 1.16.
18
See the discussion of the Fundamental Assumption of School Mathematics in 14.
270 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
10. False Periods for Repeating Fractions
Here are some notes on interesting numbers that can help illustrate the
diculties with relying on calculators to do the repeating decimals material.
As well, this material can help pre-service teachers appreciate some of the
subtler aspects of the periodic behavior of the decimal expansions of fractions
and the problems with identifying patterns in data too quickly.
We will show how to construct sequences of fractions that appear to have
one kind of period to their decimal expansion on a calculator that displays
an arbitrary but xed number of decimal places. However, they will actually
have a dierent one. Moreover, these examples are fun to construct, and
form a nice pattern that students and pre-service teachers can discover
for themselves.
Consider the fractions
13
22
= .59090909
1311
2200
= .5959090909
131111
220000
= .595959090909
13111111
22000000
= .59595959090909
1311111111
2200000000
= .5959595959090909
131111111111
220000000000
= .595959595959090909
13111111111111
22000000000000
= .59595959595959090909
and so on. It is actually fun to construct numbers like these. What was
done was to add
1
11
which has decimal expansion .0909009 to terminating
decimals of the form .50, .5050, .505050 and so on. Such terminating deci-
mals represent fractions of the form
1
2
,
101
200
,
10101
20000
and so on, so the addition
is easy and soon reveals a nice pattern.
One could form decimals of the form .509009009009, .509509009009009,
.509509509009009009,
and so on in a similar way. Here one uses
1
111
and adds to it terminating
decimals of the form .5, .5005, .5005005 and so on. The sequence of fractions
one gets is
113
222
,
113111
222000
,
113111111
222000000
and so on.
These are examples of rational numbers with decimal expansions that
appear to start out with one period, but switch to another periodic form,
which then goes on to innity. Moreover, the part with the fake period
can be made as long as one wants before it switches to the real repeating
11. THE TWO-SIDED NUMBER LINE AND THE RATIONAL NUMBERS 271
part. As a consequence, students and pre-service teachers can discover for
themselves that it doesnt matter how accurate your calculator is, it is direct
to construct a fraction that will appear to have the WRONG periodic part
on the calculator.
Teachers need to see these kinds of examples, and it would not hurt if
students saw them as well. One could suggest mildly challenging exercises
for developing the pre-service teachers problem solving skills that extend
the examples above to length four
1113
2222
and so on, or maybe even examples
where the expansions rst appear to have one period, then appear to have
another, and nally settle into the actual period.
11. The two-sided number line and the rational numbers
Up to this point, the equation
7
5
+ x =
1
2
has no solution, in the sense
that there is no positive fraction x to make this equation hold true. We
now introduce numbers that would provide solutions to this and similar
equations, in much the same way that the introduction of positive fractions
provided solutions to the equation ax = b for whole numbers a and b (see
the end of 3 for a discussion).
We go back to the number line which, up to now, has been scrutinized
only on the right side of the point we designate as 0. It is time that we
make full use of the entire number line, both to left and right. Recall that
a number is by denition a length on the number line. We now look at all
the numbers as a whole. Take any point p on the number line p could
be on either side of 0 and, in particular, it does not have to be a positive
fraction and we denote its mirror reection on the opposite side of 0 by
(p). Thus by construction, p and (p) are equidistant from 0 and are on
opposite sides of 0. There are two simple but important observations to
make:
(0) = 0 and ((p)) = p
for any point p. The rst is a consequence of the denition of (), and the
second is nothing but a succinct way of expressing the fact that reecting a
point across 0 twice in succession brings a point back to itself. Here are two
examples of reecting two points p and q in the manner described:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...............
................
................
................
................
p q
(p) (q)
0
Because positive fractions are to the right of 0, the numbers such as (1),
(2), or (
9
5
) are to the left of 0. Here are some examples of the reections of
positive fractions (remember that positive fractions include whole numbers):
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................
................
................
................
................
................
................
0 1 2
3
(1) (2)
(3)
................
................
2
3
_

2
3
_
................
................
8
5
_

8
5
_
2
3
4
................
................
_
2
3
4
_
272 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
The collection of all the positive fractions, their mirror reections with re-
spect to 0, and 0 itself is called the rational numbers. The reections of the
positive fractions are called negative fractions.
Recall that the whole numbers are a sub-collection of the positive frac-
tions. The collection of whole numbers and their mirror reections,
. . . (3), (2), (1), 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
is of course the integers. Thus the integers are contained in the rational
numbers.
We pause to make a comment about notation. To prospective teachers,
a number like (2) is just 2, and (
1
3
) is
1
3
. We choose not to use the
negative sign without the parentheses at this point because it carries too
much psychological baggage. For one thing, if we write 2, many teachers
would automatically think of subtract 2. It is our intention to elucidate
the meaning of subtraction among rational numbers (see next section), how-
ever, and it would be counterproductive to invite this kind of distraction.
So for now, we just use the notation (), though any other consistent no-
tation, for example replacing (a) by a

would do as well.
12. The arithmetic operations on rational numbers
Given two rational numbers x and y, what could x +y mean? If x and
y happen to be positive fractions, x + y has already been dened by the
concatenation of segments (see 3). In order to expand this denition to
include the case of arbitrary rational numbers, we introduce the concept of
a vector. This is by no means the only way to approach this topic, and other
options are discussed in the next section.
By denition, a vector is a segment on the number line together with a
designation of one of its two endpoints as a starting point and the other as
an endpoint. We shall refer to the length of the segment as the magnitude
of the vector, and call the vector left-pointing if the endpoint is to the left
of the starting point, right-pointing if the endpoint is to the right of the
starting point. The direction of a vector refers to whether it is left-pointing
or right-pointing. We denote vectors by placing an arrow above the letter,
e.g., x, y, etc. If x is a rational number (in fact any number), x will denote
the vector whose starting point is 0 and whose endpoint is x. To dene the
addition of two vectors, x + y, it suces to specify the starting point and
the endpoint of x +y :
The starting point of x +y is 0.
The endpoint of x + y is obtained as follows: slide y
along the number line until the starting point of y is at the
endpoint of x, then the endpoint of x + y is by denition
the endpoint of y in this new position.
12. THE ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL NUMBERS 273
For deniteness, we write x for the vector pointing from the origin to a
number on its left, where x is the vector from the origin to the equidistant
number on the right.
As an illustration, here is what

2 +

1 looks like:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................
................
................
................
................
................
................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ........
0 1 2 3 1 2 3
We can now dene the sum x +y of two rational numbers x and y:
x +y = the endpoint of x +y.
Or, in other words, the vector

(x+y) satises:

(x+y)= x +y,
by denition. If x and y are positive fractions, it is seen immediately that
the line segment of x +y is one obtained by concatenating the segments of
x and y. Therefore x +y coincides with the sum of the respective fractions
as dened in 3. Thus this denition of addition for rational numbers is an
extension of the usual denition of the addition of positive fractions.
The addition of rational numbers so dened has the usual algebraic prop-
erties expected of addition:
(A) x + (x) = (x) +x = 0 for any x.
(B) 0 +x = x + 0 = x for any x.
(C) If x +y = 0, then x = (y) and y = (x).
(D) If x +y = x or y +x = x, then y = 0.
(E) Commutative law: x +y = y +x for any x and y.
(F) Associative law: (x +y) +z = x + (y +z).
These are not dicult to prove, and in any case, the proofs are straight-
forward. A more substantial assertion is the following:
(G) (x +y) = (x) + (y).
The proof of (G) is instructive, as it illustrates the level of abstraction
that is needed in elementary mathematics when the latter is taught properly.
We have to show that (x) + (y) is equal to (x + y), and the key is to
realize that the latter is characterized by the fact, stated in (C), that it is
the only rational number J satisfying J + (x + y) = 0. Thus if we can
274 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
show that
((x) + (y)) + (x +y) = 0,
then it would follow from (C) that (x) +(y) = (x+y). This we can do
easily:
((x) + (y)) + (x +y) = (x) + (y) +x +y (associative law (F))
= (x) +x + (y) +y (commutative law (E))
= 0 + 0 = 0, (by (A))
exactly as claimed. So (G) is proved.
It is time for us to revisit the concept of subtraction at this point. By
the direct use of the denition of addition of rational numbers, we see that
if x and y are positive fractions and x y, then
x y = x + (y).
This is because (y) points to the left, so that the vector addition x+(y)
amounts to taking away a segment of length y from the right end of the
segment from 0 to x, as shown, so that x + (y) is the same as x y:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...............
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........
...........
...................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........
...........
y x
The equation xy = x+(y) for positive fractions x and y where x y
prompts us to introduce the following denition for xy where x and y are
arbitrary rational numbers:
x y
def
= x + (y).
It follows that for any rational number y,
0 y = (y),
so that, for brevity, we shall agree from now on to write
y for 0 y or (y).
In this notation, the denition of subtraction becomes
x y
def
= x + (y)
Moreover, (C) and (G) become, respectively,
(C) If x +y = 0 , then x = y and y = x.
(G) (x +y) = x y.
(G) is important for the purpose of explaining why the usual rule about
removing parentheses is correct, i.e.,
12. THE ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL NUMBERS 275
(x y) = x +y.
This is because,
(x y) = (x + (y)) (by denition of x y)
= x (y) (by (G))
= x + ((y)) (by denition of x (y))
= x +y
Furthermore, knowing that subtraction is just a dierent way of writing
addition sheds light on some nagging issues in elementary mathematics. For
example, if we have rational numbers x, y, z, a, b, and c, why is the following
equation correct?
(x +y +z) (a +b +c) = (x a) + (y b) + (z c).
But recognizing that (x+y +z) (a+b +c) = (x+y +z) +((a+b +c)) =
(x + y + z) + ((a) + (b) + (c)) and (x a) + (y b) + (z c) =
(x + (a)) + (y + (b)) + (z + (c)), we understand that this is no more
than the associative law of addition at work. Without this new perspective
on subtraction, clearly any explanation would be clumsy and less informa-
tive. A similar equation of course holds for a pair of k rational numbers for
any whole number k (the above is the case of k = 3).
There is unfortunately no simple intuitive way to introduce the multi-
plication of rational numbers. Some sophistication is involved no matter
how it is done. We want to know what the product of two rational numbers
should be. If both p and q are positive fractions, we already know what pq
is; see 3. So the question is:
if p and q are positive fractions, what should q(p), (p)q,
and (p)(q) be?
Mathematics is ultimately a technical subject, and while much of it is
steeped in everyday life and physical phenomena, there will always be a core
component that is beyond what might be called humanization. All teach-
ers of mathematics should know this fact, and we have the responsibility to
teach them this fact without mincing words. In our opinion, the reason that
(p)(q) = pq and p(q) = (p)q = (pq) are true is a good illustration
of this point. The reason is ultimately that we want the commutative law
and the distributive law for multiplication of rational numbers to be valid.
We begin with q(p). In order for the distributive property to hold, it
must the case that
0 = q(0) = q(p + (p)) = qp +q(p)
276 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
Then by (C) of 11, q(p) = (qp). In order for multiplication of rational
numbers to be commutative, we also have (p)q = q(p) = (qp) = (pq).
The explanation that (p)(q) = pq is similar and uses this result:
0 = q(0) = q(p + (p)) = (q)p + (q)(p)
Now since (q)p = (qp), it follows again by (C) of 11 that (q)(p) = pq.
An immediate consequence of these facts is that forany rational number r,
(1) (1)r = r
What we have just done is to indicate how we may dene the mul-
tiplication of rational numbers if we are willing to make some reasonable
assumptions about them. In general, one can approach the multiplication of
rational numbers in one of two standard ways. The rst is to dene outright
the product as follows: if p and q are any two positive fractions, then
_

_
pq = the usual product of positive fractions
(p)q = pq
p(q) = pq
(p)(q) = pq
This suces to dene all products xy for rational numbers x and y. One then
proceeds to verify that the multiplication so dened obeys the associative,
commutative, and distributive laws. This verication is noteworthy only for
its tediousness. A side remark is that one can also verify that, in fact, for
any rational numbers x and y, it is true that
(2) (x)y = x(y) = xy and (x)(y) = xy.
A second approach to multiplication is to declare at the outset that, going by
our prior experience with numbers, we expect the multiplication of rational
numbers to obey the associative, commutative, and distributive laws. Then
based on this overarching assumption, we prove rigorously that (2) is true
for all rational numbers x and y.
What we did above was a mixture of these two approaches, and in a
sixth or seventh grade classroom, such a less formal mixed approach is the
recommended presentation.
With multiplication at our disposal, we can now shed light on a fact
that is much used but almost never explained. This may be called the
distributive law for subtraction. For example, if x, y, z and w are rational
numbers, then
x(y z w) = xy xz xw.
This is easy to see once we recall that for rational numbers, subtraction is
expressible in terms of addition. Thus x(y z w) = x(y +(z) +(w)) =
12. THE ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL NUMBERS 277
xy +x(z) +x(w) = xy xz xw, where we have made use of the (ordi-
nary) distributive law and also (2). The same fact remains true if, instead
of three terms in the parentheses, there are any number of terms.
Finally, division. If x and y are rational numbers and y ,= 0, what is
meant by
x
y
? Having answered this question for positive x and y in 3,
there is no surprise left: we should dene
x
y
to be the rational number z so
that x = zy, i.e.,
x
y
= z if x = zy (y ,= 0)
As in 3, we can easily show that if x and y are rational numbers and
y ,= 0, then there is a unique rational number z so that x = zy. This fact
immediately insures that the preceding denition of
x
y
is always meaningful.
For a reason that will be obvious presently, we wish to examine in greater
detail this solution z.
Let a, b, c, d be whole numbers. If x =
a
b
and y =
c
d
, then the z that
satises x = zy is z =
ad
bc
(see 3). Next, still with x = zy,
(3) x =
a
b
, y =
c
d
or x =
a
b
, y =
c
d
implies z =
ad
bc
.
Finally,
(4) x =
a
b
, y =
c
d
implies z =
ad
bc
.
The observation we wish to make, by looking at (3) and (4), is that the divi-
sion of rational numbers does not obey the invert-and-multiply rule because
of the presence of the (negative) signs. We wish to remedy this situation.
Using the same notation as above, we may consider a, b, etc. as rational
numbers so that
a
c
or
a
c
or
a
c
is already well-dened as a division of rational numbers. In fact, equating a
with
a
1
, b with
b
1
, etc., we see from (3) and (4) that
a
c
=
a
c
=
a
c
a
c
=
a
c
We make the further observation that regarding
a
c
or
a
c
or
a
c
as a division
of the numerator by the denominator is consistent with the symbols
a
c
itself
because the latter also means a divided by c; see the discussion in 1. We
shall refer to a division of a rational number by another also as a quotient of
rational numbers for convenience. In this terminology, we have just shown
that every rational number, positive or negative, can be written as a quotient
of two integers.
19
In particular, if x, y are rational numbers and x =
a
b
and
19
Recall, an integer is a whole number or the negative of a whole number.
278 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
y =
c
d
where a, b, etc., are now integers, then (3) and (4) may be neatly
summarized as:
(5)
a
b
c
d
=
ad
bc
Thus the invert-and-multiply rule is again valid for the division of rational
numbers.
We can reap immediate benet from the generalized invert-and-multiply
rule. Recall that in 5, all the equations regarding complex fractions are de-
rived from the invert-and-multiply rule for the division of positive fractions.
With the availability of (5), we see that all the equations in 5 are now
valid for the quotient of rational numbers. In particular, the counterpart of
equation (a) in 5 implies that if x and y are rational numbers, then
x
y
= x
1
y
.
We shall follow the common practice of writing y
1
for
1
y
and call y
1
the
multiplicative inverse of y, or more simply inverse if there is no danger of
confusion. Thus
x
y
= xy
1
,
and the division of rational numbers is now expressed in terms of multi-
plication. This is the exact analogue of expressing subtraction in terms of
addition among rational numbers (see 11). Note also that the inverse of
a product xy can be expressed in terms of the inverses of the individual
factors:
(xy)
1
=
1
xy
=
1
x
1
y
= x
1
y
1
.
In this notation, the cancellation law for rational numbers (i.e., the coun-
terpart of equation (b) in 5) becomes conceptually more transparent:
xz
yz
= xz(yz)
1
= xzy
1
z
1
= xzz
1
y
1
= xy
1
=
x
y
.
Exercises: In these exercises it is important that students explain both
what they are doing and why they are doing it.
(1) Compute and simplify:
(a)
3.6
5

2.5
0.9
.
(b)
7
1.2
+
5
1.8
.
(c)
4
27

1
3.6
.
13. ORDERING RATIONAL NUMBERS 279
13. Ordering rational numbers
At the end of 1, we briey discussed the comparison of two positive
fractions to see which is bigger. This is a continuation of that discussion.
If x and y are rational numbers, we say x < y if x is to the left of y on
the number line, and say x y if x = y or x < y. From the denition of
vector addition, it follows immediately that x < y exactly when y +

(x) is
right-pointing, which is the same as y x > 0. Therefore the denition of
x < y may be rephrased as y x > 0.
We now summarize the most basic facts about inequalities.
(A) x < y implies x +z < y +z for every z.
(B) If z > 0, and if x < y, then xz < yz.
(C) If z < 0, and if x < y, then xz > yz.
(D) If x < y, then x > y.
(E) x > 0 exactly when x
1
> 0.
Item (C) is generally regarded as the most confusing, so we give two
proofs. The rst one is probably one that should be used in the classroom
of grades 67, but the second one, which is algebraic, is one that teachers
should try to master as well.
Write z as p, where p is positive. We are therefore trying to prove that
if x < y, then px > py. We have x and y in the following position:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...............
................
................
0 x
y
We have pictured x and y to be both positive for easy understanding, but the
correctness of the subsequent argument is not aected by this assumption.
Since p > 0, the relative positions of px and py will not change: px is to the
left of py, though the distance from px to py is p times that of x to y:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...............
................
................
0 x
y
Now we obtain px and py from px and py, respectively, by reecting
across 0, and in so doing the relative positions of px and py are reversed, as
seen from the picture:
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ...............
................
................
................
................
0
px py px py
The end result is therefore that py < px, exactly as claimed.
280 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
Now the algebraic proof. This requires the ability to mentally translate
the intuitive concept of x < y into purely algebraic terms. By our discus-
sion, x < y is the same as y x > 0. If z < 0, then z > 0, so that
by (B), (z)(y x) > 0, and by the distributive law (see the end of 11),
(z)y +(z)(x) > 0, i.e., xz yz > 0. This is then the same as xz > yz.
Incidentally, the rst proof gives another convincing argument why den-
ing rational numbers as points on the number line is pedagogically sound.
14. The Fundamental Assumption of School Mathematics
We have been careful to chart a course of development of numbers that
provides a smooth transition from whole numbers to positive fractions to
rational numbers. Although school mathematics, as we mentioned earlier,
is essentially that of rational numbers, irrational numbers do show up nat-
urally from time to time. Unfortunately, a discussion of the transition from
rational numbers to real numbers is entirely missing in the school curricu-
lum. We take up this topic briey here.
Suppose we have a cylinder with a radius of 1 foot and a height of

2
feet. What is its total surface area S ? A simple computation gives
S = 2 + 2

2 (6)
= 2(1 +

2) (7)
Such computations are routine in school mathematics, and can take place
as early as the seventh grade. From a mathematical standpoint, however,
these are anything but routine. Equation (6) adds two numbers neither of
which is rational, but thus far we have only dealt with rational numbers
and, in fact, spent a good deal of time to make sense of the addition of two
rational numbers (3 and 11). So what does it mean to add 2 to 2

2 ?
Equation (7) is obtained from (6) by use of the distributive law, but so far
we have only discussed the distributive law for rational numbers. How do
we know (7) is correct?
Suppose we also ask for the ratio (i.e., the number obtained by division,
see 7) of the surface area S to the surface area of the sphere of radius 1,
which is 4. This ratio is then:
(8)
2(1 +

2)
4
=
1 +

2
2
We have used the cancellation law for fractions. But wait: both the numer-
ator and denominator here are irrational! What does it mean, and more
importantly, how do we know the cancellation law is valid?
We will answer all these questions rst by making a sweeping statement
and then we give a very brief discussion. School mathematics operates on the
14. THE FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTION OF SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 281
following implicit assumption, which we propose to call The Fundamental
Assumption in School Mathematics (FASM):
All the arithmetic properties enjoyed by ratio-
nal numbers (see 11) are also enjoyed by real
numbers.
One has to admit that the situation is Kafkaesque, the fact that such a
profound assumption concerning all the mathematics in the latter part of K
12 could be left implicit, but it only points to the need for the writing of this
volume. We believe that all upper elementary and middle school teachers
should be exposed to a discussion of FASM. How else can they appreciate the
above kind of area computations that show up in their classrooms? In any
case, if we put our faith in FASM, then all the doubts about equations (6)
(8) would vanish, because it gives us a blanket guarantee that everything
done above, insofar as it formally resembles the arithmetic of rational
numbers, must be correct.
It remains to give the barest sketch of why FASM is correct. A funda-
mental fact, which is beyond school mathematics, is that every real number
is the limit of a sequence of rational numbers. Here, limit has to be taken
in the intuitive sense, although it has a precise meaning in mathematics. For
example, the irrational number

2 is the limit of the sequence of nite dec-
imals a
1
, a
2
, . . . , obtained from the expression of

2 as an innite decimal
(see 9), i.e., from

2 = 1.4142135623730950488 . . ., we dene:
a
1
= 1
a
2
= 1.4
a
3
= 1.41
a
4
= 1.414
a
5
= 1.4142
.
.
.
a
15
= 1.41421356237309
a
16
= 1.414213562373095, etc.
Then it is altogether believable that

2 is the limit of these a
1
, a
2
, . . .
Take a concrete example: what is the meaning of the product

2 in
equation (6)? It is the following. Let a
1
, a
2
, etc. be a sequence of rational
numbers whose limit is

2, and similarly let Let b

1
, b
2
, etc. be a sequence of
rational numbers whose limit is . Then we know what each of the products
a
1
b
1
, a
2
b
2
, a
3
b
3
, etc., means because they are products of rational numbers
(see 3 and 11). Then by denition,

2 is the limit of the sequence of
rational numbers a
1
b
1
, a
2
b
2
, a
3
b
3
, . . . . Furthermore, the sum 2 + 2

2
is now understood in the following way: keeping the notation as above, so
that the limit of the sequence a
1
b
1
, a
2
b
2
, a
3
b
3
, . . . is

2 and the limit of
the sequence b
1
, b
2
, . . . is . Then 2 + 2

2 is by denition the limit of

the following sequence of rational numbers:
2b
i
+ 2a
i
b
i
for i = 1, 2, 3, . . .
282 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
Next we look at the quotient
2(1+

2)
4
in equation (8) and explain
what it means. Still using the same notation, we have a sequence of rational
numbers a
1
, a
2
, . . . with limit

2, and b
1
, b
2
, . . . with limit . Then the
quotient
2(1+

2)
4
is by denition the limit of the following sequence of
complex fractions (and therefore rational numbers):
2b
i
(1 +a
i
)
4b
i
for i = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Note two things: one is that the cancellation law for complex fractions ((b)
of 5) shows that
2b
i
(1 +a
i
)
4b
i
=
1 +a
i
2
for each i, and since the limit of a
i
is

2, the limit of the right side is
1+

2
2
.
This is exactly equation (8) and it shows the importance of knowing complex
fractions and their arithmetic operations.
The second and last thing to notice from this discussion is that since
complex fractions are suppressed in school mathematics, it stands to reason
that so is FASM. The two kinds of neglect go hand-in-hand.
15. Sample Problems from Other Nations
We end this chapter with a collection of sample problems from other
nations.
Sixth Grade Japanese Math Problems
(1) Kate is 9 and her mother is 43. How old will Kate be when her age
is one-third of her mothers age?
(2) Kim is 30 years old and her daughter is one-third her age. How old
will Kim be when her daughter is just one-half her age?
(3) Becky and her sister have some money. The ratio of their money
is 3: 1. When Becky gives $5 to her sister, their ratio will be 2: 1.
How much money does Becky have?
(4) Arnold and Kirk have some money. The ratio of the amounts they
have is 9: 5. When Arnold gets $12 more and Kirk gets $16 more,
the dierence of their amounts will be $4. How much money dies
Kirk have?
(5) When you divide a number by
3
4
and subtract
1
3
from it, it equals
7
9
. What is the original number?
(6) Tom and Kims houses are 180 miles apart. If Tom travels to Kims
house at 35 mph and Kim travels to Toms house at 25 mph, how
long will it take till they meet?
(7) Two dogs started running around the lake in the same direction
at 11: 30am. The distance around the lake is 1.2 kilometers. The
rst dog runs 180 meters per minute and the second dog runs 150
15. SAMPLE PROBLEMS FROM OTHER NATIONS 283
meters per minute. What time is it when the rst dog passes the
second dog for the rst time?
(8) The train whose length is 200 meters entered a tunnel at 10: 30
sharp. When the last car of the train came out of the tunnel it was
10: 36 and 10 seconds. The length of the tunnel is 3500 meters.
How fast was the train traveling?
(9) You divided some money into 2 groups, A and B. 50% of the money
was divided equally into each group, but A got twice as much of
the remaining 50% as B. In the end, group A contained 60 cents
more than B. What is the combined total of A and B?
(10) Kim ate
1
8
of the apples he had. Then he ate 3 more than
1
9
of the
rest. At this point he had 11 apples remaining. How many apples
did he have originally?
(11) The sum of your money is 10 cents less than the sandwich that you
want. Also, your money is 15 cents more than 90% of the price.
How much is the sandwich?
(12)
4
5
of Bobs money is 10 cents less than the price of the steak. Also,
5
6
of his money is 5 cents more than the steak. How much is the
steak?
(13) A 100 meter long train traveling at 90 kilometers per hour took
50 seconds to completely pass by a 150 meter long train. At what
speed is the 150 meter train traveling?
(14) Use hose A you lled
1
3
of the pool in 3 hours. After that, you only
used hose B. After 3 hours,
1
2
of the pool was lled. Assume water
ows from each hose at a constant rate. How many more hours do
you need to ll the pool using both hoses together?
(15) Hose A can ll a pool in 4 hours and hose B can ll the pool in 6
hours. Hose B was used rst to ll the pool for
1
2
hour. Then, hose
A and hose B were both used together for 1 hour. After that, if
only hose A were used to ll the rest of the pool, how long would it
take? Assume that water ows from each hose at a constant rate.
(16) Tina, Becky and Brenda have a total of $165. Becky has $5 more
than Brenda. If Tina gives Brenda 10% of her money, Brenda will
have $2 more than Becky. How much money does Becky have?
Russian Second Grade Problems on Fractions
(1) Cut out a rectangle and fold it into 2, 4, and 8 equal parts. How
many halves, fourths, and eights are there in one rectangle?
284 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
(2) Cut out a square from a piece of paper and cut it into 2 equal parts
so that each forms a triangle. What fraction of the square is each
such part?
(3) 4 meters of wool cloth were bought at 12 rubles a meter, as well as
some silk at 8 rubles a meter. The same amount of money was paid
for the silk and the wool. How many meters of silk were bought?
(4) Some adults were gathering apples in large baskets, 16kg to a bas-
ket. Some Young Pioneers used small baskets, 10kg to a basket.
They lled as many baskets as the adults. How many kilograms of
apples did the Young Pioneers gather if the adults gathered 80kg.
(5) Fold a strip of paper 12cm long into 4 equal parts. Color
1
4
of the
strip. Find the length of
1
4
of the strip. How can you nd it?
(6) A girl cut o
1
3
of a string 6 meters long. How long is the piece of
string she cut o?
(7) A book has 60 pages. A boy read
1
3
of the book. How many pages
does he have left to read?
(8) The length of
1
2
of a strip equals 4 cm. What is the length of the
entire strip?
(9) Misha memorized half a poem. He memorized 18 lines. How many
lines in all are there in the poem?
Russian Third Grade Problems
The beginning discussion:
Into how many equal parts is the segment divided? Find in the
gures of the segment, two-fourths three-fourths, and four-fourths
of the segment.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ..................................................
.......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ......................................................................................... ........................................................................................ . ..................................................
......................................................................................... . ........................................................................................ . ........................................................................................ . ........................................................................................ . ..................................................
......................................................................................... . ........................................................................................ . ........................................................................................ . ........................................................................................ . ..................................................
.......................... .............. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ............ .........................
........................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ............ ......................... ..........................
..........................
..........................
..........................
..........................
..........................
Count how many equal parts each circle is divided into. How many
eighths of each circle are shaded? How many are not shaded?
The number written beneath the line, the denominator of the frac-
tion, shows how many equal parts the circle is divided into; the num-
ber above the line, the numerator of the fraction, shows how many
of these equal parts of the circle are taken.
15. SAMPLE PROBLEMS FROM OTHER NATIONS 285
(1) Read the fractions and explain how they are pictured.
(2) 522 Divide a line into 10 equal parts and mark
1
10
,
3
10
,
7
10
,
9
10
of the
segment.
(3) 523 Divide a segment into 9 equal parts and mark
1
9
2
9
,
7
9
,
9
9
of it.
(4) (a) 32 girls dresses or 16 womens dresses can be made from a
length of cotton fabric. Each girls dress requires 2 meters
of cotton. How many meters of cotton are needed for each
womens dress?
(b) One student wrote the following expression for the problem:
(2 32) 16. Another wrote the equation x 16 = 2 32.
Explain how each student thought about the problem.
(5)
(a) Look at the gure. What fractions of a rectangle are repre-
sented? Name them. How many thirds are there in a whole
rectangle? How many sixths?
(b) Using the gure, replace the squares with number that make
the following equalities true:
1
3
=
6
;
4
6
=
3
; 1 =
6
;
3
3
=
6
.
(6) Using the gure in 538 and the gure below compare the following
fractions:
3
5
and
4
5
;
6
10
and
3
5
, 1 and
5
5
,
7
10
and
3
5
,
2
3
and
2
9
,
6
6
and
5
5
,
286 5. FRACTIONS, RATIOS, PERCENTS, AND PROPORTION
3
9
and
1
3
.
(7) Arrange the following fractions in increasing order:
7
8
;
1
4
;
1
8
;
1
2
;
3
4
;
8
8
;
3
8
;
5
8
.
(8) Draw a line segment AB 12 cm long. Draw a line segment MK
equal to
5
6
the length of AB, and a line segment CD equal to
3
4
the
length of AB.
(9) Place 20 sticks on a desk; take
7
10
of the sticks. How many sticks
have you taken?
Russian Sixth Grade Problems
These are some sixth grade multi-step problems from Russia concerned with
ratio, rates, and proportions: (Enn Nurk, Aksel Telgmaa, Perpendicular
Press, 2003), p. 59
(1) Two trains depart simultaneously from dierent cities heading to-
ward one another. The rst train can make the trip between these
cities in 3 hours while the second train takes 4 hours. What frac-
tion of the distance separating the two cities will remain between
the two trains one hour after they depart?
(2) One faucet lls up a bathtub in 15 minutes while a second lls it
in 10 minutes. If both faucets are turned on, what fraction of the
bathtub will be lled in
(a) 1 minute
(b) 2 minutes
(c) 5 minutes?
15. SAMPLE PROBLEMS FROM OTHER NATIONS 287
(3) One faucet lls a barrel in 6 minutes while another lls it in 12
minutes. If both faucets are turned on for one minute, what fraction
of the barrel will be left to ll?
(4) It takes 4 minutes by car and 15 minutes on a bicycle to go a certain
distance. The average speed of the car is 90km/h. Come up with
an appropriate question and answer it.
CHAPTER 6
The Role of Technology in Mathematics
Instruction
Franklin D. Demana
Bert K. Waits
1. Introduction
It is important that students have a clear understanding of the underly-
ing processes of mathematics before they begin to use technology as an aid in
performing mathematical computations or to help deepen their understand-
ing about mathematics concepts. For example, if students do not understand
how real numbers are represented as decimals, then reading information from
calculator computations can be risky. If a decimal representation of a real
number is nite or innite repeating, then the real number is a rational
number; otherwise, the real number is an irrational number. (Reference:
Algebra Chapter, Section titled Polynomials, subsection titled
Application of polynomials to summing nite geometric series)
Graphing calculators, like the TI-83 Plus, represent every number by up to
15 decimals but only show the rst 10. So, calculators represent real num-
bers as rational numbers with denominator of the form 2
a
5
b
where 2
a
5
b
<
10
16
. In addition, there are important reasons why calculators do not show
all the decimals they work with internally in the display.
Technology can be very misleading if you dont understand the mathe-
matical behavior of what is under consideration. For example, if you graph
y = x
2
15x 5 in the standard viewing window (-10 x 10, -10
y 10) on a graphing calculator you will see what appears to be a
line. However, if you know all the possibilities for the graph of a quadratic,
then you can use a graphing calculator to nd an appropriate graph (it is
NOT a line) and many of the important features of the graph. Without ba-
sic mathematical understanding of the graph a graphing calculator doesnt
help.
Technology used appropriately can be a powerful exploration device
for mathematical investigations. Again understanding the mathematics, or
mathematical possibilities behind the scene, is crucial to appropriate use of
the technology.
289
290 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
It is important to know that essentially all of the high achieving countries
defer calculator use until about sixth grade. In a recent report of the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), a report on policies
on calculator usage in selected countries
(http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind02/c1/tt01-08.htm)
was given. For example, primary school students in Singapore are not al-
lowed to use calculators in mathematics and only restricted use is permitted
in grades 7 and higher. Calculators were not permitted until grade six in
Japan at the time of the report above, though in recent years calculators
have been permitted at all grade levels for specially marked problems. It
is worth noting, however, that calculators are not permitted on examina-
tions in Japan. Calculator use is considered appropriate in higher grades
in Hungary. In South Korea, calculators are not used in class but the new
curriculum recommends the wide use of calculators.
There are studies underway in many countries investigating appropriate
ways to use technology in mathematics classes. For example, in China,
calculators are not permitted in grades 1 through 6 and scientic calculators
are allowed in some grade 7 through 9 classes. There are many pilot projects
studying the use of graphing calculators in grades 10 through 12.
Calculators are, in many ways, analogous to the slide rule of 100 50
years back. Before students were introduced to the slide rule they were
given extensive instruction in logarithms the mathematics underlying the
slide rule. Because of the scientic calculator we no longer teach logarith-
mic computation using paper and pencil interpolation. However, we should
introduce some of the key mathematical issues involved in calculator usage.
In the near future, it is likely that we will have even more eective tools
(like computer algebra systems), and we will have the same kinds of issues
to deal with then in that new context.
There appears to be little doubt that, used in the proper context, cal-
culators can be a very important tool in teaching mathematics as well as
applying it in other classes. However, in line with typical practices interna-
tionally, it is probably safest to defer their use in the classroom till about
grade 6.
We will list some of the research about using graphing calculators at
the end of this section. In particular, we report on a study commissioned
by TI on the use of handheld graphing calculators. These studies focused
on the use of technology in advanced algebra. There is little or no research
about the use of graphing technology in primary schools. Also the research
in middle school classrooms is sparse at best.
2. Introducing the Graphing Calculator and Its Functions
The TI-83 Plus (shown below) is used for the examples in this book
because the authors are most familiar with it, but other graphing calculators
have similar capabilities, addressed in very similar ways.
2. INTRODUCING THE GRAPHING CALCULATOR AND ITS FUNCTIONS 291
The screen on a graphing calculator where results of computations are
shown is sometimes referred to as the Home Screen. An example is shown
below
Computing times 4.5
2
on the Home Screen.
We begin by displaying the various keys of the TI-83 Plus in zones
according to their use. The rst row of the ten rows of keys on the TI-83
Plus begins with the key is shown below (Fig. 1). These keys are used
to access graphing features.
Fig.1
The next two rows of keys (Fig. 2) begin with the and keys
are used to edit expressions and values. The left, right, up, and down arrow
keys are used to navigate on the Home screen and within menus on the
calculator.
Fig.2
The next row of keys that begin with the key are used to display the
menus of the advanced features (Fig. 3).
Fig.3
292 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Finally, the bottom 6 rows of keys are used to access the scientic calculator
capabilities of the graphing calculator (Fig. 4).
Fig.4
3. Introducing Calculators Into The Classroom
A combination of keyboard entries and corresponding results on the
Home screen can help introduce the calculator to students.
Binary Operations
Numbers can be entered using the binary operations of addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, and division using the keys in the last column in
rows 6 through nine. For example, to perform the following computations
1. 123.5 + 67.9
2. 123.5 67.9
3. 23.4 11
4. 552 12
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 293
we press the corresponding keys shown below producing the results shown
on the Home screen (Fig. 5).
Fig.5
Note that the decimal point key is in the last row, third column.
Order of Operations
To compute the expression 14 + 7 8 using standard mathematical or-
der of operations, we multiply 7 times 8 rst and then add the result to 14
obtaining 70. Figure 6 shows that our calculator also interprets the expres-
sion the same way. Our calculator uses algebraic logic, which means it uses
mathematical order of operations that we are accustomed to.
Fig.6
Pressing produces 70.
If we want to add 14 and 7 before multiplying by 8, we can use paren-
theses (14 + 7) 8. This produces the result 168 which we can check with
294 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
our calculator (Fig. 7).
Fig.7
Pressing produces 168.
Example 1 Use mathematical order of operations to interpret and cal-
culate the expression 81 3 2. Then check with a calculator.
Solution Divisions and multiplications are done in order from left to
right. So 8132 = 272 = 54. Notice that it does not mean to multiply
the 2 and 3 before dividing. Our calculator gets the same result (Fig. 8).
Fig.8
Pressing produces 54.
(End of Example) Subtraction versus Negation The key in the eighth
row, last column is used for subtraction. The key in the last row, fourth
column is used to obtain the negative of a given number. For example, the
negative of 5 is negative 5 and the negative of negative 2 is positive
2 as illustrated in Figure 9. Notice also that subtracting 15 from 12 yields
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 295
negative 3.
Fig.9
Notice that the subtraction key is a little longer (horizontally) than
the negation key, and the negation key is a little higher up on the page
that the subtraction key.
Three computations involving negative numbers are given on the left
below. Figure 10 shows the corresponding results.
Fig.10
Repeated Addition and Repeated Multiplication
If we press we store the number 2 into the temporary mem-
ory called ANS located above the negation key in yellow. Then, if
we press we store the expression Ans + 2 into the temporary
memory called ENTRY located above the key in yellow. Now if
we press repeatedly, we will add 2 to the previous result as shown in
296 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Figures 11 and 12.
Fig.11
Press followed by 3 s.
Fig.12
Press an additional 6 s.
Notice that 22 is the result of adding eleven 2s. We will study more
uses of the ANS and ENTRY features of the calculator.
If we repeat the above process using in place of and in place of
we obtain repeated multiplication by 3 as illustrated in Figures 13 and
14.
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 297
Fig.13
Press followed by 3 s.
Fig.14
Press an additional 6 s.
Notice that 177,147 is the result of multiplying 3 by itself 11 times, or using
exponential notation, 3
11
= 177147.
Our calculator has an exponential key that we can use to compute
powers of numbers directly. Enter the base of the exponential expression
rst before the exponent key and then the exponent following the exponent
key. Figure 15 shows the results of the three exponential computations on
the left.
Fig.15
298 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
The number 3 is the base in the rst computation above and negative
2 is the base in the next two computations. The exponents are 11, 10, and
13, respectively.
Fractions
The FRAC feature of the calculator can be used to perform operations
with fractions to display the results in fractional form. The FRAC feature
is the rst item in the MATH menu. Press the key to see the menu
below (Fig. 16).
Fig.16
For example, if we want to add
1
2
and
3
4
we can use this key as illustrated
in Figure 17.
Fig.17
Press .
Example 2 Use the FRAC feature to perform the following operations.
(a)
1
2

3
4
(b)
2
3

5
6
(c)
3
4

2
3
Solution The keystrokes are given on the left below and the correspond-
ing results are shown on the Home screen displayed below (Fig. 18).
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 299
Fig.18
You should use traditional methods to conrm these results.
1
2

3
4
=
1
4
2
3

5
6
=
5
9
3
4

2
3
=
9
8
(End of Example)
A second way to perform the computation in part (c) of Example 2 is
to use the fact that dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its
inverse. The inverse can be obtained using the key in the fth row, rst
column. Here are the keystrokes and corresponding calculator display (Fig.
19).
Fig.19
The key can also be used to obtain the reciprocal of any number.
Scientic Notation
Any positive number can be written in scientic notation c10
m
, where
1 c < 10 and m is an integer. To put a negative number in scientic
notation, rst put its absolute value in scientic notation and then take the
negative of the result. Scientic notation provides a compact way to work
with very large and very small numbers. For example,
_
_
0.0001 = 1 10
4
0.0000678 = 6.78 10
5
2, 930, 000, 000, 000 = 2.93 10
12
_
_
300 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Here is the way our calculator represents numbers in scientic notation (Fig.
20).
Fig.20
Type the number followed by .
Notice that to represent the number c 10
m
, the calculator uses c
followed by E followed by the exponent m.
Numbers can be entered directly in scientic notation using the EE
feature in yellow above the comma key / in the sixth row, second column.
Whenever we press the key followed by a second key, whatever appears
in yellow above the second key is accessed. The keystrokes and correspond-
ing calculator display are shown in Figure 21 for 2.5 10
6
, 1.7 10
3
, and
1.7 10
4
.
Fig.21
When you enter negative integer exponents less than or equal to 4, the
calculator simply returns its scientic notation rather than standard scien-
tic notation. The same thing is true for positive exponents greater than or
equal to 10.
Decimals
We investigate calculator produced decimal representations of numbers
and begin by setting our calculator into oating point decimal mode as
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 301
indicated in Figure 22.
Fig.22
To access this screen press the key in the 2nd row. Figure 23 shows
the result of entering
1
17
in Float Mode. Notice that 10 decimal places are
shown.
Fig.23
Press .
We can use long division to nd out that the repeating block of 16
decimals for
1
17
is 0588235294117647, so
1
17
= 0. 0588235294117647. We can
conclude that our calculator does not display all the decimals for
1
17
, but
does give a suciently accurate approximation.
The numbers to the right of Float in the Mode screen above allow the
user to set the number of decimals shown in the calculator display. To set
the 3, use the arrow keys to move the cursor onto the 3 and press
302 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
(Fig. 24).
Fig.24
For example, calculating
1
17
using three decimal places is illustrated in Figure
25.
Fig.25
Graphing
In the algebra chapter you observed that the graph of an equation of
the form y = mx + b is a line. Consider the example y =2x + 3. It has
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 303
x-intercept (-
3
2
, 0) and y-intercept (0, 3). Its graph is shown in Figure 26.
Fig.26
We want to study how to graph this example with our calculator. Press
(rst row, rst column) and type the expression 2x + 3 into Y1.
Use the key in the third row, second column, for x. When we
use function-graphing mode on our calculator, X is always the independent
variable and Y is the dependent variable (Fig. 27).
Fig.27
Viewing Window
304 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Next we choose a rectangular portion of the plane in which our calculator
will display the graph. This rectangular region is called a viewing window
and is denoted by
[Xmin, Xmax, Xscl] x [Ymin, Ymax, Yscl].
This rectangle consists of all points (x, y) in the plane where Xmin x
Xmax and Ymin y Ymax. We want to choose values for Xmin,
Xmax, Ymin, and Ymax, so that the x-intercept and y-intercept will appear
in this rectangle. We also need to choose values for Xscl and Yscl that will
determine distance between the tick marks used on the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively. Press (rst row, second column) and enter the values
shown in Figure 28.
Fig.28
Then press (rst row, fth column) to see the graph in Figure 29.
Fig.29
[5, 5, 1]x[5, 5, 1]
We usually put the notation for the window, [-5, 5, 1] x [-5, 5, 1] in this
case, underneath the gure as shown above. Notice that the x-intercept and
y-intercept appear in this window. Also notice that a portion of the x-axis
and y-axis appear in this window. In fact, if Xmin < 0 and Xmax > 0, part
of the x-axis will always be shown in the window. Similarly, if Ymin < 0
and Ymax > 0, part of the y-axis will always be shown in the window.
Trace
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 305
We can use the TRACE feature to read coordinates of points on the
graph. Press and the rst coordinate you will see is the y-intercept
(0, 3) (Fig. 30).
Fig.30
You can move the cursor to the right by repeatedly pressing the right arrow
key left arrow key if you want to move to the left. In Figure 31 we
have pressed the right arrow key 5 times.
Fig.31
[5, 5, 1]x[5, 5, 1]
Notice when you use Trace the calculator places a blinking crosshair on
the point on the graph. The screen shots we use sometimes capture the
crosshair as in Figure 30. Other times the crosshair can show up as a small
rectangle as in Figure 31.
The coordinates of the point on the graph shown in Figure 31 are about
(0.53191489, 4.0638298). The second coordinate gives the value of Y at the
rst coordinate. The X-coordinate is complicated. The reason is that if
Xres in the Window menu is 1, the calculator uses 95 equally spaced values
from Xmin to Xmax. In this case the distance between consecutive X-values
used by the calculator is
Xmax Xmin
94
=
5 (5)
94
0.1063829787.
If you multiply this value by 5 you will get the value of X shown in Figure
31.
306 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
There is a way to get a point with given coordinates. Press
and type the number you want for X. For example, Figure 32 shows what
happens when you type 0.5 in Trace. Now we can see that the value of Y
when X = 0.5 is 4.
Fig.32
Decimal Window
We can choose another window in which the X-coordinates are nicer.
We will use the so-called Decimal Window which can be obtained by
pressing the key (rst row, third column) and selecting the fourth
item in the list (Fig. 33).
Fig.33
You can select it by pressing . The graph is shown in Figure 34,
Fig.34
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 307
and the corresponding window parameters in Figure 35.
Fig.35
We have nearly lost the Y-intercept because 3 is barely less than Ymax =
3.1. If we dont change Xmin and Xmax the X-coordinates will not change.
So a nice improvement on the window above is to change Ymin to 10 and
Ymax to 10 leaving Xmin and Xmax the same as before. The corresponding
graph is shown in Figure 36.
Fig.36
[4.7, 4.7, 1]x[10, 10, 1]
Now as you press the left or right arrow keys after you press , you
will get nice decimal values for X. The reason is
Xmax Xmin
94
=
4.7 (4.7)
94
= 0.1.
308 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Figure 37 shows one such X-coordinate. The corresponding value for Y is
the value of the linear function at the value of X.
Fig.37
[4.7, 4.7, 1]x[10, 10, 1]
Notice that the slope of the line y = 2x + 3 in the [-4.7, 4.7, 1] x [-10,
10, 1] window in Figure 37 appears dierent than the slope in the decimal
window [-4.7, 4.7, 1] x [-3.1, 3.1, 1] in Figure 34. Some viewing windows
distort geometric features like slope and distance. The decimal window is an
example of a square viewing window, that is, a viewing window that doesnt
distort angles and unit distances in the horizontal or vertical direction.
Standard Viewing Window
Another common window to use in graphing is the Standard Viewing
Window. Press to get the screen in Figure 38,
Fig.38
and select 6:Zstandard by pressing to get the screen in the standard
viewing window . You can check that the parameters for the Standard
Viewing Window are [10, 10, 1][10, 10, 1] by pressing as shown
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 309
in the screen in Figure 39.
Fig.39
Tables
It is also possible to show values of X and Y in a table. Press
to access the TBLSET window (Fig. 40). You can move around in this win-
dow using the four arrow keys.
Fig.40
Make sure that Auto is selected for the independent variable X (In-
dpnt) and dependent variable Y (Depend). To select Auto, place the
cursor on Auto using the arrow keys and press . The rst value used
for X is the value typed in for TblStart, 0 in the above gure. Tbl is
the value that will increment X, 1 in this case. Now press to
310 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
see the table in Figure 41.
Fig.41
You can move around in the table using the four arrow keys. In Figure
41 we have used the right arrow key to get to the second list, and then
the up arrow key to get to the top of the second list. Notice that the
equation relating X and Y appears at the bottom when the cursor is at the
top of the second list.
If we move the cursor into the rst list, we can expose move values for X
by using the up or down arrow keys as suggested in gures 42 and 43. The
table can be extended as far as you want in either direction.
Fig.42
Fig.43
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 311
We can directly type the values we wish to use for X by setting Indpnt
to Ask. In this case the settings for TblStart and Tbl have no eect.
Press and move the cursor to Ask in the Indpnt row and
press to obtain Figure 44.
Fig.44
Now press and enter the values 10, 0, 2, and 25 for X
(Fig. 45)
Fig.45
Once you type in seven values for X you will need to overstrike one of
the seven entries to type in a new one. Notice in this mode the values for X
need not be equally space.
Using STAT PLOT
Suppose we want to plot the following points with our calculator.
(-3, -13.5), (-2, -4), (-1, -0.5), (0, 0), (1, 0.5), (2, 4), (3, 13.5)
We will put the rst coordinates (x-coordinates) in list L1 and the second
coordinates (y-coordinates) in list L2. Lists can be found in the STAT menu.
312 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Press to get the menu shown in Figure 46.
Fig.46
Then select 1:Edit (press or ) to access the lists. If there are entries
in lists L1 or L2, use the arrow keys to go to the top of the list and press
to clear the entries. Your screen should look like the one
in Figure 47.
Fig.47
Now put the x-coordinates in list L1 and the y-coordinates in list L2.
Type the number and press to get to the next row. Use the arrow
keys to move through the lists (Fig. 48).
Fig.48
If you enter an incorrect entry, place the cursor on the incorrect entry
and overtype the incorrect entry with the correct one. If you leave an entry
3. INTRODUCING CALCULATORS INTO THE CLASSROOM 313
out, you can use the INSERT feature in yellow above the key. Place
the cursor where the entry should be, then press . A 0 will be
entered in the table. Now overtype the 0 with the correct entry and press
.
Now press to get to the STATPLOT menu as shown in Figure
49.
Fig.49
Select Plot 1 by pressing or . You will get the screen in Figure 50.
Fig.50
Again the arrow keys are used to move around on this menu. Move your
cursor to ON and press to turn on the Plot. The rst diagram
in the Type List represents scatter plot. Place your cursor on it and press
. Make sure L1 is in the Xlist. Place the cursor on whatever is there
and press . Notice that L1 is in yellow above the key. Make sure
that L2 is in the Ylist. Notice that L2 is above the key.
Finally, Mark is the symbol used to mark the plotted point. It can be
a small square, a small plus sign, or a point. It is possible to show up to
three dierent plots on the same screen. In those cases you will likely want
to distinguish the plots by using dierent marks. If there are only a few
points in the plot, then using the small square or cross can be helpful to
identify the points. On the other hand, if there are many points in a given
plot, then using the small square can clutter the plot. We choose to use the
314 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
small square in our example. Your screen should look like the one below
(Fig. 51).
Fig.51
We need to choose a viewing window that contains the points to be
plotted. The WINDOW settings given in Figure 52 will work.
Fig.52
Press to see the points plotted in this window. You should get the
graph in Figure 53.
Fig.53
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 315
Exercises
1. In what row is the key located?
2. In what row is the key located?
3. Insert parentheses in 81 3 2 so that the multiplication 2 times
3 occurs rst.
In Exercises 4-8, use your calculator to perform the computations.
4. 71 (17 (9))
5.
45+75
17(13)
6. (3)
12
7. (3)
9
8. (7.56 10
8
)(3.24 10
3
)
In Exercises 9-11, use your calculator to perform the computation and
express your answer as a fraction.
9.
2
3
+
7
8
10.
8
3

5
2
11.
7
4

5
6
12. (a) Which window, the Decimal Window or Standard Viewing
Window, gives the better graph of the linear function y = 3x 4?
(b) Use Trace to evaluate the function y = 3x 4 for x = -6, -2.2, 2.5,
7.5.
13. Use STATPLOT to draw a scatter plot of the following points.
(-3, 6), (-2, 1), (-1, -2), (0, -3), (1, -2), (2, 1), (3, 6)
14. Explain why the decimal numbers that appear on a calculator are
rational numbers (quotients of two integers) where the denominator is of the
form 2
a
5
b
.
4. Mathematical Activities
The TI-83 Plus does not usually display all the digits it uses internally
to represent a number. At most 10 decimals are shown as in the oating
decimal point representation for
1
17
in Figure 23. However, it is possible to
see the remaining digits that the calculator is hiding if we make an extra
step.
Example 3 Find some of the decimals that are not shown on the display
for the following numbers.
(a)
1
17
(b)

3
316 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Solution (a) We start by subtracting the decimals displayed on the
Home screen from
1
17
as indicated in Figure 54.
Fig.54
The result is in calculator scientic notation.
It appears that four of the missing decimals might be 1176. Of course
we know this is true from the mathematics of the long division process, but
the point of the calculator is to avoid the extra work. We can subtract the
corresponding 14 decimal number from
1
17
and the calculator apparently
shows 0 as the result (Fig. 55).
Fig.55
In general, such calculator computations cant be trusted because we are
exceeding the capabilities of the machine. It only stores the answer to 14
or 15 decimal places internally, and what we are showing are the remaining
digits in the register. Moreover, if the stored number is the result of many
successive calculations, there is the likelihood of error buildup, and we have
to be careful about how many digits we actually trust.
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 317
(b) The screen in Figure 56 shows the calculator representation for

3.
Fig.56
The square root symbol is above the key in the sixth row, rst column.
Again we subtract the display from the number as shown (Fig. 56). Because
the result is negative we should subtract the smaller number 1.732050807
from

3. The result is shown in Figure 57.
Fig.57
A good guess for the 14-digit representation is 1.7320508075689.
(End of Example)
There is an interesting story behind the reason calculators do not display
all the digits it carries for a given number. When calculators rst became
widely available, they used to display all the digits they had available. For
example, in computing
1
9
calculators would show 0.111111. Then teachers
and students were surprised to see that the calculation
1
9
(9) did not produce
318 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
1 as suggested in Figure 58.
Fig.58
One reason that calculators store some digits (behind the screen as it
were) was an attempt to correct this problem. With more digits in the
calculator the result of multiplying
1
9
by 9 can appear to round to 1 using
the hidden digits. There is no way to avoid this problem as long as numbers
are stored as nite decimals, but now it is quite dicult to nd examples
where the problem occurs.
Lets look at this calculation on the TI-83 Plus (Fig. 59).
Fig.59
After entering
1
9
and pressing , the keys were pressed. Be-
cause we did not directly enter a number before pressing the times key,
the calculator used the result of the previous computation, (
1
9
), as the sec-
ond number. The result of the previous computation is stored in the ANS
variable as we discussed in the section on repeated addition and repeated
multiplication. Finally, press .
All manufactures have to deal with this problem, and dierent companies
use dierent methods, so that sometimes the answers shown by dierent
machines will actually be dierent. We will nd the ANS feature to be a
powerful technique to use on our machines.
Evaluating Expressions
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 319
There are several ways to use handheld technology to enter and evaluate
algebraic expressions for real numbers. First we will explore how to store
numbers and algebraic expressions on a calculator.
Algebraic variables such as A, B, C, and so forth, can be found above the
keys in green in rows 4 through 9. To access these letters we press the green
key in the third row followed by the key below the letter. For ex-
ample, to store the number 5 into D we press the keys .
Now when we press the keys we retrieve the stored number
5.
We can store an algebraic expression into the temporary memory EN-
TRY above the key by simply typing the expression on the Home
screen using the and other keys and pressing . Details are
given in Example 4. This feature can be used to evaluate the expression for
one or several values of the variable.
Example 4 Store the expression 2a
2
+ 5a 3 and evaluate it for the
particular value a = 3.
Solution Our technology contains the full alphabet plus the letter
above the keys starting with in the 4th row. Figure 60 shows the dis-
play when we store 3 to the variable A by pressing the keys ,
then type the expression 2A
2
+ 5A 3, and nally pressing to eval-
uate the expression for A = 3.
Fig.60
Not only have we evaluate the expression for a = 3, but the expression is
stored in ENTRY as you can see by pressing the keys as
320 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
shown in Figure 61.
Fig.61
(End of Example)
We can evaluate the expression 2a
2
+ 5a 3 for other values of a by
entering those values for a as we did in Example 4. This process can be
streamlined by using the concatenation feature as illustrated in Example
5. The concatenation symbol : is located above the key and looks like
a colon.
Example 5 Use the concatenation feature to evaluate the expression
2a
2
+ 5a 3 for a = 5, -3,
3
4
, and

3. Then locate the ordered pairs (a, 2a
2
+ 5a 3) on the graph of 2a
2
+ 5a 3.
Solution The concatenation key : is accessed by pressing .
Figure 62 gives the value 72 for the expression 2a
2
+ 5a 3 for a = 5. Press
after entering the expression.
Fig.62
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 321
Our calculator stores the expression 5 A:2A
2
+5A-3 in ENTRY
which is above the key. Whatever is stored in ENTRY can be ac-
cessed by pressing as shown in Figure 63.
Fig.63
Now we can use the left arrow key to move the blinking rectangular
cursor over the 5. Then we want to type in the next value of a, -3. Notice
that 3 is longer (more characters) than 5. After typing -, the negation
key, we use the INSERT feature ( ) to insert addition characters
without overwriting the rest of the expression. The key is in the 2nd
row. Notice that the cursor changes to a blinking underline after pressing
. Type 3. Finally, press to obtain the value 0 for 2a
2
+ 5a
3 for a = -3 (Fig. 64).
Fig.64
322 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Now compute the remaining values for a. The results are shown in Figure
65.
Fig.65
The value of the expression 2a
2
+ 5a 3 is 1.875 for a =
3
4
, and the value
is about 11.66 for a =

3. The actual value for a =

3 is 5

3 3.
To obtain the graph of 2a
2
+ 5a 3 on the graphing calculator we need
to enter the function as Y1 = 2X
2
+5X-3 in the Y= menu because X and Y
are the independent and dependent variables as explained earlier. Press
(1st row) and enter the expression as shown below (Fig. 66).
Fig.66
We need to pick a viewing window [Xmin, Xmax, Xscl] x [Ymin, Ymax,
Yscl] that contains the four points (-3, 0), (
3
4
, 1.875), (

3, 11.66), and
(5, 72). So we need to choose Xmin to the left of the four x-coordinates,
Xmax to the right of the four x-coordinates, Ymin to the left of the four y-
coordinates, and Ymax to the right of the four y-coordinates. Press
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 323
and enter the values shown in Figure 67 which satisfy these conditions.
Fig.67
Notice that the four x-coordinates are to the right of 5 (Xmin) and to
the left of 6 (Xmax). The four y-coordinates are between 10 (Ymin) and
75 (Ymax). Press the key in the 1st row to obtain the graph in this
window (Fig. 68).
Fig.68
[5, 6, 1] [10, 75, 5]
We can obtain the coordinates of the points computed above using the
CALC menu, which is accessed by pressing as shown in Figure
69. ( is in the rst row.)
Fig.69
To see the pair (5, 72), press or to obtain the CALC feature
1:value. You will see an X= in the bottom left hand corner of the screen
324 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
as shown in Figure 70.
Fig.70
Now press to enter the value 5 for X. Press to obtain the value 72
for Y and notice the small cross on the graph at the point (5, 72) as shown
in Figure 71.
Fig.71
Repeat this procedure to see the pairs (X, Y) for X = -3,
3
4
,

3 as
shown in Figures 72 - 74.
Fig.72
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 325
Fig.73
Fig.74
Alternatively, we can simply press and enter the value of the
desired xcoordinate. For example, Figure 75 shows what happens when
we press .
Fig.75
326 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Figure 76 results when we type and press .
Fig.76
When we press and use the left and right arrow keys the calcula-
tor will display the values it uses to draw the graph generally very messy
decimals. In this case, 5 was not one of the numbers that the calculator
used so it was necessary to type the number 5 and force the calculator to
use the number 5.
(End of Example)
Teacher Note: Using the insert feature to edit expressions on the home
screen can save time if the expressions are complicated. Students should
also try retyping the entire expression themselves to compare.
Example 6 Evaluate the expression 2a
2
+ 5a 3 on the TI-83 by enter-
ing the expression as Y1 = 2X
2
+5X-3 in the Y= menu and then use the
Table feature of the TI-83 Plus.
Solution Press and enter the expression as shown in Figure 77.
Fig.77
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 327
Press the keys and select the TABLE SETUP settings as
shown in Figure 78. ( is in the rst row.)
Fig.78
Press to view the table (Fig. 79).
Fig.79
Remember that the table of values can be extended to the left of X =
0 by placing the cursor in the left column and then press the up arrow key
several times. The table of values can be extended to the right of X = 6
by placing the cursor in the left column and then press the down arrow key
several times. Possible resulting screens are shown in Figures 80 and 81.
Fig.80
328 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Fig.81
(End of Example)
The table feature can also be used to compute values for Y1 similar to
the ones computed in Example 5. However, we will need to set up the table
screen a little dierently as illustrated in Example 7.
Example 7 Use the table feature to evaluate the expression 2a
2
+ 5a
3 for a = 5, -3,
3
4
, and

3.
Solution Enter Y1 = 2X
2
+5x-3 in the Y= menu. Choose the settings
for TABLE SETUP as shown in Figure 82. Recall that the settings for
TblStart and Tbl have no eect when Indpnt is set to Ask in the
TABLE SETUP menu.
Fig.82
When you view the table you might see the numbers 3 through 9 from the
previous table above. If so, place the cursor on any X entry and then press
the key (2nd row) to remove the entry until your table looks like the one
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 329
in Figure 83.
Fig.83
Now we can enter the four values for X in the left column. The corre-
sponding values for Y1 will appear in the second column. Notice that
3
4
and

3 show up as decimals in the table (Fig. 84).

Fig.84
In the last row there are more decimals than shown. To see the rest of
the decimals move the cursor to the entry using the arrow keys as shown in
Figures 85 and 86.
Fig.85
330 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
Fig.86
(End of Example)
Rectangle Problem
Consider rectangles with side lengths h and v as shown in Figure 87.
Suppose further that the perimeter of each such rectangle is 40.
Fig.87 ....................................................................................................................................................... . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
v
h
2h + 2v = 40
h + v = 20
The area of this rectangle is A = hv. We construct a table of values v and
A using the values 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 for h. Notice that v = 20
h.
h v A
2 18 36
4 16 64
6 14 84
8 12 96
10 10 100
12 8 96
14 6 84
16 4 64
18 2 36
Example 8 Place the values of h, v, and A into lists L1, L2, and L3, re-
spectively, on the TI-83 Plus. Then graph the pairs (h, A) using STATPLOT
and describe the graph.
Solution We can simply type the values of h, v, and A in lists L1, L2,
and L3, as we did earlier. We can save a little work by rst typing in the
values for L1 (Fig. 88). Then we use the fact that L2 is an explicit function
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 331
of L1, and L3 is an explicit function of L1 and L2.
Fig.88
We use the up arrow key to get to the top of L2 and type 20 L1 for
L2 as shown in Figure 89.
Fig.89
Press to get the screen in Figure 90.
Fig.90
332 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
We know that each entry of L3 can be obtained by multiplying the
corresponding entries from L1 and L2 as shown in Figures 91 and 92.
Fig.91
Fig.92
We will create a STATPLOT using the points (h, A) from L1 and L3.
The collection of these points should give us some information about how
the area A depends on h. Press and select Plot 1 as we did before.
Enter the settings shown in Figure 93. Notice that L3 is above the key.
Fig.93
4. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITIES 333
Next we choose a viewing window to plot the points. The window shown
in Figure 94 contains the points of this STATPLOT.
Fig.94
Press to see the points (Fig. 95.
Fig.95
The points appear to lie on a parabola that opens down. In fact, this is the
case because A = h v = h(20 h) = 20h h
2
.
(End of Example)
Teacher Note:
1. Certainly you will want your students to plot some points by hand
before using technology to produce the points. Selecting windows for plots
is not easy and take quite a bit of teacher assistance and a good deal of
student practice.
2. You need to help students understand that graphs can now be used
as a tool to learn. As long as we know that what is being viewed and the
techniques being used are based on good mathematics we can be condent
in the use of technology.
Exercises
In Exercises 1-3, (a) nd the calculator display for the fraction.
(b) Does the calculator show all the digits in its decimal representation?
(c) If the answer to part (b) is no, give some of the missing digits.
1.
3
8
2.
1
13
334 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
3. 3/8 QUESTION HERE. THIS IS THE SAME AS 1.
4. Use your calculator to determine the rst ten remainders when 1 is
divided by 17.
In Exercises 5-6, evaluate the expression on the Home screen of your
calculator for the given values of the variable.
5. b
2
4b + 4 for b = -4, -
3
2
, 2,

5, 5
6. 2x
2
+ 6x + 9 for x = -
5
2
, -1, 2,

5, 5
In Exercises 7-8, locate the ordered pairs on the graph of the function
from the specied exercise. Indicate the viewing window that you use.
7. Exercise 5
8. Exercise 6
9. The function y = 2x
2
+5x 3 is entered as Y1 into the Y= list on
your calculator and the following table is produced.
(a) What is the value of TblStart?
(b) What is the value of Tbl?
(c) What is the value of Y if X is 8?
10. Enter the expression 2c
2
3c + 5 as Y
1
= 2X
2
3X+5 on your
calculator. Then use the Table feature of your calculator to show the value
of the expression for c = -5, -
1
4
,

5, and 7. Show the table.
In Exercises 11-12, use tables to evaluate the expression from the speci-
ed exercise.
11. Exercise 5
12. Exercise 6
In Exercises 13-14, use the table from the lesson about the rectangles
with perimeter
40.
13. Draw a scatter plot of the pairs (h, v).
14. Draw a scatter plot of the pairs (v, A).
5. References
Texas Instruments (TI) commissioned an independent review of approx-
imately 180 published studies on the use of handheld graphing technology in
5. REFERENCES 335
secondary school mathematics courses that was reported in Handheld graph-
ing technology at the secondary level: Research ndings and implications for
classroom practice (Burrill, G et al, 2002). Subsequently, a follow-up review
and analysis of ve of these studies focusing on curriculum typically taught
in the secondary school algebra-precalculus course sequence were judged to
meet No Child Left Behind (NCLB) research criteria and is available from
TI at
http : //education.ti.com/downloads/pdf/us/whitepaper.pdf.
The ve studies are:
Harskamp, E., Suhre, C., & Van Streun, A. (2000). The graphics cal-
culator and students solution strategies. Mathematics Education Research
Journal, 12(1), 37-52.
Ruthven, K. (1990). The inuence of graphic calculator use on transla-
tion from graphic to symbolic forms. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
21, 431-450.
Schwarz, B. B., & Hershkowitz, R. (1999). Prototypes: Brakes or levers
in learning the function concept? The role of computer tools. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 30(4), 362-389.
Thompson, D. R., & Senk, S. L. (2001). The eects of curriculum
on achievement in second-year algebra: The example of the University of
Chicago School Mathematics Project. Journal for Research in Mathematics
Education, 32(1), 58-84.
Van Streun, A., Harskamp, E., & Suhre, C. (2000). The eect of the
graphic calculator on students solution approaches: A secondary analysis.
Hiroshima Journal of Mathematics Education, 8, 27-39.
Signicant ndings for student achievement that were reported are:
Handheld graphing technology has been demonstrated to have a
positive impact on
- General skill and understanding of algebra concepts
- Student comprehension of functions
Handheld graphing technology has been demonstrated to have a
positive impact on student learning in a range of settings, using a
variety of instructional approaches.
Use of graphing handhelds can improve students skill in creating
algebra descriptions of Cartesian graphs (symbolization), even when
- Teachers are inexperienced in the use of such graphing devices; and
- There is no specied structure for integrating graphing handhelds into
the curriculum.
Integrating graphing handhelds with existing precalculus-level in-
struction can lead to
- Increased student use of graphical solution strategies, a trait linked to
improved performance
- Improved general understanding of functions
336 6. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
An investigation-based approach utilizing graphing handhelds can
improve student knowledge of functions by promoting appropriate
use of prototype examples.
All of these benets can easily be accomplished using the graphing tech-
nology features of the TI-83 Plus handheld which provides an interface es-
pecially well suited for student and teacher use.
CHAPTER 7
Discussion of Issues in the Geometry Course
1. Introductory Comments
There is some discussion about whether geometry should preceed or
follow the algebra course. We have positioned it as the third course but it
need not be. Because of this choice, the discussion in this chapter involves a
minimal knowledge of algebra. However, among the things that can be done
if the algebra course precedes the geometry course is a careful development
of the coordinate plane as a model for geometry and a verication of the
validity of Euclids Axioms in the coordinate plane. This is discussed in
detail in Appendix C.
In either the case where geometry comes before algebra or where algebra
precedes geometry one of the things that we should be careful about is the
fact that most students and pre-service teachers have diculty with the level
of abstraction present in standard tenth grade geometry courses.
It is especially true that the formal approach, through axioms, the rules
of logic, and the undened terms of classical Euclidian geometry does not
transport well to K - 8 classrooms, so we have tried to indicate methods to
present things much less formally, without sacricing too much rigor.
The presentation here breaks the material into three main areas,
(1) Descriptive geometry, involving the basic denitions and properties
of lines, triangles, quadrilaterals, prisms, angles, length, perimeter,
area, and volume,
(2) Synthetic geometry, or that part of it needed by K - 8 teachers,
focused on congruence and similarity, together with the basic ruler
and compass constructions
(3) Coordinate geometry involving placing geometry into the coordi-
nate plane and developing the key properties of the elements of the
Euclidian group.
The demands placed on pre-service K-8 teachers by a course like this are
relatively heavy. Consequently, special care should be taken to give them
extensive support including ready access to course assistants as well as the
course instructor.
As was the case with the previous chapters, a great deal of material
from the curricula of high achieving foreign countries and states, France,
Russia, Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong is included, both sample problems
and indications of their grade level expectations for students. This material
337
338 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
also provides a clear idea of the content needed to help our teachers to know
this material and be able to bring it to the classroom.
Additionally, we include Appendix D, which consists of the table of
contents, a few detailed lessons and a number of sample problems from a
Russian sixth grade geometry text that has been translated by UCSMP.
The instructor should be prepared to discuss the fact that the coordinate
plane and geometry represent abstractions from real life situations. While
the results studied in geometry inform and guide astronomy, construction
of buildings, mechanisms, and many other areas of essential importance in
our society, they only represent certain aspects of such application problems.
However, what makes geometry so important is that the aspects it represents
Throughout these notes
points are indicated
where these
applications can be
included. For example,
the study of the
possible quadrilaterals
with xed side lengths
is an essential
component of
mechanical design.
are among the most important properties that need to be analyzed in these
situations.
Another concern that has to be handled is that current state and na-
tional standards for geometry in K-8 include some to considerable discussion
of the Euclidian group in the sense that students are expected to work with
translations, rotations, reections and some compositions of these opera-
tions. Consequently, this material should be present in the course and must
be carefully presented. This is especially true currently since virtually all
mathematics texts for K - 8 classrooms in this country do not explain these
transformations very well.
It is also worth noting that suggestions for modeling geometry appear
at various points in this chapter. There are a number of useful modeling
tools and programs that can be helpful here. One possibility is the Zome-
tool (www.zometool.com), that gives students the capacity to relatively in-
expensively construct very sophisticated models. Another useful website
is http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/paper-models.html which
discusses procedures for making very elegant paper models.
As in the other chapters, it is important that course instructors require
that their pre-service students frequently explain their reasoning either ver-
bally or in writing when solving problems. Besides the clarity that explain-
ing what one is doing develops, this provides important information about
student misconceptions.
Finally, it should always be kept in mind that an extremely impor-
tant consideration in these courses should be to provide key material that
pre-service teachers can transport directly to the classroom, and that the
mathematics presented should make sense and not simply be viewed by these
students as lists of isolated fact to be learned for the test and then forgotten.
2. Lines, Planes and Figures in Space
Around third grade or below many state standards today mandate that
students should study the number line. So pre-service teachers should clearly
understand how to put coordinates on the line and the fact that in doing this
one selects a base point (0) and a unit, and that these points are arbitrary.
Once this is done then any rational number is uniquely associated to a point
2. LINES, PLANES AND FIGURES IN SPACE 339
on the line by standard constructions. The same is true of the reals of course,
and this gives an ordering of these numbers, i.e. a < b if and only if a is to
the left of b on the number line.
From this one observes that each point, p, on the line divides the line
Geometry is a very
vocabulary intensive
subject, so care should
be taken with
denitions. It might be
a good idea to have
student develop a
geometry glossary
whenever new terms are
presented.
into two rays with only p in common, those points a so that a p and those
points b so that b p. The denitions of line segment, and ray should be
given. In the exercises below, we use the term region as shorthand for
rays and segments. In general, we will use it as shorthand for connected
components.
Exercises:
(1) The line segment below is
2
3
units long. Show a line segment that
is
3
5
units long. Explain how you know your segment is the correct
length. (It is expected that this will be solved by measuring, the
line segment, and then guring out how long - approximately - the
required segment is to be. But this can lead to further discussion.
For example, it is very important to make sure that pre-service
teachers understand that the conventions behind their answers de-
pend on denitions and that dierent conventions for naming the
points on the line would give dierent results.)
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2
3
unit
(2) Plot
13
5
and at least two other nearby integers on a number line
and explain why you have plotted these numbers appropriately.
(3) Order the numbers
22
7
, 3.14, , 3.15, 2, 4.
(4) (a) Into how many regions do the numbers
22
7
and divide the
number line?
(b) Give precise descriptions of the regions.
(5) (a) Into how many regions do the numbers 3.14, 3.12 and 4 divide
the number line?
(b) Give precise descriptions of the regions.
(6) Suppose you have n distinct numbers on the number line, where n is
any counting number, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Into how many regions do these
n numbers divide the number line? Give a detailed justication for
your answer.
(7) Draw 10 unit intervals, each one 10 inches long. Label the ends
of the intervals 0 and 1. Divide the rst number line into halves,
the second into thirds, the next into fourths, and so on so that the
ninth number line is marked by tenths. On the tenth number line,
mark and label all of the fractions that appear on the other nine
number lines.
(a) On the last number line that includes all of the fractions, what
is the largest distance between any two labeled fractions? (The
answer is 1 since 0 and 1 are labeled).
(b) What is the next largest distance?
(c) What is the smallest distance?
Lines in the plane and space. Students should understand that two
distinct points in the plane or space determine a unique line that joins them
340 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
and in that line a unique segment between them. The basic denitions
should be given: two distinct lines in the same plane are parallel if they
do not intersect, but a line is parallel to itself. Two planes in space that
do not intersect are parallel, and a plane is parallel to itself. Examples
of parallel lines and planes in buildings, the lines on a ruled paper, etc.,
may be given. Students should know that a line and a point not on the line
determine a plane, and from the above, three non-collinear points determine
a plane. Point out that two intersecting lines in space determine a plane.
Give examples of skew lines.
Explain that a point on a line decomposes a line into two regions, a line
decomposes a plane that contains it into two regions, and a plane in space
decomposes space into two regions.
As regards gures in space, dene right prisms on various bases, particu-
larly rectangular prisms and cubes. Dene cones and pyramids, and explain
what a net is.
Exercises:
(1) (a) Construct a regular tetrahedron using the following net:
....................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

(b) Identify the skew line pairs among the edges of this regular
tetrahedron.
(c) For each pair of intersecting lines in this tetrahedron identify
the plane that contains them.
(2) Follow the directions for problem 1 for the net below for a regular
octahedron. Identify parallel and transverse planes of the faces.
....................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................ ............................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

Net for Regular Octahedron

(3) Which of the patterns in the gure below could be cut out and
folded up without overlaps to make a closed cube? Which cannot?
(Circle does or does not.) Solve this problem by visualizing (do
not cut out patterns!).
2. LINES, PLANES AND FIGURES IN SPACE 341
(4) Label the faces of the gure above that can be be folded up to
make a cube with the numbers 1 to 6 in such a way that the sum
of opposite faces is always 7. Do this in at least two dierent ways.
After folding the gures check to see if it is possible to rotate the
rst gure so that it becomes the same as the second. In how many
dierent ways can you label the faces so each cannot be rotated to
agree with any of the others?
(5) For the pattern below, name the shape it would make if it were cut
out, folded, and taped to make a closed shape. (Do this without
cutting and folding!) Label the base(s) (if any). Determine whether
it is oblique or right.
This brings up an important point. The nets, patterns, and illustrations
of mechanisms in this and later sections of the chapter merit additional
discussion to help course instructors convey that one objective of geometry
A key objective of the
geometry course is to
help students develop a
feel for objects in space
instruction should be to help students develop a spatial sense. This is not
systematically developed in the K-8 mathematics curriculum. Most text-
books have students cut out and assemble patterns, but students often have
diculty trying to imagine rotations of objects or their parts.
342 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
The mere presentation of examples that requires visualization does not
guarantee that students will develop this skill. Below are some common-
sense rules for teaching spatial thinking. Systematic procedures along the
following lines should be presented to pre-service teachers.
Start with simple images.
Use physical models in conjunction with simple images. Wooden
centimeter cubes are a useful resource when teaching middle school
students to associate 2-D views of 3-D rectangular solids.
Consistent prompts should be used and explained in orthographic
views of an object, i.e. hidden edges from a view are drawn as
dashed lines; visible edges are drawn as solid line segments. Typical
drawing rules include the alignment of views and line weights to
make a visualization easier to understand. Shadowing and coloring
also make visualization of drawings easier.
Have students practice drawing orthographic views rst (views that
show only two dimensions of an object); perspective (3D) views are
more dicult to draw. These drawings can be practiced using dot
paper or computer-based drawing tools. Students will initially need
to be given models of drawings to copy.
3. Length and Perimeter
Students have learned about length from the earliest grade and usually
have a good intuitive understanding of it. Length is introduced very early
in terms of measurement using non-standard units or a ruler. For the dis-
cussion here it is probably best to assume that students are using rulers.
The exercises that they should be doing include drawing dierent line seg-
ments that have (approximately) the same lengths, to begin to develop an
instinctive feel for the fact that dierent line segments from dierent lines
can have the same lengths. If possible, they should be allowed to draw at
least one segment of the same length on transparent lm using appropriate
marking pens so that they can put the lm on top of a paper with another
line segment drawn of the approximately same length, and move the two
sheets so that the two segments are brought into coincidence.
If it should happen that there is a visible dierence in the two lengths of
the line segments, there is an opportunity here for a discussion about errors
in measurement.
Implicit in the process of sliding a paper, which consists of translation
and rotation, is that the segment does not change in length. A discussion
of this prepares students for an understanding of the transformations of the
Euclidian group as length preserving operations.
The fundamental concept associated with these activities and discussion
is that distance is the length of a line segment between two points.
3. LENGTH AND PERIMETER 343
Some pre-service teachers will not understand how rulers
work, confusing tick marks and intervals, for example. Confu-
sion between intervals and tick marks points and distances
is fundamental, and must be overcome in order for the
number line to be a successful pedagogical tool. Special care
should be taken here.
Be aware that pre-service teachers might measure the length
of a diagonal line segment on a grid incorrectly by counting
horizontal or vertical distances between the grid lines.
Perimeter is typically introduced in the early grades. Here is the deni-
tion of perimeter from the second grade Russian text translated by UCSMP:
The sum of the lengths of the sides of a triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon,
or any other polygon is called its perimeter.
A possible error in determining the length of a broken line
segment or perimeter of a polygon on a grid is to count the
squares that intersect the perimeter.
Exercises: From the Russian Second Grade text translated by UCSMP,
Problems 461, 533, 534, p. 119, 133
(1) Find the (approximate) length of each broken line using a ruler.
(2) Find the perimeter of a triangle if the length of one side is 8 cm,
This transports well to
the classroom but care
should be taken.
Middle school students
often have diculty
using a non-locking
compass because they
tend to slip. A good,
inexpensive choice for
middle school and
younger students is a
CircleMaster or
equivalent compass
because they have a safe
retractable point, can
be used with any pen or
pencil, and dont slip.
the length of the second is 6 cm, and the length of the third is 10
cm.
(3) On a sheet of graph paper, draw a square with a side of 3 cm. Find
the perimeter of the square.
Preliminary remarks on circles: Introduce the circle as the set of points
with a xed distance from a given point on the plane. Dene radius and
diameter. The pre-service students should practice using a compass to con-
struct circles. Bring up the circumference of a circle and discuss how one
might try to measure the circumference by inscribing and circumscribing
regular polygons. Dene as the ratio of the circumference to the diameter
of the circle. Point out that after the topic of similarity is discussed, it will
344 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
be possible to justify the fact that is independent of the circles used, but
for now this is just to be accepted. A typical method for giving a plausi-
bility argument in the classroom might be to bring in a bicycle wheel and
measure to approximate . Later we discuss how one can make the process
of approximating by inscribing explicit polygons and actually approximate
in this way. See the end of the next section for a possible method.
Triangles, quadrilaterals and their applications:
Students should review the basic ruler and compass constructions in-
volving bisecting an angle, nding the mid-point of a line segment, and
constructing the perpendicular to a line through a point.
Some pre-service students will not remember how to do these
constructions. As a result, it is not unusual for teachers to
skip constructions altogether with classes.
It should be pointed out that triangles are rigid gures. What this means
is that if one gives the three lengths of the sides of a triangle, then, if there
is a triangle at all (the lengths satisfy the three triangle inequalities, one for
each side), there are only four distinct triangles that we can construct by
drawing a line segment having one of the lengths, and using our compass set
to the two remaining lengths to draw two circles centered at the endpoints
of this segment. These circles intersect in two points, and, depending on
which length is at the left-hand segment, this will give the four cases. Note
that they are all either reections or rotations of each other. This property
is crucial in construction.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .....................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Examples of the lengths of the sides determining a triangle in real life
should be given. Good examples come from construction equipment like
back hoes or simple robotic arms. The use of triangles as rigid braces in
framing buildings or making cabinets may also be helpful. Such examples
are all around us. Providing examples like these in pre-service courses gives
teachers tools to motivate their own future students in this subject.
Further insight may be gained by contrasting the rigidity of triangles
with the situation for quadrilaterals. Quadrilaterals are never rigid; xing
3. LENGTH AND PERIMETER 345
the side lengths, any quadrilateral can be deformed, and students can explore
the dierent quadrilaterals that occur with the same side lengths.
It is common that pre-service teachers will not have the intu-
ition that triangles are rigid but quadrilaterals are not. This
can easily be seen by forming triangles and parallelograms
with ones ngers. It can also be illustrated by threading
straws together or pinning together strips of cardboard
The following practical application of the non-rigidity of parallelograms
was pointed out by Roger Howe:
One example of the non-rigidity of quadrilaterals that is interesting
and important, and fairly dramatic, is the existence of extension
gates. Here you have a two systems of parallel lines, each line of
one system hinged to each line of the other, at regular intervals. so
that a lattice of congruent parallelograms is formed. These may be
freely deformed all together, so that the whole system undergoes a
linear transformation, and the gate extends or contracts.
If the smallest of the four lengths of a quadrilateral, added to each of
the other three lengths is smaller than the sum of the remaining two lengths
- for example if the lengths are 1, 3, 4, 5 - then the shortest side can rotate
freely even if we x the position of one of the other three links. (This is
very useful in designing mechanisms that convert rotary motion to rocking
motion or the other way around as in a car engine.) Otherwise - for example
3, 3.5, 4, 5, - the smallest length cannot rotate freely if the position of one
of the other links is xed.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Two positions for quadrilateral with xed edge lengths

Students may try to nd examples of how these ideas are used for
example many desk lamps have mechanisms for moving the light around
and changing the angle and height of the lamp that take advantage of these
facts. For example showing that the linkage below has this property would
346 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
be a good exercise.
Simple Linkage: combination
of solid, usually metallic links
(bars), connected by joints so
that the ellipse at the top will
move parallel to the base as
the mechanism moves. This
is used in commercial products
such as desk lamps.
Oil well pumps also take advantage of the fact that one can freely rotate the
shortest side of a quadrilateral (this is a crank-shaft attached to an electric
motor), provided that the sum of the lengths of any two of the remaining
three sides is greater than the sum of the short side and the third of the
remaining sides.
Such mechanical devices also appear in many other contexts. Students
Linkages should also be
shown in action so
students recognize the
application of the
mechanism. The slide
crank mechanism
should be associated
with pictures of
locomotives, pumps,
and other complete
machines so students
have a context in which
to put the linkage.
in a school geometry course (and pre-service teachers in this course) can
explore these issues using Geometers Sketchpad, Cabri, or Cinderella if these
computer programs are available. These tools allow one to animate such
mechanisms and watch the motions, and they also allow the user to vary
the dimensions. It is worth noting that Geometers Sketchpad is widely used
in the schools, but the exercises below use Cabri. This should not be an
issue since the tools have very similar capabilities and interfaces.
The following example is taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica:
Slider-crank mechanism: arrangement of mechanical parts designed to
convert straight-line motion to rotary motion, as in a reciprocating piston
3. LENGTH AND PERIMETER 347
engine, or to convert rotary motion to straight-line motion, as in a recipro-
cating piston pump.
The basic nature of the mechanism and the relative motion of the parts can
best be described with the aid of the accompanying gure, in which the
moving parts are lightly shaded. The darkly shaded part 1, the xed frame
or block of the pump or engine, contains a cylinder, depicted in cross section
by its walls DE and FG, in which the piston, part 4, slides back and forth.
The small circle at A represents the main crankshaft bearing, which is also
in part 1.
Dynamic Geometry Exploration Reciprocating Piston Pump Conver-
sion of rotary motion to straight-line motion. Use Cabri Geometry
TM
to
perform the following steps.
(1) Construct a circle and label its center A. The center represents the
crankshaft bearing. Construct a segment (to represent the cylinder)
so that the endpoints of the segment and the center of the circle
are collinear.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................

A
(2) Construct a radius of the circle (to represent the crankshaft) and
label its endpoint B (which represents the rod bearing).
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ B

A
348 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(3) Use the Compass Tool to transfer the segment length, centered at
the radius endpoint B.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ B

A
(4) Construct the Intersection point of the Compass circle and the seg-
ment (this represents the piston). Label the intersection point as
C. Hide the compass circle.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ B

A
C
(5) Construct a segment that connects the radius endpoint B with point
C (the piston). This segment represents the connecting rod.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ B

A
C
(6) Animate the radius endpoint B around the circle, to simulate the
motion of the piston.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................
B

A
C
............................................................................ . ................................................
Auto
. . . . . . . . . . . ...........
........... . . . . . . . . . . .
...............................
Notes:
In Cabri Jr., the following tools are used: Circle, Alpha-Numeric Label,
Segment, Compass, Intersection Point, Animation.
To stop an animation in Cabri Jr., press while the object is in motion.
The tool icon in the upper left corner of the screen changes to
............................................................................. ................................................
Stop
. . . . . . . . . . . ...........
........... . . . . . . . . . . .
...............................
4. ANGLES AND ARC LENGTH ON THE CIRCLE 349
Then press to stop the animation. To re-animate, press again,
then select the desired point and press to start the motion.
The segment length that is transferred using the Compass tool to con-
struct the connecting rod is an arbitrary xed length. Any length larger
than the sum of the circle diameter and the distance from the circle to the
segment (that represents the cylinder) will suce. To keep the construction
simple, the existing cylinder segment was used.
Engine reference: http://www.howstuworks.com/engine3.htm. This
excellent site www.howstuworks.com contains quite a bit more information
that can be used as well.
At this point it is appropriate to recall the K - 12 terminology for tri-
angles and quadrilaterals, isosceles, equilateral, and scalene, rhombus, par-
allelogram, kite, square, trapezoid, etc., taking care to explain that these
represent classes of such objects, but that the interest in these gures is not
in the the list of names, rather in what their properties are, and how they
are used. The names are a convenience. (With respect to this, it is common
in school mathematics to dene a trapezoid as having exactly one pair of
parallel sides. Some thought should be given to redening it as having at
least one pair of parallel sides.)
Exercises: After calculating the lengths of the sides of the triangles in the
following two exercises, use the triangle inequality to verify that triangles
with those dimensions really exist.
(1) The longest side of a triangle is seventeen inches more than the
shortest side, and nine inches longer than the third side. Find each
side if its perimeter is eighty-two inches.
(2) The two equal sides of an isosceles triangle are each ve inches less
than three times the length of the third side. Find each side if the
length of the perimeter is thirty-nine inches.
4. Angles and Arc Length on the Circle
Here is a possible teaching sequence for angles.
Give the denition of angle by saying that an angle is an ordered pair
of rays with a common endpoint. The vertex of the angle is the common
endpoint of the two rays. Explain that we will regard two dierent angles
as the same if one can be moved to the other preserving the order of the
rays by a rigid motion (rotation or translation but not reection). Again,
use the idea of tracing the rst angle on a sheet of transparent paper and
moving it so that the rst rays of this angle and the second come together.
Discuss the sense of an angle and let students see that reecting the paper
reverses the sense.
Discuss when an angle is greater than another angle.
Dene a straight angle, and the 0 angle.
350 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
Indicate how to add angles, again regarding one angle as traced on a
sheet of transparent paper.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............................................................................................................................
............. ............. ............. .............
angle
angle
angle + angle
Some discussion of the case where the sum of the two angles is more than
360 degrees is needed here. Also, note that if we dene the opposite of an
angle by reversing the order of the rays, the sum of an angle and its opposite
is the 0 angle.
One way to introduce right angles is explained in the Singapore series
for elementary school. Tear o the edges of a sheet of paper and fold what
is left. Then fold again, bringing part of the rst fold on top of the rest of
the rst fold. The crease marks from the fold are then perpendicular.
Discuss the straight edge and compass construction of the angle bisector,
and talk about constructing right angles as well as other angles of the form
360/2
n
.
Introduce angle measure. Have students compare and add measures by
cutting corners o gures. As a particular example, have them cut corners
o triangles and combine them to see that the sum of the interior angles of
a triangle is a straight angle. Pre-service teachers should understand that
such activities, while valuable, are not mathematical proofs. This particular
theorem for triangles is important enough to merit more than one proof.
One method is to verify the result for a right triangle rst by recognizing
that two congruent right triangles form a rectangle, and the sum of the
angles of a rectangle is 360

. From here, the general case follows for an

arbitrary triangle by dropping a perpendicular to the longest side of the
triangle from its opposite angle. The triangle is thus partitioned into two
right triangles, and the result follows. Following this demonstration, the
usual proof involving transversals to parallel lines may be given, or delayed
until parallel lines are studied.
1
Exercises:
A French sixth grade problem (DECIMALE 6)
(1) About circles.
1
A proof is given in the second section on Elements of the Euclidian Group as Application
# 2. See also the seventh grade Singapore standards for a discussion of transversals of parallel
lines, and further topics that could be covered at this point.
4. ANGLES AND ARC LENGTH ON THE CIRCLE 351
(a) Draw a circle and a cord [AB] of the circle. On one of the two
arcs with end points A, B label three points P, Q, and R.
(b) Compare the angles

APB,

AQB, and

ARB.
In this problem, it is expected that students will verify that the
angles are the same by measuring, but they are not expected to be
able to justify this in sixth grade. However, teachers will benet
from an understanding of the underlying theorem for this exercise.
(2) Amanda got in her car at point A and drove to point B along the
route indicated in Figure 9.
(a) Show all of Amandas angles of turning along her route.
(b) What is the total amount of turning that Amanda did along her
route? Describe how you can determine this without measuring
individual angles and adding them up.
352 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
Give the denitions of acute triangle and scalene triangle and state the
Pythagorean theorem.
One can use the Pythagorean theorem to derive a sequence of approxi-
mations for the perimeter of a circle, and therefore for . For example, start
with an inscribed square in a circle of unit radius. The sides of the square
each have length

2, so a rst approximation to is 2

2 2.828427. A
better approximation is half of the permeter of an inscribed regular octagon.
The diagram below shows a portion of an inscribed square and an inscribed
regular octagon in a circle with center O. Two sides of the square are [OA]
and [OB], while [AC] and [CB] are two sides of the octagon.
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

O
A
B
C D
AOD is a 45 degree right triangle and side [AD] is has length

2
2
so the
length AC is (2

2)
1
2
. Consequently the regular inscribed octagon gives
4
_
(2

2) 3.061467 as an approximation for . Continuing to the next

approximation, one nds that the side length of the regular inscribed 16-gon
is
_
2
_
2 +

2
_1
2
, and this gives
8
_
2
_
2 +

2
_1
2
3.121445
as an approximation to . The next four give
3.1365485, 3.14033115, 3.141277251, and 3.1415138011
as the resulting approximations to . One could mention at this point that
there are better methods for calculating . Although not the most rapidly
converging series for estimating , Eulers series serves as one example:
1
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+ =

2
6
An explanation of the relationship between the length of the arc cut by
an angle of
360
n
degrees as
1
n
times the circumference may be given at this
point.
5. POLYGONS IN THE PLANE 353
5. Polygons in the plane
One can start this discussion by asking for denitions of a polygon.
Possible responses include:
A polygon is a closed region in the plane bounded by line segments
or
A polygon is a circuit of line segments with the end of the last equal
to the initial point of the rst
For both denitions, the pre-service teachers will have the same picture in
mind, but they will try to describe dierent aspects of this picture and oer
those as possible denitions of polygon. In both cases, the denitions are
too broad.
The rst issue for an instructor to contend with is that some K-8 texts
dene polygon to include the interior, and others do not. The usual practice
in mathematics is to dene a polygon as the union of the line segments, not
the interior.
A discussion, drawing examples on the board, of why neither of the
denitions above are what one really wants will be valuable. Of course,
the point should be made that a denition is a denition. The denitions
above do dene classes of objects in the plane; it is just that they include
objects one does not want to call polygons. For example in the second case,
the segments can intersect each other. In the rst case the boundary can
consist of multiple simple closed circuits, and so on.
Next a correct denition can be developed. But even here there will,
most likely, be concerns. The denition, as given, will, almost certainly,
not be appropriate to use in grade 3 or 4 where polygons might rst be
discussed. This can lead to a discussion of grade and situational appropriate
denitions. In any case, this denition will have aspects of both denitions
that were originally developed above. It will be a closed region in the plane
bounded by line segments, but the segments will comprise a single non-self
intersecting closed circuit.
Additionally, at this point one should draw a number of very compli-
cated, non-convex polygons to indicate that this denition, while accept-
able, does not yet give what students will customarily think of when they
construct a polygon. Now the notion of a convex polygon can be introduced.
The class should be reminded of the special cases of triangles, scalene,
acute, right, isosceles, and equilateral. Note that all triangles are convex.
Also, the special kinds of quadrilaterals should be reviewed: square, rectan-
gle, rhombus, kite, trapezoid, isosceles trapezoid; convex. (Note that not all
quadrilaterals are convex.)
It might be worth emphasizing at this point that the terminology above
is not what is key. There is a tendency for teachers to consider that
students understand all they need to understand if they can repeat
354 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
denitions. Emphasize that this is a start, but that all it gives is
the common ground for discussion, not yet real mathematics.
As an example of the level at which one hopes students will know this
area, a discussion of special properties of these gures can be developed.
For example, a discussion of the diagonals of the various quadrilaterals and
their properties can be given.
For a convex polygon, the class can determine that the sum of the interior
angles is (n2) by decomposing it into n2 triangles, each emanating from
a single vertex. It can be stated that this sum formula is true for all polygons,
but that the proof is very dicult, since such simple decompositions are not
always possible for non-convex polygons.
Exercise:
(1) Explain why the sum of the exterior angles of a convex polygon is
always 360 degrees.
6. Measurement, Perimeter, Area, and Volume
There are two kinds of measurement in mathematics, the exact mea-
surements of geometry, for example the distance between the points (2, 1)
and (3, 7) in the plane, and the real world measurements using tools such as
rulers and protractors that always have errors.
Both types of measurement should be clearly understood by pre-service
teachers, but their roles are very dierent.
We begin with the exact measurements of geometry.
For gures in the plane one has ordinary distance measure between var-
ious points of the gure, and one has area. In three-space one has both of
these, and one has volume as well. Area satises an additivity property -
the area of a nite number of polygons with disjoint interiors is the sum of
their respective areas. It also satises a congruence property - the area of
gures that are congruent, including reections, are the same. The issue of
extending area to more general gures should not be treated in K-8 with
the exception of the area of a disk.
It is common for pre-service teachers to think that area and
volume are dened by formulas (some will say area is length
times width). They dont see the formulas as results.
Another common error is to think that if you know the perime-
ter of a shape you can determine the area. Diagrams such as
this one might help students to realize that this is false.
6. MEASUREMENT, PERIMETER, AREA, AND VOLUME 355
Pre-service teachers may benet from illustrations of the following fact,
as in problem 2 below. If a polygon completely contains a nite union of
polygons, then the area of the enclosing polygon must be at least as large
as the area of the nite union, and strictly larger if the complement of the
nite union contains a small square about any point.
Exercises: From a third grade Russian text translated by UCSMP.
(1) Compare the area of these gures. This may be done by counting
the number of equal squares into which each of the gures is divided.
(2) Visually compare the areas of the gures in the picture.
356 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(3) How many equal squares are needed to form the gure in the pic-
ture? Compare the areas of the gures.
The area of a rectangle of height h and width w is given as hw, and from
this one determines formulae for the general parallelogram as hb and the
area of a general triangle as
1
2
hb by appropriate dissection.
A common error here is that pre-service teachers will not
distinguish the height of a parallelogram from the side length.
By grade 5, student understanding of area and perimeter for polygons is
well developed in high performing nations. Some examples of school prob-
lems follow.
Exercises: The rst four are from Singapore Primary Mathematics, 4A,
pp. 85 - 87.
(1) The perimeter of a rectangle is 24 m. If the length of the rectangle
is 8 m, nd the width.
(2) The perimeter of a square is 20m. Find its area.
(3) The area of a square is 36cm
2
. Find its perimeter.
6. MEASUREMENT, PERIMETER, AREA, AND VOLUME 357
(4) Each of the following gures is made up of two rectangles. Find the
area and perimeter of each gure.
Do the gures have the same area? Do they have the same perime-
ter?
(5) Assume that the area of a unit square is 1 square unit. Show that
the area of a rectangle of length l and width w is lw square units
when l and m are non-negative rational numbers. Show that the
area of a right triangle is
1
2
bh square units where b is the length of
one leg, and h is the length of the other.
(6) Assume that the area of a rectangle of length l and width w is
lw square units for any positive numbers l and w. Show that the
area of any triangle is
1
2
bh square units where b is the length of the
longest edge and h is the distance from this edge to the remaining
vertex.
(7) Realize a trapezoid as half of a parallelogram. Relate the standard
area formula (A =
1
2
(a +b)h, where a and b are the lengths of two
opposite parallel sides, and h is the separation between them) for
the trapezoid to the area of the parallelogram.
358 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
At this point one can give the tangram proof of the Pythagorean Theo-
rem:
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ . ............................................................................................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...........................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................
a a
a
a
b b
b
b
a
2
ab
ab b
2
c
c
c
2
(a +b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab +b
2
(a +b)
2
= c
2
+ 4A
2A = ab
Here is an alternative area proof of the Pythagorean theorem that uses
trapezoids and is taken from a seventh grade Hong-Kong text. (There are
other proofs that are, perhaps, better, but this is meant to illustrate some
of the proofs that actually occur.)
The area of the trapezoid is
1
2
(a + b)
2
as we see from the gure on the
right, but the gure on the left shows that the area of the trapezoid is also
1
2
ab +
1
2
ab +
1
2
c
2
. Equating these two expressions and canceling ab on both
sides gives the conclusion.
Next recall perimeter which has been discussed earlier. In the plane
consider a gure made up of a union of polygons with disjoint interiors.
The perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the line segments making up the
boundary.
Exercises:
(1) (a) For a triangle of a given base and a given area, where can the
third vertex be? (What are the possible locations of the third
vertex?)
(b) Is there any limit on the perimeter of the triangles in part a)?
(2) (a) For a triangle of a given base and having a perimeter of xed
length, where can the third vertex be?
6. MEASUREMENT, PERIMETER, AREA, AND VOLUME 359
(b) Is there any limitation on the area of the triangles of part a)?
Be as specic as possible. (The maximizing triangle is isosceles;
its area can be computed using the Pythagorean Theorem.)
(3) Using the previous two problems, nd all triangles with a given
base, area, and perimeter. (4, 2 and 0 are the possibilities.) How
many are there up to congruence? (1 or 0.)
(4) (a) What is the area of a regular hexagon with a side of length 1?
(b) What is the area of a regular hexagon with a side of length v?
(5) Fix a parallelogram ABCD, and consider all the trapezoids which
can be realized by dividing ABCD in half by a line through the
center. For special positions of the bisecting line, the two halves
of the parallelogram can be a triangle (if the bisecting line passes
through one (hence, two) of the vertices of ABCD; or a parallel-
ogram (when the bisecting line is parallel to a (pair of) side(s) of
ABCD. Does the area formula for the trapezoid remain valid in
these special cases?
(6) Let L
1
, L
2
be parallel lines, and let E be a point between L
1
and
L
2
. Let a line passing through E intersect L
1
and L
2
at A and C,
respectively, and let another line passing through E intersect L
1
and L
2
at D and B, resp. Explain why triangles AEB and DEC
have the same area.
Scaling and its eect on area should be discussed. If one scales a square,
the side length is multiplied by a scaling factor and the area of the scaled
square is
2
area of original square. This formula works for all gures
made up of a union of polygons with disjoint interiors: the area of a scaled
gure of this kind is the square of the scaling factor times the original area.
A possible error here is to think of scaling as an additive
process so that, for example, if a 4 inch by 9 inch rectangle is
scaled up so that the 4 inch side becomes 6 inches long, the
scaled length for the side that was originally 9 inches will be
11 inches. The faulty reasoning is that if one adds 2 to go
from 4 to 6, then one adds 2 to go from 9 to 11.
Exercises: The second through fourth exercises are from a sixth grade
French text DECIMALE 5.
(1) Given an equilateral triangle ABC whose side is of unit length. Let
T be the triangle obtained by joining the midpoints of the sides of
ABC. Compute the area of T and explain your steps.
(2) A kite.
(a) Draw a kite ABCD so that (AC) (BD), AC = 6cm, and
BD = 7cm.
360 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(b) Calculate the area of ABCD. (Hint: Find a rectangle with
area two times the area of ABCD.)
(3) (a) Calculate the area of the quadrilateral EBFD in the gure
below where AB = 5.2cm and AD = 3cm.
(b) Is the length AB needed?
(4) In each of the following cases calculate the area of the surface
HAEFCG
6. MEASUREMENT, PERIMETER, AREA, AND VOLUME 361
(a) AB = 1.5m; AD = 0.8m; HD = 15cm; FB = 60cm; DG =
8 HD; EB = 1.5 FB.
(b) AB = 12cm; AD = 6.8cm; AH = GC =
1
4
AB; FC = AE =
2
3
AH.
Circles
By the end of grade 7, students in high performing countries are expected
to know how to nd the areas and perimeters of rectangles, triangles, and
other polygons, as well as area and circumference of circles via the usual
formulas A = r
2
, C = d. However, some texts attempt to explain why
the same constant occurs in both the formula for circumference and for
area, while other texts do not. By this grade, students are also expected to
understand the relationship between the angle in degrees subtended by
an arc on the circle, the length of the arc

360
d, and the area of the region
bounded by the arc and the radii from the center to the two endpoints of
the arc as

360
r
2
.
The explanation for the area of a circle needs careful discussion. A
way of explaining heuristically that there is a close relationship between
the circumference of the circle and the area can be obtained by cutting the
circle into 2n equal sectors via diameters. Then put the sectors together,
alternately facing up and down to approximate a parallelogram. The area
of this parallelogram is approximately r
1
2
circumference of circle. But,
again, the various methods of actually approximating the area via included
and circumscribed regular polygons should be discussed. Here, using regular
inscribed and circumscribed polygons with an even number of edges, the
same observation can be made, but now by pairing them with the triangles
made by joining the center of the circle to the vertices of the polygon, one
gets actual parallelograms with area (r )(
1
2
length of perimeter ) and
r(
1
2
length of perimeter +) where the three undetermined terms go to zero
as the number of edges grows.
Exercises: The second and third exercises are from an eighth grade French
text Decimale 4, The fourth is a problem from the seventh grade Japanese
text translated by UCSMP p. 125, and the fth is from a sixth grade French
text Decimale 6.
(1) Consider the following two areas: A is the area that remains after
(the inside of) a circle touching all four sides of the unit square
(each side of length 1) has been taken away from the square, and
B is the area that remains after (the inside of) the square with all
four vertices lying on the unit circle (i.e., it has radius 1) has been
taken from the circle. Which is bigger, A or B?
(2) The same area
362 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
In the two gures above [AB] is a line segment having the same
length 2cm, and I is the midpoint of [AB]. The inner circles with
centers both labeled O are both tangent at I and the outer circles
both contain A and B. Show that the blue and green annuli have
the same area.
(3) The lunes of Hippocrates Angle

BAC in the triangle ABC be-
low is a right angle. The three semi-circles below have diameters
respectively [BA], [AC] and [BC].
(a) Suppose AC = 7cm, AB = 2.4cm. Compare the area of the
triangle ABC and the sum of the areas of the two green lunes.
(b) Is this result always true? (Set AC = 2a, AB = 2b and BC =
2c.)
(4) The following gures combine sectors and squares. Find the perime-
ters and areas of the shaded portions.
6. MEASUREMENT, PERIMETER, AREA, AND VOLUME 363
(5) (a) The edge of each square in the gure below is 5cm. Count the
number of squares inside the red lines; then count the number
of squares inside the blue lines.
(b) Using the results above determine an approximation to the area
of the green gure, and give an estimate of the error in the
measurement. (Use correct units.)
Volume:
Volume in space should be described by indicating the properties that it
is expected to satisfy. The objects whose volumes will be studied in K-8, as
was the case with area, should be restricted to little more than polyhedra in
space and regions that can be constructed using a nite number of polyhedra.
But the sphere may be added to this set also. Point out that volume is
additive when the gure is made up of a nite number of polyhedra with
disjoint interiors, and invariant under congruence. Given this, any number
of heuristic arguments will help justify the standard formula for the volume
of a rectangular prism with integer sides as the product lhd of the lengths of
364 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
the sides multiplied by the volume of a unit cube. Similarly, a more general
prism has area Ah multiplied by a xed constant, where A is the area of the
base. In practice it is probably best to either not mention these constants
or to point out that by choosing the volume of a unit cube to be 1, they are
equal to 1.
The following reasoning is a common error here: Since 1 foot
is 12 inches, 1 square foot is 12 square inches and 1 cubic fut
is 12 cubic inches.
It is also common to not understand the distinction between
surface area and volume.
Exercises: The fth and sixth problems are from the seventh grade Japan-
ese text translated by UCSMP, p. 161 - 162
(1) A box is 2 feet deep, 3 feet wide, and 4 feet tall. Give a detailed
explanation of why we can calculate the volume of the box by mul-
tiplying.
(2) A cubic foot of water weighs about 62 pounds. How much will the
water in a rectangular sh pond weigh if the sh pond is 3 feet
wide, 4 feet long, and 2 feet deep? Give a detailed explanation of
why we can multiply to solve this problem.
(3) How many cubic inches are in 2 cubic feet? Explain your answer so
as to convince a skeptic that it is correct.
(4) (a) Describe a concrete way to demonstrate that many dierent
shapes can have the same area
(b) Describe a concrete way to demonstrate that many dierent
shapes can have the same perimeter
(c) Describe a concrete way to demonstrate that many dierent
solid shapes can have the same volume.
(5) The cube below has an edge of 6 cm. Solve the following problems
(a) Find the volume of the triangular pyramid AHEF.
(b) Using the answer to (1), nd the volume of the triangular pyra-
mid AHFC.
6. MEASUREMENT, PERIMETER, AREA, AND VOLUME 365
(6) The diagram below shows a geometric sold formed by cutting a
corner of a cube with a plane. Find the volume of this solid.
The factor of
1
3
appearing in the volume formula for a cone is dicult
to justify at this level, but there are a few cases where it can be explained.
For example, if we take the cone obtained in a cube as the join of a face
with any vertex on the opposite face, we can rotate the cube through angles
of
2
3
and
4
3
around the diagonal line in this cone, and this decomposes
the cube into three copies of this cone. Also, in the algebra chapter in this
collection, a detailed discussion is given that justies the factor of
1
3
for the
volume formula for a circular cone. This argument can be easily extended
to right cones with polygonal bases.
Exercise:
(1) A sand and gravel company has a cone-shaped pile of sand. The
company measures that the distance around the pile of sand at the
base is 85 feet and the slanted distance from the edge of the pile at
ground level to the top of the pile is 25 feet. Determine the volume
of sand in the cone-shaped pile.
Scaling and its eect on volume can be explained along similar lines
as suggested earlier in this section for area. If one scales a cube, the side
length is multiplied by a scaling factor and the volume of the scaled cube
is
3
volume of original cube. This formula is valid for general solids.
Exercises: These two problem are somewhat ill-posed. Students should be
able to address this issue, and discuss the assumptions they are making in
order to create well posed problems.
(1) A large iguana can be 7 feet long and weigh 16 pounds. Suppose
that from excavated bones, a dinosaur was found to have been 25
feet long and proportioned like a large iguana. Give an estimate for
the weight of the dinosaur using this data. Explain your reasoning.
This problem and the next are somewhat ill-posed. Students should
be able to address this and discuss the assumptions they are making
in order to create well posed problems.
366 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(2) A typical adult male gorilla is about 5
1
2
feet tall and weighs about
400 pounds. King Kong was supposed to have been about 20 feet
tall. Assuming that King Kong was proportioned like a typical
adult male gorilla, approximately how much should King Kong have
weighed? Explain your reasoning.
Real life measurement and errors in measurement
In discussing errors in measurement, it is important to discuss two types
of error: absolute error and relative error. The rst refers to the last reported
digit, and the second refers to the total number of signicant digits. The
larger a quantity is, the larger the error can be and still be acceptable, and
in fact, the larger the error is likely to be. Students should understand that
accuracy of more than four signicant digits is rare, and usually requires
signicant eort. Often one signicant digit is sucient, and three is quite
accurate for most purposes. Here we are talking about nal numbers. Since
error can propagate during calculations, it is important to consider how
trustworthy results of computations with approximate numbers is. One
does not want to get too involved in this, but some appreciation of the issue
is desirable.
An excellent example to help understand how errors can propagate is a
mechanism that consists of two line segments, the rst of length l
1
and the
second of length l
2
, with the initial point of the rst segment xed at the
origin. If we only know the angles the two segments make with the x-axis
up to an error of, say, one tenth of a degree, have students estimate the
uncertainty of the position of the end point of the second link as a function
of the angles.
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

(0, 0)
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
............. ............. ............. .............
l
1
l
2
7. Congruence and Similarity
This precise denition
requires that course
instructors explain two
points (1) the
advantage of presenting
a more precise
denition and (23) how
to present this
denition in a
step-by-step manner. It
is at points like this
where the distinction
between math as it is
taught and as it should
be taught must be
made.
Middle school math standards and guidelines typically recommend that
students discuss congruence and similarity for general gures with a con-
centration on polygons with a small number of sides. The usual denition
of congruence that is seen is middle school texts is Two gures are con-
gruent if they have the same size and shape. It is probably much better
to give a more precise denition, for example, Two gures in the plane are
congruent if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their points so
that the distance between any pair of corresponding points is the same as
the distance between the original pair. From this it is natural to dene
similarity in terms of a scaling factor: Two gures in the plane are similar
if there is a one-to-one correspondence between their points so that the dis-
tance between any pair of corresponding points is a constant multiple, of
7. CONGRUENCE AND SIMILARITY 367
the distance between the original points. Then emphasize this by pointing
out the denition: The number is called the constant of proportionality.
With regard to congruence, it should be explained that the denition
makes precise the intuitive idea that two gures are congruent if you can
copy one to a transparent sheet, slide it, rotate it, and possibly turn it over
to bring it into exact correspondence with the second gure. Thus, except
when having to actually verify things, they can think of congruence in this
way
First properties of congruence If two gures constructed from line seg-
ments in the plane are congruent, and two of the segments have an angle
, not equal to a straight angle, between them, then the angle between the
corresponding segments is either or . Moreover, if it is then all the
corresponding angles will be negatives of the angles in the original gure.
(The angles will reverse if a reection was necessary in bringing the gures
into congruence, otherwise they will all be the same.)
The above statement can be justied by marking points on the two
segments at an equal distance from the vertex of the angle. Then the images
of these points will have the same distance from each other, and will have the
same distance from the vertex as in the original gure. Next, we connect the
two points in the original gure by a line segment and the two corresponding
points in the congruent gure by a line segment. The triangles so constructed
have corresponding sides of equal length. From this and the rigidity of
triangles the statement about the angles follows. Similarly, one veries SAS,
and ASA.
The special case of a right triangle needs to be covered in detail, so
students are aware that any side and any angle other than the right angle
determine the triangle up to congruence, as do any two sides.
Using these observations we can now make and justify a number of ruler
and compass constructions, for example, the construction of the perpendic-
ular bisector and the angle bisector.
The perpendicular bisector should be characterized as the line so that
every point on the line is equidistant from the endpoints of the segment.
Also, one needs to construct and justify the construction for the perpen-
dicular to a given line through a given point.
Students may be encouraged to use the constructions above to show that
the angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal and
conversely, if the angles made with a side are equal the triangle is isosceles.
As an application, these results may be used to show that there is one
and only one circle through three non-collinear points. To demonstrate this,
construct the triangle with these points as vertices. Then construct the
perpendicular bisectors of any two of the three sides. The center of the
circle is their intersection. This may be shown using triangle congruence
theorems. Based on this construction, it follows that the three perpendicular
bisectors of a triangle meet at a single point, and now this statement should
368 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
be comprehensible to students, as the point is the center of the circle through
the three vertices.
Dynamic Geometry Exploration Three Perpendicular Bisectors of a
Triangle Use Cabri Geometry
TM
on the TI-83+ to perform the following
steps.
(1) Construct a triangle and label the vertices A, B, and C.
(2) Construct the perpendicular bisectors to sides AB and BC. Create
the intersection point of these and label it O.
(3) Construct the perpendicular bisector to side AC. Note that it
passes through point O, and thus all three perpendicular bisectors
meet at a single point. This point of concurrency is the circumcen-
ter of the triangle.
(4) Drag a vertex of the triangle to change its shape. Note that the per-
pendicular bisectors are concurrent regardless of the type of triangle
created.
Exercises:
(1) Measure the distance from O to A, O to B and O toC. What
property of perpendicular bisectors supports your nding? Drag a
vertex of the triangle to change its shape and verify your conjecture.
7. CONGRUENCE AND SIMILARITY 369
(2) Construct the circle centered at O that passes through vertex A.
This circle is the circumcircle of the triangle. What is its relation-
ship to vertices B and C? Drag a vertex of the triangle to change
its shape and verify your conjecture.
(3) Consider the location of the circumcenter with respect to the trian-
gle. Under what conditions will it be located inside, on, and outside
the triangle? Use the Measure tools to conrm your conjectures.
Notes:
In Cabri Jr., the following tools are used: Triangle, Alpha-Numeric La-
bel, Perpendicular Bisector, Distance & Length, Circle, Hand.
In Cabri II+, the Check Property menu contains the Member tool, which
can be used to conrm that the circumcircle contains points B and C.
Exercise
(1) Given a quadrilateral, Is there always a circle that passes through
all four vertices? Explain.
The fact that all three angle bisectors of a triangle meet at a single
point may be explained in a similar way. Consider the bisectors at any two
of the three angles of the triangle. Drop perpendiculars to the two sides of
an angle from any point on one of the angle bisectors that lies inside the
triangle. This results in two congruent right triangles. Therefore, the two
perpendiculars have the same length. If the point on the bisector is the
point of intersection of two angle bisectors, then the perpendiculars to all
three sides have the same length, and this is the radius of the in-circle, the
inscribed circle inside of the triangle tangent to the three edges. Using a
triangle congruence theorem for right triangles, it follows that all three angle
bisectors meet at a single point.
Finally, it is useful to discuss the characterization of parallelograms as
those quadrilaterals with diagonals that bisect each other, and the rhombus
as the parallelogram with diagonals that are perpendicular to each other.
Similarity
Similarity is more subtle, typically confusing to students and pre-service
teachers when rst encountered, and has to be handled carefully. It is best
to start with scale models and explain that when you scale lengths, the
angles stay the same. This can be explained with a triangle decomposed
into congruent triangles each with side half that of the original triangle (or
twice depending on point of view),
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................................................................................................................................................................
370 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
and with side
1
3
(or 3) times the side of the original triangle depending on
point of view,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Similar arguments show that if two triangles have the same included angle
between corresponding sides, and the sides of the second angle have lengths
that are the same rational multiple of the corresponding lengths for the
sides of the rst angle, then the third side of the second triangle has length
the same rational multiple of the length of third side of the original triangle.
Some history of this statement should be discussed, particularly the diculty
involved with showing the truth of the statement for more than rational
scale factors in order to do this, one must introduce continuity and
proportionality should be reviewed. It is eective to note that the number
of congruent triangles in k the original triangle is

k
j=1
(2j 1) = k
2
.
Consequently, area increases as the square of the proportionality factor k
when k is rational.
Exercises:
(1) (Hong Kong, grade 6). The gure shows a star in a regular penta-
gon. From the gure nd
(a) the number of triangles,
(b) the number of types of
congruent triangles,
(c) the number of types of
similar triangles,
(d) similar gures of other
shapes.
(2) Suppose you are looking down a road and you see a person ahead of
you. You hold out your arm and sight the person with your thumb,
nding that the person appears to be as tall as your thumb is long.
Lets say that your thumb is 2 inches long, and that the distance
from your sighting eye to your thumb is 22 inches. If the person is
6 feet tall, then how far away are you from the person? Solve this
problem using either the scale factor method or the relative sizes
method, and say clearly what the idea behind the method is. In
other words, explain why it makes sense to solve the problem the
way you do.
7. CONGRUENCE AND SIMILARITY 371
(3) A painting that is 120 inches by 150 inches will be reproduced on a
poster. Suppose that on the poster, the 120 inch side will become
20 inches long. Determine how long the 150 inch side will become
on the poster. Calculate your answer in three ways: by the scale
factor method, by the relative sizes method, and by the setting up
a proportion method. In each case, show your work.
Remark: At this point one can give proofs of the Pythagorean theorem
that depend on similarity. We give two here. For the rst, take a right
triangle, drop the perpendicular to the hypotenuse from the opposite vertex
(the right angle). In the diagram below, h is the length of the hypotenuse
of the right triangle with sides l
1
and l
2
, and m is the length of a side of the
right triangle with angle a.
l
l
r
h
m
1
2
a
a
Here is a modication of this proof that uses the fact that area of propor-
tional triangles varies by the square of the proportionality factor. l
1
is the
hypotenuse of one of the two included similar triangles. l
2
is the hypotenuse
of the other, and h is the hypotenuse of the original triangle. Since the
triangles are similar, the ratio of the area of each triangle to the square of
its hypotenuse is a non-zero constant, C ,= 0. Also, the area of the including
triangle is the sum of the areas of the two smaller triangles. Hence, writing
372 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
A(l
i
) for the area of the triangle with hypotenuse l
i
, we have
Ch
2
= A(l
1
) +A(l
2
)
Cl
2
1
= A(l
1
)
Cl
2
2
= A(l
2
)
so h
2
= l
2
1
+l
2
2
.
The basic results about similar triangles should be reviewed. If any two
angles of the rst triangle are equal to angles of the second triangle, then the
triangles are similar. If the three sides of the second triangle are proportional
to the sides of the rst (with the same constant of proportionality), then
the triangles are similar.
At this point, it would be appropriate to state and prove the converse
of the Pythagorean Theorem. That theorem will be used in the discussion
of rotation in the section, The Euclidean Group: I.
In the following pages, we include a sample lesson for an eighth grade
class on scaling and models. This or a similar lesson could be used as the
basis of a class discussion. Among the issues that could be discussed are
whether this is likely to be an eective lesson, and if not, how it could be
improved. For example, would this lesson work better in Minneapolis or in
Louisiana? How important is it that the lesson relate to a contemporary
event rather than a historical one? And so on.
8. Grade 8: Scale Factors
Building scale
models of historic
ships is a popular
hobby.
The Hunley was built from locomotive
boilers in 1863. This is a picture of a scale
model where the scale factor is
1
24
. The
original was 44 feet long. How long is the
scale model?
Scale factors:
Compare the distance between two points in a scale model to the distance
between the corresponding points in the original. The ratio is a constant
called the scale factor.
8. GRADE 8: SCALE FACTORS 373
If we know the scale
factor and a
dimension in the
original we can nd
the corresponding
dimension in the scale
model by multiplying.
The scale factor for the model of the
Hunley is
1
24
and the original was 44 feet
long. We multiply the scale factor by the
length of the original to get the length in
feet of the model:
1
24
44 = 1.83 feet or
12 1.83 = 22 inches.
Guided Practice
Workers at the PT Gasoline Company created toy
scale models of a tanker truck at a scale of
1
4
inch
= 1 foot. The actual length of the truck was 45
feet. What was the length of the toy model?
We multiply the scale factor
1
4
1
inches per foot by the length in feet in the
original, obtaining
1
4
45 = 11.25 with the dimension of inches. So the
answer is 11.25 inches.
If we know the scale factor and the distance between two points in the
model, we can nd the distance between the two points in the original by
division. If the scale is
1
10
, then the distance in the original is 10 times the
distance in the model.
Remember: If the dimen-
sions of the scale factor are
a per b, then when we di-
vide, obtaining
1
scale factor
the dimensions also reverse
and become b per a.
A model of a theme park is built at a
scale of 1 cm = 100 meters. On the
model, the distance between the Klondike
roller coaster and the Roaring Rapids
River Ride is 24.25 cm. What is the ac-
tual distance between the Klondike and
the Roaring Rapids?
Since the scale factor is
1
100
centimeters per meter we divide the di-
mensions in the scale model by the scale factor
1
100
to get dimensions in
the original. This is the same as multiplying by 100. Thus the answer is
100 24.25 = 2425 meters.
Warning: Since the scale factor has units of centimeters per meter the
units are not the same. This scale factor is a rate, not a ratio. But rates
and ratios are very similar. We will not have diculties if we take care to
record the units even if we are sometimes working with rates and sometimes
with ratios.
Dangerous bend - What is the error? Ratios can be treated as though
they were fractions when using them to nd dimensions or when nding the
ratio of b to a when we know the ratio of a to b. However, nding new ratios
from given ratios requires careful reasoning in other cases.
374 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
A bag contains 6 white
and 10 red marbles. 4
white marbles and 20 red
marbles were added to the
bag. What is the new ra-
tio of white to red mar-
bles?
Diana and Mary came up with the
following solutions
Diana reasoned that the initial
ratio was 6 : 10 or 3 : 5,
and the added marbles had
a ratio of 4 : 20 or 1 : 5.
She then added, writing
3 : 5 + 1 : 5 = 4 : 10.
Mary simply counted marbles.
In the end there were
6 + 4 = 10 white marbles
and 10 + 20 = 30 red
marbles, so the new
ratio was 10 : 30 or 1 : 3.
Who is right? And what did the other
do incorrectly?
Mary is right. The problem with Dianas reasoning is that the solution
does not involve adding fractions, but rather adding the numerators and
separately the denominators.
9. Coordinate Geometry
The following are topics in grades 6 - 9 of a middle school series of books
in Hong Kong.
Grade 7:
Coordinates:
(1) Distance between two points
(2) Slope
(3) Angle with x-axis and parallel lines
(4) Perpendicular lines
Grade 8:
Coordinate geometry of a straight line
(1) Division points
(2) Equations of special straight lines
(3) Dierent forms of straight lines
(4) Equations of parallel lines and perpendicular lines
Grade 9:
Coordinate treatment of straight lines and circles
(1) Coordinate treatment of straight lines
(2) Equations of straight lines
(3) Parallel and perpendicular lines
(4) Loci
(5) Equations of circles
(6) Intersection of straight line and circles
9. COORDINATE GEOMETRY 375
The rst thing one has to do at this stage is introduce coordinates (Of
course, underlying this is the intuitive assumption that lines are what we
think they are. It is best to make this assumption and not indicate that
there is a mathematical issue here, but be prepared to discuss the more
subtle aspects of coordinatization if the topic comes up.)
Here is a good practice exercise to help review coordinates.
The center of mean position Definition: The center of mean position
of three points A, B, C, is a point which may be found as follows: - Bisect
the line segment joining A and B in G, join G to the third point C, and
divide GC in H, so that GH =
1
3
GC: G is the center of mean position of
the system of points.
A nice problem can be made out of this, which can be done at
dierent levels for teachers at dierent grade levels. The best way
to do this is to use notation which needs to be familiar to teachers
from grades 5 on, (x
1
, y
1
), etc. However, this notation will get in
the way of early elementary school teachers understanding what the
problem says. Ask them to show that the same point is found no
matter which of the three points are labeled A, B, and C. It is
probably best to rst ask this for numerical values, ask that two
cases be worked out to see that the same point occurs both times,
and then ask that this be shown by dealing with points given as
(a, A), . . . .
At this point the Pythagorean theorem can be applied to give the formula
for the distance between two points in the coordinate plane.
In terms of the distance formula, one can present the equation for a
circle with center at the origin.
The need for mathematics to make sense to pre-service K-8 teachers
suggests that it would be a good idea to connect the lines of plane geometry
with the linear equations of algebra, and make as rigorous as possible the
statement that the graph of a linear equation in the plane is a straight line.
There is a discussion of how one might do this in chapter 8.
Then a review of slope, the dierent forms of the equations for lines,
lines through two points, lines through one point with given slope, and x
and y intercept forms for the equations of lines.
Emphasize the geometric connections. Parallel lines are either parallel
to the y-axis or they have the same slope, and if the equations of two lines
have the same slope, they are parallel. Recall the relationship between the
slopes of perpendicular lines.
Finally, indicate the connection between the axiom of Euclidian geome-
try that asserts that two non-parallel lines in the plane intersect in a single
point and the solution of two linear equations in x and y.
The shortest path between two points in the plane is the straight
line segment joining them
376 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
At this point the discussion of the mathematics underlying this can
be initiated. It should be pointed out that the proof involves much more
advanced mathematics. But we can justify it for this audience by demon-
strating the triangle inequality, which is a special case. In the early grades,
and perhaps initially here, this should be experimented with by using trans-
parent papers with the relevant segments drawn on them forming two sides
of a triangle with a third side on an opaque sheet. This can also be tied in
to the preliminary discussion in the rst section on the length requirements
for constructing a triangle or quadrilateral.
Then a proof can be sketched. Using the Pythagorean theorem, the
triangle inequality can be demonstrated by choosing the longest side of a
triangle, dropping the perpendicular from the opposite vertex, (observing
that heuristically, this perpendicular lies inside the triangle), and then doing
the obvious calculation.
Remark: To give an idea of how the triangle inequality underlies the general
case a multi-segment path between two points in the plane and a straight
line between them can be drawn. Then one can use the triangle inequality
to systematically cut down the number of segments by one each time, and
each time shrink the total length of the multi-segment path.
The intersection of a straight line and a circle By looking at explicit
examples (and maybe using a line on a transparent sheet and a circle on
an opaque sheet) one sees that usually a line does not intersect a circle,
but if it does, the intersection usually consists of 2 points. However, by
experimentation students will nd that as the two points of intersection
get closer and closer together, the line gets closer and closer to a line that
appears to be perpendicular to the radius from the center to the point on
the circle where they are coming together.
The explicit explanation of this in terms of the equations of lines and
planes is worth doing here. First one can do this by taking a line and a circle
with a point in common, writing their equations, and using the common
point to obtain a linear equation for the second point of intersection.
An easier alternative computationally, but harder theoretically is to ob-
serve that rotation and translation preserve lengths and angles so we can
prove this at one point, say when (A, B) = (0, r), and then use rotations and
translations to obtain the general case. Of course, this alternative requires
familiarity with the euclidian group, which we discuss in the next section.
It should also be made clear that it is not expected that this will trans-
port to the classroom, but it is a vital insight into the more advanced points
of view that students will need to understand before entering college. So
having this knowledge will enable teachers to better align their instruction
in the lower grades to lead students towards this level of understanding.
Exercises:
(1) A new Giant Super-store is being planned somewhere in the vicinity
of Kneebend and Anklescratch, towns that are 10 miles apart (as
10. THE EUCLIDIAN GROUP: I 377
shown on the map). The developers will only say that all the loca-
tions they are considering are less than 7 miles from Kneebend and
more than 5 miles from Anklescratch. Indicate all the places where
the Giant Super-store could be located. Explain your answer.
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................

Kneebend Anklescratch
(2) John says that his house is more than 5 miles from Walmart and
more than 3 miles from KMart. Indicate all possible locations for
John s house on the map below. Explain your answer.
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
...................................................
5 miles

Walmart KMart
(3) A GPS unit receives information from two satellites. The GPS
unit learns that it is 10,000 miles from one satellite and 15,000
from the other satellite. Without any further information, describe
the nature of all possible locations of the GPS unit. Explain your
answer.
(4) Show that if (xa)
2
+(y b)
2
= r
2
and (xc)
2
+(y c)
2
= s
2
are
the equations of two circles, then the dierence of the two equations
is the equation of a line. How is this line related to the two circles?
10. The Euclidian Group: I
From a purely mathematical viewpoint, the Euclidean group is best
introduced using matrices. But that approach is not readily understood by
pre-service teachers, nor is it transportable to K-8 classrooms. This section
outlines a more elementary treatment of the Euclidean group.
What is suggested is that initially the elements of the Euclidian group,
translations, rotations and glide reections, be introduced in a purely hands
on way. Then, a few limited examples can be given in terms of coordinates.
(A number of middle school programs present the 90

rotation about the

origin in terms of the transformation (x, y) (y, x), but they give virtually
no justication for it.) The diculty that should be kept in mind here is that
it is a major jump for pre-service teachers to move from an understanding
of one-variable functions and their graphs to transformations of the plane.
Translations
Once more, the key tool here should be transparent sheets of paper.
A coordinate system should be drawn, and the pre-service teachers should
378 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
experiment with moving these sheets parallel to themselves on a at surface
to understand translations.
At this point, depending on the judgment of the instructor, it might be
sensible to study how translations work in the coordinate plane. Using a
xed coordinate system and the system on the transparent paper, it should
be possible for this audience to see that the coordinates are changed by
adding xed amounts separately to the x and the y coordinates. For exam-
ple, it can be observed that any translation breaks up into a translation in
the x-direction and a separate translation in the y-direction, and the order
in which these translations are performed is immaterial.
Then a more careful exposition can be developed, perhaps along the
following lines.
A translation in the plane is a map, T
a,b
that, for any point (x, y)
in the coordinate plane, maps it to the point (x + a, y + b). Verify
that a translation preserves distance, the distance from T
a,b
(x
1
, y
1
) to
T
a,b
(x
2
, y
2
) is always the same as the distance from (x
1
, y
1
) to (x
2
, y
2
).
This requires some algebra, so care should be taken if geometry is
the third course and not the fourth in this sequence.
As a particular, and important, property T
a,b
takes the circle of
radius r about (c, d) to the circle of radius r about (c +a, d +b). In
fact this is true of any isometry.
Exercises: These exercises are taken from an eighth grade French text
(DECIMALE 4).
(1) (a) Construct the gure F below.
ABCD is a parallelogram: AB = 4cm, AC = 2cm;
(AC) (AD).
C
1
and C
2
are semi-circles with diameters [DC] and [AB].
(b) Construct the gure F

given as the image of F by the transla-

tion that moves D to A.
(c) What are the images of the lines (AD), (DC) and (BC)? What
is the image of the semi-circle C
1
?
10. THE EUCLIDIAN GROUP: I 379
(2) Which of the four patterns below can be used to tile the plane using
only translations?
In each case where tiling is possible, construct a part of the paving
and describe the translations that are needed.
(3) (a) Construct a circle C with center I and a diameter [EJ] of this
circle. Construct the image C

of C by the translation l that

moves I to J. Denote the two points of intersection of C and
C

by A and B.
(b) Denote by C the image of A under the translation l. Show that
the triangle AJC is equilateral.
Rotation through

2
Transparent coordinate sheets are helpful for the following exercises that
illustrate that rotation by 90

and then translation is not the same as rst

translating and then rotating by 90

.
Exercises Unless otherwise indicated, rotations are assumed to be in the
counterclockwise direction.
(1) Verify that rotation by 90

about the origin, and then translation

by 1 in the x direction takes the point (1, 0) to (1, 1).
(2) Verify that translation by 1 in the x direction and then rotation
about the origin by 90

takes (1, 0) to (0, 2).

(3) Verify that translation by 1 in the x direction and then rotation
about the origin by 90

clockwise takes the point (

1
2
,
1
2
) to itself.
The exercises above, or similar ones, lay the ground work to go a little
deeper into the subject of rotations. Ask pre-service teachers to pin down
the transparent sheet at the origin so that the origins on both xed and
transparent coordinate systems agree, and so that the positive x and y
axes also agree. Pre-service teachers can then rotate the transparent sheet
through 90

degrees. They should note that the positive x-axis now aligns
with the positive y-axis while the positive y-axis aligns with the negative
x-axis. Guide them to realize that the image of a general point, (x, y), is
the point (y, x).
Using the specic formula for this transformation, it should be veried
that it preserves distance. This is given as an exercise below, but it may be
instructive to do this exercise in class.
380 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
We can formally justify the fact that this transformation is a rotation
through 90

via an argument something like the following. If (a, b) is any

point other than the origin, then (0, 0), (a, b) and the image of (a, b), (b, a)
form the vertices of a triangle. The lengths of the two edges containing
(0, 0) are

a
2
+b
2
while the length of the third side is
_
2(a
2
+b
2
). Since
the sum of the squares of the rst two lengths is the square of the third, the
converse of the Pythagorean theorem shows that the angle between the two
edges at the origin is a right angle.
Corollary: The line through the origin and (a, b), where a
2
+ b
2
,= 0, is
at right angles to the line through the origin and (b, a).
Exercises:
(1) Verify that the map f(x, y) = (y, x) preserves distance in the
plane.
(2) Verify that the map f(x, y) = (y, x) takes only the point (0, 0) to
itself.
(3) Verify that the map h(x, y) = (y + 1, x + 1) preserves distance in
the plane and takes only the point (1, 0) to itself.
(4) Find a pair of numbers (a, b) so that k(x, y) = (y +a, x+b) takes
the point (3, 0) to itself.
(5) Verify that the map g(x, y) = (y +l, x +m) preserves distance in
the plane, and takes only the point
_
l +m
2
,
ml
2
_
to itself.
(6) Verify that the map g of Exercise (5) takes lines through the point
(
l+m
2
,
ml
2
) to perpendicular lines that also contain the point (
l+m
2
,
ml
2
).
(7) Show that if a line is given by the equation ax + by = c with
a
2
+b
2
,= 0, then the equation of a line perpendicular to this line is
given by bx +ay = d.
Iterating the right-angle rotation about the origin.
If we take the right angle rotation about the origin, f(x, y) = (y, x), and
repeat it we have
(x, y)
f
(y, x)
f
(x, y)
this is a rotation through a straight angle (or 180 degrees). Likewise, if
we repeat it three times we obtain (x, y) (y, x), and this is a rotation
through three right angles or 270 degrees. Finally if we repeat it one more
time we get (x, y) (x, y) and this is the identity map taking every point
in the plane to itself.
Now we can introduce right angle rotations about any point in the
plane.
Definition: We say that the transformation g(x, y) = (y + l, x + m)
is a right angle rotation (or rotation through 90 degrees) about the point
(
lm
2
,
l+m
2
).
11. EUCLIDEAN GROUP II: REFLECTIONS AND APPLICATIONS 381
Students can verify, rst, that this is the same as rst rotating through
90

at the origin, and then translating by (l, m). They should look at the
special case where the translation by (l, l) is along the 45

degree line through

the rst quadrant. x axis, and verify that the point (0, l) is taken to itself,
the line parallel to the x-axis through (0, l) is taken to the y-axis, and the
y-axis is taken to the line through l parallel to the x-axis.
11. Euclidean Group II: Reections and Applications
Reections can be initially studied by using a transparent paper. This
time, a line is drawn on the transparent paper, with a point marked, and a
corresponding line and point are identied on the xed coordinate system.
To see the eect of a reection, the transparent paper is turned over and the
lines and points brought into coincidence. If other gures are drawn on the
xed coordinate system and traced on the transparent paper, their images
under reection are now easily studied.
The key points are these:
(1) Reections in the plane are entirely determined by a reection line
that can either be thought of abstractly, or as a specic line of the
form ax +by = c.
(2) Points are mapped in the following way. Any point on the reection
line for the reection T
a,b,c
is taken to itself. If the point P is not
on the reection line then its image is obtained as follows. Let V
on the reection line be the intersection of the perpendicular to the
reection line through P, and rotate P through about the point
V . Reection is what happens when one looks into a mirror.
One checks directly that these transformations preserve distance using
similar triangles and quadrilaterals, perhaps by breaking the demonstration
into two steps, the rst being when the two points are originally on one side
of the reection line, and the second when they are on opposite sides. This
is likely to be a good class exercise. A number of pictures will help make
things clear.
The next thing to cover is a discussion of iterating two reections. Show
that if the reection lines are parallel, say a distance d apart, then the
iteration is a translation through a distance of 2d. Probably, the best way
to do this is to follow a number of points as they are reected through the
rst line, and then reected through the second. Then a general argument
can be developed.
After this, the class can do the same thing when the two reection
lines intersect. They should begin to see that the composition is a rotation
through two times the angle between the lines.
A very good exercise here has to do with understanding a kaleidoscope.
If you open a kaleidoscope up you will see two mirrors arranged at an angle to
382 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
each other, with colored bits of plastic or glass at one end. The colored bits
reect in the rst mirror, then the entire thing reects in the second. Since
the iteration of two reections is a rotation, this has the eect or rotating
the original reected image about twice the angle between the mirrors, and
the iterate reections are again rotated. If the original angle between the
mirrors was 30

then the eect is to give six distinct images via rotation and
six more images that are reected and then rotated. What will be the eect
if the mirrors are at 45

, other angles?
Remark: Of course, what is going on here is that two reections through
non-parallel lines generate a subgroup of the copy of O(2) comprising all
elements of the Euclidian group that x the intersection point. If the angle
between the two xed lines has the form

n
for a non-negative integer n, then
the group generated is the dihedral group D
2n
with fundamental domain the
sector between the two rays. Alternately, D
2n
is generated by one of the
reections and the rotation through
2
n
given as the composition of the two
reections. While this discussion is certainly not appropriate for the pre-
service teachers, it is appropriate to draw the fundamental domain and its
rotates and reections, showing that they close up as we go entirely around
the circle, and indicating how the 2n reections of the colored pieces appear.
It is probably worth taking some time to point out that if we reect and
translate in the direction perpendicular to the xed line of the reection,
this is the same as reection about a parallel line half the distance from
the xed line to its translate. Hence, any glide-reection is the same as a
reection followed by translation in the direction of the xed line.
It is also well worth while to mention, at this point, that we have ob-
served that translations, rotations with arbitrary centers in the plane, reec-
tions about arbitrary lines in the plane, and glide reections all preserve dis-
tance, but in fact these are the only transformations that have this property.
If we know that a transformation of the plane to itself preserves distance,
then it must be one of these. The proof is more advanced, of course, but
pre-service teachers should be aware of this fact.
Remark: In fact, there is an elementary proof. It depends on the fact that
the distances of an arbitrary point in the plane from three non-collinear
points determines the arbitrary point uniquely. It follows that any two
distance preserving transformations that take the rst set of three points to
the second must agree.
At this point it is relatively direct to show that, given any three non-
collinear points, and three other non-collinear points having the same dis-
tances from each other as the originals, there is a transformation of the form
11. EUCLIDEAN GROUP II: REFLECTIONS AND APPLICATIONS 383
above that takes the rst set to the second.
Dynamic Geometry Exploration Reections in a Plane
Use Cabri Geometry
TM
to perform the following steps.
(1) Construct a small triangle and label the vertices A, B, and C.
(2) Construct a line m and perform a reection of the triangle over the
line.
(3) Measure the distance from the pre-image triangle ABC to line m
and the distance between the two triangles. What do you observe?
384 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
Drag the triangle or the line to conrm your conjecture.
Construct a line through vertex A perpendicular to line m to
locate a point in order to measure the perpendicular distance.
(4) Construct a line n parallel to line m and perform a reection of the
image triangle over line n.
(5) Measure the distance between the parallel lines and the distance
from vertex A to the corresponding vertex of the nal triangle.
What do you observe? Drag one of the lines to conrm your con-
jecture.
Exercises:
11. EUCLIDEAN GROUP II: REFLECTIONS AND APPLICATIONS 385
(1) What is a single transformation that is equivalent to the composite
reection of triangle ABC over the parallel lines?
(2) Hide the parallel line n and create a line p that is not parallel to the
original line m. What happens if a gure is reected twice over a
pair of intersecting lines? What single transformation is equivalent
to the composite reection over the intersecting lines?
(3) Use the Measure tools and the Hand cursor to conrm that a re-
ection results in an image congruent to the pre-image.
Notes:
In Cabri Jr., the following tools are used: Triangle, Alpha-Numeric La-
bel, Line, Reection, Perpendicular, Distance & Length, Parallel, Hand.
Notice that the distance between a point and a line is measured as a
perpendicular distance.
The composite reections explored in the activity are each equivalent to
a single transformation.
A composite reection of a gure over two parallel lines is equivalent
to a translation of twice the distance between the lines, in a direction
from the pre-image perpendicular to the lines of reection.
A composite reection of a gure over two intersecting lines is equiv-
alent to a rotation. The center of rotation is the point of intersection
of the lines, and the angle of rotation is equal to twice the angle
between the lines.
Applications It might be worth pointing out that one can actually prove
most of the basic assumptions of plane geometry in the context of the coor-
dinate plane and the existence of translations, reections, and rotations.
Application 1: Opposite interior angles cut by transversals to parallel lines
are equal
Place the center of a rotation through a straight angle midway between
the two parallel lines on the transversal and note that the two parallel lines
are interchanged while the transversal is taken to itself, so that for either of
the two pairs of opposite interior angles, the two angles are exchanged and
are consequently equal.
386 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
Application 2: The sum of the three interior angles of a triangle is a
straight angle.
Let T be a triangle with three (non-collinear) vertices in the coordinate
plane. Take the line through two of the vertices and construct the line
parallel to this line through the third vertex. Use the fact that the alternate
interior angles are equal on each of the two transversals.
Application 3: Two gures in the plane are congruent if and only if there
is a translation, rotation, reection, or glide reection that takes the rst
gure to the second. This can be applied to triangles in particular. Note
that there is a special case where a reection or rotation takes a triangle to
itself. These are symmetries of the triangle, and we can observe that the
classication of triangles as scalene, isosceles, and equilateral is actually a
symmetry classication.
Application 4: Applying symmetry to quadrilaterals again shows that the
usual decomposition into squares, rectangles, rhombuses, parallelograms,
and quadrilaterals is again a symmetry classication.
We will discuss symmetry further, guided in part by examples from other
countries in a following section.
12. Optional discussion of relation to optics
Introduce reection of light o a mirror or any other surface. Indicate its
close connection with the reections above, but also make sure to indicate
how it diers. Light reects o a mirror making equal angles. Angle of
incidence equals angle of reection. So the eect is that the reected image
appears to come from a reected version of the original.
Exercises:
(1) The diagram in Figure 10 shows Ashley in a room with two wall
mirrors as seen from the point of view of a y looking down from
the ceiling. What will Ashley see when she looks at point P in the
mirror? Explain.
12. OPTIONAL DISCUSSION OF RELATION TO OPTICS 387
(2) The picture in Figure 11 is of a person, a full length wall mirror,
and a chair, shown from the point of view of a y on the ceiling.
Can the person see the chair in the mirror? If so, show a place on
the mirror where the person can see the chair. Either way, explain
briey why or why not.
(3) Draw a picture of what the Moon looks like to people on Earth when
the Earth, Moon, and Sun are aligned as shown in the diagram
below (which is not drawn to scale). Explain your answer
(4) The picture below shows the earth and moon as seen from outer
space, looking down on the north pole (not to scale!).
(a) For a person located at point P, approximately what time is it?
Explain your answer.
388 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(b) Is the moon waxing or waning in Figure 4? Explain why.
(5) The picture below shows the earth as seen from outer space, looking
down on the north pole (labeled N).
(a) What time of day is it at point P? Explain how you can tell.
(b) If a person at point P in the picture above can see the moon,
and if the moon is neither new nor full, then is the moon waxing
or is it waning? Explain how you can tell from the picture.
13. Similarity and Dilations
Students are exposed to the idea of dilation when they study similarity.
A dilation with proportionality constant (with > 0) is a map D

from
14. GEOMETRIC PATTERNS - SYMMETRY 389
the coordinate plane to itself such that:
D

(x, y) = (x, y).

This dilation takes points at distance D to points with distance D, and
this may be checked by calculating:
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
=
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
.
Hence the image under DI

of any gure is a similar gure with constant of

proportionality . Special case, the image of a circle of radius r with center
(a, b) is transformed to a circle of radius r with center (a, b).
It should also be pointed out that a dilation followed by a translation:
(x, y) (x+a, y +b) has the same property that lengths are changed by
the constant of proportionality .
Exercises:
(1) For ,= 1, ,= 0 show that there is exactly one point in the plane
so that the mapping above, (x, y) (x + a, y + b) - takes it to
itself.
(2) Show that a line of arbitrary slope is taken to a line of the same
slope by the similarity transformations above.
Students should be aware that, both similarity transformation D

and
the transformation D

followed by a translation, preserve angles.

14. Geometric Patterns - Symmetry
With the tools of the preceding sections, it is possible to give a precise
denition of symmetry. Any gure in the plane is taken to itself by the
identity transformation, but this is certainly not true of other elements in
the Euclidian group. Here is the general denition of symmetry:
Definition: Let a gure F be given in the plane. (The gure may consist
of many parts.) Then F has a symmetry if and only if there is an element
dierent from the identity in the set of length preserving transformations
above that takes the gure to itself. The set of all such elements dierent
from the identity comprise the set of symmetries of the gure.
Lots of examples should be given, including examples where the sym-
metries are rotations through angles
2k
n
about a point, those that include
reections, and examples that include translations. Methods for generating
gures with given symmetries may be introduced starting with, perhaps,
some squiggles in the plane, and generating their images under a discrete
subgroup of the Euclidian group.
Exercises: The last two problems are sixth grade problems from France,
Decimale 6
(1) What are the possible symmetries of a triangle? What kinds of
triangles have reection symmetry? What kinds of triangles have
rotation symmetry? (After this problem, one wants to make the
remark that the terminology scalene, isosceles, equilateral is a sym-
metry classication.)
390 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(2) (a) What are the possible symmetries of a quadrilateral?
(b) What kinds of quadrilaterals have reection symmetry in a
line? (Kites, if the lines goes through a vertex; isosceles trape-
zoids if the line goes through sides.)
(c) Which quadrilaterals have rotation symmetries? (Parallelo-
grams)
(d) What quadrilaterals have reection symmetry in two lines. (Rec-
tangle, if the lines pass through sides; rhombi, if the lines pass
through vertices.) Aside from the square, how must these lines
be related to each other? (Perpendicular). Again after this
problem, one should make the point that much of the quadrilat-
eral terminology square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram,
kite, and (isosceles) trapezoid amounts to a symmetry classi-
cation of quadrilaterals.
(3) (a) What do you get when you cut a parallelogram in half (i.e., by a
line through the center)? (A trapezoid, which may degenerate
into a triangle or a parallelogram.)
(b) Can you get all possible trapezoids that way?
(4) Draw a design that is made with copies of the curlicue below (and
its reection) so that the design as a whole has both 3-turn rota-
tion symmetry and reection symmetry. Neither artistry nor an
explanation is needed.
(5) Draw a design that is made out of (approximate) copies of the
curlicue shown above (and its reection) and that has 4-fold ro-
tation symmetry as well as reection symmetry. (Artistry is not
required; a rough sketch will do as long as it shows the desired
features clearly.)
(6) For each picture in the gure below, describe a single transformation
that will take shape A to shape B. Describe each transformation in
detail (you may draw on the pictures to help you).
14. GEOMETRIC PATTERNS - SYMMETRY 391
(7) What symmetries does the design in Figure 27 have? Describe each
symmetry as precisely as you can. (Consider the design as a whole.)
(8) Decomposing a square. Copy the gures below on graph paper.
Then draw their lines of symmetry
(9) Sequences and symmetry. Find a rule that constructs the following
sequence of gures from the rst. Give the fth gure using your
392 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
rule.
15. Geometry in Space
Introduce planes and lines in coordinate three space. Planes are intro-
duced visually, and then in terms of the equation of a plane
ax +by +cz = d.
It should be pointed out that three non-collinear points in space determine
a plane.
Exercise:
(1) Determine an equation of the form above for the plane through the
three points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1).
Two planes are parallel if they do not intersect, which happens if their
equations can both be written so that the coecients of the three variables
are the same. Otherwise, two planes intersect in a line. It should be ex-
plained to students that this is one of the most subtle and dicult points in
the course. This is an instance where a single equation will not specify the
object of interest. It can be explained that specifying points in the plane
also requires two equations, so they have seen things like this before. There
should be considerable practice at this point.
Exercises:
(1) (1) Determine the intersection lines for the following pairs of planes:
(a) z = 0, and y = 0.
(b) z = 0, and x = 0.
(c) z +y = 0 and z y = 0.
(2) Show that a plane given by the equation ax +by +cz = d contains
the x-axis only if a = 0 and d = 0.
(3) Find conditions on a, b, c, d so that the line x = y in the x, y) plane
is contained in the line ax +by +cz = d.
16. LENGTH AND EUCLIDIAN GROUP IN SPACE 393
Note that a plane decomposes space into two half-planes, one dened as
all those points (x, y, z) so that ax + by + cz d and the other dened as
all the points so that ax +by +cz d. In terms of these half-planes, dene
a convex polyhedron as the intersection of a nite number of half-planes.
Dene and describe the basic families of gures studied in K - 8, prisms
including rectangular parallelepipeds and cubes, and cones (pyramids).
Exercises:
(1) (a) Determine the intersection of the two half-planes, z 0 and
z 1.
(b) Same problem for the two half-planes y 0 and y 1.
(c) Same problem for the two half-planes x 0 and x 1.
(d) Identify the intersection of all six half-planes in (6a), (6b) and
(6c).
(2) Identify the intersection of the following ve half-planes:
z 0
y +z 2
y z 2
x +z 2
x z 2
What kind of gure is this (polyhedral cone with base a square).
(3) Find four half-planes whose intersections give a polyhedral cone
with base a triangle in the x, y)-plane and vertex (0, 0, 4).
16. Length and Euclidian Group in Space
This topic can be initiated via a discussion of length in space. One can
see what the formula should be by taking point (a, b, c) and (d, e, f), starting
from (a, b, c) to (d, e, c) in the plane z = c, and then going from (d, e, c) to
(d, e, f) along a line parallel to the z-axis, and thus perpendicular to the rst
line. Putting the two distances together, using the Pythagorean Theorem
results in the distance being given by
_
(a d)
2
+ (b e)
2
+ (c f)
2
and we have our distance formula in the plane.
There should be some discussion of basic transformations in space. A
mirror can be used to explain reections through a plane in space. A reec-
tion through a plane takes points on the mirror to themselves but all other
points are taken an equal distance from the mirror on the other side along
the perpendicular to the plane from the point.
Students can verify that if one composes two reections then either one
gets a translation perpendicular to the rst plane if the two planes are
parallel or a rotation about the line of intersection of the planes if they are
not parallel. At this point the generators of the three dimensional Euclidian
group can be described.
Exercises:
394 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
(1) What is the longest pole that can t in a box that is 4 feet wide, 3
feet deep, and 5 feet tall? Explain briey.
(2) Have students create the tessellation of R
3
by octahedra and tetra-
hedra as follows:
(a) Create a square grid in the plane.
(b) On each square of the grid, erect a pyramid with equilateral
faces.
(c) Observe that if the apices of two adjacent pyramids are con-
nected, then the frame created by the two facing sides of the
pyramids and the line connecting the apices is a regular tetra-
hedron.
(d) Fill in the tetrahedra. Then observe the the holes enclosed by
the tetrahedra and pyramids around a xed lattice point in the
plane are upside down pyramids, congruent to the ones built
in step ii). The base of one of the upside-down pyramids is the
square made by the four lines connecting the apices of the four
pyramids around one of the original lattice points.
(e) If right-side-up pyramids are now built on top of the bases of
the upside-down pyramids, then the two pyramids with the
same base form a regular octahedron.
(f) Furthermore, the upside-down pyramids completely ll in the
region between the original plane and the plane containing the
apices of the original set of pyramids. Also, the new right-side-
up pyramids form the start of the same construction in the next
layer up. Evidently, this can be continued to ll all of space
with octahedra and tetrahedra.
(3) Have students create a tessellation of R
3
by rhombic dodecahedra
as follows:
(a) Form a regular cubic lattice.
(b) Divide every other cube into six pyramids; each pyramid has
its vertex at the center of the cube, and one of the faces of the
cube as base.
(c) Observe that an undivided cube together with the six pyramids
in adjacent cubes, with bases on the sides of the undivided
cube, form a rhombic dodecahedron, and the collection of all of
these tessellate space. (Note: the volume of one of the rhombic
dodecahedra is twice the volume of one of the cubes.)
17. A Problem Solving Example in Plane Geometry
The discussion of polygons above is closely connected with the decom-
position of the plane into regions, the inside and outside of the polygon.
Related to this, it is worthwhile to consider the following problem, which is
a variant of an example often discussed by Polya:
Given n lines in the plane so that no two are parallel and no three have a
point in common, into how many regions do they divide the plane?
17. A PROBLEM SOLVING EXAMPLE IN PLANE GEOMETRY 395
In many ways this is quite advanced, but it is also intuitive, so that
students in the pre-service geometry class can experiment with the problem
and hopefully, through class discussion, will come to a better understanding
of what the issues are in problem solving.
To begin, as was indicated in the chapter on well-posed problems, stu-
dents should be sure that this problem is well-posed before beginning to
solve it. At this point they know what the plane is, what lines are, the
notion of parallel lines and points on a line.
Region is more problematic. So, before they can solve the problem, they
need a clear understanding of this term.
What follows is a possible teaching sequence to help guide the
students here:
One way to start is with a simpler case, the regions dened by one line.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Our intuition is that the line divides the plane into two parts, one lying above
the line, and the other below it. This intuition is not 100% rm since our
line could be vertical, in which case the plane is still divided into two parts,
but one is to the left of the line and the other to the right of it. However,
in both cases, there are two parts.
Now that the meanings of all the terms in the problem are precise, (at
least for one line), we can move on to the steps in Polyas approach to
problem solving. The rst step is to devise a plan.
Can we describe the regions in terms of the given line? The line is the
solution set of ax + by c = 0, so we should try to describe the parts in
terms of the equation. There is one evident thing that we note: the function
(x, y) f(x, y) = (ax +by c) describes our line as the pairs (x, y) so that
f(x, y) = 0. Moreover, the region above the line is the set of pairs so
that f(x, y) > 0 and the region below the line is the set of pairs so that
f(x, y) < 0. Or more exactly, there are two regions that the equation of the
line gives us. The rst is the region consisting of those pairs (x, y) in the
plane for which ax + by c 0 and the second is the region consisting of
the pairs (x, y) that satisfy ax + by 0. (Students can be reminded of the
similar situation with rays on a single line.)
396 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
The line is the intersection of these these two regions in the plane, just
as the endpoint of a ray is the intersection of the two corresponding regions
on a single line. Thus, we can say that the line breaks the plane into three
regions, the region above the line, where ax + by c > 0, the region
below where ax +by c < 0 and the line itself, where ax +by c = 0.
This even works in the case of vertical lines, so that we are justied in
describing the regions as the points where f(x, y) > 0 for the rst region
and f(x, y) < 0 for the second.
What about the situation for two lines?
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Here, intuition suggests that there are four regions, the rst above both lines,
the second above the rst but below the second, the third below the rst but
above the second, and the fourth below both. To make this precise, let the
equation of the rst line be a
1
x+b
1
yc
1
= 0 and the equation of the second
a
2
x+b
2
y c
2
= 0. For the rst line the function is f
1
(x, y) = a
1
x+b
1
y c
1
,
and for the second the function is f
2
(x, y) = a
2
x + b
2
y c
2
. Consequently,
the four regions are given as the sets of points (x, y) so that
f
1
(x, y) > 0 and f
2
(x, y) > 0 = Region I
f
1
(x, y) > 0 and f
2
(x, y) < 0 = Region II
f
1
(x, y) < 0 and f
2
(x, y) > 0 = Region III
f
1
(x, y) < 0 and f
2
(x, y) < 0 = Region IV
There is the beginning of an idea of what the denition could be for region,
but just to rm things up one can consider the case of three lines:
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
17. A PROBLEM SOLVING EXAMPLE IN PLANE GEOMETRY 397
Here it should be observed - at least for the picture above - that there are 7
regions. There are eight possibilities for the three inequalities, but for one
of them there are no solutions - the region is empty.
Here is an explicit example. Let the three lines be x y = 0 ,x = 0 and
y 10 = 0.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................
.........................................................
..................................................
...........................................
....................................
.............................
......................
...............
........
The shaded region is given by the three inequalities
_
_
y < 10
x > 0
x y < 0
_
_
Also, the three inequalities
_
_
y > 10
x < 0
x y > 0
_
_
are inconsistent, since the rst two imply x y < 0. Thus this set of three
inequalities is the only set that cannot be satised, but the other seven
describe the seven distinct regions.
At this point the class should have observed two things. The rst is that
it is sensible to dene a region cut out by n lines in the plane as the set of
points that satisfy a system of inequalities. Precisely, if f
1
(x, y), f
2
(x, y), . . . , f
n
(x, y)
are the functions associated to our n lines, then a region R
e
1
,...,e
n
in the plane
cut out by the lines consists of all the points in the plane that simultaneously
satisfy the n inequalities
Main system
f
1
(x, y) e
1
0
f
2
(x, y) e
2
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
n
(x, y) e
n
0
where each e
i
is either < or >. To be denite we set
Definition: The region R
e
1
,e
2
,...,e
n
cut out by n lines in the plane for the
e
i
as above, is the set of all points (x, y) that simultaneously satisfy the n
inequalities in Main system above.
Remark: This is notationally ugly, but in actually working out details either
the notation can be improved, or the students can be led to understand
398 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
the notation and to understand that sometimes, complex situations need
complex notations.
The second observation is that some of these regions may be empty, so
the original problem has a more complicated answer than we might have
hoped.
Often, to clarify unexpected complications, it is worth considering a
simpler but closely related problem.
The decomposition of a line by n points was studied in the rst section,
where students should have understood that the line is decomposed into
(n + 1) regions, and that the points in the dierent regions were given by
inequalities.
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

a
1
a
2
a
3
a
5
a
4
To gain further insight one can explore some more cases with three lines:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
In each case there are seven regions.
17. A PROBLEM SOLVING EXAMPLE IN PLANE GEOMETRY 399
What happens with four lines?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Here there are 11 regions, and the class can try out a number of further
decompositions by four lines. As long as the lines are not parallel and no
three of them have a point in common they will nd that there are always
11 regions.
At this point there is enough data to try to see if there is some struc-
ture in the data that might guide the class towards understanding what is
happening. They can look at the sequence of numbers 1, 2, 4, 7, 11 and see
if there is a simple underlying rule that generates it. Perhaps the simplest
kinds of rules are rules that are polynomial in n. In order to nd a poly-
nomial that leads to these numbers one checks the dierences of successive
terms.
If the dierences after one step are constant, then a linear polynomial
will work. If the dierences form an arithmetic sequence, then the dierences
of dierences will be constant and a quadratic polynomial will work and so
on. So check dierences:
Number of lines 0 1 2 3 4
Number of regions 1 2 4 7 11
Dierences - step 1 1 2 3 4
Dierences - step 2 1 1 1
The dierences appear to simply increase by 1 at each step. This suggests
that the class could guess at a possible answer:
Conjecture: Given n non-parallel lines so that no three of them have
a point in common, then they divide the plane into
n(n+1)
2
+ 1 =
n
2
+n+2
2
regions.
A heuristic argument in support of this conjecture can now be attempted.
The shape of this argument can be guided by the form of the conjecture and
the way in which the class was led to it. Specically, the conjecture amounts
to an assumption about how the number of regions changes when we increase
the number of lines by one. Thus, the focus should be on how the last line
changes the number of regions.
400 7. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE GEOMETRY COURSE
Note that if the n
th
line intersects one of the regions dened by the rst
n 1 lines, then it breaks that region into two regions. Moreover, since the
n
th
line intersects each of the rst n 1 lines in a point distinct from its
intersection with the other lines, the n
th
line can and will only intersect n
distinct regions. This is the case because n 1 distinct points on a line
decompose it into exactly n regions, the region from to the left-most
point, the region from the left-most point to the next point, and so on.
Thus, if we assume that our conjecture is true for n 1 lines satisfying our
conditions, so these lines break the plane into
(n 1)
2
+ (n 1) + 2
2
regions, the addition of one more line so that all n lines satisfy the conditions
breaks each of n regions into precisely 2 regions, and does not aect the
remaining regions. Thus we would have
(n 1)
2
+ (n 1) + 2
2
+n
new regions, and this can be written as
(n
2
2n + 1) + (n 1) + 2n + 2
2
=
n
2
+n + 2
2
,
exactly the conjectured expression.
The conjecture is very likely to be correct. There is a very strong justi-
cation for it now.
It is probably sucient at this point to nish the discussion. While this
is not a complete proof, it is very close and experience tends to show that in
similar situations, it has been very hard to get students to understand more
than this.
For completeness, here are the details that would be necessary to
make the argument above into a detailed proof
The assumptions made in the heuristic must all be justied. The rst of
these is that if the n
th
line intersects one of the regions dened by the rst
(n 1) lines, it decomposes it into exactly two regions.
In fact we can justify this. Recall that the region in question is dened
by (n 1) proper inequalities. If we assume that the n
th
line intersects this
region, our assumptions guarantee that it passes through the interior, and
does not just touch one of the edges. This says that there are points in the
region for which f
n
(x, y) > 0 and there are points for which f
n
(x, y) < 0.
This shows that there are precisely two regions associated to our n lines
inside the original region given by our n 1 lines.
Also, if the line does not intersect a region, then all the points in that
region will satisfy either f
n
(x, y) < 0 or f
n
(x, y) > 0. Thus the region will
not decompose further at this stage.
Finally, since there will be exactly n regions that the new line will inter-
sect, the heuristic argument has been justied and the solution is complete.
CHAPTER 8
Discussion of Issues in the Algebra Course
1. Introduction
In this chapter we look at the key issues that should be covered in the
course on algebra. In Appendix E we survey the treatment of algebra as a
separate topic in the Russian program.
The mathematics in the Russian program is not broken down by topic
previous to grade six, but in grade six, with the study of geometry and alge-
bra, it is. Appendix E presents a sampling of the lessons and the problems
in the sixth grade Russian algebra program of the 1980s. Key components
of algebra and algebra readiness, such as the use of equations, variables,
and occasional key denitions had been embedded in the lessons and prob-
lems in grades 1 - 4. (The material in grade 5 is more systematic, but it is
focused on the development of the rational numbers and some basic geome-
try.) Topics such as the associative, commutative, and distributive laws had
also been covered relatively informally.
1
Additionally, the systematic use
of variables, as well as the translation of word problems into mathematical
expressions and equations, is present from the earliest grades.
2
In this chapter, we do not follow the Russian curriculum, or the curricula
in any of the high achieving countries. In our discussion of the content that
should be present in the course for pre-service teachers we focus on the
underlying topics that have been constantly mentioned before:
(1) Variables and constants
(2) Decomposing and setting up word problems
(3) Symbolic manipulation
(4) Functions
(5) Inductive reasoning and mathematical induction
These topics are now treated more rigorously and carefully than was possible
in the earlier courses. Hopefully, this will close the loop, bringing these
key topics in mathematics forward and making it clear just how basic they
are.
We then briey discuss graphs, linear functions, polynomials, and af-
terwards we give a rather sophisticated discussion of combinations, permu-
tation and Pascals triangle, followed by a short discussion of compound
interest. This is to at least focus and prepare pre-service teachers to handle
1
See, for example, the discussion in Chapter 4.3, 4.4 in this book - particularly the exercises.
2
See, for example the discussions in Chapter 4.6, 4.17.
401
402 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
some of the topics that are currently required in middle school and early
in the high school curriculum. But besides this, these topics, and particu-
larly the material in the sections on combinations, permutations, Pascals
triangle, and compound interest prepares students for the more advanced
material centered around calculus that is the normal expectation for high
school graduates in high achieving countries. For example, the treatment of
the volume of the right-circular cone at the end of 12 previews and prepares
for the introduction and rigorous handling of limits. Likewise, the material
on compound interest centers around the geometric series.
When one looks at the courses in the high achieving countries for the
preparation of teachers, they go considerably beyond this course, and one
would hope that courses for our pre-service teachers ultimately will as well.
2. Objectives of the Algebra Course and Key Denitions
There is considerable confusion about what the objectives of algebra
are in this country. We begin with some observations that might help with
clarifying this issue.
Many of the most important questions that arise in mathematics and
its applications are inverse problems. Specically, we are given a map from
one set to another, have identied a set of points of particular interest in
the image and are asked to identify all the points in the domain or input
set that map to the given set in the image. For example, when one is given
problems of the form
Using hoses A and B together, you can ll the pool in 12
minutes. Hose B alone can ll it in 14 minutes. How many
minutes would it take if you only use hose A?
one transforms the problem into the three equations
12(r
1
+r
2
) = P
14r
2
= P
Nr
1
= P
and asks what is N? One is thus asking for all triples (N, r
1
, r
2
) of real
numbers that have as their image a triple (P, P, P) under the map dened
by the three functions (12(r
1
+r
2
), 14r
2
, Nr
1
). Once one has the set of these
triples, (N, 0, 0) for P = 0 and (84, r, 6r) with r ,= 0 for P ,= 0. one has the
complete answer to the original question.
Similarly, subtraction is an inverse problem as is division by a non-zero
number.
Of particular importance are inverse problems where the set in the image
is the single point 0. Thus, if one has a quadratic function f(x) = 2x
2
5x+3,
then the solution of the inverse problem for 0 in the image is the same as
the question of nding the roots of the quadratic equation 2x
2
5x+3 = 0.
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE ALGEBRA COURSE AND KEY DEFINITIONS 403
At a higher level, serious applications of mathematics almost always
involve inverse problems. For example, in robotics the key questions involve
nding allowable motions of robotic mechanisms such as robot arms so that
the end of the arm follows a given path from a given initial conguration to
a given nal conguration.
Algebra is the rst course that develops systematic methods for solving
these kinds of problems. By tradition and with a view towards the most
crucial applications, the focus of the rst course is polynomial functions of
low degrees and seldom in more than one or two variables.
In order to construct the most general procedures possible for solving
the kinds of inverse problems considered in algebra, precision is absolutely
necessary. Moreover, the material necessarily requires that students develop
both an appreciation of the power of abstract reasoning in solving problems,
and some ability to apply the processes of abstraction in a focused and
constructive manner to actually solve problems.
Algebra instruction in this country typically begins with a discussion of
mathematical expressions, culminating in the denition of an equation as the
equality of two expressions to accomplish these objectives. Such material
is present much earlier in the programs in the high achieving countries. In
the Russian program of the 1980s it is done early in the fourth grade:
Lesson on Expressions:
404 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Here are two exercises from this section.
247. The distance between two towns is 512km. How fast must a train
travel in order to cover this distance in a hours? Write an expression
and perform the operation for the following values of a: 16, 8, 4, 2.
248. Daytime lasts a hours. How long does the night last? Write an
expression. Give an answer if a = 8, 10, 12.
Equations are introduced in the next section of this Russian text. There is
a brief discussion of the following problem
Problem. The left pan of a set of scales contains 5 identical boxes
of noodles, and the right pan contains 3 identical boxes and two
2-kg weights. The scales are balanced. How much does each box
weigh?
The equation 5x = 3x + 4 is developed and its solution is derived. At this
point the term equation, which has been informally used since the beginning
grades, is given a careful denition for one variable:
An equality with a variable is called an equation. Each value of
the variable for which a true equality results is called a root of the
equation.
Then numerous examples of equations are given, some with one root, some
with many roots, some with none.
At the beginning of our algebra course for pre-service teachers it is very
important to give careful denitions of the key topics and concepts. A
discussion of expressions in more than one variable and some key denitions
- generalizing the previous ones - should be given after a brief review of the
one variable case. Among these denitions are
(1) Solution of an equation: A value (or an ordered pair of values) that
satises the equation
(2) Equivalent equations: Equations that have the same solution set
(3) Linear equation: An equation equivalent to one of the form ax +
by = c with a
2
+b
2
,= 0
(4) Function: A rule connecting two sets that assigns to each element
of one set (or input) one and only one element of the second set (or
output)
(5) Graph of an equation in two variables: Points in the plane whose
coordinates satisfy the equation
(6) Sequence: A function from the positive integers to the real numbers.
Pre-service teachers also need a careful, non-mystical, discussion of variables.
It is all too common that they have been given the impression that there
is something profound in the notion of variables and constants, rather than
in the power and eciency their denitions bring to systematizing problem
solving. They need to be exposed to careful discussions of decomposing
word problems and setting up equations with variables that correspond to
the data presented in these problems. They need a careful discussion not
3. VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS 405
only of the processes of symbolic manipulation - the procedures for obtaining
equivalent equations from given equations - but also of the usual objectives
of the process. Then they need to relate equations and functions, and nally
relate both to graphs.
After this, a careful development of foundations should be given: appli-
cations to linear equations; polynomials, particularly quadratics; as well as
simple rational functions such as
1
x3
. At this point the much more sophisti-
cated notion of mathematical induction should be discussed, and particular
care should be taken to distinguish it from inductive reasoning, the process
of conjecturing a general rule from a nite number of cases.
With this background the pre-service students will be ready to discuss
a number of more advanced topics, including combinations, permutations,
binomial coecients, the binomial formula and applications.
3. Variables and Constants
We can look at the developments over the entire K - 7 curriculum in
mathematics as mainly leading to the construction and basic properties of
the real numbers. This was accomplished by rst starting with the counting
numbers, introducing the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multipli-
cation and division (where these operations are dened). Then the counting
numbers are extended by 0 and ultimately by the negative integers to give
the integers. Here the four basic operations for the counting numbers are
extended to the integers so that the extended operations agree with the
originals when restricted to the counting numbers. Now addition and sub-
traction are always dened, but division still involves remainders. Also, the
key rules for the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication,
which are the associative rule, commutative rule, and the distributive rule,
continue to hold.
What is missing from the integers that prevents division from being well-
dened? Multiplicative inverses, or, in more common language, reciprocals.
Thus, the next step is to extend to the rationals, which we view as a new
set of numbers that contain the integers, and new denitions of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division are given. It is veried that these
new denitions agree with the previous operations when restricted to the
integers, and that the associative and commutative properties of addition
and multiplication, as well as the the distributive property for multiplication
over addition continue to hold. Here the biggest advantage that we see is
that one can divide any rational number by any other non-zero rational
number. Thus, the four basic operations of arithmetic are always dened
for all pairs of non-zero rational numbers.
The nal step is to extend to the reals. Again, the rationals are embed-
ded in the reals, new denitions of addition, subtractions, multiplication,
and division should be given, and these new operations should be shown
to be associative, commutative, satisfy the distributive rule, and agree with
the previously dened operations on the rationals.
406 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
We have not directly addressed this problem of handling the reals, but
rather tend to regard school mathematics as mathematics with rational num-
bers and the discussion of irrational numbers as nothing more than heuristic.
However, a theme should be emerging by this time, the notion of exten-
sion and the requirement that the basic operations, (addition, subtraction,
and multiplication), in the extended context agree with the operations in
our original numbers, and that the extended numbers satisfy the basic rules
of associativity, commutativity, and the distributive rule. The following
exercises illustrate these properties.
3
Exercises:
(1) Explain how the commutative property of multiplication is relevant
to the following question. The price of a blouse was rst reduced
by 25% and then reduced by 20% (from the reduced price). What
if instead, the blouse had rst been reduced by 20% and then by
25% (from the reduced price), would the nal price be lower, higher
or the same?
(2) Explain briey how the commutative property of multiplication is
relevant to the following: if the price of an item goes up by 10%
and then by 15% (of the increased price), the item costs the same
as if the price of the item had rst gone up by 15% and then by
10% (of the increased price).
(3) Use the associative property of multiplication to make the problem
16 25 easy to solve mentally. Write equations to show your use of
the associative property of multiplication.
(4) Use the associative property of multiplication to make the problem
24 0.25 easy to solve mentally. Write equations to show your
use of the associative property of multiplication. Explain how your
solution method is related to solving 240.25 by thinking in terms
of money.
(5) A sales tax problem: Compare the total amount of sales tax you
would pay if you went to a store and bought a pair of pants and
a sweater at the same time, versus if you rst bought the pair
of pants and then returned to the store later to buy the sweater.
Which property of arithmetic is relevant to this sales tax problem?
Explain.
(6) A store is having a 30% o everything sale. The
clerk adds up the cost of all your items and then takes 30% o
this total. Do you get the same discount as if the clerk took 30%
o each individual item and then totaled? Explain your answer,
relating it to a property of arithmetic.
3
These exercises and most of the exercises in this chapter will be challenging for most pre-
service teachers, so care should be taken to lay the foundations and guidance should be readily
available.
3. VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS 407
(7) Explain why, in doing the long division problem 11 divided by 7 we
get
1.571428571428....
with the term 571428 repeating forever. ( One hopes that these
students had learned about long division in the previous courses,
and that they understand that once one starts putting 0s in the
dividend, the remainders that occur will ultimately repeat, and once
that happens the entire sequence between the two equal remainders
will repeat.)
(8) Explain why the maximum length of the repeating term in the long
division of problem 1 divided by 17 cannot be longer than 16 digits.
(Is this also true if the digits are written in base 2?)
Algebra must be understood by students as a natural extension of arith-
metic.
It is important to emphasize that a variable
represents a numbereven though its value may not
be givenand therefore expressions that include
variables satisfy all the properties of the number
system, such as the communtative, associative, and
distributive properties.
Exercises like the following may be used to give students practice in moving
from arithmetical calculations to writing expressions using variables. Course
instructors will need to carefully model several examples before pre-service
students do such problems independently. For these and other exercises,
This would be a good
time for course
instructors to review
rules and expectations
for how pre-service
students should present
equations and their
solutions. At the
middle/high school
levels students resist
showing work on paper
unless the rationale for
this expectation is
explained and required
early in a class and
reinforced thereafter.
This requires vigilance!
Course instructors
should model for
pre-service students
such behaviors so they
will hopefully continue
such practices with
their future students.
pre-service students will need models and review unless they have recently
completed coursework that requires them to use algebra.
Exercises
(1) Find the number that is midway between the following two num-
bers:
(a) 2 and 14
(b) 2 and 17
(c) 4.1 and 7.3
(d) a and b where a is to the left of b on the positive part of the
number line.
(e) a and b where a and b are any two points on the number line.
(2) Find the number that is
1
3
of the way from the rst to the second
number
(a) 1 and 10
(b) 1 and 17
(c) 1 and b where b lies to the right of 1 on the number line
(d) a and b where a lies to the right of b on the number line.
When students evaluate polynomials such as 2x
2
+3x+2 or x(3x
2
4x)
for particular values of x, it helps them to understand that these expressions
408 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
represent numbers, and that algebraic expressions are subject to all of the
usual principles of arithmetic. This leads to the use of the basic properties of
arithmetic to rewrite expressions in equivalent forms, when the variables are
not replaced by explicit numbers. For example, the distributive property, the
It may be advisable
that instructors begin
the course with a
review of these basic
properties. This will
certainly be necessary if
pre-service students
have not completed the
earlier courses outlined
in the previous
chapters.
associative property, the commutative property, and the rules of exponents
may be used to expand x(3x
2
4x):
x(3x
2
4x) = x 3 x
2
x 4 x
= 3 x x
2
4 x x
= 3 x
3
4 x
2
= 3x
3
4x
2
.
Students benet by checking the correctness of
the nal equation for particular values of x. Doing
this reinforces connections between algebra and arith-
metic.
Algebraic expressions involving two or more variables can be developed along
similar lines. Students will have already seen equations involving two or
more variables in formulations of basic number properties, such as a + b =
b +a for the commutative property of addition.
Students should also recognize that in expressions
like ax+b, it is often understood that a and b are place
holders for explicit, xed numbers i.e., constants.
This recognition is needed, for example, in the study of linear functions.
4. Decomposing and Setting Up Word Problems
Why word problems? I hope that I shall shock a few people in
asserting that the most important single task of mathematical
instruction in the secondary schools is to teach the setting up
of equations to solve word problems. Yet there is a strong
argument in favor of this opinion.
In solving a word problem by setting up equations, the
student translates a real situation into mathematical terms:
he has an opportunity to experience that mathematical con-
cepts may be related to realities, but such relations must be
carefully worked out. Here is the rst opportunity aorded
by the curriculum for this basic experience.
G. Polya, Mathematical Discovery, Volume 1, P. 59
Today, forty years after the statement above was written with the
requirement that solid mathematical instruction be given to all students in
4. DECOMPOSING AND SETTING UP WORD PROBLEMS 409
our schools, rather than just the top students Polyas concern with this as
a skill focused in the high schools is outdated. This is already important in
The discussion
presented in this section
is important for course
instructors to
emphasize. Many of the
pre-service students will
regard algebra as
meaningless symbol
manipulation
disconnected from
practical applications
because thats how the
subject is often treated
in secondary schools
today. What algebra is
should be one of the
rst topics teachers
should discuss with
pre-service students.
While it is necessary for
students to practice
solving equations, there
most always be a mix of
word problems to help
them recognize that
what they are learning
is useful.
the earliest grades and becomes essential by the time students reach grades
4 to 6.
Many educators have taken Polyas admonition to engage students in
problem solving to heart, but many do not realize that Polya intended a
large portion of problem solving to be the setting up and solving of word
problems using equations. Furthermore, the level of problems that Polya had
in mind is much higher than many people realize. Consider, for example,
the following problem taken from Mathematical Discovery, Vol 1 p. 47:
When Mr. And Mrs. Smith took the airplane, they had together
94 pounds of baggage. He paid $1.50 and she paid $2.00 for excess
weight. If Mr. Smith made the trip by himself with the combined
baggage of both of them, he would have to pay $13.50. How many
pounds of baggage can one person take along without charge?
Many students struggle with this problem because they need to introduce
a variable that represents price-per-pound for excess baggage, a quantity
not explicitly referred to in the problem. Polya calls this type of variable an
auxiliary element, and considering that students have trouble representing
explicitly mentioned quantities as variables, it isnt surprising that they have
trouble realizing that they need to introduce auxiliary elements.
What is the prerequisite knowledge needed for students to successfully
use algebra to solve problems? First, algebraic expressions and equations
must make sense to students. This includes familiarity with the order of
operations convention. Students (and teachers) need to be able to verbalize
the mathematical content of a numeric or algebraic expression. For example:
3 + 4 7 7
2
means Three plus the product four times seven, minus
seven squared, and
3+4xx
2
means Three plus the product four times x, minus x squared.
Mathematically inclined people take this sort of interpretation for granted,
and often nd the translation to the verbal domain to be a bother since they
can work so much more eciently within a symbolic domain. However, for
more verbally inclined people, this process helps demystify algebraic sym-
bolism, as many of them feel that an algebraic expression has no inherent
meaning and should be manipulated according to a set of arbitrary rules for
no apparent reason.
Once students feel comfortable with verbal interpretations of expressions
and equations, they should work on translating in the other direction. At
rst, they should work problems similar to those above, but backwards,
by formulating a verbal instruction as an algebraic expression. Then they
should translate components of word problems into mathematical expres-
sions. Consider, for example, the following two problems:
Sara has x apples, and Dominic has twice as many apples. How many
apples does Dominic have?
410 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Sara has some apples, and Dominic has twice as many apples. How many
apples does Dominic have in terms of the number of apples that Sara has?
Notice that these two problems make dierent demands; the rst pro-
vides the variable, and the second does not. Students need practice writing
mathematical expressions for word problems, including the identication of
appropriate variables. It should be emphasized that an answer is not com-
plete without a denition of the variables that are introduced.
Another type of exercise for developing facility in problem solving is
the construction of word problems associated with a particular algebraic
expression. For example,
Create a word problem whose solution is 6x + 3.
A sample response is: Juan has some marbles and 6 bags. He puts x
marbles in each bag and still has 3 marbles left over. What is the total
number of marbles in terms of x?
Pre-service teachers need practice with a wide variety of algebra prob-
lems. Here are some examples.
If you multiply an even number and an even number, what kind of
number do you get?
Translate the term even number as 2m where m is an integer and the
phrase multiply an even number and an even number to the expression
2m 2n together with the condition that m and n are both integers. The
above example may be extended:
If you add a number that has a remainder of 1 when it is divided
by 3 to a number that has a remainder of 2 when it is divided by
3, then what is the remainder of the sum when you divide it by 3?
The phrase a number that has a remainder of 1 when it is divided by 3
becomes 3m+1 with the condition that m is an integer, and the phrase a
number that has a remainder of 2 when it is divided by 3 becomes 3n + 2
with the condition that n is an integer. Finally the direction to add the two
numbers becomes
(3m+ 1) + (3n + 2)
with m and n both integers, and the question becomes to determine the
remainder when dividing this sum by 3.
Generally, once a word problem has been decomposed in this way a
method of solving the problem becomes evident - but this need not always
be the case. Polya gives the following example of a problem that has a
unique solution but appears not to:
A man walked ve hours, rst along a level road, then up a hill,
then he turned round and walked back to his starting point along
the same route. He walks 4 miles per hour on the level, 3 uphill,
4. DECOMPOSING AND SETTING UP WORD PROBLEMS 411
and 6 downhill. Find the distance walked.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................
Let x be the total distance walked - the number that we want to nd - and
let y be the length of the uphill walk. We have that the distance walked on
The graphic associated
with this word problem
suggests another point
course instructors
should emphasize. It is
very helpful for
students at all levels to
draw and label graphic
representations of
problems as was done
with the Singapore bar
diagrams in Chapter 4.
the level is x 2y, and this distance is traversed at 4 miles per hour. We
have that the distance y up the hill is traversed at 3 miles per hour, and the
distance y down the hill is traversed at 6 miles per hour. Moreover, we are
given that the total time is 5 hours.
x 2y
4
is the time in hours to traverse the level
y
3
is the time in hours to go up the hill
y
6
is the time in hours to go down the hill
The total time is thus
x 2y
4
+
y
3
+
y
6
= 5
We should have to be very lucky (or the numbers would have to be selected
in just the right way) for x to be uniquely determined in this equation. In
fact, the only way this could happen is if the terms involving y canceled out.
But this is exactly what happens:

2y
4
+
y
3
+
y
6
=
y
2
+
y
3
+
y
6
=
3y + 2y +y
6
= 0
so the equation becomes
x
4
= 5, and the total distance is 20 miles.
Further Examples: In the following, we do not wish to solve the prob-
lems given, but instead take the critical rst steps toward their solutions
converting the word problems into sequences of mathematical equations. To
this end, there are two key steps. The rst is to carefully break the problem
apart into separate statements, and the second is to convert each separate
statement into:
an equation,
a restriction on the equations given, or
decide that it does not contain relevant information.
412 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, and so
on so that the dierence of any two successive terms, a
i+1
a
i
= v is a
constant. The following problem is a modern version of a problem taken
from the ancient Egyptian Rhind Papyrus:
An arithmetic progression has ve terms. The sum of all ve terms
equals 100, and the sum of the three largest terms is seven times
the sum of the two smallest. Find the progression.
The rst step is to break the problem into separate statements:
An arithmetic progression has ve terms.
The sum of all ve terms is 100.
The sum of the three largest terms is seven times the sum of the two
smallest.
Find the progression
We then convert each statement into a precise mathematical statement.
The rst statement is compound. We have an arithmetic progression and it
has ve terms. This converts as follows:
the rst term is a
1
.
the second, a
2
, is a
1
+v,
the third, a
3
, is a
1
+ 2v,
the fourth, a
4
, is a
1
+ 3v,
the fth, a
5
, is a
1
+ 4v.
The next statement is that the sum of all ve is 100, which we write as
a
1
+a
2
+a
3
+a
4
+a
5
= 100.
(There is no reason to simplify at this point by replacing the a
i
, 2 i 5
by the values determined from the rst statement. This can be done later.)
The third statement is again compound. First we have the sum of the three
largest, which we can assume to be a
3
+ a
4
+ a
5
, and then the sum of the
two smallest a
1
+a
2
. The statement now becomes the equation
7(a
1
+a
2
) = (a
3
+a
4
+a
5
).
The nal statement, nd the progression asks for the values of a
1
, a
2
, a
3
,
a
4
and a
5
. We do not know that we can nd these values, (for that matter,
we do not know how many separate solutions there can be if, indeed, there
are any), but we are given a great deal of information, and we can reasonably
play around with the data to see if there is some way of determining these
a
i
. We might, for example, note that the rst statement shows that we only
need determine a
1
and v. Applying this consequence of the rst statement to
the second we see that 5a
1
+ 10v = 100. Finally, applying this consequence
to the third statement give 7(2a
1
+ v) = 3a
1
+ 9v. Thus, to resolve the
4. DECOMPOSING AND SETTING UP WORD PROBLEMS 413
question we need only study the two equations
5a
1
+ 10v = 100
14a
1
+ 7v = 3a
1
+ 9v.
and the second of these equations can be replaced by
11a
1
2v = 0.
If we cannot nd a solution to this set of equations, then we should note
that we assumed that a
1
and a
2
were the smallest terms. This would not
be true if v were negative. Thus, we must also be prepared to check the
condition
7(a
4
+a
5
) = (a
1
+a
2
+a
3
)
or 7(2a
1
+ 7v) = 3a
1
+ 3v.
Here is a further problem.
Jane had a bottle lled with juice. At rst, Jane drank
1
5
of the juice
in the bottle. After 1 hour, Jane drank
1
4
of the remaining juice in
the bottle. After another 2 hours, Jane drank
1
3
of the remaining
juice in the bottle. At that point, Jane checked how much juice
was left in the bottle: there was
2
3
of a cup left. No other juice was
added to or removed from the bottle. How much juice was in the
bottle originally?
When one is given a complicated problem, the rst thing to do is to
break it into pieces to understand what is given and what is asked:
Experience shows that
the procedure for
parsing of word
problems that is
illustrated here is not
always taught in K-12
currently.
Consequently, special
care should be taken to
carefully model the
process. Moreover, it
should frequently
appear in exercises for
the pre-service students.
Jane had a bottle lled with juice.
At rst, Jane drank
1
5
of the juice in the bottle.
After 1 hour, Jane drank
1
4
of the remaining juice in the bottle.
After another 2 hours, Jane drank
1
3
of the remaining juice in the
bottle.
At that point, Jane checked how much juice was left in the bottle:
there was
2
3
of a cup left.
No other juice was added to or removed from the bottle.
How much juice was in the bottle originally?
The last sentence tells us what is asked - the quantity of juice in the bottle
originally. Since we are not being asked anything about the time it took to
drink the juice, we can ignore the time information. We have
Originally, Jane had a bottle lled with juice
She drank
1
5
of the juice
She drank
1
4
of the juice remaining
She then drank
1
3
of the juice remaining after step (3).
At this point there was
2
3
cup of juice.
There are no other quantities of juice that we need to consider.
414 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
This is the rst distillation of the information in the problem. We can
distill further by converting each statement to mathematical notation. Let
J be the original amount. At step (2)
1
5
J is removed from the bottle. Hence
the amount left is
J(2) = J
1
5
J
=
4
5
J.
In step three
1
4
of J(2) is removed. Consequently, the amount remaining at
the end of (3) is
J(3) = J(2)
1
4
J(2)
=
3
5
J.
In this analysis we substituted in for J(2) the value previously obtained,
but we did not need to do this at this point while we were still taking apart
the problem. For teaching purposes, it is probably better to resist this, and
summarize as follows:
J = the original amount of juice
J(2) =
4
5
J
J(3) =
3
4
J(2)
Similarly, at the next step,
1
3
of J(3) is removed.
J(4) = J(3)
1
3
J(3)
=
2
3
J(3).
4. DECOMPOSING AND SETTING UP WORD PROBLEMS 415
So J(4) is the amount of juice left after step (4). The information in (5)
tells us that J(4) =
2
3
cup, so we have
J = the original amount of juice
J(2) =
4
5
J
J(3) =
3
4
J(2)
J(4) =
2
3
J(3)
J(4) =
2
3
cup
Finally, we are told that we have written down all the information contained
in the problem.
The problem is to nd J, and it appears that we have sucient informa-
tion to do this. The last equation determines J(4), which determines J(3)
from the equation above. In turn, J(3) determines J(2) from the previous
equation, and J(2) determines J from the second equation.
Here is another sample problem for students.
Exercise: Break the following problem apart in the same way as the pre-
vious problem was decomposed. When the problem has been reduced to
a sequence of mathematical expressions determine if it appears likely that
sucient information to solve the problem has been provided.
A ock of geese on a pond were being observed continuously. At
1 : 00 P.M.,
1
5
of the geese ew away. At 2 : 00 P.M.,
1
8
of the
geese that remained ew away. At 3 : 00 P.M., 3 times as many
geese as had own away at 1 : 00 P.M. ew away, leaving 28 geese
on the pond. At no other time did any geese arrive or y away.
How many geese were in the original ock?
Summary. The process described in this section for helping students
understand algebraic expressions and equations involves the following steps
(a) Students verbally read and explain what an expression/equation
means,
(b) Students formulate a verbal instruction as an algebraic expression,
(c) Students translate components of word problems into mathematical
expressions,
(d) Students construct word problems associated with a particular al-
gebraic expression,
(e) Students dene variables, and
(f) Students explicitly solve problems
This approach should be embedded in all the sequences of exercises pre-
sented to pre-service students in this course. Additionally, the exercises for
416 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
pre-service students should require that they describe how to approach a
particular algebra topic using this process.
5. Symbolic Manipulation
Manipulating symbols for the purpose of solving linear equations pro-
ceeds from one and two step problems to problems requiring collection of
terms. A sequence of problem types is indicated by the following:
x +a = b
ax = b
ax +b = c
ax +b = cx +d.
In each case, the goal for students is to solve for x. Further practice
beyond linear expressions can be gained in manipulating simple polynomial
expressions. For example, when a ,= 0,
ax
2
+bx +c = a(x
2
+
b
a
x +
c
a
)
= a(x
2
+
b
a
x) +c
= ax(x +
b
a
) +c
Students sometimes lose track of a purpose for manipulating equations.
It is a good idea to remind them that the new equation that occurs when
one adds the same number (or expression since an expression represents a
number) to both sides of an equation will have at least the same solutions as
the original equation, and similarly, when one multiplies both sides by a non-
zero number or expression. It is worth emphasizing to pre-service teachers
that a typical objective is to isolate the variable so that the equation that
results has the form x = w. It is also valuable to include problems in which
Course instructors need
to emphasize this point.
Secondary school
students often view a
variable as something
that can only be
represented by x.
the variables have a variety of dierent names.
Exercises:
(1) (a) What are the solutions of the equation x
2
2 = 2?
(b) What are the solutions of the equation 2x
2
4 = 4?
(c) What are the solutions of the equation x(x
2
2) = 2x obtained
by multiplying both sides of the equation in (1a) by x?
(2) (a) What is the largest set of real numbers for which the function
z
z1
is dened?
(b) Find all real numbers that satisfy the equation
z
1 z
= 3.
6. FUNCTIONS 417
(c) Find all real numbers that satisfy the equation resulting from
the equation of (2b) when both sides are multiplied by (1z)
2
.
6. Functions
Introduction: The formal denition of a function as a subset of a
Cartesian product satisfying the rules,
(1) if (x, y) and (x, y

) are both in the set then y = y

(2) for each x X there is an element (x, y) in the set,

can be confusing to pre-service and in-service teachers. Without intu-
itive explanations to help students internalize the concept of function,
there is a danger that formal denitions will add to the air of mysti-
cism that surrounds this topic.
Already, in Kindergarten, students are asked to sort objects by color or
shape. As long as each object has an unambiguous color or shape associated
to it, such a process is an example of a function. Simply stated, a function
is a rule that associates to each object in one set, a single, unique object in
another. To help students distinguish between the domain and co-domain of
a function, it may be helpful, at least initially, to use more descriptive terms.
In that spirit, we use the terms input and output in this section for
domain and co-domain, respectively. In the example above, the function is
from colored objects to colors - each object has just one color associated to it,
and the object is the input while its color is the output. Another illustrative
example of a function is the assignment of a grade to each student. Each
student (input) gets a unique grade (output).
There is a tendency for pre-service teachers to lose sight of key issues in
the morass of terminology. The danger is that students will be misdirected
into focusing on terminology, rather than on mathematical concepts. Nev-
ertheless, there are some conventions that need to be stated. This includes
the usual functional notation
f : XY
for a map from the set X to the set Y . In this context, it must also be
understood that a function is dened on the entirety of its input set, X,
but the range, the set of points in Y of the form f(x) with x X, need
not be all of the the output set Y .
Also, it should be pointed out that two functions with the same input set
and the same output set are equal if and only if for each point in the input
set, the output value for the rst function and for the second function are
the same. Examples should be given of functions that only dier at a point
or two and, consequently, are not equal. Also, examples should be given of
functions which, though they are dened by dierent rules, are equal - for
example, f(n) is the Fibonacci sequence where f(n +1) = f(n) +f(n 1),
418 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1, and g(n) is the function
1

5
__
1 +

5
2
_
n

_
1

5
2
_
n
_
.
The following is an outline of how the development of the topic of func-
tions may proceed for pre-service teachers after the initial discussion of the
denition.
Assignment Rules. In order to dene a function, one must have an
assignment rule. Such a rule can take many forms. For example if the input
set is the set of objects o = cup, hat, rug, stone and the output set is
the set of numbers B = 0, 1, then a rule could be a set of ordered pairs
in the Cartesian product o B,
(cup, 1), (hat, 0), (rug, 0), (stone, 1),
with the understanding that the element b in B in the pair (a, b) is the
element assigned to a. We say that this set of pairs denes a function from
o to B. Another way to say this is that the object associated to a by the
function is b, and we use the notation
a b
to indicate this. To see this in the context of our example, we have that
cup 1,
hat 0,
rug 0,
stone 1.
However, not every set of ordered pairs can be a function. The rule cannot
be, for example,
(cup, 1), (hat, 0), (rug, 0), (cup, 0), (stone, 1)
or,
cup 1
hat 0
rug 0
cup 0
stone 1
because cup is not assigned to a unique point in the image - it is assigned
to both 0 and 1 since both (cup, 1) and (cup, 0) are in the rule. Likewise,
the rule could not be
(cup, 1), (hat, 0), (stone, 1)
since the point in the input set rug has no value associated to it by the rule,
and the rule must associate to every point in the input set a unique point
in the output set.
6. FUNCTIONS 419
Procedures. Another form that could occur for the rule is a procedure
that determines a unique element in the output set for each element in the
input set. For example, the rule could be if the rst letter of the element
in the input set precedes l in the alphabet, then associate the element 0,
otherwise associate the element 1.
The most familiar type of function is one whose rule is an algebraic
expression. For instance, if the input set is the set of positive integers
1, 2, 3, . . . , and the function assigns the square of the number to it, then
we can write the rule this way:
n n
2
and we have that (1, 1), (2, 4), (10, 100) are a few of the pairs (there are an
innite number; one for each element of the input set). We can write this
as follows,
1 1,
2 4,
10 100,
etc. One distinguishes it from the standard squaring function by clearly
indicating that the input set is the positive integers instead of the real num-
bers.
Finally, we need to emphasize that while every element in the input set
must have an element in the output set associated to it by a function, it
is not necessary that every element in the output set be associated to an
element in the input set. Thus the following rule in o B is a perfectly good
function:
(cup, 0), (hat, 0), (rug, 0), (stone, 0),
even though 1 does not correspond to any element in the input set.
Sample Exercise
(1) Give an example of a procedure that uniquely assigns 0 or 1 to cup,
hat, and stone, but fails to assign a unique element 0 or 1 to rug.
Very important examples of functions occur when the input set is the
set of non-negative integers, 1, 2, 3, . . . while the output set is e.g., even,
odd, or divisible by 3, not divisible by 3 and each integer in the input set
goes to the statement in the output set that is true for it. So we get
(1, odd), (2, even), (3, odd), (4, even), . . .
and
(1, not divisible by 3), (2, not divisible by 3), (3, divisible by 3), . . .
One can think of these functions as sorting functions, which are natural
extensions of the functions kindergarteners see when they sort by shapes
and colors.
Sequences
420 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Also very common are functions with input set the set of non-negative
integers and output set the set of all real numbers. Such functions are gen-
erally called sequences. The example above assigning each positive integer
its square is an example of a sequence. As another example, the rule that
assigns n
2
to n - for each n in the input set, the value of the function is
the area of a circle of radius n, so that
n n
2
- is a sequence. Most often, people see sequences written as lists, e.g.,
, 4, 9, 16, ...
Here, the input set is implicitly the positive integers, and for the sequence
to be well-dened, the rule must be specied. One way to think about a
sequence is as a way to give an order to a set. Thus, we think of the image
of 1 as the rst number in the list, the image of 2 as the second number
in the list, and so on. We call the entries in the list (or equivalently the
outputs of the function) terms in the sequence.
In a case like that above, the rule that denes the sequence is given in
the form of a short ordered set of basic arithmetic operations involving n
and some constants, where the ordered set does not vary from one n to the
next. For example, associated to the rule n n
2
, the ordered set of basic
arithmetic operations is Square the input, then multiply the result by ,
or simply, (square, multiply by ). Here are some sample exercises:
(1) For the following sequences, describe an ordered set of basic arith-
metic operations that determine the rule.
(a) n
1
n
2
(b) n
n
3
(n+2)
5
(c) n

n
3
However, not all rules for sequences have this form either. For example
the rule n n! is not of this kind, since the set of operations grows bigger
with each n.
Another kind of rule is what is called recursive. This is a rule that
depends on the values of the rule at previous ms to determine the value at
n. That is, for a recursive rule, a value is dened in terms of earlier values.
For example, the rule could be that the value at n is the sum of the value at
n 1 and the value at n 2. Of course, to get started, the rst two values
must be explicitly stated. Such a rule has to be given explicitly at n = 1
and n = 2. Thus, this rule will give the following as the rst few values
when the values at n = 1 and n = 2 are both 1
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
_
(where the top row contains n and the bottom row the result of applying
the rule at n). However, if we change the rst two values, then the result of
6. FUNCTIONS 421
applying the rule will be dierent. We have the following when the values
are 1 and 0:
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
_
Function Notation
Let x be an element in the input set of a given function. We call the
function f. Then we write f(x) for the image of x in the output set of f,
and we allow x to be any element of the input set of f. Thus, if a is an
input, then f(a) represents the corresponding output. It is important to
emphasize that this is just a convenient notation that tells us the function
and the element in its input set where it is being evaluated, nothing more.
When one is given a function, one has the set of pairs (x, f(x)) contained
in the Cartesian product (i.e., ordered pairs) of the input set and the output
set. This set of pairs is called the graph of the function f.
Example: Suppose the function f from the set of real numbers to real
numbers is given by the rule f(x) = x
2
2x + 1, then the graph
((f) R R
is the set of pairs, (x, x
2
2x + 1) as x runs over all real numbers.
We can use a graphing calculator to visualize the graph of f(x) = x
2

2x + 1 by entering it into Y1 as illustrated on the left below. Then graph

Y1 in the [-5,5, 1] x [-2, 8,1] viewing window as shown on the right below.
Press and type the expression into Y1.
422 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Thus, restricting to the rst six non-negative integers, we have that
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 4 9 16 25
_
are six pairs contained in the graph. On the other hand, there are any
number of distinct functions from the reals to the reals that have this set of
values for the consecutive integers 1, . . . , 6. For example any polynomial of
degree 6 or greater having the form
(x
2
2x + 1) +g(x)(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)(x 4)(x 5)(x 6)
will equal x
2
2x + 1 at the points x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Exercise
(1) Suppose that I have a function from the positive integers to the
integers, but I only know its value at the rst three: F(1) = 3,
F(2) = 9, F(3) = 27. Give two distinct rules, with one of them a
polynomial formula, and one of them not, that give these values at
the rst three places, but dier at the next.
7. Graphs of Equations Contrasted with Graphs of Functions
The graph of an equation in two variables and the graph of a function
are distinct concepts but are often conated in many teachers and students
minds.
The graph of a function is properly dened as the set of ordered pairs in
the Cartesian product of the input set and the output set having the form
(x, f(x)).
A solution to an equation in two variables is a pair of values (x, y)
that satisfy the equation.
The graph of the equation is the set of all points in the plane whose
coordinates satisfy the equation, or the same, the graph is the set
of all pairs (x, y) that satisfy the equation.
In the case where the input set and output set are the real numbers,
we can convert the graph of a function into the solution set of an equation,
y = f(x) or y f(x) = 0, and thus, the graphs of functions are solution sets
for special kinds of equations.
The simple examples x + y = 1 vs. x
2
+ y
2
= 1 show that an equation
can have a familiar graph but that it may or may not determine a function.
Instructors should be prepared for the possibility that the audience does
not know that the graphs are a straight line and a circle. For the second
example, one can start by pointing out that the Pythagorean theorem says
that the square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the
sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs. Then draw a number of right
triangles with the legs parallel to the axes and one end of the hypotenuse at
7. GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS CONTRASTED WITH GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS 423
the origin:
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................. ............................................................
5
4
(5, 4)
5
2
+ 4
2
= 41
The hypotenuse has length

41
If the other end of the hypotenuse is at (x, y) then the length of the hy-
potenuse is
_
x
2
+y
2
, and so the set of pairs (x, y) that satisfy the equation
x
2
+y
2
= r
2
is the set of points r units away from the origin.
The general equation of a circle can be developed through exercises sim-
ilar to these:
We have seen how to graph the line x + y = 1. We can also graph the
circle x
2
+y
2
= 1 with a graphing calculator but we must rst take an extra
step. We begin by solving for y in terms of x.
x
2
+y
2
= 1
y
2
= 1 x
2
y =

1 x
2
or y =

1 x
2
Next we enter y =

1 x
2
into Y1 and y =

1 x
2
into Y2 as shown on
the left below. Then we graph the pair of equations in the square viewing
window Zdecimal obtained by pressing and selecting 4:Zdecimal.
424 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
[4.7, 4.7, 1] [3.1, 3.1, 1]
The square viewing ZDecimal will make the graph appear to be a circle.
Exercises:
(1) Show that the point (3, 4) is on the circle x
2
+y
2
= 5
2
.
(2) Show that for any n, the point (n
2
1, 2n) is on the circle x
2
+y
2
=
(n
2
+ 1)
2
.
(3) Explain why the equation (x 3)
2
+ (y 4)
2
= 5
2
is the equation
of the circle with center (3, 4) and radius 5.
(4) Use a graphing calculator to draw the graph of the circle x
2
+y
2
= 4
by solving for y in terms of x.
(5) Show that the equation of Exercise 3 can be written in the form
y = 4
_
5
2
(x 3)
2
by solving for y in terms of x. Then draw
its graph.
8. Symbolic Manipulation and Graphs
Two equations are equivalent if they have the same solution set or graph.
It was pointed out in Section 5 on symbolic manipulation that adding a num-
ber to both sides of an equation, or multiplying both sides of the equation
by a nonzero number, results in an equivalent equation. It is natural to
demonstrate these methods rst with linear equations.
The general linear equation in two variables has the form, ax + by = c.
One equivalent equation results from multiplying both sides of this one by
4, yielding 4ax + 4by = 4c. Somewhat more generally, we get an equivalent
equation, multiplying by any nonzero instead of 4: ax + by = c.
Illustrative examples like these help to lead students to isolating the variable
y when b ,= 0. When b ,= 0 we have
a
b
x +y =
c
b
, so
y =
c
b

a
b
x.
For the sake of symmetry it might also be a good idea to do the same thing
when a ,= 0, so we also have
x =
c
a

b
a
y,
9. LINEAR FUNCTIONS 425
as an equivalent equation when a is not zero. A discussion of what it means
that both these forms are equivalent to the original equation, and to each
other, in the case when both a and b are non-zero, can illuminate the mean-
ing of equivalence of equations. The following are some sample exercises.
Exercises:
(1) Put the equation 5x + 0y = 11 into the form x =
c
a

b
a
y
(2) Put the equation 3x+2y = 7 into the form above where y is isolated.
Now put it into the form above where x is isolated
(3) Show that a linear equation ax+by = c is equivalent to an equation
of the form y = mx + n for appropriate constants m, n or it is
equivalent to an equation of the form x = l for a constant l.
(4) Suppose the linear equation ax+by = c is equivalent to the equation
y = 3x + 4. What is the value of y when x = 0?
(5) Suppose the linear equation ax+by = c is equivalent to the equation
y = mx +n. What is the value of y when x = 0?
(6) Show that (0, 0) is not in the graph of 3x+2y = 2. Find an equation
of the form 3x + 2y = c that does contain (0, 0) in its graph.
(7) Give a general condition on c so that ax +by = c with a
2
+b
2
,= 0
contains (0, 0) in its graph.
After working with linear equations, pre-service teachers are ready to
graph some polynomial equations. For example, with the use of the distance
formula, the graph of x
2
+ y
2
= 1 is easily recognized as the unit circle.
However, students should also be able to use the techniques of this section
to nd the graph of this equation. This may be done by rst writing the
equivalent equation y
2
= 1 x
2
so as to isolate y
2
. Since y, is a square
root of the left hand side, it is also the square root of the right hand side.
Unless y = 0, there are two square roots, one positive and the other negative.
It follows that y = +

1 x
2
or y =

1 x
2
. The graph of the original
equation may be recovered from the graphs of the functions dened by these
two formulas. Care should be taken to explain why the rst is the upper
semi-circle, while the second is the lower semi-circle. The sample exercises
below illustrate concepts discussed here.
Exercises:
(1) As above isolate the variable x in x
2
+ y
2
= 4, and solve for x in
terms of y. Graph the two resulting equations.
(2) Show that the equations x +y = 1 and 3x +3y = 3 are equivalent.
(3) Is y =

1 x
2
equivalent to x
2
+y
2
= 1?
(4) Is the equation 2x = 22y equivalent to x+2y = 2? Is it equivalent
to x +y = 1?
(5) Is the equation y = 1 x
2
equivalent to x
2
+y = 1?
9. Linear Functions
The previous section included a discussion of algebraic manipulation
of linear equations. The focus here is on linear functions and geometric
426 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
properties of their graphs. In particular, some approaches are oered for
explaining why the graphs of linear funnctions are lines, the meaning of
slope, and understanding how the slopes of two lines determine whether the
lines are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.
Why is the graph of the function y = mx (where m ,= 0) necessarily a
straight line? Before giving the explanation below to pre-service teachers, it
is worthwhile to review basic facts about similar trianlges. Those properties
can be more fully addressed in a section or course on geometry (see Chap-
ter 7, 7 for example). For simplicity, we restrict our attention to linear
functions with y-intercept equal to zero.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

L
(x, y)
(x
0
, y
0
)
Choose a point (x
0
, y
0
) ,= (0, 0) on the graph of y = mx. Let (x, y) be an
arbitrary point on the line L from the origin to (x
0
, y
0
). There is no assump-
tion here that (x, y) is on the graph of y = mx. That will be demonstrated.
For simplicity, assume that all coordinates are positive as pictured above.
Construct vertical lines L
1
through (x
0
, y
0
) and L
2
through (x, y) as
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

L
(x, y)
(x
0
, y
0
)
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
A
B E
L
2
L
1
C
D
Triangle ABC and triangle AED are both right triangles with the same
vertex A. Therefore all three corresponding angles have equal measure, and
9. LINEAR FUNCTIONS 427
the two triangles are similar. Therefore ratios of corresponding sides must
be equal. Since AB = x, AE = x
0
, BC = y, and DE = y
0
, this tells us
that
y
x
=
y
0
x
0
But y
0
/x
0
= m because (x
0
, y
0
) lies on the graph of y = mx. Therefore
y/x = y
0
/x
0
= m, and y = mx. It follows that (x, y) lies on the graph of
y = mx. We have shown that any point (x, y) on the line from the origin to
any point on the graph of y = mx lies on the graph. Therefore the graph of
y = mx is a straight line, since if the graph contained any points in addition
to those on the line, it would violate the vertical line test for a function.
The converse, that every non vertical line through the origin, is the graph
of a function of the
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

L
(x, y)
(x
0
, y
0
)
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
x
y
L
2
L
1
Again let (x
0
, y
0
) be a non zero point on the graph of y = mx. Let (x, y) be
an arbitrary non zero point on the line L. As before, by similar triangles,
y
x
=
y
0
x
0
Therefore, for any point (x, y) on the line L, y = mx. Hence, any line
through the origin is the graph of an equation of the form y = mx, where
m is the ratio of the y coordinate to the x coordinate for any point on the
line L (except (0, 0)).
Exercises
(1) How should this argument be modied to show that the graph of
the function y = mx +b is a straight line when b ,= 0?
(2) How would the argument above for the graph of y = mx be modied
if all of the coordinates of the selected points are negative, instead
of positive (you may assume that m > 0)?
Students should also recognize that any vertical line has an equation of
the form x = c for some constant c, and that any non vertical line is the
graph of an equation of the form y = mx + b. Students should be able to
calculate the x intercept of a line and to recognize b as the y intercept of the
428 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
graph. Changing the value of b raises or lowers the graph of the function,
and translates the line in a vertical direction.
When a line is given by y = mx + b, the graph consists of all pairs of
the form
(x, mx +b).
If (x
1
, mx
1
+b) and (x
2
, mx
2
+b) are two points on this line, then the change
in x is x
2
x
1
, the second x-value minus the rst, and the corresponding
change in y is
(mx
2
+b) (mx
1
+b) = mx
2
mx
1
= m(x
2
x
1
)
So, for non-vertical lines, the change in y-value is m multiplied by the change
in the x-value, and the quotient
change in y-value
change in x-value
= m
is a constant. The slope of the line may be dened as this constant
m. Students need plenty of practice nding the equation of a line from the
coordinates of two points on the line, or the slope and the coordinates of
one point on the line.
It is intuitively that changing the y intercept of a line results in a par-
allel line. This intuition is important for pre-service teachers and it can
be understood visually. Beyond that, algebraic arguments may be used to
prove that two non vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the
same slope. We take as a denition of two parallel lines the usual geometric
denition: two lines in a plane with no points in common. The result may
be formulated this way:
Two dierent non vertical lines given by y = mx + b and y = m

x + b

are parallel if and only if their slopes are the same, i.e. m = m

.
Proof: If ( x, y) is a point that lies on both graphs then it must be true that
y = m x + b and also y = m

x + b

. Setting the two right hand expressions

equal gives
m x +b = m

x +b

or
b b

= m

x m x
= (m

m) x
If m = m

this is impossible because b ,= b

(since the two lines are not the

same). This shows that if two dierent lines have the same slope, they are
parallel because they can have no points in common. On the other hand, if
9. LINEAR FUNCTIONS 429
m

,= m we can divide both sides by m

m and we have
x =
n n

m
.
This means that x is determined and unique. Also, since y = m x + b, y is
also determined and unique. This shows that two lines with dierent slopes
intersect in exactly one point, and therefore they are not parallel.
Students can also understand how slopes determine whether two non
vertical lines are perpendicular, using a geometric argument. The basic
result is:
Two non vertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of
their slopes is 1.
To demonstrate this, it is again convenient to assume that the lines in-
tersect at the origin and their y intercepts are therefore both zero. The two
lines may be taken to be y = mx and y = m

x. First assume that the lines

are perpendicular and direct students to look at the triangle with vertices
at the origin (0, 0), the point (1, 0) and the point (1, m). This is a right
triangle with the hypotenuse contained in the graph of the line y = mx. If
the triangle is rotated 90 degrees we see that the hypotenuse of the rotated
triangle must lie on the line given by y = m

x. This rotated triangle has

vertices (0, 0), (0, 1) and (m, 1). The hypotenuse of this triangle has end-
points (0, 0) and (m, 1) and therefore the graph of y = m

x also contains
these two points. The slope m

may then be calculated as:

m

=
1
m
.
On the other hand, starting with m

=
1
m
, the same triangles as depicted
below may be drawn to demonstrate that the two lines are perpendicular.
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
......
......
......
......
....................................
......
......
......
1
.....................................................................................................................
...............................
(1, m)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(m, 1)

Exercises:
(1) Find the point of intersection of the lines: 2x+3y = 1, and x+2y =
3.
(2) Determine the equation of the line through (1, 0) and (0, 1).
(3) Determine the equation of the line through (1, 0) and (d, 1) where
d ,= 1.
430 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
(4) Explain the similarity between the formulas that determine m and
n above and the formulae in the previous section that determine
the point ( x, y) common to two lines.
(5) Ellen baked cookies for the neighborhood children. She gave each
child 6 cookies and she had 7 cookies remaining. So she gave one
more cookie to each child, but was one cookie short. How may
cookies did she bake in total?
(6) Larry bought a total of 32 apples and oranges for $52. An apple
costs $2 and an orange costs $1. How many apples did he buy?
(7) Kim is 30 years old and her daughter is one-third her age. How old
will Kim be when her daughter is just half her age?
(8) Find the equation of the form y = mx + n that has (3, 0) as x-
intercept and (0, 4) as y-intercept.
(9) If (0, 0) is the x-intercept for the equation y = mx +n, what is the
y-intercept?
(10) Describe all equations of the form y = mx+n where the x-intercept
is equal to the y-intercept.
(11) Give the equation of the line through the origin that is perpendic-
ular to the line y = 4x. Find the equation of the line parallel to
y = 4x whose graph also contains the point (
1
2
,
3
5
).
(12) Give the equation of the line through the origin that contains the
point (3, 4).
(13) Find all the points (a, b) with a and b both integers that lie on the
line through the origin containing (3, 4).
(14) Fill in the details of the argument that y =
1
m
x is perpendicular
to the line y = mx for negative m and for m = 0.
In a presentation on lines and their graphs it is valuable to make a clear
connection between lines through the origin with ratios, rates, proportions
and percents. The core of this relationship is that the ratio m: n with m, n,
not both zero is the line through the origin and the point (m, n). If m ,= 0
then the points on this line have the form (x,
n
m
x), and
n
m
describes the ratio.
The unit ratio on this line corresponds to the pair (1,
n
m
) and is usually given
as
n
m
, but the pair form is better. The percent description is given by the
point (100, 100(
n
m
)), though it is usually given as just the y-value, 100(
n
m
).
Two non-zero coordinates in the plane (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) are in proportion
when they lie on the same ratio, i.e., line through the origin. If x
1
and x
2
are
non-zero, this is the same as saying that
y
1
x
1
=
y
2
x
2
. Finally, we get rates when
the coordinate lines are labeled by dierent units such as (oranges, $) and
we take ratios. So we would interpret the ratio (7, 1) in these dimensions as
7 oranges per dollar.
10. Polynomials
Polynomials are a dicult subject to justify for pre-service teachers.
There is a strong tendency on their parts to want a relatively immediate
10. POLYNOMIALS 431
pay-o for their students in the mathematics they teach. But, for the most
part, the core applications of polynomials lie far in the future for these
students. However, there are some applications that are appropriate to
discuss in K-8, and we present some of them here.
There are aspects of polynomials that have more immediate interest.
Here is one example. Let L be a rectangle in the plane with side lengths r
and s.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . ........................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
r = 30
s = 12
The perimeter of the rectangle is 2(r +s) and the area is rs. Assuming that
r +s > 0 we can look at the ratio
rs
2(r+s)
of the area to the perimeter, and we
can ask which rectangles have the largest areas relative to their perimeters.
More precisely, suppose that we x the perimeter, so r +s = c is a constant.
Then what is the largest area that a rectangle with perimeter 2c can have?
Of course, it might be that there is no bound on the area, but this is not
the case. As we now show, it turns out that the area will be greatest exactly
when the rectangle is a square of side length
1
2
c.
Since r +s = c it follows that s = cr and the area is r(cr) = cr r
2
.
Thus, the area is a function of r, A = A(r), and if we take the graph of this
function y = cr r
2
,
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
we note that it is a quadratic equation with zeros at r = 0 and r = c. The
graph is a parabola opening downward and appears to have its maximum
exactly midway between the two zeros. If, indeed, the maximum of this
graph, and hence of the function occurs when r =
c
2
, it follows that s =
c
2
as well and, as asserted, the rectangle with the largest area and perimeter
2c will be the square with side-length
c
2
.
Thus we have a problem. We want to prove that the maximum will
occur when r =
c
2
. How can we do this?
432 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
It appears from the graph that A(
c
2
) > A(w) for w ,=
c
2
. This is the
same as saying that A(
c
2
) A(w) should be greater than or equal to zero for
all w, and should equal 0 only when w =
c
2
. Let us expand out
A
_
c
2
_
=
c
2
_
c
c
2
_
=
_
c
2
_
2
=
c
2
4
A(w) = w(c w)
= wc w
2
.
Consequently,
A
_
c
2
_
A(w) =
c
2
4
cw +w
2
=
_
c
2
w
_
2
and this is, indeed, greater than or equal to zero. In fact, it is zero only
when w =
c
2
. It follows that we have veried that the rectangle with the
greatest area for a given perimeter is the square.
But there are further properties that the graph appears to have. It seems
that the graph is symmetric about the line midway between the roots and
parallel to the y-axis. How can we express this: If w is on the left side of
c
2
then the distance from w to
c
2
is
c
2
w, and the point at an equal distance
on the other side is
c
2
+
c
2
w = c w. Conversely, if w >
c
2
then the point
on the other side of
c
2
at the same distance is
c
2
(w
c
2
) = c w. Thus,
in either case the point corresponding to w is c w, and what we want to
verify is the statement that A(w) = A(cw). This can be checked by direct
calculation. We have A(w) = cww
2
while A(cw) = c(cw)(cw)
2
=
c
2
cw (c
2
2cw +w
2
) = cw w
2
. We have veried the symmetry.
One can develop from this the general properties of the graph of the
quadratic: writing it in the forma[x
2

b
a
x]+c, or a[x(x
b
a
)]+c indicates that
one starts with the function x(x
b
a
), which we have just studied, multiplies
by a, which changes the steepness of the graph and whether the graph opens
upwards or downwards, but not the property of having a extremum at
b
2a
,
and not the property of being symmetric about the line
b
2a
= x. The role
of adding c shifts the graph vertically, and changes the roots, but not the
property that the roots will be equidistant from
b
2a
if there are any roots.
Here is an important point to mention. The value of c for which the
graph just touches the x-axis should be explicitly pointed out to the pre-
service teachers. Here is one way to do this using the previous discussion:
10. POLYNOMIALS 433
a(x(x b/a)) is equal to
a
b
2a
_

b
2a
_
=
b
2
4a
when x =
b
2a
, so the graph will just touch the x-axis only when
c =
b
2
4a
,
so f(x) = ax
2
bx +
b
2
4a
= a(x
b
2a
)
2
.
Using a graphing calculator to Reinforce the discussion. A graph-
ing calculator can be used to visualize the general properties of the quadratic.
We can start with the graph of the function x(x 4) shown below.
[3, 7, 1] [5, 10, 1]
Then we can graph the function ax(x 4) for various values of a. For
example, the gure on the right below shows the graphs for a = 2 and a =
-2.
434 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
[3, 7, 1] [10, 10, 1]
You can use Trace to identify the individual graphs. For example, press
. Then press the down arrow twice to obtain the gure below.
Notice that the cursor is on the function in Y3 and the expression for Y3
appears in the upper left hand corner of the screen.
We can experiment with other values of a to support the statement about
steepness made previously. The graph of the parabola opens upward if
a > 0 and opens downward if a < 0. If [a[ > 1 the graph of the original
function is stretched vertically by a factor of [a[, and if 0 < [a[ < 1, the
graph of the original function is shrunk vertically by a factor of [a[. If a =
-1, the graph is the reection of the graph of y = x(x - 4) about the x-axis.
In a similar fashion, we can compare the graph of y = x(x 4) with the
graph of y = x(x 4) + c for various values of c. This will help illustrate
the eect of c in the graph of y = x(x 4) + c. If c > 0, the graph of
y = x(x - 4) + c can be obtained by shifting the graph of y = x(x - 4) up c
units. If c < 0, the graph of y = x(x - 4) + c can be obtained by shifting
the graph of y = x(x - 4) down [c[ units.
Factoring quadratic polynomials. The quadratic formula needs to
be discussed with students as soon as possible, but the usual manipulations
derived from completing the square that lead to it are generally very di-
cult for pre-service teachers and tend to be completely unmotivated. Conse-
quently, it is widely believed, in K-12 education circles, that the derivation is
10. POLYNOMIALS 435
too complex for K - 8 instruction. Indeed, educators even have reservations
about teaching it in the second algebra course. However, factoring quadrat-
ics is something that is more readily accepted, though it is also regarded as
somewhat unmotivated.
A more motivated discussion can be accomplished by rst pointing out
that the same function can be written in a number of dierent ways, and
that the dierent ways of writing the function will often expose dierent
properties that the function has.
(1) Recall that dierent ways of writing linear equations make certain
key properties of the function clearer. For example, writing it in
the form a(x b) = y shows that when x = b the value of y is 0, so
the x-intercept is b, while writing it in the form ax + b = y shows
that when x = 0 the value of y is b, so the y-intercept is b.
(2) Point out that we have already seen, from the graph and dierent
ways of writing the quadratic, that a quadratic function ax
2
+bx+c
has one root when c =
b
2
4a
, two roots if c <
b
2
4a
, and no roots for
c >
b
2
4a
.
(3) Note that (x A)(x B) = x
2
(A + B)x + AB is a quadratic
function.
(a) Writing it in the form (x A)(x B) shows that when x = A
or x = B the value of the function will be 0, so A and B are
roots of the quadratic equation x
2
(A+B)x +AB.
(b) Writing it in the expanded form x
2
(A + B)x + AB implies
that if the quadratic equation x
2
bx + c has roots A and B,
then b = A+B and c = AB.
4
It is now natural to focus on factoring quadratics, and to justify this by
pointing out that the objective is to understand that if r
1
and r
2
are the
solutions of ax
2
+bx +c = 0, then ax
2
+bx +c = a(x r
1
)(x r
2
). At this
point, a series of exercises along the following lines will be helpful.
Exercises:
(1) Let r
1
, r
2
be the roots of x
2
25, that is to say, they are the solutions
of x
2
25 = 0. Show that r
1
and r
2
are 5 and 5.
(2) Show that x
2
25 factors as (x 5)(x + 5).
(3) Let r
1
, r
2
be the roots of x
2
31. Show that r
1
and r
2
are

31 and

31, and that x

2
31 factors as (x

31)(x +

31).
(4) Let r
1
and r
2
be the roots of x
2
c
2
where c is any real number.
Show that r
1
and r
2
are c and c. Show that x
2
c
2
= (xc)(x+c).
(5) Let r
1
, r
2
be the roots of x
2
bx. Show that r
1
and r
2
are 0 and b
and x
2
bx = x(x b).
(6) Let r
1
, r
2
be the roots of x
2
6x + 5. Show that r
1
and r
2
are 1
and 5, and that x
2
6x + 5 factors as (x 1)(x 5).
4
It doesnt necessarily prove this since the pre-service teachers need to be convinced that if
a quadratic equation has roots A and B then it can be factored as a(xA)(xB) where a is the
coecient of x
2
.
436 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Now students should be ready to complete the discussion of the rela-
tionship between roots and factorization at least for quadratics. One way of
doing this follows: compare f(x) = x
2
bx +c with g(x) = (x r
1
)(x r
2
)
regardless of whether r
1
and r
2
are roots of f(x).
Note that
f(x) g(x) = x
2
bx +c (x r
1
)(x r
2
)
= x
2
bx +c (x
2
(r
1
+r
2
)x +r
1
r
2
)
= ((r
1
+r
2
) b)x + (c +r
1
r
2
)
which is a linear function. Moreover, if we now assume that r
1
and
r
2
are roots of f(x), then the value of this linear function is 0 for
x = r
1
since f(r
1
) (r
1
r
1
)(r
1
r
2
) = 0 0 = 0, and it is also
0 for r
2
. But the graph of f(x) g(x) is then the straight line
through (r
1
, 0) and (r
2
, 0), and, since r
1
,= r
2
, this straight line is
the x-axis, and it follows that f(x) g(x) = 0 for all real numbers
x, or f(x) = g(x) which expands as
x
2
bx +c = (x r
1
)(x r
2
)
whenever the polynomial x
2
bx + c has two distinct roots. Also,
since the only linear equations for the x-axis have the form ay = 0,
with a ,= 0, it follows that
b = (r
1
+r
2
)
c = r
1
r
2
.
The quadratic formula. At this point, students are ready to under-
stand the quadratic formula. Rather than giving them the unmotivated
proof via completing the square, we can discuss the formula from the per-
spective of factorization. Note that and x = r
2
and x = r
2
and x = r
2
and
x = r
2
and x = r
2
and x = r
2
ax
2
+bx +c = a
_
x
2
+
b
a
x +
c
a
_
,
so the roots of ax
2
+bx+c are the same as the roots of x
2
+
b
a
x+
c
a
. If these
roots are r
1
and r
2
then
b
a
= (r
1
+r
2
)
c
a
= r
1
r
2
,
10. POLYNOMIALS 437
_
b
a
_
2
= r
2
1
+ 2r
1
r
2
+r
2
2
, and
_
b
a
_
2
4
c
a
= (r
2
1
+ 2r
1
r
2
+r
2
2
) 4r
1
r
2
= r
2
1
2r
1
r
2
+r
2
2
= (r
1
r
2
)
2
Consequently, the two square roots of
_
b
a
_
2
4
c
a
=
b
2
4ac
a
2
are r
1
r
2
and r
2
r
1
, the dierences of the roots. Since
b
a
= r
1
+r
2
we
have the quadratic formula in the form that the two roots are given as
2r
1
=
b
a

_
b
2
4ac
a
2
2r
2
=
b
a
+
_
b
2
4ac
a
2
and this is easily rewritten into the usual form.
At this point it is reasonable to point out that, though the previous ar-
gument shows what is really going on, one can give a dierent proof which
strengthens students skills in symbolic manipulation, and provide the usual
completing the square demonstration. Also, some discussion of the his-
torical context of the quadratic formula - Cardanos determination of the
roots of the general cubic, the existence of a such a formula for the general
quartic, but the fact that for polynomials of degrees greater than 4 there can
be no such algorithmic determination of the roots - should be of considerable
interest to students at this point.
The discussion can be reinforced with the following exercise.
Exercise:
(1) Let r
1
, r
2
be the roots of x
2
bx + c. Show, by direct expansion
that
x
2
bx +c =
_
x +
b +

b
2
+c
2
__
x +
b

b
2
+c
2
_
.
Polynomial multiplication. The next step in the discussion of poly-
nomials is to introduce polynomial multiplication. Polynomial (long) divi-
sion can be deferred until after quotient functions are introduced.
Polynomial multiplication should be introduced by noting that if we have
two functions on the same input space, f(x) and g(x) with output space the
real numbers, then, multiplying the values of f(x) and g(x) for each input
x gives a new function of x, the product f(x)g(x). Thus if we have two
438 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
linear functions f(x) = ax+b and g(x) = cx+d then their product function
f(x)g(x) is (ax+b)(cx+d) = acx
2
+(ad+bc)x+bd, a quadratic polynomial.
Similarly if we multiply three linear functions
(ax +b)(cx +d)(ex +f) = (acx
2
+ (ad +bc)x +bd)(ex +f)
= acex
3
+ (acf +ade +bce)x
2
+ (adf +bcf +bde)x +bdf
we get a cubic polynomial. Further discussion should be given to justify the
assertion that the product of two polynomials is again a polynomial, and
that if f(x) is a polynomial of degree n while g(x) is a polynomial of degree
m, then f(x)g(x) is a polynomial of degree m+n.
It is also worthwhile to consider products of functions of two variables,
particularly linear functions:
(ax+by+c)(ex+fy+g) = aex
2
+(af+be)xy+bfy
2
+(ag+ce)x+(bg+cf)y+cg
Exercises:
(1) Determine the product of x 5 and x + 3. What are the roots of
the resulting function?
(2) Determine the product of x 5 and x +y 1 as a function of two
variables. Show that the set of pairs (x, y) for which the function
is zero is the union of the line x = 5 and the line x +y = 1.
(3) Determine a function of x and y which has the union of the line
x y = 1 and x +y = 2 as its roots.
Next one can discuss the relationship between the standard multiplica-
tion algorithms for polynomials and base 10 integers. In both cases one
breaks things up in the same way:
But the dierence is in the fact that while there is no restriction on the
values that the coecients a
0
, . . . , a
3
can take in a polynomial, there is
when we write a number in base 10. Since every coecient in the base 10
representation of a number is an integer between 0 and 9, and since it is
relatively frequent that ab > 9 for integers a and b in this range, there will
be additional manipulations (carrying) needed to rewrite each row above
when they are meant to give base 10 representations of numbers.
For example 9 9 = 81 = 8 10 +1. Thus when we multiply 29 94 =
2090+990+204+94, this becomes 18100+8110+810+36,
which, taking account of the constraints that base 10 notation puts on the
11. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 439
coecients of numbers, becomes
10
3
+ 8 10
2
+ 8 10
2
+ 1 10 + 8 10 + 3 10 + 6.
In turn this becomes
10
3
+ (8 + 8) 10
2
+ (1 + 8 + 3) 10 + 6,
or
2 10
3
+ 6 10
2
+ 1 10
2
+ 2 10 + 6,
or nally
2 10
3
+ 7 10
2
+ 2 10 + 6.
One thing that this example indicates is the complexity of the carrying
procedure, and it gives a strong argument for the very ecient stair-step
long multiplication algorithm.
Exercises:
(1) (a) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 10
7
73.
(b) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 123454321
4567.
(2) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of b (10
5
1).
11. Rational Functions
After the basic discussion of polynomials above, the next step is to in-
troduce division of functions via the usual inverse property. But one has to
be careful about the issue of division by zero in discussing this topic. When
dealing with functions, this changes the domain (or input space), and that
fact has to be carefully developed.
Definition. If f(x) and h(x) are functions of x with the same set of
inputs and range or output space the real numbers, and if h(x) ,= 0 for any
x in the set of inputs, then g(x) is the quotient f(x)/h(x) if and only if
f(x) = g(x)h(x).
As a consequence of the denition, for any h(x) satisfying the conditions
of the denition and any f(x), a quotient function exists and is, moreover,
unique.
It is important to explain the denition carefully. As an example, the
quotient of the function 1, dened as f(x) = 1 for all x, by the function
h(x) = x 3 is not dened on all the real numbers, x, since h(3) = 0. But
if we restrict the input set so that it consists of all numbers except 3 then
the quotient g(x) is dened and is given by the rule
g(x) =
1
x 3
, x ,= 3.
On this domain g(x)h(x) = 1 for each value of x as desired, so it is true that
f(x) = g(x)h(x) and g(x) is the quotient f(x)/h(x). But since h(x) is not
dened on the real numbers, f(x)/h(x) is given no meaning here. However
we can look at the graph of this function away from the point x = 3. When
x < 3 we note that x3 is negative so that
1
x3
< 0 for x < 3 and a similar
440 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
argument shows that
1
x3
> 0 for x > 3. On the other hand, x 3 is very
small in absolute value when x is very close to 3, so
1
x3
is very large in
absolute value. It follows that near 3 the graph has the following form
1 2 3 4 5 6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
x
y
A similar discussion should be carried out for quadratics. Thus, if h(x) =
ax
2
+bx +c has no real roots, then
1
h(x)
is a sensible function on the entire
real line,
1
h(x)
=
1
ax
2
+bx +c
.
But what happens when h(x) = (x r
1
)(x r
2
) does have real roots?
Arguing as above, the graph will have the following form assuming that
r
1
< r
2
:
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2
1
1
2
x
y
which is the graph of
1
(x2)(x4)
. This looks very much like the graph of
1
xr
2
near r
2
and like the graph of
1
xr
1
near r
1
. So it is reasonable to compare
1
(xr
1
)(xr
2
)
with the function
A
x r
2

B
x r
1
.
To do this we should start by putting the two functions above over the
common denominator (xr
1
)(xr
2
). But care should be taken at this point.
11. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 441
Students should be guided to understand that on the input set consisting of
all x but r
1
and r
2
we have equality
A
x r
2
=
A(x r
1
)
(x r
1
)(x r
2
)
in the sense that for each value of x in this set the two sides are equal,
hence, on this domain the two functions are the same. However, it should
be pointed out that the functions are not the same on the larger domain
where r
1
is present, since we have given no meaning to the quotient
0
0
that
results on the right hand side, while the left hand function does make sense
at x = r
1
.
Having taken sucient care to set up the denitions properly it should
be pointed out, by direct calculation, that on the input set consisting of all
real x but r
1
and r
2
we have an equality
x r
1
(x r
2
)(x r
1
)

x r
2
(x r
1
)(x r
2
)
=
r
2
r
1
(x r
1
)(x r
2
)
and consequently that
1
(x r
1
)(x r
2
)
=
1
r
2
r
1
_
1
x r
1

1
x r
2
_
and that
x
(x r
1
)(x r
2
)
=
1
r
1
r
2
_
r
1
x r
1

r
2
x r
2
_
whenever r
1
,= r
2
and whenever x is not equal to r
1
or r
2
. One can give
students the exercise to study of the function
1
(xr
1
)(xr
2
)(xr
3
)
, for r
1
, r
2
,
and r
3
distinct, with the hint that this is
_
1
x r
3
__
1
(x r
1
)(x r
2
)
_
.
Historical Note: There have been attempts to remove partial fraction
decompositions from the high school curriculum, and even from the normal
rst year college calculus course. However, in engineering and applied areas,
partial fractions are the key to the integration of rational functions, and these
are crucial in applications of mathematics. Thus, it has been noted that
students who have not had partial fractions often have inordinate diculties
with higher level courses in engineering and related areas.
Polynomial long division. What happens if we take the quotient
f(x)/h(x) where f(x) is a polynomial of degree n 1 and h(x) is the
polynomial x r?
Note that x = (x r) +r so that
x
x r
= 1 +
r
x r
, x ,= r.
442 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Likewise
x
2
= [(x r) +r]
2
= (x r)
2
+ 2r(x r) +r
2
so that
x
2
x r
= x +r +
r
2
x r
, x ,= r,
while combining these gives that
ax
2
+bx +c
x r
= ax + (ar +b) +
ar
2
+br +c
x r
, x ,= r.
This suggests that the quotient of a general polynomial f(x) by xr should
be the sum of a polynomial in x of degree one less than f and a function
c
xr
for an appropriate constant c. Polynomial long division can be introduced
and developed to justify and explain what has just been observed . Start by
noting that ax
n
= ax
n1
(x r) +arx
n1
, so that,
a
0
x
n
+a
1
x
n1
= a
0
x
n1
(x r) + (a
1
+a
0
r)x
n1
= a
0
x
n1
(x r) + (a
1
+a
0
r)x
n2
(x r)
+r(a
1
+a
0
r)x
n2
and so forth. Conclude that f(x) = (xr)g(x)+c where g(x) is a polynomial
of degree one less than the degree of f(x) and c is a constant.
5
At this point
the discussion can be summarized by noting that
If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n 1 then the quotient
f(x)
xr
has the form
f(x)
x r
= g(x) +
c
x r
, x ,= r,
where g(x) is a polynomial of degree n 1.
Using the standard process of polynomial long division - which should
be carefully justied as making explicit the process described above - one is
able to give an algorithmic determination of the polynomial g(x) above. We
next make a key denition:
Definition. The polynomial f(x) of degree n 1 is divisible by (x r)
if and only if the there is a polynomial g(x) of degree n 1 so that f(x) =
(x r)g(x).
By direct evaluation at r, writing f(x) = (x r)g(x) +c, one sees that
f(r) = a
0
r
n
+a
1
r
n1
+ +a
n1
r +a
n
= c
since xr is 0 when x = r. Consequently, it follows that (xr) divides f(x)
if and only if r is a root of f(x). If r is a root of f(x), then f(x) = (xr)g(x)
5
It might be worth mentioning that when mathematical induction is discussed later in the
course, this process will be completely justied.
11. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 443
where g(x) is a polynomial of degree one less than the degree of f(x), and
iterating this process shows that the number of real roots of f(x) is always
less than or equal to the degree of f(x).
Sometimes it is possible to discover roots of polynomials by looking at
a graph.
Example Use a graph to help nd the factors of x
2
6x 7.
The graph of Y1 = X2-6X-7 on the right below suggests that 1 and 7
might be roots of this polynomial.
[5, 10, 1] [25, 25, 5]
We can use substitution to verify that they are actually roots. Thus,
x
2
6x 7 = (x + 1)(x 7).
The nice thing about using graphs is that we are not restricted by the
degree of the polynomial as illustrated in the following example.
Example Use graph(s) to search for possible roots of f(x) = 2x
3
9x
2

2x + 24. Check by using substitution or long division.

444 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
The gure below shows the graph of f in the [-5, 10, 1] x [-25, 30, 5]
viewing window.
It appears that 2 is a root of f. You can use long division to show that
f(x) = 2x
3
9x
2
2x + 24 = (x 2)(2x
2
5x 12).
Thus, 2 is indeed a root of f. In this case we can factor 2x
2
5x 12 to
complete the factorization of f. From the graph, it appears that 4 is also a
root. The complete factorization is
f(x) = 2x
3
9x
2
2x+24 = (x2)(2x
2
5x12) = (x2)(x4)(2x+3).
The third and nal root of f is 3/2.
An Application of Cubic Polynomials
Start with an 8.5 in. by 11 in. piece of paper and cut out equal squares
of side length x from each corner of the piece of paper. Actually, it is a good
idea to use graph paper for this purpose. Fold up the sides to form a box
with no top.
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................... ...................................
..................................... ...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x x
x
x
x
x
x x
Make a table of values for the dimensions of the box and its corresponding
volume. To get started we complete the following table.
11. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 445
height
x
length
11 2x
width
8.5 2x
volume
x(11 2x)(8.5 2x)
0.5 10 7.5 37.5
1.0 9 6.5 58.5
1.5 8 5.5 66
2.0 7 4.5 63
2.5 6 3.5 52.5
3.0 5 2.5 37.5
3.5 4 1.5 21
4.0 3 0.5 6
Next we use the STAT PLOT menu on our technology to graph the
ordered pairs of the function (x, volume) listed in the table above. We put
the values of the height into the list L1 and the corresponding values of the
volume in L2.
To set up Plot1 in the STAT PLOT menu we make the following settings.
The gure below shows some of the values in the Lists L1 and L2, in
fact, all the values except the elements in the last row of the table above.
446 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Here is the graph of these 8 points in the [0, 5, 1] x [0, 80, 10] viewing
window.
A problem that we might be interested in is to nd the value of x that
gives the box with maximum volume and the corresponding maximum vol-
ume. The scatter plot suggests that the third point in the plot, namely (1.5,
66) is a good approximation to the values we seek.
We know that V (x) = x(11 2x)(8.5 2x) is the model for the data.
Adding the graph of this function to the points in the gure above gives
strong support for the maximum found above.
We can use to estimate the coordinates of the maximum point in
the gure above or we can use the maximum feature in the CALCULATE
menu to get an even better approximation to the coordinates of the maxi-
mum point in the gure above. Press to get the menu shown
on the left below. Press to select 4:maximum and obtain the graph on
11. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 447
the right below.
Notice that we are prompted to enter a left bound for the x-coordinate
of the maximum point. Move the cursor to the left of the maximum point
by using the arrow keys as suggested on the left below. Then press
to accept the left bound and to obtain the graph on the right below.
Use the right arrow key to move to the right of the maximum point
as suggested on the left below. Press to accept the right bound as
448 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
suggested on the right below.
Notice that we are prompted to enter a Guess for the x-coordinate of
the maximum point. Use the arrow keys to get close to the maximum point
as suggested on the left below. Then press to accept the Guess and
obtain the gure on the right below.
11. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 449
This provides even more support for the approximation we found above.
Exercises:
(1) (a) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 10
7
73.
(b) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of 123454321
4567.
(2) Determine the base-10 place value presentation of b (10
5
1).
Application of polynomials to summing nite geometric series
Suppose that we are given the nite geometric series,
1 +x +x
2
+x
3
+x
4
+ +x
n
where the terms are the successive powers of x from the 0
th
to the n
th
. Note
that if we multiply it by x 1, we have
(x 1) (1 +x + x
2
+ +x
n
)
= x(1 +x +x
2
+ +x
n
) (1 +x +x
2
+ +x
n
)
= x +x
2
+x
3
+ x
n+1
(1 +x +x
2
+ +x
n
)
= x
n+1
1
since all the intermediate powers of x cancel. Consequently, dividing both
sides by (x 1) we have
x
n+1
1
x 1
= 1 +x +x
2
+x
3
+ +x
n
.
This is one of the very important formulas of school mathematics.
Here is an application. Suppose that we are given the innite decimal
that ultimately repeats
v = 1.21323232.
How do we determine the fraction that it represents? Since the repeat-
ing part is 32 which is two digits long, if we multiply v by 10
2
we get
450 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
10
2
v = 121.32323232, and if we subtract v from this we get
10
2
v v = (10
2
1)v
= 121.323232 1.21323232
= 120.11
Consequently, dividing both sides by (10
2
1) we have
v =
120.11
10
2
1
.
Note that 10
2
1 = 99 and multiplying both top and bottom by 100 to get
rid of the decimal point on the top, we have
v =
12011
9900
for the explicit fraction that equals 1.213232. To see the connection with
the geometric series, consider the simple repeating decimal 0.131313. This
can be written as
13
100
+
13
100
2
+
13
100
3
+
13
100
4
+
Thus we get 13 (
1
100
+
1
100
2
+ for the sum, and the nite sums are
13
1
100
n+1
1
1
100
1
.
(1) Determine the fraction that equals the repeating decimal .232323.
(2) Determine the fraction that equals the repeating decimal 0.124124124.
(3) Determine the fraction that equals the repeating decimal
0.00315315315
12. Inductive Reasoning and Mathematical Induction
Inductive reasoning is dened as Going from the particular to the general,
and is meant to comprise the kind of reasoning that is involved in seeing a
relatively small amount of data, observing structure in the data, and from
this, conjecturing a structure that will be found generally.
Mathematical induction is, of course, something entirely dierent. It is
unfortunate that the terminology is so close.
12. INDUCTIVE REASONING AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 451
Heuristic reasoning is reasoning not regarded as nal and strict but as
provisional and plausible only, whose purpose is to discover the solution
of the present problem. We are often obliged to use heuristic reason-
ing. We shall attain complete certainty when we shall have obtained
the complete solution, but before obtaining certainty we must often be
satised with a more or less plausible guess. We may need the provi-
sional before we attain the nal. We need heuristic reasoning when we
construct a strict proof as we need scaolding when we erect a building.
....
Heuristic reasoning is good in itself. What is bad is to mix up
heuristic reasoning with rigorous proof. What is worse is to sell heuristic
reasoning for rigorous proof. (p. 113) G. Polya, How to solve it.
Induction and mathematical induction. Induction is the process of
discovering general laws by the observation and combination of partic-
ular instances. It is used in all sciences, even in mathematics. Math-
ematical induction is used in mathematics alone to prove theorems of
a certain kind. It is rather unfortunate that the names are connected
because there is very little logical connection between the two processes.
There is, however, some practical connection; we often use both meth-
ods together. (p. 114) G. Polya, How to Solve it.
Typical example problems for developing a sense of inductive reason-
ing (and its pitfalls) is to discuss pattern problems at this point. (SEE
THE DISCUSSION IN CHAPTER III). One should start with fairly obvious
problems like:
(1) We are given a machine with a sign on it input a number. When
we enter 1, the machine returns 3. When we enter 2, the machine
returns 6. When we enter 3, the machine returns 9, and when we
enter 4, the machine returns 12. What is the machine most likely
to return when we enter 8? (Most likely this is just multiplication
by 3, but it should be pointed out that there are many other pos-
sibilities. For example, the machine could repeat this process, so
f(5n + k) = 3k, 0 k 4, or some more complex sequence could
be constructed. It might be useful to initiate a discussion of most
likely here, indicating that this involves preconceptions.
(2) We are given the following table:
Input Output
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
452 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
What is the next term? (The point to emphasize here is that while
the most likely next term is apt to be 6 and 64 with rule n 2
n
, it
is far from certain that this is the case even though there were more
data points given here than previously. More data merely makes
the conjecture more likely.)
(3) We are given the following table:
Input Output
1 3
2 1
3 4
4 1
5 5
What is the next term? Most of the class would likely suggest that
the next term should be 1, but point out that 9 is a perfectly ne
continuation with as simple a rule as would give 1. (The sequence
could have been the successive digits in the decimal expansion of
.)
On the other hand, while inductive reasoning has to be handled carefully, it
is an invaluable technique for making conjectures and gaining a preliminary
understanding of what might be happening in a problem situation.
A short discussion of the sum-notation is needed at this point
We often need to add together long sequences of terms. For exam-
ple, consider the following:
1 + 3 + third odd number + fourth odd number + + 20
th
odd number.
To simplify the writing of this expression we use the following no-
tation
20

i=1
i
th
odd number,
and this is read sum the odd numbers from the rst to the 20
th
.
We can express the i
th
odd number as 2i 1, (when i = 1, 2i 1
is 1, when i = 2, 2i 1 is 3, when i = 3, 2i 1 is 5, and so on).
Consequently, an equivalent way of writing this sum is to simply
write
20

i=1
(2i 1).
Thus the notation for writing sums of successive terms is
i=nish

i=start
f(i) = f(start) +f(start + 1) + +f(nish 1) +f(nish).
12. INDUCTIVE REASONING AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 453
Mathematical induction:
Mathematical induction is a completely distinct process from inductive
reasoning. This is a method of proof, and one of the most powerful tech-
niques in the mathematicians arsenal. Explain to pre-service teachers that
mathematical induction is a procedure for verifying the truth of formulas
f(n) = g(n) where n runs over the counting numbers. For example we
can write the formula in words the sum of n copies of 1 which we ab-
breviate

n
j=1
1. We can note that

1
j=1
1 = 1,

2
j=1
1 = 1 + 1 = 2,

3
j=1
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. We then conjecture that

n
j=1
1 = n. In order
to verify this conjecture we have to have a method of checking, in nite
time, each case, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Explain and justify that it is sucient to
verify the rst case, and then verify the statement The truth of f(n) = g(n)
implies the truth of f(n + 1) = g(n + 1).
(1) Prove

n
j=1
1 = n by induction.
(2) Prove

n
j=1
2j 1 = n
2
by induction.
(3) Prove

n
j=1
3
j
=
3
n+1
1
2
.
Also, discuss other forms of mathematical induction, for example where the
truth of f(j) = g(j) for all counting numbers j n implies the truth of
f(n + 1) = g(n + 1), or where a nite number are needed, for example
the truth of f(j) = g(j) for n 1, and n implies the truth of f(n + 1) =
g(n + 1). Perhaps, illustrate this with the formula for the n
th
Fibonacci
number. Dene the Fibonacci sequence via the rule f(n) = f(n1)+f(n2)
with f(1) = f(2) = 1.
(1) Suppose that a sequence is constructed via the rule g(n + 1) =
2g(n) g(n 1) with f(1) = 1, f(2) = 2.
(a) Determine the rst 5 terms in this sequence.
(b) Make a conjecture about the formula for the n
th
term, and
prove this conjecture using mathematical induction.
(c) Suppose g(1) = 1, g(2) = 1. Write out the rst ve terms.
(d) Make a conjecture about the formula for the n
th
term, and
prove this conjecture using mathematical induction.
(2) Write down the rst 8 Fibonacci numbers.
(3) Show by mathematical induction that each Fibonacci number f(n)
is less than 2
n
.
(4) Obtain an exact formula for the n
th
Fibonacci number via the fol-
lowing steps.
(a) Show that the solutions of the equation x
2
x 1 = 0 are
r
1
=
1+

5
2
, r
2
=
1

5
2
.
(b) Show that x
n+1
= x
n
+ x
n1
with n > 1 only if x = 0, r
1
, or
r
2
.
(c) Show by mathematical induction that f(n) = 5r
n
1
satises the
property that f(n + 1) = f(n) +f(n 1).
(d) Same for f(n) = 5r
2
.
454 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
(e) Same for f(n) = ar
1
+br
2
with a and b and real numbers.
(f) Show by mathematical induction that the n
th
term in the Fi-
bonacci sequence is
1

5
(r
n
1
r
n
2
) for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . as n runs
over the counting numbers.
13. Combinations, Permutations and Pascals Triangle
Initial comments. Current K - 8 and even K - 5 content requirements
contain a great deal of combinatorics, exemplied by variants of the
handshaking problem. N people are in a room, and each introduces
himself to the others with a handshake. How many handshakes in all?
Also, by sixth grade, many programs introduce aspects of Pascals
triangle, sums like

n
i=1
i and even more complicated sums like the
sum of successive odd counting numbers and

n
i=1
i
2
. Thus there
as a clear requirement that these topics be covered in depth by pre-
service teachers. However, when we look at what we do in college
combinatorics and probability courses, we nd that students have great
diculty with these topics. This is likely to be even more the case for
pre-service teachers. So the material discussed here is likely to require
a considerable amount of time.
Suppose that we have three jars each with two balls, a red ball, and a
white ball. We pick one ball from each jar. In how many ways can we pick
two white balls and 1 red ball?
This question is not suciently precise to be well-posed. We need to specify
whether the order in which we pick matters or not. If the order does not
matter, for example if we always pick from the jars in the same order, rst
jar 1, then jar 2, then jar 3, there are exactly three ways we can pick two
white balls and one red ball. We need only specify the jar that contained the
red ball. However, if order does matter then for each of the three possibilities
above there are exactly six ways it can happen, depending on the order in
which we selected from the jars. Thus the rst pick would be from any one
of the three, the second from the two remaining and the third from that one
13. COMBINATIONS, PERMUTATIONS AND PASCALS TRIANGLE 455
remaining after the rst two picks.
Red ball picked from second jar in indicated order
Once we know which ball is picked in each jar, the problem where order
matters amounts to specifying the order, and thinking of each jar as only
containing one ball. Depending on the interpretation, there are either three
ways or 18.
Here is another question of the same type. Suppose we pick two balls,
at most one from each jar, we are allowed to pick jars in any order we want,
but dierent choices of order are counted as dierent. In how many ways
can the two balls we pick be white? For this we only pick twice, but both
times the ball we pick is supposed to be white. Here it does not matter that
the other ball is even present, and we need only specify the two jars and the
order in which we picked, say jar #1 - then jar #2 or jar #2 - then jar #1.
For this question the answer is 6.
This second question is related to certain kinds of graphs, as we can
draw the following graph to keep track of the choices and their order: The
number of (right-hand) endpoints of the graph gives the numbers of ways,
taking order into account, that we can select two white balls from the three
jars.
The rst choice of jar is done in one of three ways. The second in one
of the two remaining ways, so the total number of ways is 6. Likewise, if
we want to count the number of ways but the order does not matter - so
we only list the jars that contained the white balls, not their order - then
each pair of jars is associated to two choices of order, and the number of
ways, ignoring order is
6
2
= 3. Moreover, we get the same graph, except
with dierent labels to count the number of way we can rst pick a red ball
456 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
and then a white ball in two picks from two dierent jars.
There are four dierent outcomes - in terms of colors - in two picks, w, w,
r, w, w, r, and r, r. For each there are 6 dierent ways in which this can
happen with three jars.
Suppose that, instead of three jars we had 5, each with a red ball and a
white ball, and we ask the same question - in how many ways can we pick 2
white balls including the order in which we pick? Here, the rst white ball
can be picked from any one of the ve jars, and the second from any one
of the four remaining jars, so there are 5 4 = 20 ways. Similarly for the
other three possibilities, r, w, w, r, and r, r.
What happens when we no longer care about the order? Then only the pair
of jars matters, so jar #1 then jar #5 is not to be regarded as dierent from
13. COMBINATIONS, PERMUTATIONS AND PASCALS TRIANGLE 457
jar #5 then jar #1. Consequently, the answer is
5 4
2
= 10
since there are exactly two ways of ordering the two jars in each path.
As another example, if we had 7 jars, each with a red ball and a white
ball, and we ask for the number of ways that we can pick 4 white balls where
the order matters, we have
7 6 5 4 = 840
distinct ways. When the order does not matter we have to nd out how many
dierent ways there are of ordering four jars, and divide by this number. But
we can order four jars by rst selecting any one of the four, then, for the
second position, any one of the three remaining, for the third position any
one of the two now remaining, and for the last position the nal jar. Hence
there are
4 3 2 1 = 24
dierent ways of ordering four jars, and we have
7 6 5 4
4 3 2 1
= 35
ways of selecting four white balls from 7 jars when the order does not matter.
Here is another example appropriate for lower grades. Suppose we have
four boxes. Inside each box are three cartons. Inside each carton are two
candy bars. How many candy bars do we have?
This approach was expanded in a very nice way in the book Annos
Mysterious Multiplying Jar by Masaichiro and Mitsumasa Anno suitable for
458 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
younger students. Here are some sample pages:
Definition 1. Let n be a whole number, then n! (n factorial) is the
product n (n 1) (n 2) 2 1, the product of all the whole
numbers between 1 and n inclusive. We also dene 0! = 1, so that we have
n! dened for every non-negative integer.
So n! means Multiply together all of the natural numbers less than or equal
to n. For example, 7! = 7654321, and this is 76524 = 5040.
The factorials grow very fast, in fact as n gets big one can check that the
quotient
a
n
n!
gets smaller than any positive number for any xed number a.
Exercises:
13. COMBINATIONS, PERMUTATIONS AND PASCALS TRIANGLE 459
(1) Show that the number of ways in which we can pick 3 white balls
from 8 jars, each containing a white ball, a red ball, and a yellow
ball is 336. Show that
336 =
8!
5!
(2) Show that the number of ways in which we can pick k white balls
from 8 jars, each containing a white ball, a red ball, and a yellow
ball is
8!
(8k)!
where k is any integer between 1 and 8 inclusive.
Lemma 1. Let n be any positive integer. Show that the number of ways
in which we can pick k white balls from n jars, each containing only a white
ball, is
n!
(nk)!
when order matters.
Proof: The distinct ways of picking k balls is the same as the number of
distinct ways of listing k dierent jars from among the n jars. Now, envision
the process of picking k distinct jars. The rst can be picked as any one of
the n jars, the second as any one of the n1 remaining, and so on until the
k
th
which can be picked arbitrarily from the nk +1 remaining jars. Thus
the number of ways of picking k jars where order matters is
n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) (n k + 1) =
n!
(n k)!
since the terms in (n k) factorial are the same as the last n k terms in
n!, so these will cancel in pairs, and only the rst k terms will be left to
multiply out.
(1) How many ways can you pick 7 white balls from 13 jars when each
jar contains exactly one white ball, and order matters.
(2) Show that the number of ways in which we can order n objects is
n! for any positive integer n.
(3) You have a run of 300 items that pass by you on a production line.
In how many ways can you pull out 3 items for testing? There are
two dierent situations that should be considered. The rst is that
since the error rate may vary with the number of items produced,
the order could matter. The second is that this eect is likely to be
vanishingly small, so one would be justied in ignoring the order in
which the items were picked. Analyze both cases.
Example: Suppose you are a member of a very democratic group of 10 peo-
ple that does not even believe in elections. You want to choose a president,
vice president, treasurer, and secretary. In how many ways can you do this?
This is just like choosing balls from jars where order matters. The rst
ball (president) can be chosen in 10 ways, second (vice president) in 9 and
so on. So the answer is 5040.
The counting problem referred to in the example above is sometimes
called nding the number of permutations of 10 things taken 4 at a time
and denoted by
10
P
4
. We can compute this number on the Home screen
460 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
with our graphing calculator. Go the Home screen by pressing .
Then type the number 10. Press to obtain the gure on the left
below.
Now press and type the number 4 to obtain the gure on the left
below. Finally, press to obtain the gure on the right below. This
agrees with the number computed by hand.
(1) Show that the number of ways you can pick 5 white balls from 11
jars, where order does not matter is
11!
5! 6!
= 462,
13. COMBINATIONS, PERMUTATIONS AND PASCALS TRIANGLE 461
(2) Show that the number of ways in which we can select k white balls
from n jars, where each jar contains a white ball only and order
doesnt matter, is
((n, k) =
n!
k!(n k)!
,
where k is any integer between 1 and n inclusive. What is the
reason the k! is present in this number? What is the reason that
(n k)! is present in this number?
The formula in number 2 above is denoted by
n
C
r
on our graphing
calculator. To compute the answer to Question 1 above go to the Home
screen. Now type 11 and press to obtain the gure on the left
below.
Now press and type the number 5 to obtain the gure on the left
below. Finally, press to obtain the gure on the right below. This
agrees with the number computed by hand.
462 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
Definition 2. ((n, k) =
n!
k!(nk)!
, for integers n and k with 1 k < n
is called the binomial coecient, n choose k, and is written
_
n
k
_
. The
denition is extended to k = 0 and k = n by setting
_
n
0
_
=
_
n
n
_
= 1.
The binomial coecient
_
n
k
_
counts the number of ways in which k objects
can be choosen from among n when order does not matter, and this is the
reason that the extreme cases are given as 1, since there is only one way to
choose 0 objects from n as there is only one way to choose all n. Also, note
that we have dened 0! = 1, so, since we can also write
n!
0!n!
=
n!
1n!
= 1, it
follows that, strictly speaking, we do not need to give separate denitions for
_
n
0
_
and
_
n
n
_
. However, in view of the fragile understanding that students are
likely to exhibit at this point, it is very likely to be a good idea to include the
additional remarks here, and distinguish the extreme cases from the general
case.
The following lemma is very useful.
Lemma 2. Let n, k be integers with 1 k n.
(a)
_
n
k
_
=
_
n
nk
_
for 0 k n.
(b)
_
n
0
_
=
_
n
n
_
= 1,
(c) For n > 1 and 1 k n 1 we have
_
n
k
_
=
_
n 1
k 1
_
+
_
n 1
k
_
.
Proof: For (a) note that
_
n
nk
_
=
n!
(nk)!(n(nk))!
. But n (n k) = k.
Consequently,
_
n
n k
_
=
n!
(n k)!k!
and this is
_
n
k
_
.
Part (b) is simply a restatement of a part of the denition, and the
reason for this choice has been indicated.
For (c), the combinatorial reason for the formula
_
n
k
_
=
_
n1
k
_
+
_
n1
k1
_
when all the terms make sense is direct. Look at the rst position. If it
is choosen then there are
_
n1
k1
_
ways of choosing k 1 from among the
13. COMBINATIONS, PERMUTATIONS AND PASCALS TRIANGLE 463
remaining n 1 to get k from n. On the other hand, if the rst is not
choosen then all k must come from the remaining n 1.
For strengthening the condence of the students in the result - since they
are apt to be very uncomfortable with conceptual proofs - it is probably a
good idea to also indicate an algebraic proof. The rst step is to verify the
claim
when k = 1 or k = n 1. But
_
n
1
_
= n, and this is
1 + (n 1) =
_
n 1
0
_
+
_
n 1
1
_
=
_
n 1
n 1
_
+
_
n 1
n 2
_
.
Thus, the formula is veried in these cases. We now assume that 2 k
n 2. In this case, we start with
_
n1
k1
_
+
_
n1
k
_
and simplify:
_
n 1
k 1
_
+
_
n1
k
_
=
(n1)(n2)(nk+1)
(k1)!
+
(n1)(n2)(nk1)
k!
=
(n1)(n2)(nk)k+(n1)(n2)(nk+1)(nk)
k!
since k! = k (k 1)! so multiplying top and bottom of the rst fraction
by k puts the two fractions over the same denominator, k!. Note that the
factor (n 1)(n 2) (n k) is common to both terms in the numerator
of this last expression, hence it can be rewritten as
(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) (n k + 1) k + (n k)
k!
but this is
(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) (n k + 1)n
k!
which is the same as
n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) (n k + 1)
k!
and this is
_
n
k
_
.
The Lemma follows.
Pascals Triangle. We can display all the
_
n
k
_
, 0 k n in an array:
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
2
3 3
4 4
5 5 10 10
6

464 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
where the terms in the n
th
row are the binomial coecients
_
n
j
_
, with 0
j n. The rst and last terms in each row are 1s while the each interior
term is obtained by adding the two terms nearest it in the row above. This
array is called Pascals triangle.
There are any number of interesting and unexpected relations that hold
between the terms in Pascals triangle. Let us sum the terms in each of the
rows above. For the rst row we get 1, for the second 2, for the third 4, for
the fourth 8 and for the fth 16. This leads to the following conjecture:
Conjecture: The sum all the binomial coecients for a xed n,

n
i=0
_
n
i
_
=
2
n
.
Translation into colloquial language: What this statement says is
that if we take all of the terms in the n
th
row of Pascals triangle and add
them up then the sum will be 2
n
.
The conjecture is certainly true in the rst ve cases. This makes the
conjecture highly plausible. It is very unlikely that this could be an accident.
And we can check one or two further cases for further conrmation. So, for
n = 6 we have 1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 = 64
Thus, being convinced that the result is extremely likely to be true we
seach for a way of demonstrating its truth for all n. The lemma gives us a
way of writing
_
n
k
_
as a sum for 1 k n 1. Hence
EXP
n

i=0
_
n
i
_
= 1 +
_
n1

i=1
_
n 1
i
_
+
_
n 1
i 1
_
_
+ 1
The sum

n1
i=1
_
n1
i
_
expands as
_
n 1
1
_
+
_
n 1
2
_
+
_
n 1
3
_
+ +
_
n 1
n 1
_
and this is the sum for (n1) diminished by
_
n1
0
_
= 1. Likewise the second
sum

n1
i=1
_
n1
i1
_
expands as
_
n 1
0
_
+
_
n 1
1
_
+
_
n 1
2
_
+ +
_
n 1
n 2
_
and this is the sum for (n 1) diminished by
_
n1
n1
_
= 1.
Thus, if we combine one of the extra 1s in EXP with the rst sum
and the second sum with the second extra 1, we see that the sum for n is
exactly two times the sum for n 1. Consequently, since we know the sum
for n = 6 is 64 = 2
6
it follows that the sum for 7 is 2 2
6
= 2
7
, so the result
is true for seven. But applying our calculation of EXP again, the sum for 8
is 2 2
7
= 2
8
, and we see that if our conjecture is true for a positive integer
n then it is true for the next, n + 1.
Since we can arrive at any positive integer in this way, starting with one,
it follows that the conjecture is true for each positive integer, and hence true.
13. COMBINATIONS, PERMUTATIONS AND PASCALS TRIANGLE 465
Here is a possible teaching sequence for the proof above. The reality appears
to be that, even this far into the sequence, we cannot assume the audience
will have suciently internalized the processes of symbolic manipulation to
handle something that general. Consequently, it is recommended that each
line above be mirrored by the line written out in detail with a specic n, (5
is suggested since it is suciently large to be non-trivial, but not so large
that it would require an innordinate amount of time to write out).
Exercises:
(1) Show that
_
6
5
_
=
_
6
1
_
and both are equal to 6.
(2) Show that
_
n
n1
_
=
_
n
1
_
= n.
(3) Recall the last verse of the well-known song:
On the twelfth day of Christmas, my true love sent to me
Twelve drummers drumming,
eleven pipers piping,
ten lords a-leaping,
nine ladies dancing,
eight maids a-milking,
seven swans a-swimming,
six geese a-laying,
ve golden rings.
Four calling birds,
three French hens,
two turtle doves
and a partridge in a pear tree!
How many gifts in all?
(4) Recall the famous story about Gauss summing the integers between
one and 100. He thought of it this way. First he added the rst
and the last, getting 101. Then the second and second from last, 2
and 99, getting 101.
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................... . .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................ .............................................. ......................................................................................................................................... .............................................
1 + + + + + + 2 3

98 99 100
As a result, Gauss could calculate the sum as 101 50 = 5050.
There is an even easier way of seeing this. Write the sum out and
then write it in reverse order:
Summing each column gives 101, and so twice the sum is 100101.
More generally, show using the method above that the sum of the
466 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
rst n integers is
_
n+1
2
_
, or in symbols
n

1
i =
_
n + 1
2
_
.
(5) Note that the integers 1, 2, 3, . . . are the terms along the second
diagonal in Pascals triangle while the terms
_
n+1
2
_
are the terms
along the third diagonal. Use induction and the fact that
_
n
1
_
+
_
n
2
_
=
_
n+1
2
_
to give another proof that

n
j=1
_
j
1
_
=
_
n+1
2
_
.
Now let us look at the rst two terms along the third diagonal, 1 and
3. They sum to 4 which is the term to the right and below in the next line.
Similarly the rst three terms on the third diagonal 1, 3, 6 sum to 10 which
is the term to the right on the sixth line.
(1) Show that the sum of the rst ve terms on the third diagonal is
equal to
_
7
3
_
.
(2) Show that

n
j=2
_
j
2
_
=
_
n+1
3
_
for n 3 using induction.
All this leads to the extremely useful result which we give as the next exer-
cise.
(1) Show that

n
j=r
_
j
r
_
=
_
n+1
r+1
_
.
A very useful way of thinking about the binomial coecient
_
n
k
_
for k xed
while n varies is as polynomials of degree k in n where the coecients only
depend on k.
(1) This sequence of exercises relates the binomial coecients to poly-
nomials in n.
(a) Show that 2
_
n
2
_
= n(n 1) = n
2
n.
(b) Show that 6
_
n
3
_
= n(n 1)(n 2) = n
3
3n
2
+ 2n.
(c) Show that 24
_
n
4
_
= n(n1)(n2)(n3) = n
4
6n
3
+5n
2
6n.
(d) Show that k!
_
n
k
_
is a polynomial of degree k in n with integer
coecients and leading coecient equal to 1.
(2) Show that 2
_
n
2
_
+
_
n
1
_
= n
2
and use this, together with the result of
problem 4 to evalutate the sum

w
n=1
n
2
for w = 2, 3, . . . .
(3) Show that
_
2m+2
2
_
2
_
m+1
2
_
= (m+ 1)
2
(4) Use the results of problems 10 and 7 to show that the sum of the
successive odd integers 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + + 2m + 1 is equal to
(m+1)
2
for m any non-negative integer. Verify this result by direct
calculation for 2 m 4.
14. Problem Solving Applications of Binomial Coecients
We now give three sample applicatations of binomial coecients pre-
sented in a problem solving mode. The rst relates these coecients to
experimental and theoretical probability.
14. PROBLEM SOLVING APPLICATIONS OF BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS 467
The second is the binomial theorem presented by rst working out a
number of cases, observing that the coecients are the terms in Pascals
triangle, and then making and proving a conjecture.
The third example is a demonstration that the volume of a right circular
cone is
1
3
r
2
h. The key to this example is the ability to analyze the sum

m
1
i
2
that was developed in the problems above. Both of these examples
will be extremely challenging for the audience, but either one would be
suitable for an extended problem solving project.
Application to probability. We know that each time we toss a penny
there is an equal probability that it will land head up or tail up. Thus, if we
toss the penny twice we would expect that in about 1 out of four experiments
we would nd two heads, in 1 out of the four we would nd two tails, and in
the remaining two cases we would nd one head and one tail. Of course, it
would not be entirely likely that we would nd this exactly, but rather in a
large number of experiments with tossing the penny two times, the number
of times we found 2 heads would get quite close to
1
4
, while the number of
times that we obtained one head and one tail would be quite close to
1
2
.
More generally, if we toss the penny n times, and repeat this experiment
a large number of times, we would expect that the number of times we would
get k heads and n k tails would get close to
_
n
k
_
multiplied by the number
of trials.
On can do this experiment with actual pennies, but it is hard to arrange
fair tosses of n pennies simultaneously. It is somewhat easier to obtain a
table of random numbers and devise some reasonable scheme, for example,
the rst n coecients in the random number written in base 2, to test the
hypothesis above. This is a very good exercise for pre-service teachers. In
fact there are a number of current middle school texts that actually have
relatively small tables of random numbers included with exercises similar to
this.
Applications to polynomials Consider the polynomial in two variables
(x +y)
2
= (x +y)(x +y). Using the distributive law we have
(x +y)(x +y) = (x +y)x + (x +y)y
= x
2
+yx +xy +y
2
= x
2
+ 2xy +y
2
468 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
since xy = yx. Consider the polynomial (x + y)
3
= (x + y)
2
(x + y). Using
the distributive law and our last calculation we have
(x +y)
3
= (x +y)
2
(x +y)
= (x
2
+ 2xy +y
2
)(x +y)
= (x
2
+ 2xy +y
2
)x + (x
2
+ 2xy +y
2
)y
= x
3
+ 2xyx +y
2
x +x
2
y + 2xyy +y
3
= x
3
+ 2x
2
y +y
2
x +x
2
y + 2xy
2
+y
3
= x
3
+ 3x
2
y + 3xy
2
+y
3
since xyx = x
2
y. Notice that the coecients are exactly the binomial coef-
cients in these examples. Let us try one more example.
(x +y)
4
= (x +y)
3
(x +y)
= (x
3
+ 3x
2
y + 3xy
2
+y
3
)(x +y)
= (x
3
+ 3x
2
y + 3xy
2
+y
3
)x + (x
3
+ 3x
2
y + 3xy
2
+y
3
)y
= (x
4
+ 3x
2
yx + 3xy
2
x +y
3
x) + (x
3
y + 3x
2
y
2
+ 3xy
3
+y
4
)
= (x
4
+ 3x
3
y + 3x
2
y
2
+xy
3
) + (x
3
y + 3x
2
y
2
+ 3xy
3
+y
4
)
= x
4
+ 4x
3
y + 6x
2
y
2
+ 4xy
3
+y
4
The observation still holds. We are motivated to make a conjecture:
Conjecture: (x +y)
n
=

n
i=0
_
n
i
_
x
i
y
ni
.
Do we have any further evidence that the conjecture is true? In case
x = 1 and y = 0 then (x + y) = 1 and 1
n
= 1, but also the only term that
is non-zero in the sum for the conjecture is
_
n
0
_
x
n
= 1x
n
so the conjecture
is true in this case. By symmetry it is true when x = 0 and y = 1. What
about when x = 1 and y = 1? Then (x + y) = 2 and (x + y)
n
= 2
n
. But
since x
i
y
ni
= 1 1 = 1 the sum on the right hand side becomes
n

i=0
_
n
i
_
= 2
n
from our previous work. Thus the conjecture is true in the rst three cases
of n and for three values of the pair (x, y). It is very likely to be true.
14. PROBLEM SOLVING APPLICATIONS OF BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS 469
We are motivated to try to give a proof to the conjecture. Let us try
one more case.
(x +y)
5
= (x +y)
4
(x +y)
=
_
4

i=o
_
4
i
_
x
i
y
4i
_
(x +y)
=
_
4

i=0
_
4
i
_
x
i
y
4i
_
x +
_
4

i=0
_
4
i
_
x
i
y
4i
_
y
=
_
4

i=0
_
4
i
_
x
i
y
4i
x
_
+
_
4

i=0
_
4
i
_
x
i
y
4i
y
_
=
4

i=0
_
4
i
_
x
i+1
y
4i
+
4

i=0
_
4
i
_
x
i
y
4i+1
=
5

j=1
_
4
j 1
_
x
j
y
5j
+
4

j=0
_
4
i
_
x
j
y
5j
(In the rst sum on the last line we substituted j 1 everywhere that
i appeared, and since the original sum was for i between 0 and 4, the new
sum is for j between 1 and 5.)
6
Both sums above include 1 j 4, but the rst sum includes
_
4
0
_
x
5
=
1 x
5
and the second sum includes
_
4
0
_
y
5
= 1 y
5
, so we can write the sum
as
x
5
+
4

j=1
__
4
j 1
_
+
_
4
j
__
x
j
y
5j
+y
5
.
On the other hand, weve already seen that
_
5
j
_
=
_
4
j
_
+
_
4
j 1
_
so the sum above can now be rewritten in the form
(x +y)
5
=
5

i=0
_
5
i
_
x
i
y
5i
,
and the conjecture has been veried in one more case. But this verication
is more convincing in terms of showing the truth of the conjecture because
it gives us a way to connect the truth of the conjecture for the n
th
stage
with the truth for the (n + 1)
st
. The key is the formula that connects the
binomial coecients
_
n
k
_
with the binomial coecients
_
n+1
k
_
.
6
This level of detail is needed when presenting this material to pre-service teachers. They
will need to be able to supply it in the classroom, and, for a number of them, who are still not
comfortable with symbolic manipulation, it is necessary so that their diculties will be minimized.
470 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
We proceed as follows. Let us assume that the conjecture is true for n,
so we have
(x +y)
n
=
n

i=0
_
n
i
_
x
i
y
ni
.
Then
(x +y)
n+1
= (x +y)
n
(x +y)
=
_
n

i=0
_
n
i
_
x
i
y
ni
_
(x +y)
=
_
n
0
_
y
n+1
+
n

j=1
_
n
j
_
x
j
y
nj+1
+
n

j=1
_
n
j 1
_
x
j
y
n(j1))
+
_
n
0
_
x
n+1
=
_
n + 1
0
_
y
n+1
+
n

j=1
_
n + 1
j
_
x
j
y
n+1j
+
_
n + 1
n + 1
_
x
n+1
=
n+1

j=0
_
n + 1
j
_
x
j
y
n+1j
It follows that the truth of the conjecture for n implies its truth for n + 1,
and since we know the conjecture is true for 1 n 6 we know that it is
true for every n. We have veried the binomial formula.
Theorem 1. (Binomial Formula) The following expansion is valid
for every non-negative integer n:
(x +y)
n
=
n

i=0
_
n
i
_
x
i
y
ni
.
A second demonstration of the binomial theorem: The discussion
above is not the only way of demonstrating the binomial theorem. Here is
another way. Let us write down
(x +y)
n
= (x +y)(x +y) (x +y)(x +y)
. .
n times
When we expand out the right hand side we use the distributive rule and
obtain that each monomial in the expansion is obtained by picking one of
x, y from each of the n factors (x+y). Each monomial obtained in this way
has the form x
i
y
ni
where i of the choices were xs and the remaining ones
ys. It follows that the number of terms x
i
y
ni
that appear is exactly the
number of ways we can pick exactly i xs from the n (x+y) terms, and this
is
_
n
i
_
since order is not an issue here - we can assume the rst pick is from
the rst factor, the second from the second, and so on.
14. PROBLEM SOLVING APPLICATIONS OF BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS 471
This argument could be somewhat better than the rst in that it explains
the underlying reason that the binomial coecients appear and avoids the
detailed calculations that were necessary above. However, it is very sel-
dom that the rst argument that someone nds to prove a result like this
is conceptual. Typically, the conceptual proof comes only later and after
much thought. For this reason the rst proof that was presented was not
conceptual.
On the volume of a cone Suppose we have a right circular cone. How
does one show that the volume is
1
3
hA where A is the area of the base and
h is the height? (Since the cone is circular A = a
2
.)
We can embed the cone in a sequence of concentric right circular cylin-
ders,
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . ..................................................
.................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
Four cylinders containing the cone
each having height
1
n
h and circular cross-sections of areas
a
2
_
n j
n
_
2
......................................................................... ....................................................................... . ................................... .................................... . ...................................
..................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................
............................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .........................................................................................................
....................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ......................................................................
r
3
4
h
h
2
4
h
3
4
r
2
4
r
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
r
h
The radii of the cylinders
for j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
The volume of a right circular cylinder is hA, and in this case A =
a
2
_
nj
n
_
2
, so we obtain that the volume of the j
th
cylinder is
1
n
h a
2
_
n j
n
_
2
=
1
n
3
ha
2
(n j)
2
472 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
and the total volume of the stacked right circular cylinders is
a
2
h
n
3
n

s=1
s
2
.
Here, since n j runs from n to 1, we just reversed the order of summing
the volumes, starting with the volume of the smallest cylinder and nishing
with the volume of the greatest.
For each n this sum is visually greater than the volume of the right
circular cone. Of course, at this stage we have no rigorous denition of
the volume of such a gure, so the calculations we make will not actually
give the volume, but will give an extremely plausible explanation for the
volume formula. In fact, without a denition of volume and the subsequent
demonstration that this dened volume satises the properties that we will
be using here, there can be no determination of the volume of this cone. So
after we have completed our discussion we will have to discuss these missing
points.
Returning to the discussion of the volume of the right circular cone, we
need to evaluate the sum above. In order to do this we must determine

n
j=1
j
2
. We have already seen that j
2
= 2
_
j
2
_
+j, (third problem from the
end in the section Combinations, Permutations and Pascals Triangle), so
we have
n

j=1
j
2
= 2

n
j=1
_
j
2
_
+

n
j=1
j
= 2
_
n+1
3
_
+
_
n+1
2
_
as we have already seen in the previous exercises. Now,
2
_
n + 1
3
_
=
2(n+1)n(n1)
3!
=
n
3
n
3
while
_
n + 1
2
_
=
n
2
+n
2
and we get the following explicit determination of the containing volume:
a
2
h
n
3

_
n
3
3
+
n
2
2
+
n
6
_
= a
2
h
_
1
3
+
1
2n
+
1
6n
2
_
.
Assuming that a reasonable solid gure properly contained in a reasonable
solid gure has volume no more than that of the bigger gure gives that
Volume of right circular cone a
2
h
_
1
3
+
1
2n
+
1
6n
2
_
,
15. COMPOUND INTEREST 473
for every non-negative integer n. Since, as n gets very large, the last two
terms get as small as we want, the only way that all these relations can be
satised is if
Volume of right circular cone
a
2
h
3
.
We have bounded the volume by
a
2
h
3
.
But we can argue similarly that the concentric sequence of right circular
cylinders of radius a
n1
n
, a
n2
n
up to a
1
n
and height
h
n
t inside of
the right circular cone.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . ..................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
Three cylinders contained in the cone
This gives
a
2
h
n
3

n1

j=1
j
2
Area of right circular cone.
But this is the previous sum diminished by the volume of the largest right
circular cylinder,
a
2
h
n
3
n
2
=
a
2
h
n
, and we have
a
2
h
_
1
3

1
2n
+
1
6n
2
_
Volume of right circular cone,
Arguing a before we have that, under the assumption on the volume of
reasonable gures properly contained in a reasonable gure being less than
or equal to the volume of the containing gure we have
a
2
h
3
Volume of right circular cone.
Thus, under these two very reasonable assumptions the volume of a right
circular cone must be
a
2
h
3
since, we have shown that it is both
a
2
h
3
and

a
2
h
3
.
15. Compound interest
As a nal application we discuss various aspects of money management.
These are topics that seem to have disappeared from most K - 12 curriculums
currently. This is clearly a mistake. Students should be prepared to deal
474 8. DISCUSSION OF ISSUES IN THE ALGEBRA COURSE
with money issues and should be able to understand things like the amount
that it costs to max out credit cards and only pay minimum payments.
In seventh grade students can be introduced to compound interest and
should know that if r is the rate per period, n is the number of periods
and A is the initial amount, then the amount after n rate periods will be
(1+r)
n
A. Pre-service teachers can work this out for themselves by checking
what happens after 1 period, 2 periods, 3 periods, generalizing, and then
proving the result by induction.
The remainder of the discussion of compound interest should be part of
the material discussed in Algebra I and Algebra II. It can start by looking
at what happens when interest is compounded, but one adds a constant
amount B at the end of each interest period. Hence, after the rst period
there will be (1 +r)A+B. At the end of the second there will be
(1 +r)[(1 +r)A+B] +B = (1 +r)
2
A+ (1 + (1 +r))B.
At the end of the third period there will be
(1 +r)
3
A+ (1 + (1 +r) + (1 +r)
2
)B,
and applying induction, one arrives at the formula for the amount after n
periods as
(1 +r)
n+1
A+
n

0
(1 +r)
n
B = (1 +r)
n+1
A+
(1 +r)
n+1
1
r
B.
Using this formula one can determine things like the payments on a loan if
it is desired to pay it o in k equal payments. Thus in the formula above,
let B be negative, and suppose that one wants to pay o the initial amount
A in n payments. It follows that
(1 +r)
n+1
A
(1 +r)
n+1
1
r
B = 0
or
B =
r(1 +r)
n+1
(1 +r)
n+1
1
A.
Students can usefully practice with this formula using calculators.
There are many other types of things that can be done here, depending
on the time available. Among them are present value of money.
CHAPTER 9
Experiences in Teaching Math to Pre-Service and
In-Service Teachers
1. Comments on the need for mathematician involvement in
pre-service teacher training
Sol Friedberg
Urgent: A call for greater involvement of mathematicians in teacher
education
The purpose of this note is to alert mathematics faculty to an important
area which needs their talents: the teaching of mathematics to pre-service
K-8 teachers. We argue that such a contribution is of vital importance to
our country, and consistent with the aims of a wide array of mathematics
departments. Though some mathematics departments are already involved
in this area, a much greater involvement is needed.
Who is this audience of potential mathematics students? These are
the next generation of K-8 teachers. Following their university preparation,
these individuals will enter classrooms where they may teach for 40 to 50
years. In this role they will communicate their knowledge to and shape the
intellectual growth of the next generation of American students. Naturally
their own understanding and their own knowledge of mathematics as well as
their attitude towards it are of great importance to us, both as mathemati-
cians concerned with the next generation in our discipline and as educators
who will be asked to teach the graduates of these teachers.
No one description covers the study paths of all those planning to teach.
However, it is broadly true that prospective teachers typically receive a
Bachelors degree; sometimes this degree comes from a School of Education
within a four-year college or university. Elementary and middle school teach-
ers frequently major in Education, and some go on to obtain masters degrees
in areas such as Early Childhood Education and Secondary Education as
well.
All mathematicians would agree that we should teach the future high
school teachers who major (or minor) in mathematics. Indeed, mathematics
in the high school is typically taught by math specialists, and we would all
agree that they should have the rm disciplinary foundation which comes
from a strong undergraduate emphasis. However, the need to teach math-
ematics courses in mathematics departments for those planning to teach in
475
476 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
the lower grades is less apparent, and at the moment such students are much
less likely to be enrolled in mathematics courses. On the face of it this makes
sense. At the K-5 level, the mathematics is truly elementary, and one might
imagine that prospective teachers already know it when they enter college.
Certainly, everyone must know how to multiply two whole numbers, to di-
vide two positive fractions, and so on! Moreover, elementary school teachers
must teach many subjects besides mathematics; they must learn pedagogical
methods suitable for young children; they must be aware of learning disor-
ders; they must manage classrooms including students with developmental
and behavioral issues; they must use assessment tools and give feedback to
children and to their parents; they must be able to teach mathematics to
students with diverse needs and widely diering levels. At the 6-8 level the
situation is similarthough middle school teachers may teach mathematics
that is preparation for algebra and geometry, this mathematics is in level
still far below that of most college math classes.
The response of the community responsible for preparing pre-service
teachers has been to teach a series of courses concerned with the pedagogy
of mathematics. Prospective teachers learn about active and collaborative
learning, the use of manipulatives, various assessment tools, as well as mod-
els of childhood development and cognition. This suits such teachers well,
as these are topics of obvious use. However, this community has not widely
taught another series of coursescourses concerned with the mathematics
itself.
As noted above, one might expect that this is a good decision. After all,
multiplying whole numbers or dividing fractions is not college level math-
ematics. However, increasing evidence suggests that it is, crucially, wrong.
There are two issues here. First, there is the question as to whether or not
prospective teachers truly know the mathematics they will teach. In fact, a
prospective teacher may graduate and be licensed with large, documented,
gaps in their subject knowledge; indeed, this is widely accepted. Consider
what is required for teacher licensing. Mitchell and Barth report that In
some states, candidates can pass subject-matter exams by correctly answer-
ing as few as half the test items. Yet the harm done by a teacher who
misremembers the law of exponents and teaches the rule a
b+c
= a
b
+ a
c
cannot be exaggerated. Second, we must ask whether or not basic subject
knowledge of mathematics is sucient to teach mathematics well. Increas-
ingly, authorities such as Liping Ma have argued that to do an excellent job
in the classroom, teachers must know elementary mathematics at a much
more sophisticated level. For example, a teacher should know not simply
that one can multiply by ten by adding a zero but be able to explain
why this is true. A teacher should not simply know how to divide fractions,
but why the rule for this operation is true. More generally, a well-qualied
teacher should understand that mathematics is not a system of rules but a
system of thought, that the rules make sense and can be explained. If we are
1. THE NEED FOR MATHEMATICIAN INVOLVEMENT IN TEACHER TRAINING 477
to raise a generation of children who are prepared for an increasingly mathe-
matically sophisticated world, we must explain the meaning of mathematics
from the rst instant.
It is important to emphasize that the mathematics we are discussing goes
beyond high school mathematicsnot in terms of covering new ground such
as calculus, but in terms of covering elementary mathematics at an advanced
and more sophisticated level. As such it is suitable for study at the college
level. We are not discussing remediation, but college level material.
So far, we have argued that there is a body of mathematics which must
be taught to prospective teachers. But why should mathematics depart-
ments get involved in teaching it? There are two answers here. The rst
is that it is not apparent that the education community can do this job
by itself. The faculty in education schools are not always deeply knowl-
edgeable about mathematics content, particularly of the type we have been
discussing. Though such faculty may be expertly equipped to teach a ped-
agogy of math course, their professional eorts need not have gone to es-
tablishing sophisticated mathematics content knowledge. Of course, there
are some education faculty who have established such knowledge, but from
a nationwide perspective, there is still a serious gap.
The second answer is that we, the mathematics community, can do this
job. We can develop and teach the courses which will serve the needs of
these new teachers, and of the country. We have the deep mathematical
knowledge, we have the broad perspective, we have the disciplinary enthu-
siasm which we wish to pass on to these teachers and through them to their
students.
However, we must sound a note of realism. We are vitally needed, and we
can do this job. But we must do it well. We must speak to prospective teach-
ers in their own language, delivering knowledge whose classroom-usefulness
is immediately apparent. We must explain to them what elementary math-
ematics is truly important and why it is, with great respect for their aspi-
rations and great encouragement as they struggle to master it. We must
model excellent pedagogy in our own teaching, putting our best teachers in
these classes. We must work with students who are sometimes very afraid
of mathematics, and work with them with patience and concern as well as
enthusiasm. We must succeed at these courses, both as mathematicians and
as educators. For ultimately the changes proposed here can only be deemed
successful if in future years they result in greater student achievement as
new prospective teachers enter their profession. We must not lose sight of
this goal.
It is one thing to talk of success, and another to achieve it. This success
will require learning from successful models, gaining experience in working
with teacher candidates, and climbing the learning curve for this kind of
teaching, individually and collectively. Moreover, mathematics departments
can successfully take on these responsibilities only with support. They will
need internal resources so that they can devote enough faculty to this. They
478 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
will need external support to develop and disseminate successful models.
They will need to learn from practicing teachers. These resources are start-
ing to become available. We must embrace our new role and collectively
work to obtain them in full.
In the next years, our nation will replenish its supply of classroom teach-
ers. These teachers will play a vital role in determining whether or not our
nation will be lled with citizens able to use mathematics in their jobs and
lives, or will be lled with individuals without such skills. By involving our-
selves with the education of these future teachers, mathematics departments
nationwide can make a profound dierence in the future of this country. We
must do so at once.
2. Some points to consider in teaching pre-service elementary
teachers
H. Wu
I have never taught pre-service elementary teachers, but I have done
some in-service professional development for them. Assuming that there is
a common ground for both kinds of professional development, I will set down
some observations.
The undergraduate teaching experience of most mathematicians consists
roughly of two kinds. First, they teach what might be called standard
mathematics to the science-engineering oriented students and mathematics
majors who are, relatively speaking, technically competent. These students
get the regular diet of mathematics calculus, discrete mathematics, linear
algebra, introductory analysis, etc. Mathematicians also teach a diluted
version of standard mathematics, such as calculus for the social sciences
or mathematics for poets to students in the humanities. This kind of
mathematics tends to be a little informal and qualitative, but informal and
qualitative mathematics is all that this particular audience needs for their
future work and, on the whole, is willing to tolerate.
Teaching pre-service elementary teachers, however, is something that
lies outside this range of pedagogical experiences. In this instance, one must
teach serious mathematics to an audience that may have neither the interest
nor the training for it, and yet must absolutely master it. By serious
mathematics, I mean mathematics that puts a heavy emphasis on precision,
skills, conceptual development and reasoning, regardless of how elementary
the material may be. The other chapters in this volume make it unnecessary
for me to explain why elementary teachers must achieve a mastery of serious
mathematics. What may have been left unsaid is in what way this kind of
teaching is dicult. I will try to give an indication in the following.
School mathematics education (reform or traditional, or anything in be-
tween) being what it is, most pre-service elementary teachers are probably
survivors of thirteen or more years of mis-education in mathematics. It
2. POINTS TO CONSIDER IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING 479
should not be surprising, therefore, that very few of them would think of
mathematics as a coherent, logical ow of ideas. Instead, they have been
conditioned to believe that mathematics is a haphazard collection of facts
to be passively tolerated and at times memorized, with the help of manipu-
latives if necessary. It has never occurred to them that every standard topic
in the curriculum is there for a reason, that every statement has a logical
explanation, and that there is a well-dened structure in the unfolding of
the ideas. Unless we can change their attitude towards mathematics during
the pre-service courses, they will impose the same negative outlook on their
own students. Instructors of pre-service courses therefore have the unen-
viable task of changing, in the span of two or three semesters, the habits
of mind of pre-service teachers formed over a period of more than thirteen
years. They must convince these pre-service teachers to always ask why, not
only why a statement deserves to be learned, but also why it is true. The
instructors chance of success is not high, but the only hope they have is to
constantly remind teachers of the need to do so and, of course, to always
supply the reasoning.
One way to justify the teaching of any topic is to apply it to concrete
problems within or outside mathematics. When teachers see how a new
concept or a new technique leads to solutions of problems which were inac-
cessible up to that point, they understand the importance of the new idea.
For this reason, a central ingredient of pre-service professional development
has to be the constant posing (and solving) of problems.
Teaching prospective teachers how to explain (i.e., prove) why something
is true is far more dicult, and one must approach this task with plenty of
patience and perseverance. Any persistent attempt to do so tends to provoke
resistance, but that should not be cause for us to try less hard. Nevertheless,
we should remind ourselves that we are often less than successful in teaching
regular mathematics majors how to prove theorems, so the diculty with
prospective teachers is no more than par for the course.
The rst major hurdle in teaching proofs to teachers, at least in my
experience, is to convince them that denitions in mathematics must be
taken seriously. To mathematicians, precise denitions are the bedrock on
which proofs rest, but since school mathematics rarely gives any proofs,
prospective teachers have no reason to believe that denitions matter. For
example, one can emphasize all one wants about the importance of the
denition of the remainder in the division-with-reminder (division algorithm
in mathematical language), but after having used the remainder all through
K12 with nothing more than an intuitive idea of what is left over, rare
is the teacher who can remember to use the dening property of r as the
number satisfying 0 r < b (b being the divisor) to explain the long division
algorithm.
480 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
The lack of appreciation for precise denitions goes deep in the culture
of school mathematics. The absence of precise denitions of important con-
cepts such as fractions, decimals, and ratios has accounted for severe di-
culties with the teaching of these concepts. For example, many fth graders
consider a fraction to be a piece of pie that you eat ([Niemi]). Many
textbooks dene a decimal as a number with a decimal point, but what a
decimal point is of course goes unexplained. And a ratio is a quotient of
two numbers, with both quotient and number left undened. Certainly
getting teachers to develop a healthy respect for denitions should be the
rst step in turning school mathematics education around. Even when one
makes the eort to teach prospective teachers how to explain things, there
is an additional diculty that awaits the instructor: because logical argu-
ments are not easily digested by non-mathematicians, the instructor must
proceed very slowly in teaching logical arguments to prospective teachers.
It was mentioned earlier that the teaching experience of the average math-
ematician is such that, if he or she gets to teach a proof, it would be for
an audience who is relatively speaking mathematically sophisticated. On
the other hand, prospective elementary teachers tend not to be among the
mathematically sophisticated
1
. So how does one go about explaining a del-
icate, or even a not-so-delicate piece of reasoning to this audience? Take
nothing for granted, and use plenty of concrete examples. Compare Theme
#2 in Burmesters Perspective in [Burmester-Wu].
Let me illustrate this point by recounting two of my own learning ex-
periences. Once I tried to explain that the basic rigid motions of the plane
(reections, rotations and translations) preserve distance. So I began by
dening the distance between two points as the length of the line segment
joining them. I then made a passing remark that the so-called triangle in-
equality about the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle exceeding
the length of the third is translated into this terminology as
dist(A, B) dist(A, C) + dist(C, B)
for any three points A, B, and C. Trusting that this fact was too obvious
to merit any comment, I went on to explain the signicance of the distance-
preserving property and gave no more thoughts to this inequality. It was
only later that I found out from my sta that the teachers didnt understand
at all what I said about this inequality until they were given three Cuisinaire
rods, one longer than the other two combined, and veried to their own sat-
isfaction that, indeed, they could not form a triangle using such a collection
of rods. Another time I tried to explain why, under a dilation of ratio r, the
area of a region changes by r
2
. I had earlier given the intuitive denition
1
And for a good reason too. Mathematics is only a small part of their professional life, as
they must also teach reading, science, and social studies, not to mention their need to be daytime
parents to many of their charges as well. One should also add, perhaps unnecessarily, that this
generic statement about elementary teachers mathematical sophistication has many delightful
exceptions.
2. POINTS TO CONSIDER IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING 481
that the area of a region is the limit of the areas of an exhausting sequence
of polygons. So starting with a region R, I took an approximating polygon
P
n
. If the dilation is D, then it seemed to me straightforward that D(P
n
) is
another polygon that is near D(R) in some intuitive sense. I thought what
needed explaining was why, in spite of the ratio of dilation r, D(P
n
) would
still get as close to D(R) as we like, provided P
n
does exhaust R as n gets
larger and larger. Then it dawned on me that the teachers were not getting
it at all. I stopped the lecture and asked them to do a simple activity: draw
a small circle with an arbitrary inscribed 10-gon; then x a dilation of ratio
3 and map the circle and the 10-gon separately to see what each becomes.
They could see that the dilated polygon did seem to be quite close to the
dilated circle. Then I asked them to imagine the 10-gon changing to a 20-
gon or 100-gon, or even a 1000-gon. After that, they seemed to get a much
better feel of the situation and the lecture could continue.
Teaching teachers makes one aware that certain things that seem obvi-
ous to those who do mathematics for a living can be quite mysterious to
outsiders.
Finally, if my own personal experience is a valid guide, a mathematician
cannot teach prospective elementary teachers very eectively without di-
rect access to the advice of accomplished working elementary teachers. (Cf.
[Burmester-Wu].) Successful pre-service professional development in math-
ematics is high quality mathematics instruction rooted in the reality of the
classroom. If the mathematics taught is out of touch with what takes place
in a school classroom, then it would not benet prospective teachers no mat-
ter how good it is, mathematically. The critical input of classroom teachers
therefore keeps the mathematics honest and relevant, and furnishes insight
on what students usually dont get. My guess is that, in the past, the
failure of pre-service professional development (in mathematics) was more
likely than not the result of a lack of mathematical substance. If, however,
it comes to pass that an increasing number of competent mathematicians
teach pre-service courses and better textbooks for pre-service teachers are
written as we certainly hope will be the case, then gaining access to the
counsel of working teachers will be the limiting factor in achieving good
professional development. References
(1) Mary Burmester and H. Wu, Some lessons from California,
(2) http://math.berkeley.edu/wu/
(3) D. Niemi, Assessing conceptual understanding in mathematics: rep-
resentations, problem solutions, justications, and explanations.
Journal of Educational Research, 89 (1996), 351-63.
Department of Mathematics, #3840
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3840
482 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
3. A Mathematicians Thoughts on Teacher In-service Learning
Kristin Umland
Two summers ago I was asked by a colleague to teach an intensive three-
week math course for teachers during a summer institute. Little did I know
that this experience would alter the whole direction my career in mathe-
matics would take. Having returned to my home state after graduate school
with the intention of remaining in New Mexico permanently, I had been
teaching at the University of New Mexico for ve years and had taught the
full range of courses from remedial algebra to graduate measure theory, but
here was my rst chance to work with teachers. The teachers enthusiasm
for mathematics and their students learning, their willingness to try new
things, and their energy and focus made the institute as rewarding as any
teaching experience I had had. I came back the next summer and the next,
nding it to be just as enjoyable each time. When a position in mathemat-
ics education came available in the math department at UNM, I jumped
at the chance and have now nished one year as an ocial convert from
mathematics to mathematics education.
Three summers working with teachers has been a learning experience.
My primary role in these institutes has been as a content provider, but
each summer I have gotten more and more interested in the bigger picture
of teacher learning. I think there are lot of lessons that we learned in our
rst three years, and a lot of questions that still need to be addressed. They
fall into two main categories: content and assessment. Id like to address
each in turn.
Content
The rst summer I wasnt sure what content would be appropriate as
we had a mixed group of 6-12th grade teachers and not much sense of their
previous background. I decided to choose topics from discrete mathematics
based partly on the recommendation of a colleague in math-ed and partly on
the fact that I had a number of math-ed majors in the discrete mathematics
courses I had taught several years earlier. The teachers enjoyed the material
and said that they learned a lot, but several commented that they werent
convinced they would be able to use the new mathematics they learned in
their own classrooms, and I thought that was a very salient point. As a
result, the second year we decided to focus on algebra.
This turned out to be a very good idea. While many of the teachers teach
algebra, quite a number teach it by keeping just ahead of the students in
the algebra textbook. Others were much stronger mathematically, but still
beneted from a more global perspective on algebra, especially as it related
to the topics they themselves teach. In particular, while many teachers were
very good at working with linear and quadratic functions, most didnt see
them as tting into the larger category of polynomial functions or what
the important features of objects in that broader category might be.
3. A MATHEMATICIANS THOUGHTS ON TEACHER IN-SERVICE LEARNING 483
The third summer we focused on geometry. The interesting thing about
working on geometry was that it was clear that teachers who teach geometry
know it quite well, and teachers who dont teach it know very little. Thus,
whatever their earlier learning experiences in geometry might have been,
they were insucient or too remote to help them relate important topics
in geometry to the material in the courses they do teach. The other very
notable issue is that almost none of them felt comfortable with writing
proofs even when they could follow a proof (which quite a few also had
trouble with). Im not referring to abstract proofs in abstract topics, but
carefully and clearly reasoned arguments for why a straightforward high
school geometry fact might be true. Since the work I did built up to the
role of proof in mathematics, by the time I had collected and reviewed the
proofs that they had written, the institute was over. As a result, I was
not able to go back and work with them further on reading, writing, and
understanding mathematical arguments and mathematical reasoning. While
they seemed to appreciate my attempts to help them understand the why
in the mathematics that they teach, Im not convinced they left in a better
position to help explain the why to their own students. Which brings us
naturally to assessment.
Assessment
I certainly think we are on the right track in our institute by focusing
on the deeper mathematics that underlies the K-12 mathematics curriculum
and helping the teachers see the connections of what we do at the institute
to what they do in their own classrooms. However, I dont know if any of
the work I have done with the teachers has made a lasting change in how
they understand mathematics, and more importantly, how well their stu-
dents understand mathematics. Beyond my personal observations of change
(which are subjective and therefore suspect) or the positive feedback they
give us at the end of the institutes (which couldnt have anything to do with
the generous stipend and hundreds of dollars worth of teaching materials,
could it?), how do we know that what we have done has had a real impact
on student learning? How do we know that we have made an impact on the
knowledge that teachers need to teach mathematics?
Obviously, without directly pursing the answers to these questions, we
cant know. What I now realize is that despite everyones warm and fuzzy
feelings about the work we have done, it is possible we havent improved
what we sought to improve, namely the content knowledge that teachers
need to teach eectively, because we have not assessed this. Furthermore,
even if we have been successful, we are not going to improve student learning
on a global scale because we cant demonstrate our success to others. In
order to provide opportunities for all students to learn as much mathematics
as they are able, we need a systematic approach, and we need reproducible
results. This can only happen when assessment plays a major role in our
work.
Summary
484 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
What is needed is a carefully crafted system of teacher education that
begins in the K-12 mathematics experience and continues all the way to
on-going, well-designed, appropriately focused in-service professional devel-
opment. In order to create such a system, we need to determine what content
is most appropriate for teachers to study, and we need to assess how well they
are learning it in their educational experiences. Studying calculus in college
doesnt seem to guarantee a deep understanding of polynomial functions,
and understanding polynomial functions doesnt necessarily guarantee that
you can help students to learn about them. What we need is to identify con-
tent that allows teachers to return to their classroom and positively impact
student learning in the core areas of mathematics. Thus, we need to develop
assessments of teacher knowledge that correlates to student achievement as
well as the appropriate content that develops this teacher knowledge. The
two issues of content and assessment cannot be separated.
4. Comments on the Issues of Pre-Service Teachers
Kathi King
(1) Universities must create communities of educators and support them
throughout their careers by providing professional development and
by sharing the results of quality research to improve classroom prac-
tices.
(2) Pre-service teachers must become procient in content. (Standard-
ize certication at three levels: K-6, 7-8, 9-12)
(3) Pre-service teachers must develop a continuum of knowledge marked
by precise language.
(4) Pre-service teachers must become procient in using statistics in
order to interpret data and inform instruction.
(5) Pre-service teachers must unmask math phobia.
(6) Pre-service teachers must be made aware of the current state of
aairs in mathematics education.
(7) Promote Math (and Science) Specialists in every public school by
oering specialized degrees.
1. In the process of teacher training, it would be wise to focus on the fact
that we are training future professionals and that this process is time inten-
sive. The sink or swim strategy of the past can no longer be tolerated. The
transfer of knowledge and pedagogical expertise from the mathematician,
mathematics educator and experienced veteran to the pre-service teacher
cannot be undervalued by rushing through large amounts of information
and then severing all ties. The apprenticeship must be a process character-
ized by careful nurturing, hard work and establishing priorities. In addition,
Universities must strive to create a culture in which educators continue to
receive professional development and support throughout their careers. One
of the goals of educational research must be to improve the practices of the
classroom teacher, not in theory but in practice. Modeling problem solving
4. COMMENTS ON THE ISSUES OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS 485
strategies, doing problems together and sharing resources are all ways to
build forums.
2. More than any other aspect of teacher training, content must receive
rst priority, even to the point of proposing National Standardized subject
tests for all K-8 teachers. We can no longer assume that a college diploma
signies mastery of content. Due to the fact that Algebra is now started as
early as the seventh grade, certication must change as well, namely K-6, 7-
8, and 9-12 certication. The most consistent, content related malady, which
I have observed, is that a new teacher sees curriculum in small disjoint pieces
and is unable to see content as a continuum. If we must remedy anything, it
is this. As a result of not having developed a larger integrated perspective,
the new teacher is not autonomous and relies too heavily on textbooks. One
of the consistent responses on Presidential Award winner surveys is that the
winners are teachers who dont use a single textbook, but draw from many
resources. Novice teachers often dont recognize supercial curriculum and
the practice of low-level skills resulting in shallow mathematics, and lack the
condence or resources to develop alternatives. It is possible to ll a room
with mathematics at any level. Tables, graphs, charts, models, activities,
mathematical terms, numbers, problems of the day or problems of the week;
the love and respect of mathematics should be shamelessly promoted, and
this will only happen when teachers are condent and experienced. This
condence is built by doing a lot of mathematics at the pre-service level
under the guidance of mathematicians and math educators. Id like to see
the creation of a list of tough questions, like why do we use a reciprocal when
we multiply fractions, whats the dierence between 8.33 and 8.33 , why
is the area of a circle r
2
, which has more, the irrational numbers or the
rational numbers.
3. The example of using R for remainder is an excellent illustration of my
point. When I asked several elementary teachers in my district whether it
was important to keep the R in long division, most of them had absolutely
no rationale other than its the way the textbook teaches it, or that the
younger children hadnt learned fractions or decimals yet. When I threw the
question out to mathematicians, the response was clear, rich and consistent.
The clarity lay in seeing the whole picture. This is what we must seek to
transmit to pre-service teachers.
Teachers of mathematics at any level, K-8 must be procient and must
be able to make informed decisions regarding content. Pre-service teachers
must be able to develop the skill of engaging students in mathematics so as
to uncover the beauty of this complex body of knowledge. Solving dicult
math problems brings fulllment and develops autonomy, like few other
subjects can. Pre-service teachers must be convinced that hard work is
key to success in mathematics and that it is a good thing, not something
which is unpopular and to be avoided. Repetition and spiraling are not bad
strategies in math education. Since we cant throw out the entire paradigm
of the classroom at this time, teachers must realize that the day to day,
486 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
lifetime struggle to educate oneself is inconsistent with the quick and easy,
self gratifying lifestyle of many children. It must be made clear from the
start that education is not a form of entertainment for a passive audience
on cushy couches. Mathematics is hard work, the higher you go the harder
it gets. Theres no shame in this and there are personal rewards for those
who persevere.
I think an excellent exercise would be to have pre-service teachers exam-
ine standardized assessments as well as textbooks. In this way, they would
have to sculpt their own informed opinions about what is most important
and how the sequence of topics should be developed into a continuum clearly
dening where theyve come from and where theyre going. They must de-
velop the condence to be critical of textbooks and math programs in order
to bring good solid, engaging mathematics to their students. They must be
alerted to that ne line between developing sucient skills in computation
and developing skills in problem solving. Pre-service teachers must be in-
volved in solving word problems and develop strategies which can be used
to break down these problems. They must develop a repertoire of problem
solving skills. Pre-service teachers must learn by example to meet dicult
material head on and not use the strategy of avoiding anything that looks
hard.
4. Assessment has become an increasingly important aspect of teach-
ing, because of a growing dependence on computer technology and state
and federal requirements. Pre-service teachers need to receive training with
regard to using spreadsheets, statistical reports, validity, reliability, rubrics,
scoring, and data management issues. In the past, standardized test results
were perceived as for the parents. Now educators must be able to read sta-
tistical information in order to inform instruction and develop remediation
and intervention programs. Its expensive to administer tests such as NAEP,
STAR, TIMMS and various State Tests. Ironically, everyone assumes that
educators are using the results when oftentimes the results are piled high
on an administrators desk somewhere or on transcripts which no one has
time to access. Parents are now beginning to rely on classroom teachers to
interpret standardized test results.
I believe that as undergraduates, there is a limit to what pre-service
teachers can absorb. I think it would be a wise strategy for NSF to see a
K-8 teacher as a long-term investment. The state of aairs right now is that
school districts are paying large amounts of money to publishing companies
to do their professional development. Teachers come back from these sum-
mer workshops, excited and empowered. Too often it isnt the mathematics
that has been the energizer. Id like to see this professional development
(both dollars and expertise) stay within the educational community. Id like
to see NSF set up regional professional development summer institutes, run
by University Professors and not publishing companies using veteran public
school teachers as their messengers.
4. COMMENTS ON THE ISSUES OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS 487
Let me create a hypothetical situation. A young teacher receives train-
ing from Key Curriculum on the use of Geometer Sketchpad. The teacher
buys a book of labs. Too often, the teacher will look into the resource at the
last minute, pick out something related to what he/she is doing and watch
happily as the students occupy themselves. There is no large picture, no clo-
sure, just a resource which seems to occupy students on a regular basis with
no great eort on the part of the teacher. An added bonus is that the teacher
will create an illusion that the students are engaged and, even better, using
technology. Superintendents and principals validate expenditures, parents
and taxpayers feel like their children are being prepared for the work place.
Yet in reality, unless the teacher really understands the whole picture and
is working toward a more global perspective, there is never any closure or
connection. Its back to an endless cycle of unrelated fragments of informa-
tion. If the professional development came from a University Mathematics
Professor, the goal would not be to sell merchandise or to pacify students, it
would be to craft lessons in an attempt to cover a large body of information
in a rich and coherent fashion.
Moving onto another issue in teacher training, Id like to see pre-service
teachers evaluated in order to identify strengths and weaknesses in content
and in teaching style. Continuous self-evaluation is essential in order to im-
prove and grow as a professional. Videotaping is an excellent method, which
unfortunately is not used often enough. How well a prospective teacher uses
the language of mathematics is extremely important. The higher you go on
the mathematical instructor chain, the more noticeable it becomes. Clear
precise language is often a sign of a teacher who has command of the sub-
ject. The logical and sequential development of topics is another skill, which
should be developed in teachers who dont come by it naturally.
5. A very sensitive issue, which should be uncovered at the pre-service
level, is the masking of confusion and lack of understanding. There is no
shame in not being able to solve a problem spontaneously. The shame is
in not pursuing the problem and triumphing over it. Oftentimes, students
who claim to understand something are too embarrassed to admit that they
dont. Quite often, this lack of understanding is because the student has
not been given enough processing time. For whatever reason, this is a very
sensitive and destructive aspect of teaching mathematics to young children.
All children can learn mathematics and they must be continually reminded
of this, so as to empower them. A teacher must learn to create a supportive
and trusting environment so that students feel comfortable asking questions
and take ownership for their learning. There should be no complacency in
saying Im not good at math.
6. Pre-service teachers should be made aware of the current situation
in mathematics curriculum. Discussions of the math wars and fuzzy math
should be facilitated so that novice teachers are ready to take on the parents,
colleagues and State Departments of Education. This is not a small matter
at present. There should be understanding in reference to Traditional vs.
488 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
Progressive math approaches. Pre-service teachers should be exposed to
programs like Singapore Math or Saxon mathematics whereby parents are
able to supplement classroom learning. There are a plethora of websites
and Internet sites which can be used to supplement K-8 math education.
Every pre-service teacher should take time to investigate whats out there.
Teachers should be exposed to the technology which exists to investigate
real world data, particularly in grades 6-8. They should also be made aware
of the grant writing process and the benets of pursuing these resources.
At present there is a tremendous push to form Vertical Teams of mathe-
matics teachers, K-12, in order to establish a clear continuum in curriculum
augmented by assessments which inform instruction. The emphasis on stan-
dards based learning has created this need. Members of these teams must
be aware of the development of mathematics from the early stages where
numbers are introduced, to the nal stages of Algebra thru Calculus. Pre-
service teachers must be aware of their responsibility to continue to educate
themselves and participate in the K-12 continuum.
7. In conclusion, we must insist that students and teachers are work-
ing hard on Mathematics, not the appearance of mathematics. Pre-service
teachers must receive sucient instruction in mathematics content and they
must be committed to spending at least one hour per day on mathemat-
ics instruction if all children are to become procient in mathematics in the
United States. President Bushs NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT has given
us cause to change the status quo, let us work tirelessly to take advantage of
this window of opportunity. One way we might do this is to insist on the cre-
ation of Math (and Science) Specialists in every public school. Universities
must oer specialized diplomas signifying greater prociency in mathemat-
ics. Masters Degrees in Elementary Education specializing in Mathematics
might be another way to accomplish this.
Raising the mathematics prociency of all Americans is an attainable
goal. When you look across the United States you can nd pockets of
success, so we know the solution is within our reach. We believe that content
and pre-service teacher education is the place to start. The next challenge
will be communication and coordination of resources.
5. Mathematics for elementary teachers: Explaining why in
ways that travel into the school classroom
Sybilla Beckmann
My work in teacher education has been mainly with prospective teach-
ers. I have developed three mathematics content courses for prospective
elementary teachers at the University of Georgia and am writing a book for
such courses. The preliminary edition of the book, Mathematics for Ele-
mentary Teachers, is published by Addison-Wesley. The rst edition is still
under development.
5. EXPLAINING WHY IN WAYS THAT TRAVEL INTO THE CLASSROOM 489
The focus of the mathematics content courses I have developed is on
explaining why the standard procedures and formulas of elementary math-
ematics are valid, why non-standard solution methods can also be mathe-
matically correct, and why some seemingly plausible ways of reasoning can
be incorrect. For example, why does it make sense that we multiply frac-
tions by multiplying the numerators and multiplying the denominators, yet
we dont add fractions by adding the numerators and adding the denomi-
nators? Why are the longhand multiplication and division procedures valid
ways to multiply and divide? Why do we put the decimal point where we do
when we multiply and divide decimals? Why cant we determine the area of
a region from its perimeter? And yet we can say something about the area
of a region if we know its perimeter. Why do we add the lengths of all four
sides of a rectangle to calculate the rectangles perimeter and yet we only
multiply the lengths of two of the sides to calculate the area?
Such questions can be addressed in courses with rather dierent ap-
proaches. My approach is to teach mathematical reasoning that the prospec-
tive teachers will be able to adapt to their own teaching. We want our
courses to travel into the classroom rather than be left behind in college.
But our courses are mathematics content courses: the focus is on mathe-
matics and on correct mathematical reasoning.
Consider explaining why it makes sense to add and multiply fractions
the way we do. In an abstract algebra course, we explain fraction addition
and multiplication by dening these operations, proving that they agree with
addition and multiplication of integers, and proving that the ring (and eld)
axioms hold. As satisfying as this explanation is for mathematicians, it is
far removed from what we would want to teach 4th graders. In elementary
school, mathematics must be tied closely to concrete situations and children
must learn that mathematical procedures t with common sense reasoning
about these situations. So we teach our prospective elementary teachers to
explain fraction addition by discussing how to combine parts of pies. We
explain why
2
3

4
5
=
24
35
by drawing pictures to show that if you take
2
3
of
4
5
of an object, then you have 2 4 pieces of the object when it has been
divided into 3 5 equal pieces.
In addition to explaining why the standard procedures and formulas
of elementary school mathematics are valid, our prospective teachers also
analyze hypothetical and actual student work, some correct, some incorrect.
There are probably many children who have turned away from mathematics
after nding a clever way to solve a problem only to be told that that is not
the way we do things and is therefore incorrect. We want our teachers to
be prepared to take childrens mathematical thinking seriously and to build
upon their thinking. For example, if a child solves 6998 7 by noticing
that 7000 7 = 1000, and therefore reasoning that 6993 7 = 999, so that
6998 7 = 999, remainder 5, the teacher should be able to recognize that
this is correct mathematical reasoning even though the child has not used
490 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
the standard longhand division procedure. Even if a childs work is not
completely correct, for example if a child multiplies 2
1
2
4
1
2
by multiplying
2 4 and adding
1
2

1
2
, the teacher should be able to recognize the error
and know how to modify the childs work to make it correct.
We also ask our prospective teachers to analyze hypothetical or actual
student work by writing equations that correspond to a mental solution
method to a problem. For example, we can mentally calculate 19 30 by
calculating 20 30 and taking away 30. Our teachers learn to write a cor-
responding string of equations:
19 30 = (20 1) 30
= 20 30 1 30
= 600 30
= 570.
They also learn to draw a rectangle and use it to explain why the solution
method makes sense. We emphasize relating explanations given in words
to explanations that use equations and explanations that use pictures. By
writing equations that go along with verbal descriptions, teachers learn that
the manipulations in mental math are the very algebraic manipulations their
students will study in middle and high school.
I have used some of the problems and activities that I have developed for
prospective teachers with in-service teachers. The teachers have especially
appreciated learning about solving problems with the aid of pictures and
relating picture solutions to solutions with equations. A number of teachers
also commented favorably on learning about dierent solution methods to
problems. To date, all my in-service work has been with groups of teachers
from all grades K-5. With such groups of teachers, I have emphasized think-
ing about the progression of topics throughout the elementary grades and
just beyond. The teachers have said they found these discussions worth-
while. But I believe that many teachers of grades 4 and 5 would benet
from more detailed discussions about the mathematics they teach and the
mathematics their students will learn in middle school than it is possible to
provide when working with a group of teachers who teach all grades from
K-5. I am therefore especially interested in in-service work with teachers in
grades 4 and 5, who teach mathematics content which can be quite subtle,
and who must help to prepare their students for algebra in middle school.
6. Teaching Math for elementary Ed majors
Paul Wenston
After 26 years in the UGA mathematics department with teaching fo-
cused on Calculus, Numerical Analysis (my research area), and Mathemati-
cal Modeling, I taught my rst math course for Elementary School teachers
the summer of 2000. The course was Math 7001-Arithmetic and Problem
Solving and the class was a small cohort (7) of in-service elementary school
teachers. These students were dierent and an interesting change from the
6. TEACHING MATH FOR ELEMENTARY ED MAJORS 491
undergraduates that I had been teaching for the last 26 years. There were
two kindergarten teachers, two 2
nd
grade teachers, two 3
rd
and 4
th
grade
teachers, and one middle school teacher who was planing to switch to el-
ementary school. The average age of this cohort was around 40 with the
oldest my age at the time, 52. The class was part of a new masters degree
program for elementary school teachers and met o campus in a middle
school located in a suburban Atlanta county. The main reason I wound up
teaching this course was that I was the sole mathematics faculty living in
this county. I really had no idea what to expect of these students. These
students were energetic in this and the follow-up course, Math 7002- Ge-
ometry and Problem Solving, especially given that the rst course was one
of two that they took during a 4-week summer session and the second met
once a week after their school day during the fall semester. These students
were not docile. If they did not understand, or if they felt that I was going
too fast, they let me know immediately. While all of them had experience
teaching mathematics to elementary students, and were very acquainted
with manipulatives, they were somewhat of a mathematical blank slate and
were receptive to new extensions and interpretations of the mathematics
they had been teaching.
Since teaching the two courses for in-service elementary teachers I have
taught 7 courses (5001, 5002, 5003) to undergraduate Elementary Ed ma-
jors, 1 course (5001) to undergraduate Special Ed majors, and 3 courses
(7020,7035) to a group of in-service middle school math teachers. About
the third time I taught one of these courses, I rst joked that I really dont
like children. While I always enjoy the rise that I get out of my classes
when I deliver this joke, there is a more serious point. As a mathemati-
cian my role is not to teach how to teach children. While there are many
times in class, and in the text, where we analyze typical mistakes made
by elementary school students, my role is to increase the mathematics con-
tent knowledge and perspective of my students. Hopefully, this increased
mathematical background will positively inform the mathematics teaching
judgments that my students make in the future.
I like to think of these courses as delivering a sophisticated approach to
elementary mathematics, as opposed to an elementary approach to sophisti-
cated mathematics. Instead of a supercial look at the eld axioms that one
would see in a modern algebra course, the course is devoted to developing
written, pictorial, and physical models of elementary school mathematics
topics. For example a + b is dened-modeled as the number of objects one
gets when a group of aobjects is combined with a group of b objects. Similar
models for the other arithmetic operations are presented. The decimal sys-
tem is modeled with toothpicks. Individual toothpicks for the ones place,
bags of 10 for the tens place, bundles of 10 bags for the hundreds place.
The fraction a/b is modeled as what one gets when the whole is divided
492 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
into b equal parts and a of these parts are gathered together. Instead of di-
rectly using arithmetic operations, diagrams and logical reasoning are used
to solve problems such as:
One serving of cereal is 2/3 of a cup. What fraction of a serving is 1/2
of a cup?
A diagram such as
............................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................ ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................................................
............................................................................
.........................................................
1
2
-cup
1 serving
might be used in a students explanation of their solution. In fact a cou-
ple of in-service middle school Mathematics teachers once suggested to me
that middle school students might be better served if arithmetic operations
with fractions were not taught at all until after many story problems with
fractions were solved with diagrams and reasoning.
The undergraduate students are on the whole more docile than the in-
service teachers, although this may be due to the age dierence. While
there are some fairly consistent Mathematical misconceptions among the
undergraduates, in general they are as energetic and open to new in-
terpretations and explanations as the in-service teachers. The Ed School
courses for Elementary Ed majors emphasize a constructivist as opposed
to behaviorist approach to education and this is sometimes reected in
student willingness to consider new explanations (constructions) for previ-
ously learned mathematical procedures. The class attendance and on time
homework rate in 5001-5003 is much higher than in the calculus classes at
U.G.A. and approaches 100% in the 5002-5003. These last two classes are
taken in cohort groups of students who have already been admitted into the
highly competitive (3.5 GPA) elementary Ed undergraduate major. The
undergraduates are less of a blank slate when compared with the in-service
teachers. All of them have taken other math courses (Calculus is not too
unusual) at UGA and nearly all are recent high school graduates.
For nearly all students, division is the most dicult topic in these
courses. In these courses division is not just multiplication by the multi-
plicative inverse. Instead the quotient a b is dened as either the number
of groups of b objects in a group of a objects or as the number of objects in
each group when a group of a objects is divided into b equal groups. While
these are the most dicult denitions-models in the course, most students
can understand these denitions and can apply them to story problems when
both a and b are positive integers. Usually students are able to use these
denitions to explain why 0 b is dened (assuming non-zero b), but a 0
is not. The real diculties arise when either a or b is a fraction. This
may be due to diculties conceptualizing groups consisting of a fractional
number of objects, and this may be why students have more success solving
6. TEACHING MATH FOR ELEMENTARY ED MAJORS 493
and creating story problems focusing on food than with other kinds of story
problems (3/4 of a pizza is easily conceptualized). (Of course, given the on-
going childhood obesity epidemic, it may be a good idea to limit the number
of food centered story problems in the elementary school classroom.) Even
then, students have a very dicult time with how many in each group story
problems such as:
If you can make 2/3 of a loaf of bread with 5/4 cups of our, how much
our do you need in order to make a whole loaf of bread?
Many students would solve this problem by setting by setting up a ratio
such as
(
5
4
)
(
2
3
)
=
x
1
and then mechanically using algebra to solve for x. Recently I have observed
several students using the following approach to this type of problem:
(5/4) cups of our corresponds to (2/3) of a whole loaf of bread. Since
there are (3/2) groups of (2/3) of a loaf of bread in 1 loaf of bread, (3/2)
groups of (5/4) cups of our ((15/8) cups) are needed to make a whole loaf
of bread.
This approach of course has the advantage that the dicult (5/4) makes
(2/3) of a group, how much is in the whole group approach is avoided.
Instead, the student answers the easier how many groups of (2/3) are in
1 question, and then computes that many groups of (5/4). Of course the
students were implicitly using the fact that the ratio of our to loaves of
bread is constant.
In fact, as alluded to in the above paragraph, many students want to use
ratios as a solution tool for just about every type of fractional or percentage
problem:
If 15% of the population is 36,000 what is the total population?
Student solution: Solve the ratio
15
100
=
36,000
x
I suspect that for many students mathematical ratios are similar to
SAT type analogies, and the students in these classes are very linguistically
skilled. (I have observed many of these students working crossword puzzles
before class.) Also, almost half the students tend to interpret the denom-
inator of a fraction as the whole associated with the fraction instead of as
the number of equal parts that the whole has been divided into. Perhaps
students are conceptualizing (3/4) as 3 out of 4.
An important theme of this course is the development of explanations
for each step in the solution of a problem. Last spring, I gave the following
type (I do not remember the exact numbers) of problem to my 5003 class:
Three workers can dig four ditches in two days
(1) How many ditches can four workers dig in three days?
(2) How many days do four workers need to dig ve ditches?
(3) How many workers are needed to dig seven ditches in two days?
494 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
One of the best students in the class completed this problem fairly
quickly and volunteered to put this problem on the board. Her presen-
tation was really excellent. She rst observed that 1 worker digs 2/3 of a
ditch in 1 day. Next, she said that 4 workers dig 8/3 of a ditch in 1 day, and
hence 4 workers dig 8 ditches in 3 days. (i) was solved. Next she observed
that it takes 5/(8/3)=15/8 days for 4 workers to dig 5 ditches. Another
student in the class asked why she divided 5 by 8/3 and roughly speaking
she said that was because the 4 workers can dig 8/3 of a ditch in 1 day and
there are 5 ditches to be dug. At this point I observed that she was ask-
ing how many 8/3s are in 5 and that hence she was using the How many
groups interpretation of division. She immediately stated that what I had
just said made the problem more dicult and that it made the problem
more confusing to think that way. I was somewhat surprised. Here was a
student who was doing a very nice job on a dicult problem resisting the
explanations that had been developed in the class and in the text. In gen-
eral, the How many groups and the How many in each group division
models are the most dicult concepts in the course for the students and
there is some resistance to the use of these models.
Recently I noticed another disconnection from classroom and textbook
explanations in my 5001 class. We were covering the standard addition and
subtraction algorithms. As an example we considered 122 - 38. I carefully
observed that the rst step was to borrow 10 groups of 1 from the 2 in
the tens place in 122. After computing 12-8=4, I next observed that we
needed to borrow 10 groups of 10 from the 1 in the hundreds place. We
then compute 11-3=8, so that our nal answer is 84. I then asked two of the
students to reenact with bundles of toothpicks what I had just done on the
blackboard. I gave one student one bundle of 100 toothpicks, actually 10
bags of 10 toothpicks bundled together with a rubber band, two bags of 10
toothpicks, and two individual toothpicks. I then told this student to give
the student next to her 38 toothpicks in a way that reects the standard
subtraction algorithm. Her rst step was to break open the bundle of 10
bags of 10 and to give the student next to her 3 bags of 10. Next, she
opened a bag of 10 and counted out 8 toothpicks to give to her neighbor.
Now what she did was certainly a valid subtraction, but did not reect the
standard subtraction algorithm. However what she did may more accurately
reect how people actually do subtract when dealing with tangible items.
For example, if I was paying a restaurant bill of 38$ I would subtract $30
from my wallet rst.
As the students admitted to the Elementary Ed major all have high grade
point averages they are all recipients of the Hope Scholarship which is funded
by the GA. lottery. A year ago I told one of my classes that an indication that
school teachers were doing a really ne job of teaching mathematics would be
the collapse of the Georgia lottery, and consequently the demise of the Hope
scholarship. I did not get a positive response. Recently I asked my Math
5003 class if any of them had ever played the lottery. None had, although
7. THE GEOMETRY OF SURPRISE 495
nearly all received the Hope scholarship. I then commented on a recent
newspaper article that stated that the average Georgian adult spends $365
a year on the lottery. Moreover, counties with a high per-capita lottery play
were counties with relatively few hope scholarship recipients. Conversely,
those counties with relatively low per-capita lottery play were counties with
a relatively high number of hope scholarship recipients. Finally I made a
similar statement as before about good mathematics instruction and the
lottery. This time the hostility was muted.
Even though, as noted in the above paragraphs, there is some resistance
to new interpretations and explanations of elementary mathematics by the
undergraduates, I believe that what we are teaching gives them a new per-
spective on elementary mathematics which the students should nd useful
when in the future they are constructing their own elementary school math
courses. Finally, the improved problem solving skills shown by the students
in the last course, 5003 , should be noted. Last spring I let the following
problem be an extra credit problem on the nal exam for 5001:
If one and one half chickens lay one and one half eggs in one and one half
days, how many eggs does one chicken lay in one day.
About 5 students out of 35 students got the correct answer. There were
lots of outrageous answers. Recently I gave the same problem for homework
in the 5003 class. About 90% of the class got the right answer. Even though
this problem was a good t with the material then being covered in this
class, the dierence in results between the two classes was startling.
7. The Geometry of Surprise
David Benson
What can be more important than forming the minds of young people?
If you want to have an impact on the shape of the nation for the next
generation, what strategy could be more eective than teaching elementary
school? So last spring, I was happy to nd myself in a position of being
about to teach geometry to a class of prospective elementary school teachers.
Everything I taught would be magnied hundreds of times, and broadcast
to the children of Georgia, so this was a big responsibility. I was also quite
apprehensive, because I had heard stories from other faculty of how unwilling
these students were to learn, and how hard they were to teach. I was in for
a number of surprises.
As I walked into the classroom on the rst day of classes, my jaw
dropped. I hastily recomposed my expression into a smile, wiped the gob
o the front of my T-shirt, and hoped nobody had noticed. I had a class
of 28 students, of which 28 were women. No men. Not one. Do the young
men of Georgia not think that forming the minds of the next generation is
important? Or was this a probabilistic freak, bound to happen on average
once every 2
28
classes? Maybe the next such class I teach will be all men.
496 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
During the rst day of classes, I had a general chat with the students,
and tried to nd out what they hoped to get out of the class. Several of
them very openly told me that they hated geometry, and were only there
because they had to take this class in order to get certied as a teacher.
Many of the students seemed to have some sort of anxiety about the class,
and a general feeling that they didnt know why they needed to know any
geometry anyway.
In spite of these initial attitudes, the class was an enormous success. By
the end of the semester, one of the students who initially professed to hate
geometry told me how much she had loved the class, and how relevant it
seemed to her future teaching. And pretty much all of the students seemed
to be having fun, even if they were a little apprehensive about the nal
exam.
Im happy to say that my students in this class gave me the best teacher
evaluation rating Ive ever had. In general, I must say that Im not much
of a fan of the American system of teacher evaluation, because it tends to
measure how happy the students are, rather than how much theyve learned.
I dont regard it as my job to make the students happy, although doing so
can sometimes help them learn better, which I do regard as my job.
I attribute my success with this class largely to a set of notes written by
the faculty member who designed the course. The secret of the style of these
notes is to make every concept seem immediately relevant to everyday life.
The strong use of manipulatives also makes the material easy to translate
directly into course material for the students classes, when they nally get
around to teaching.
Some of the material was unlikely to get taught directly to elementary
students. For example, we proved the Pythagorean theorem two dierent
ways, and we classied the Platonic solids. But the way these things were
presented involved taking paper and scissors, and turning the ideas into
physical processes. The purpose of this sort of material, it seems to me, it
twofold. One is that elementary school is a preparation for secondary school,
and to teach elementary school it is necessary to know something of how the
concepts will be built upon later. The second is that these were very good
examples of how abstract concepts can be turned into physical processes,
which is essential for teaching at the elementary level.
These were hard working students. The assignments I gave them were
writing intensive. It was not good enough just to get an answer, the point
was to write it up as a verbal explanation of the geometric reasoning in-
volved. This is dicult, because it involves linking the two sides of the
brain. But it is important, because thats precisely what teaching involves.
Its not good enough just to understand something, youve got to be able to
explain it.
The thrust of the course was to understand the very basic properties of
length, angle, triangles, area, volume, symmetry, and so on, but to under-
stand them really well enough to be able to teach them. We analyzed what
8. VERMONT MATHEMATICS INITIATIVE (VMI) 497
possible misconceptions there could be concerning these ideas, so that the
students would be able to recognize the misconceptions in their own stu-
dents. There was a very broad range of natural abilities for visualization,
and I was surprised at many of the misconceptions I came across in class. I
found it particularly startling how few of the students had any natural feel
for areas and volumes, for example. And we seemed to spend inordinate
amounts of time discussing whats happening when you see something in a
mirror, and even more time discussing why there are seasons. I think its a
very long time since Ive gone back and reexamined these basic things.
The main point I would like to get across is that if we make sure that
students understand why they need to know what were teaching them, if
we make it very clear what is expected of them, and if we make the lessons
stimulating, then the students respond by working hard and liking the class.
This is not a surprise.
8. Vermont Mathematics Initiative (VMI)
Dr. Kenneth I. Gross
Professor of Mathematics and Education
University of Vermont
Director, Vermont Mathematics Initiative
The overarching philosophy of the VMI can be summarized by the adage
competence leads to condence. Indeed, in the VMI approach to mathe-
matics professional development, VMI participants begin to view themselves
as mathematicians, to view mathematics as part of their lives, and to see
the world around them in a mathematical light. These transformations take
place, in large part, through a VMI curriculum that is rich in mathematics
content, and the impact of these transformations in the teachers classrooms
and schools is far-reaching.
(http : //www.emba.uvm.edu/ gross/vmi summary.html)
The VMI model can be readily replicated in school districts and states that
wish to develop strong mathematics educators at the elementary level. In
fact, Dr. Gross is currently advising courses and institutes in other states (as
well as in Australia) that are using the VMI model, VMI syllabi, and VMI
materials. Moreover, VMI graduates are serving as coaches, mentors, and
facilitators in these programs. For example, the Massachusetts Mathematics
Institute (MMI) is an intensive in-service professional development program
for elementary teachers that is based upon the VMI.
(http://www.emba.uvm.edu/gross/MMI.pdf)
Contact information: Phone:
802-656-8186
802-656-2552
Email: gross@emba.uvm.edu Fax:
Website: www.emba.uvm.edu/ gross
498 9. TEACHING MATH TO PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE TEACHERS
Mailing address: Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of Vermont
Burlington, VT 05405
Overview of the VMI
The Vermont Mathematics Initiative (VMI), now entering its fth year,
is a comprehensive statewide professional development program for elemen-
tary teachers, the mission of which is to ensure high-quality mathematics
instruction and high levels of student learning. Through their VMI expe-
rience, teachers build strong mathematics content knowledge, develop the
ability to conduct action research related to their teaching practice, culti-
vate leadership skills, and apply this acquired knowledge and skill in their
classrooms and at the school or district level. The VMI is a three-year mas-
ters degree program in education with a specialty in K-6 mathematics. Each
year teachers enroll in four VMI courses of three credits each, two during
the summer and one each semester during the academic year. VMI courses
are mathematics content intensive, providing teachers with a broad and
deep understanding of mathematics. Content is expanded through practice,
problem solving, and K-6 classroom application. All VMI courses serve as
models for eective classroom pedagogy. The VMI includes the development
of high-quality course materials which take teacher knowledge far beyond
the K-6 mathematics curriculum, but in ways that relate the mathematics
back to the K-6 classroom. The written materials form a foundation for the
VMI curriculum itself, and also serve as resource materials for the teacher
leaders as they implement peer professional development in their schools
and districts. For a description of the VMI curriculum see the following
webpage: (www.emba.uvm.edu/ gross/vmi courses.html)
The goal of VMI is to have at least one VMI graduate in each elementary
school of Vermont. These VMI-trained teacher leaders will in turn conduct
mathematics professional development in their schools and districts, thereby
having a major impact on mathematics instruction across the entire state.
Currently there are 143 teachers in the program (including 59 graduates)
from 104 elementary schools, which represents roughly 35over 60
For additional information on the VMI, please consult the follow-
ing sources, both of which can be accessed from
(www.emba.uvm.edu/ gross)
Ellen R. Delisio , Vermont Teachers Return to Math Class, Education
World, January 31, 2002
(www.education-world.com/a issues/issues266.shtml/)
Lisa Rathke, Teachers bone up on math, Rutland Herald, November 18,
2001.
(http://rutlandherald.nybor.com/Archive/Articles/Article/37738)
APPENDIX A
Singapore Grade Level Standards Arranged by
Topic
1. Multiplication and division
Grade 1
(1) illustrate the meaning of multiplication as repeated addition
(2) write mathematical statements for given situations involving mul-
tiplication
Use numbers with product not greater than 40
(3) multiply numbers whose product is not greater than 40
Exclude the use of multiplication tables
(4) solve 1-step word problems with pictorial illustrations on multipli-
cation
Exclude the use of multiplication tables
Grade 2
(1) count in steps of 2, 3, 4, 5, 10
Include completing number sequences leading to multiplication
tables
(2) build up the multiplication tables of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 and commit
to memory
Include activities to help pupils see that multiplication is com-
mutative
(3) multiply numbers within the multiplication tables
(4) write mathematical statements for given situations involving divi-
sion
Include use of division symbol
(5) divide numbers within the multiplication tables
Exclude division with remainder
(6) carry out multiplication and division within multiplication tables
mentally
Grade 3
(1) count in steps of 2 3, 4, 5, . . . , 10
Include completing number sequences leading to multiplication
tables
(2) build up the multiplication tables up to 10 10 and commit to
memory
499
500 A. SINGAPORE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS ARRANGED BY TOPIC
(3) multiply and divide by number up to a 3-digit number by a 1-digit
number
Include use of the terms product, quotient and remainder
Exclude 2-step calculations such as: Find the product of 6 and
the dierence between 10 and 8
(4) carry out simple mental calculations
Grade 4
(1) determine if a 1-digit number is a factor of a given whole number
(2) list all factors of a whole number up to 100
Include nding common factor of 2 numbers
Exclude nding greatest common factor
(3) determine if a whole number is a multiple of a given whole number
(4) list the rst 12 multiples of a given 1-digit whole number
Include nding common multiple of 2 numbers
Exclude nding least common multiple
2. Decimals
Grade 2
(1) read and write money using decimal units
Grade 3
(1) add and subtract money in compound units using decimal notation
Grade 4
(1) multiply and divide money in compound units using decimal nota-
tion
(2) read and interpret decimals up to 3 decimal places
Include use of the number line to illustrate the concept of dec-
imals
Include identifying the values of the digits in a decimal
Include sums such as the following
(a) 0.125 =
1
10
+
2
100
+
1000
(b) 0.125 =
125
(c) 21.203 = 21 +
1000
Exclude 0.125 =
1
10
+
1
50
+
200
(3) compare and order decimals
(4) add and subtract decimals up to 2 decimal places
Include mental calculations involving addition and subtraction
of 1-digit whole numbers/tenths and tenths
(5) multiply and divide decimals up to 2 decimal places by a 1-digit
whole number
Include division of whole number by whole number with deci-
mal answers
4. ROUNDING, APPROXIMATION, AND ESTIMATION 501
Include rounding o answers to 2 decimal places
Include checking reasonableness of answers
(6) carry out mental calculation within the multiplication tables
(7) express a decimal as a fraction, and vice versa
Grade 5
(1) multiply decimals up to 2 decimal places by a 2-digit whole number
Include checking reasonableness of answers by estimation
(2) multiply and divide decimals up to 3 decimal places by tens, hun-
dreds and thousands
Exclude cases where the rst non-zero digit in the answer is at
the 4
th
decimal place such as
0.12 1000 = 0.00012
(3) solve word problems involving decimals
Include rounding o answers to a specied degree of accuracy
Include checking reasonableness of answers
3. Standard multiplication algorithm
Grade 3
(1) multiply and divide number up to a 3-digit number by a 1-digit
number
Exclude 2-step calculation such as nd the product of 6 and
the dierence between 10 and 8
Grade 4
(1) multiply numbers up to
4 digits by a 1-digit number
3 digits by a 2-digit number
(2) multiply and divide money in compound units using decimal nota-
tion
Grade 5
(1) multiply and divide numbers up to 4 digits by a 2-digit whole num-
ber
(2) multiply and divide numbers by tens, hundreds and thousands
(3) multiply decimals up to 2 decimal places by a 2-digit whole number
Include checking reasonableness of answers by estimation
(4) multiply and divide decimals up to 3 decimal places by tens, hun-
dreds and thousands
Exclude cases where the rst nonzero digit in the answer is at
the 4th decimal place such as 0.12 1000 = 0.00012
4. Rounding, approximation, and estimation
Grade 4
(1) round o numbers to the nearest 10 and 100
502 A. SINGAPORE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS ARRANGED BY TOPIC
(2) estimate the answers in calculations involving addition, subtraction
and multiplication
Include rounding o answers to a specied degree of accuracy
Include checking reasonableness of answers
(3) round o decimals to
the nearest whole number
1 decimal place
2 decimal places
Include units of measure
Include checking reasonableness of answers
Grade 5
(1) round o numbers to the nearest 1000
Include use of the approximation symbol
(2) estimate the answers in calculations involving addition, subtraction,
and multiplication
5. Standard division algorithm
Grade 4
(1) divide numbers up to 4 digits by a 1-digit number and by 10
(2) multiply and divide money in compound units using decimal nota-
tion
Grade 5
(1) multiply and divide numbers up to 4 digits by a 2-digit whole num-
ber
(2) multiply and divide numbers by tens, hundreds and thousands
(3) multiply and divide decimals up to 3 decimal places by tens, hun-
dreds and thousands
Exclude cases where the rst nonzero digit in the answer is at
the 4th decimal place such as 0.12 1000 = 0.00012
6. Fractions
Grade 2
(1) recognize and name unit fractions up to
1
12
Exclude set of objects
Include use of symbols:
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
, . . . ,
1
12
(2) recognize and name a fraction of a whole
Exclude the use of mathematical statements such as 1
1
4
=
3
4
(3) compare and order unit fractions and like fractions
Grade 3
(1) recognize and name equivalent fractions
Include the terms numerator and denominator
6. FRACTIONS 503
(2) list the rst 8 equivalent fractions of a given fraction with denomi-
nator not greater than 12
(3) write the equivalent fraction of a fraction given the denominator/
numerator
(4) express a fraction in its simplest form
(5) compare and order related and unlike fractions with denominators
up to 12
Include both increasing and decreasing order
Number of fractions involved should not exceed 3
Grade 4
(1) add and subtract
like fractions
related fractions
Denominators of given fractions should not exceed 12
Exclude sums involving more than 2 dierent denominators
(2) recognize and name fractions as parts of a set of objects
(3) calculate the product of a proper fraction and a whole number
(4) express an improper fraction as a mixed number, and vice versa
Include expressing an improper fraction/mixed number in its
simplest form
(5) solve up to 2-step word problems involving fractions
Include using unitary method to nd the whole given a frac-
tional part
Exclude question such as Express the number of girls as a
fraction of the number of boys. as it will be dealt with under
the topic Ratio
(6) express a decimal as a fraction, and vice versa
Grade 5
(1) add and subtract
mixed numbers
unlike fractions
Include listing of equivalent fractions to identify fractions with
common denominator
Denominators of given fractions should not exceed 12
(2) calculate the product of 2 fractions
Exclude mixed numbers
(3) associate a fraction with division
Include conversion between fractions and decimals
(4) divide a proper fraction by a whole number
(5) solve word problems involving fractions
(6) change fractions and decimals to percents, and vice versa
Include use of percentage notation %
Include recognizing the equivalence between percentage and
fraction/decimal
504 A. SINGAPORE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS ARRANGED BY TOPIC
7. Rates, ratios, proportion, and percent
Grade 5
(1) calculate the average
(2) nd the total amount given the average and the number of items
(3) calculate rate
(4) solve up to 3-step word problems involving average and rate
(5) use ratio to show the relative sizes of
2 quantities
3 quantities
Introduce the sign :
(6) interpret a given ratio
a: b
a: b: c
Include problems such as the following
(a) 1: 2 = : 8
(b) 2: = 1: 4
(7) recognize equivalent ratios
(8) reduce a given ratio to its lowest terms
Include reducing a: b: c to its lowest terms
(9) solve up to 2-step word problems involving ratio
(10) express a part of a whole as a percentage
(11) calculate part of a whole given the percentage and the whole
(12) solve up to 2-step word problems involving percentage
Exclude use of the terms prot and loss
Grade 6
(1) calculate
speed
distance
time
Include use of the formula
Include activities for pupils to read, interpret and write speed
in dierent units: km/h, m/min, m/s and cm/s
Exclude conversion of units such as 10 km/h = ? m/min, and
vice versa
(2) solve word problems involving average, rate and speed
Exclude problems where rest time is involved in nding the
average speed of a journey
(3) express one value as a fraction of another given their ratio, and vice
versa
(4) nd how many times one value is as large as another given their
ratio, and vice versa
(5) recognize that two quantities are in direct proportion
(6) solve direct proportion problems using unitary method
9. LENGTH AND PERIMETER 505
(7) solve word problems on ratio and direct proportion
(8) express one quantity as a percentage of another
(9) nd the whole given a part and the percentage
(10) solve word problems
Exclude nding percentage prot/loss
8. Lines, planes, space
Grade 2:
(1) LINES, CURVES AND SURFACES
(a) identify straight lines and curves.
Include forming gures with straight lines and curves and
describing how they form the gures
(b) draw a straight line of given length
(c) identify at and curved faces of a 3-D object
Grade 4:
(1) 2-D REPRESENTATION OF A 3-D SOLID
(a) visualize cubes and cuboids from drawings
(b) state the number of unit cubes that make up a solid
(c) visualize and identify the new solid formed by increasing/decreasing
the number of cubes of a given solid drawn
Grade 6:
(1) 2-D REPRESENTATION OF A 3-D SOLID
(a) visualize a prism and a pyramid from drawings
Include cylinder
Include the terms prism and pyramid
(2) NETS
(a) identify nets of
a cube
a cuboid
a prism
a pyramid
Exclude net of cylinder
(b) identify the solid which can be formed by a net
9. Length and perimeter
Grade 2:
(1) Addition and subtraction of
length
Grade 3:
(1) Units of measure
length : kilometer, meter, centimeter
(2) Addition and subtraction of length in compound units
Grade 4:
506 A. SINGAPORE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS ARRANGED BY TOPIC
(1) Multiplication and division of length in compound units
10. Angles and arc-length on the circle
Grade 3:
(1) CONCEPT OF ANGLES
(a) Associate an angle as a certain amount of turning
(b) Identify right angles
For identifying right angles in a gure, restrict to only
right angles inside the gure Example: How many right
angles are there inside the gure?
........................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................................................................
Exclude gures such as
............................................................................ . ...................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ . ........................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................
.................................................................................................................. ...................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ......................................................................................................................................................
...................................... . ........................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................
and
(c) Tell whether a given angle is greater or smaller than a right
angle
Exclude use of the terms acute , obtuse and reex angles
(d) Identify angles in 2-D shapes
Grade 4:
(1) ANGLES IN DEGREES
(a) Estimate size of angles and measure angles in degrees using a
protractor
Include using notation such as ABC and x to name
angles
Exclude using variable such as x

to represent size of angle

Exclude reex angles
(b) Associate

1
4
turn/right angle with 90

1
2
turn with 180

3
4
turn with 270

(c) Draw a given angle using a protractor

Exclude drawing reex angles
(d) Identify and name the following triangles: right-angled
Grade 5:
10. ANGLES AND ARC-LENGTH ON THE CIRCLE 507
(1) Identify and name
Angles on a straight line
Angles at a point
Vertically opposite angles
Exclude angles between parallel lines such as alternate
angles, interior angles, corresponding angles
Exclude use of the terms complementary and supplemen-
tary
(2) PROPERTIES OF A PARALLELOGRAM, A RHOMBUS, A TRAPEZ-
IUM AND A TRIANGLE
(a) State and nd unknown angles involving the properties of
a parallelogram
a rhombus
a trapezium
Exclude the term diagonal and its related properties
Exclude additional construction of lines
(b) Recognize and use the property that the angle sum of a triangle
is 180

Exclude problems where the skill of solving equations is

required.
(c) State and nd unknown angles involving the properties of
an isosceles triangle
an equilateral triangle
a right-angled triangle
(d) Recognize that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the
sum of the interior opposite angles
Grade 6:
(1) Angles in geometric gures
(2) Circumference of a circle
(a) Identify and name the following parts of a circle
center
radius
diameter
circumference
(b) Use the formula to nd circumference, area
Include nding perimeter of a gure made up of the fol-
lowing shapes: semicircle, quarter circle
(c) Solve word problems involving area and circumference of a cir-
cle
Include use of (to be
22
7
or 3.14)
Exclude nding the radius/diameter of a circle given its
area
Grade 7:
(1) Simple plane gures
508 A. SINGAPORE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS ARRANGED BY TOPIC
Identify the following plane gures: triangles: isosceles trian-
gles, equilateral triangles, right-angled triangles, acute-angled
triangles, obtuse-angled triangles and scalene triangles
Include the use of the following geometrical terms: right an-
gles, acute, obtuse and reex angles, complementary and sup-
plementary angles, base angles, interior and exterior angles,
(2) Angle properties
Angles formed with a common vertex. Calculate unknown an-
gles involving:
Adjacent angles on a straight line
vertically opposite angles
angles at a point
(3) Angles formed with parallel lines, calculate unknown angles involv-
ing:
corresponding angles
alternate angles
interior angles between parallel lines
(4) Angle properties of triangles. Calculate unknown angles involving:
angle sum of a triangle
base angles of an isosceles triangle
angles of an equilateral triangle
exterior angle of a triangle
(5) Angle properties of squares, rectangles, parallelograms and rhom-
buses. Calculate unknown angles using the angle properties of
squares
rectangles
parallelograms
rhombuses
(6) Include angle properties related to their diagonals
Grade 8:
(1) Similar and congruent gures
nd unknown sides/angles of similar/congruent gures Exclude
tests for similarity/congruency between two triangles
(2) Angle properties of polygons
calculate
the sum of interior angles of a polygon
the sum of exterior angles of a polygon
Include regular polygons
calculate unknown angles of a polygon. Include nding the
number of sides of a polygon.
(3) Arc length
express arc length as a fraction of circumference
nd arc length
solve problems involving arc length
11. LENGTH, PERIMETER, AREA, VOLUME 509
11. Length, perimeter, area, volume
Grade 2:
(1) Addition and subtraction of
length
mass
volume
Grade 3:
(1) Units of measure
length : kilometer, meter, centimeter
mass : kilogram, gram
time : hour, minute, second, day, week, month, year
area : square meter, square centimeter
volume : liter, milliliter
(2) Addition and subtraction of length, mass, volume and time (in com-
pound units)
(3) Perimeter of rectilinear gures
(4) Area and perimeter of
a square
a rectangle
Grade 4:
(1) Multiplication and division of length, mass, volume and time (in
compound units)
(2) Units of measure of volume: cubic centimeter, cubic meter
(3) Volume of a cube and a cuboid, liquid
(4) Area and perimeter of a square, a rectangle and their related gures
Grade 5:
(1) Conversion of units of measure involving decimals and fractions
(2) Volume of a cube and a cuboid
(3) Area of a triangle
Grade 6:
(1) Area and circumference of a circle
(2) Area and perimeter of a gure related to square, rectangle, triangle
and circle
(3) Volume of
a solid made up of cubes and cuboids
liquid
Grade 7:
(1) Perimeter and area
square, rectangle, triangle, parallelogram, trapezium, circle
solve problems involving the perimeters and areas of squares,
rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, trapeziums and circles
(2) Volume and surface area
510 A. SINGAPORE GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS ARRANGED BY TOPIC
nd the volumes and surface areas of cubes, cuboids, prisms
and cylinders Include nets of these solids Include nding the
volumes of composite solids. Exclude oblique prisms and oblique
cylinders
solve problems involving the volumes and surface areas of cubes,
cuboids, prisms and cylinders Include problems involving den-
sity
Grade 8:
(1) Volume and surface area
nd the volumes and surface areas of spheres, pyramids and
cones
Include the use of the term hemisphere
Include nets where applicable
Exclude oblique pyramids and cones
solve problems involving the volumes and surface areas of spheres,
pyramids and cones
(2) Arc length and sector area
express arc length as a fraction of circumference and sector area
as a fraction of the area of a circle
nd arc length and sector area Include nding the area of a
segment of a circle
solve problems involving arc length and sector area
12. Congruence and similarity
Grade 8:
(1) Similar and congruent gures
(a) recognize similar and congruent gures
(b) nd unknown sides/angles of similar/congruent gures
Exclude tests for similarity/congruency between two tri-
angles
(2) Read and make scale drawings
APPENDIX B
Algorithms from the Education Perspective
To give a avor of the prevailing viewpoint in education it suces to
sample the discussions in two current math methods texts.
The following quotes are from the text Elementary and Middle School
Mathematics Teaching Developmentally by J. A. Van De Walle, Fifth
Edition, Pearson (2004), pp. 203 - 204.
Invented Strategies
Carpenter, Franke, Jacobs, Fennema, and Empson (1998) refer to any
strategy other than the traditional algorithm and that does not involve the
use of physical materials or counting by ones an invented strategy. We will
use this term also, although personal and exible strategies might be equally
appropriate.
Contrast with Traditional Algorithms
There are signicant dierences between invented strategies and the tra-
ditional algorithms.
(1) Invented strategies are number oriented rather than digit oriented.
. . .
(2) Invented strategies are left-handed rather than right-handed. In-
vented strategies begin with the largest parts of numbers, those
represented by the leftmost digits. For 26 47, invented strategies
will begin with 2040 is 800, providing some sense of the size of the
eventual answer in just one step. The traditional algorithm begins
with 76 is 42. By beginning on the right with a digit orientation,
traditional methods hide the result until the end. Long division is
an exception.
(3) Invented strategies are exible rather than rigid. Invented strategies
tend to change with the numbers involved in order to make the
computation easier. . . . .
Traditional Algorithms Will Happen
You probably cannot keep the traditional algorithms out of your class-
room. Children pick up the traditional algorithms from older siblings, last
years teacher, well-meaning parents (My dad showed me an easy way).
Traditional algorithms are in no way evil, and so to forbid their use is some-
what arbitrary. However, students who latch on to a traditional method
often resist the invention of more exible strategies. What do you do then?
First and foremost, apply the same rule to traditional algorithms as to
all strategies. If you use it, you must understand why it works and be able
511
512 B. ALGORITHMS FROM THE EDUCATION PERSPECTIVE
to explain it. In and atmosphere that says, Lets gure out why this works,
students can prot from making sense of these algorithms just like any other.
But the responsibility should be theirs, not yours.
Accept a traditional algorithm (once it is understood) as one more strat-
egy to put in the class tool box of methods. But reinforce the idea that like
the other strategies, it may be more useful in some instances than others.
Here is a somewhat more traditional approach from Mathematical
Reasoning for Elementary Teachers by Calvin T. Long, Duane W.
DeTemple, Third Edition, Addison Wesley, (2003), pp. 165-168.
Developing the Addition Algorithm
Find the sum of 135 and 243.
Solution With units, strips, and mats
One hundred thirty-ve is represented by 1 mat, 3 strips, and 5 units,
and 243 is represented by 2 mats, 4 strips, and 3 units, as shown. All told this
gives a total of 3 mats, 7 strips, and 8 units. Therefore, since no exchanges
are possible, the sum is 378. Note how this illustrates the column by column
addition algorithm typically used in pencil-and-paper calculation.
Then the same sum is illustrated using place value cards. Finally, the
authors give this:
With place-value diagrams and instructional algorithms. An even
more abstract approach leading nally to the usual algorithm is
provided by the following place-value diagrams and instructional
algorithms.
Next a similar three step approach is followed for addition with exchanges:
rst with units, strips, and mats, second with place-value cards, and
nally with place-value diagrams and instructional algorithms.
B. ALGORITHMS FROM THE EDUCATION PERSPECTIVE 513
It should be clear from these examples that the approach taken in the
Long-DeTemple work - which is typical - is that these algorithms are only
utilitarian. The belief seems to be that uency in the use of these algorithms
is an essential part of the mastery of early mathematics. With the advent
of calculators, however, there is no longer a compelling need for exceptional
uency in computation with large numbers (e.g., multiplication of four-digit
numbers by six-digit numbers). The time previously spent developing this
exceptional uency should now be spent studying the mathematics under-
lying these algorithms. It should not be assumed that students will discover
it for themselves.
The actuality is that even the rst observation in the paragraph above
is somewhat problematic. While it is surely true that adults seldom need
to actually do long division with divisors having three or more digits, non-
the-less, most students have to learn the algorithm to quite a deep level
in order to take away sucient understanding of how it works that it will
support the learning of more advanced material such as polynomial long
division and convergence of power series that are essential components of
the toolbox needed for entry into any of the technical professions. Moreover,
given that mathematics and computer science are largely about algorithms
and their construction, suppression of the basic algorithms and, indeed, both
the structure of algorithms and some idea of what it means to show that an
algorithm is correct seems to be tantamount to depriving students of one of
the most important aspects of mathematics.
APPENDIX C
The Foundations of Geometry
In the standard geometry courses modeled on Euclids books, one starts
with the undened terms points, lines, line segments and planes, a system of
axioms and the rules of logic. Based on these foundational notions, students
learn how to construct logical arguments to reach desired conclusions about
various special gures constructed using the given elements.
There have been many studies of the foundations of geometry since Eu-
clids time, and some problems with Euclids axioms have been revealed. In
a more modern development one starts with a model for geometry and one
then veries that the axioms hold in this model.
The essential ingredients in a model for geometry are numbers and a
distance formula. For our model the numbers we use are the ordinary real
numbers.
In the discussion below we begin with the simplest case - geometry on
the line and show how to use a model to set it up rigorously, paying careful
attention to denitions and their consequences. In the next sections we dis-
cuss a model for plane geometry and its basic properties including a formula
for distance, the denitions of lines in the model and an identication of
these lines with the line previously studied. Then, in the nal section we
show how to verify the truth of Euclids axioms for plane geometry in the
model.
At times the arguments are somewhat intricate, but in no case is algebra
more complicated than the material in the rst algebra course necessary to
the development.
There are 6 sections:
(1) A Model for Geometry on the Line
(2) A Model for the Plane and Lines in the Plane
(3) Distance in the Plane and Some Consequences
(4) Further Properties of Lines in the Plane
(5) Rays and Angles in the Plane
(6) Euclids Axioms in the Model for Plane Geometry
515
516 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
1. A Model for Geometry on the Line
A model for geometry on a line is the real numbers, so the points for
geometry on the line are just real numbers. The distance between the num-
bers a and b is the absolute value of the dierence b a, [b a[. Absolute
value is not, perhaps, the best behaved function, but the square of the ab-
solute value (a b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
is a polynomial function of the two
variables, so one often uses it in place of the actual distance since the value
of the square of the absolute value of a real number uniquely determines the
absolute value.
Exercises.
(1) Determine the distance between the points
(a) 1 and 5
(b)
3
4
and 6
(c) 0.75 and
3
4
(d) 11 and 4
(e) 7.3 and 4.1
When is one point between two others. ? A third key ingredient in
geometry on the line is the notion of betweenness which is dened in terms
of distance. Given two points on the line, A and B, we say that a third
point C is between them if both [AC[ and [B C[ are less than [B A[.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................


A B C
A B C
C is not between A and B
C is between A and B
Note that if C is between A and B then [A C[ + [B C[ = [A B[ but
if C is not between A and B, then [AC[ +[B C[ > [AB[. If we have
three distinct points on the line, then exactly one of the three is between
the other two.
We dene the line segment AB to be the set of numbers C so that C is
A or B, or C lies between A and B.
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A B
The segment AB
The midpoint M of the line segment AB is the point A +
1
2
(B A) which
is the unique point in AB so that [M A[ = [B M[.
Exercises
(1) Is 3 between 2 and 4?
(2) Is 0.75 between 1 and 0?
(3) Determine the midpoint of the interval [2][5].
1. A MODEL FOR GEOMETRY ON THE LINE 517
(4) Find a point A between 2 and 5 with [2 A[ equal to one third of
[5 A[.
Rays. Given any point A on the line and a distinct point B we have the
line segment AB, but there are many other points on the line besides the
points in AB. The ray with vertex A, not containing B is the set of points
C on the line, so that A is between C and B.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................

A B C
The ray not containing B with vertex A
There are exactly two rays on the line with vertex A. Every point on the
line is in one of the two, and the only point they have in common is A.
Congruence on the line. We say that two sets / and B on the line
are congruent if and only if there is a one to one and onto map of f : /B
that preserves distance. This means that for each pair of points A, A

/
it must be true that [f(A

) f(A)[ = [A

A[.
Given the denition above for when two sets are congruent, note that
since the notion of C being between A and B is dened entirely in terms of
distance, it follows that if / is the segment AA

and f : AA

B preserves
distance, then
(1) if C is between A and A

then C AA

(2) f(C) is between f(A) and f(A

).
(3) the distance between f(A) and f(A

) is equal to the distance be-

tween A and A

.
It follows that f(AA

) is contained in the segment f(A)f(A

). On the other
hand, if D f(A)f(A

) then there is one and only one point E in AA

so that
[EA[ = [Df(A)[ and f(E) must be D since f preserves distance. Thus
f(AA

) must be the entire segment f(A)f(A

) if it is anything. We have to
put in this last proviso since we do not yet know if we have any examples of
congruent line segments except that the denition does allow us to conclude
that AA

is congruent to itself since the identity map id: AA

AA

is a
congruence.
Exercises
(1) Let / be the set 1, 7/4, 2, and let B be the set 0,
1
4
, 1. Show
that / and B are congruent.
(2) Let ( be the set 2, 1
1
2
, 1. Show that ( is not congruent to /
in (1).
(3) Let T be the set of whole numbers, T = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . Let c
n
be
the set of integers greater than n. Show that c
5
is congruent to
T..
Constructing congruences on the line. We can construct many dis-
tance preserving one-to-one and onto maps of the line to itself. For example,
if a is an arbitrary real number we set s
a
(A) = A+a, and we directly check
that s
a
is distance preserving, one-to-one and onto. Note that s
a
is just
518 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
translation along the line a distance of [a[. Another example is the map r
dened by r(A) = A that reects the line about the origin. Related to r
is the map r
M
dened by
r
M
(A) = 2M A.
r
M
is the map that preserves distance and reects the line about the point
M. In particular, if M is the midpoint of the interval AB then r
M
(A) = B,
r
M
(B) = A, so r
M
exchanges the points A and B and reects AB to itself.
Thus we can conclude that AB is congruent to the line segment BA, and
any line segment AB is congruent to a line segment A

with A

< B

.
Exercises
(1) Determine s
4.5
(3), s
2
(1
1
3
), s2
3
(1.5).
(2) Determine r
3
(2), r
3
(4), r
4
(4), r
0
(3).
(3) Show that r
M
(M) = M for all real numbers M.
(4) Show that if w ,= M then r
M
(w) ,= w.
We have the following basic result.
Theorem 2. a. A necessary and sucient condition that two line
segments AA

and BB

on the line be congruent is that the distance

from A to A

be equal to the distance from B to B

.
b. Any two rays on the line are congruent.
Proof:
a. We have already shown that if AA

and BB

are congruent line

segments it follows that [A

A[ = [B

B[. We need to show

the converse, namely that if [A

A[ = [B

B[ then the two

line segments are congruent. We may suppose that A

> A and
B

> B, and we consider the transformation s

BA
. Note that
s
BA
(A) = A+(B A) = B, and since A

A = B

B it follows
that
s
BA
(A

) = A

+ (B A) = A

+ (B

) = B

.
b. If is a ray with vertex A and o is a ray with vertex B then s
BA
maps A to B and the ray to one of the two rays with vertex
B. If this image is o then r
BA
gives the desired congruence. If
it is not o then we use r
B
to exchange the two rays at B, and the
composition r
B
s
BA
gives the congruence between and o.
These arguments give the result.
There are other sets on the line that are of interest. For example Z is
the integers. If f : ZZ is a one-to-one onto and distance preserving map,
then f(0) = n for some integer n. Since 1 is at a distance of 1 from 0, it
follows that f(1) is either n + 1 or n 1. If it is n + 1 then it follows that
f(2) is n + 2 or n + 1 1 = n, but since f(0) = n and f is one-to-one, it
must be the case that f(2) = n + 2. Similarly f(3) = n + 3, and so on,
so that f = s
n
. On the other hand, if f(1) = n 1, then f(2) = n 2,
f(m) = n m, and f is r
n
2
.
1. A MODEL FOR GEOMETRY ON THE LINE 519
Similarity on the line. . Let / and B be two sets on the line. We
say that / and B are similar if there is a one-to-one and onto map f : /B
and a non-negative constant k so that for any two points A and B of /,
[f(B) f(A)[ = k[B A[. In other words, the distance between any two
points in the image is k times the distance between the corresponding points
in /.
Exercises.
(1) Show that the function f(A) = 2A multiplies distance by 2. That
is, show that [f(A) f(B)[ = 2[AB[ for all real numbers A and
B.
(2) Show that the function f(A) = 3 4A multiplies distance by 4.
(3) Show that if A ,= B and C ,= D then the two intervals AB and CD
are similar.
(4) Let J =
k
2
as k runs over all integers , that is to say, J is the
set of all fractions
a
2
. Show that J is not congruent to Z but that
J is similar to Z.
Euclids second axiom on the line. . Euclids second axiom, in
modern translation is
For every segment AB and for every segment CD there exists a
unique point E such that B is between A and E and segment CD
is congruent to segment BE.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................. . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......................................................................................................................................................................................................... . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A
A
B
B E
C D


The Segments AB and CD
The Segment AE
We verify that this axiom holds for geometry on the line. In-
deed, we may assume that A B, and C D from our discussion above.
Then we simply set E = B + (D C). Since the distance from B to E is
[DC[ it follows that BE is congruent to CD. Uniqueness follows directly
if C = D. If C < D then there are exactly two points B (D C) and
B + (D C) that have distance [D C[ from B. But B is not between
B (D C) and A since both these points are less than B.
Exercises.
(1) Suppose that A = 3, B = 5.2, C = 11.3 and D = 12.6. What is
the point E so that B is between A and E and BE is congruent to
CD?
(2) Suppose A, C and D are as in exercise (1), but B = 2.3. Then
what is the point E so that B is between A and E and BE is
congruent to CD?
(3) Suppose C and D are as in exercise (1), but A = 10, B = 12.2.
What is the point E so that B is between A and E and BE is
congruent to CD?
520 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
2. A Model for the Plane and Lines in the Plane
As was the case with geometry on the line, we give a discussion of ge-
ometry in the plane by using a model for plane geometry built using the
real numbers, and verify that Euclids ve axioms for plane geometry hold
in this model.
A model for Euclidian geometry can be constructed using the coordinate
plane, the Cartesian product of the number line with itself. For deniteness,
the coordinate plane is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y). In the
coordinate plane we dene a point to be an element of the coordinate plane,
i.e., a single ordered pair of numbers. We dene a line to be the graph of
any linear equation ax +by = c with a
2
+b
2
= 1.
In this section we study these lines and show that they are in one to one
correspondence with the real numbers. In the next section we will introduce
distance in the plane and we will show that the correspondence constructed
in the current section preserves distance, thus transporting all the properties
of distance on the line to the lines in the plane.
Definition 3. : The x-axis in the plane is the graph of the line y = 0.
The y-axis in the plane is the graph of the line x = 0.
We note that the two equations ax+by = c and (a)x+(b)y = c have
the same graph and hence dene the same line. In fact, with the constraint
a
2
+b
2
= 1, we have
Lemma 3. The only two equations of the form ax+by = c with a
2
+b
2
= 1
that give the same graphs are ax +by = c and (a)x + (b)y = c.
We will break the demonstration into two steps. For the rst step we
will assume that f is 0. We will show this implies that c is zero as well.
Then we will assume that one of a, b is also zero and show the result in this
case. We will nish this step by assuming that neither a nor b is zero but f
is 0. Then, in the second step we will assume that f and consequently c are
non-zero.
Proof: Suppose that dx + ey = f with d
2
+ e
2
= 1 has the same graph
as ax + by = c. If f = 0 then the point (0, 0) is in both graphs and since
a 0 +b 0 = 0 it follows that c = 0 as well. If we continue to assume that f
is 0 and if one of a, b is zero, assume it is b, then a
2
= 1 and a = 1. Since
(0, 1) is on the graph it follows that d 0 + e 1 = 0 and e = 0 so d
2
= 1
and d = 1. A similar argument holds in case a = 0, and the result follows
when c = 0 and one of a, b is zero.
We now assume that both a and b are non-zero while c and f are zero.
Then the point (1, a/b) is on both graphs and d(a/b)e = 0 so d = (a/b)e
and ((a/b)e)
2
+ e
2
= e
2
((a/b)
2
+ 1) =
e
2
b
2
(a
2
+ b
2
) = e
2
/b
2
= 1. It follows
that e = b. A similar argument shows that d = a and that if e = b then
d = a while if e = b then d = a. This completes the proof when c or f
is zero.
Otherwise, both f and c are non-zero, and we now assume this.
2. A MODEL FOR THE PLANE AND LINES IN THE PLANE 521
If d ,= 0 then the point (
f
d
, 0) lies on both graphs so a
f
d
= c and a = d
c
f
is non-zero. If e = 0 then (
f
d
, 1) is on both graphs and a
f
d
+ b = c which
shows that b = 0 as well. Hence d
2
= 1 and a
2
= 1, so the proof is complete
when b = 0. Similarly the proof is completed when a = 0.
It only remains to verify the result when both d and e are non-zero.
Then (0,
f
e
) is on both graphs and b
f
e
= c so b =
c
f
e. Now 1 = a
2
+ b
2
=
d
2
_
c
f
_
2
+e
2
_
c
f
_
2
=
_
c
f
_
2
(d
2
+e
2
) =
_
c
f
_
2
and
c
f
= 1. This nishes the
proof in all cases.
Remark . The general linear equation ax + by = c with a
2
+ b
2
> 0
rather than the more restrictive a
2
+b
2
= 1 has the same graph as
a

a
2
+b
2
x +
b

a
2
+b
2
y =
c

a
2
+b
2
,
and in this new equation the sum of the squares of the coecients of x and
y is 1. Thus, lines are the graphs of ax +by = c with a
2
+b
2
> 0. One can
directly generalize the previous theorem and its proof to show
Theorem 3. Two linear equations ax + by = c with a
2
+ b
2
> 0 and
dx + ey = f with d
2
+ e
2
> 0 have the same graph if and only if there is a
real number ,= 0 so that d = a, e = b and f = c.
However, in the remainder of this discussion we will continue to assume
that a
2
+ b
2
= 1 in the equation of a line. The reason for this assumption
is that this condition on the coecients makes distance on the line easier to
study.
Given a line l in the plane with equation ax+by = c, we say that a point
P = (p
1
, p
2
) in the plane lies on the line l if and only if (p
1
, p
2
) is in the
graph of ax +by = c, that is to say, P lies on l if and only if ap
1
+bp
2
= c.
Exercises.
(1) Let l be the line with equation x =
3
4
.
(a) Show that the points P = (.75, 7) and Q = (
3
4
, 0) both lie on l.
(b) Show that the point (3, 1) does not lie on l.
(c) Construct the graph of 4x = 3. Is it the same as the graph of
x =
3
4
?
(2) Let l
2
be the line with equation y =
2
5
.
(a) Show that the points (0, .4) and (5,
2
5
) both lie on l
2
.
(b) Construct the graph of 5y = 2. Is it the same as the graph of
y =
2
5
?
(3) Let ax + by = c be the equation of the line l
3
. Show that there is
a point of the form (r, 0) or a point of the form (0, s) on l
3
. Show
that if both a and b are non-zero there is a point of the form (r, 0)
and a point of the form (0, s) on l
3
. These points are called the
x-intercept of l
3
and the y-intercept of l
3
respectively.
522 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
(4) Find the x and y intercepts of the line with equation
3

13
x+
2

13
y =
7.
(5) Show that if l
3
is the graph of ax +by = c with both a and b non-
zero, then the x-intercept of l
3
is (c/a, 0) and the y-intercept of l
3
is (0, c/b).
The line is in one-to-one correspondence with every line in
the plane. Let the line l in the plane be the graph of ax + by = c with
a
2
+b
2
= 1, and let P = (p
1
, p
2
) be a point on l. Then for any real number
t we let Q(t) = (p
1
+bt, p
2
at) and we have
Lemma 4. The map of the real line to the plane dened by Q(t) =
(p
1
+bt, p
2
at) described above has the property that the point (p
1
+bt, p
2
at)
lies on the graph of ax +by = c for every real number t.
Proof: For any real number t we have
a(p
1
+bt) +b(p
2
at) = ap
1
+bp
2
+abt bat
= ap
1
+bp
2
= c
and Q(t) the line l as asserted.
Lemma 5. The map of the real numbers to the graph of ax + by = c
dened by t Q(t) is one-to-one and onto.
Proof: The map is one-to-one since (p
1
+ bt
1
, p
2
at
1
) is the same point
as (p
1
+bt
2
, p
2
at
2
) means that p
1
+bt
1
= p
1
+bt
2
and p
2
at
1
= p
2
at
2
.
We can subtract p
1
from both sides of the rst equation and p
2
from both
sides of the second. This gives the conditions bt
1
= bt
2
and at
1
= at
2
.
If b is non-zero we can divide the rst equation by b obtaining t
1
= t
2
, and
if b = 0 then a ,= 0 so we can divide the second equation by a obtaining
again that t
1
= t
2
. This shows that the images Q(t
1
) and Q(t
2
) are dierent
for t
1
,= t
2
.
It remains to show that given any point Q on l there is a t so that
Q(t) = Q. Suppose Q = (q
1
, q
2
). Then ap
1
+ bp
2
= aq
1
+ bq
2
= c and
(ap
1
+bp
2
) (aq
1
+bq
2
) = 0 so a(p
1
q
1
) +b(p
2
q
2
) = 0. If b is non-zero,
this shows
a
b
(q
1
p
1
) = (q
2
p
2
), so if we set t =
1
b
(q
1
p
1
) then Q(t) = Q.
If a ,= 0, then we can set t =
1
a
(q
2
p
2
) and again Q(t) = Q.
Exercises.
(1) For the line with equation x = 3 and the point (3, 1) = P on this
line, Q(t) = (3 + 0 t, 1 3t). Find Q(0), Q(1), Q(2).
(2) For the line l
4
with equation
1

5
x
2

5
y = 3 and the point P equal
to the x-intercept of l
4
, determine Q(2), and Q(3).
(3) The line l
4
also is the graph of the equation
2

5
+
2

5
y = 3.
For this equation and P again the x-intercept of l
4
, determine the
new value of Q(2) and Q(3). How do they relate to the values
determined in the previous problem?
3. DISTANCE IN THE PLANE AND SOME CONSEQUENCES 523
3. Distance in the Plane and Some Consequences
Geometry does not really begin until we have a a distance function. We
dene the distance between any two points in the plane via the rule
D((a, b), (c, d)) =
_
(a c)
2
+ (b d)
2
.
The one-to-one correspondence between the line and lines in
the plane preserves distance. . Now that we know what distance in the
plane means, we can compare distance in the plane with distance on the
line.
Lemma 6. Let l be a line in the plane given as the graph of ax +by = c
with a
2
+ b
2
= 1, P l a point on l and t Q(t) the map of the line to l
described in the previous section. Then for any two real numbers t
1
, t
2
, the
distance in the plane between Q(t
1
) and Q(t
2
) is [t
2
t
1
[. In other words,
this map preserves distance.
Proof: We have Q(t) = (p
1
+ bt, p
2
at). Consequently the distance
between Q(t
1
) and Q(t
2
) is
_
[b(t
2
t
1
)]
2
+ [a(t
2
t
1
)]
2
=
_
(t
2
t
1
)
2
(b
2
+a
2
)
=
_
(t
2
t
1
)
2
= [t
2
t
1
[
as desired.
Remark . It is precisely at this point that we see the reason for the
constraint we put on the equation of a line in the plane that a
2
+ b
2
= 1.
If we had not assumed this, Q(t) would not preserve distance but would
multiply distance by

a
2
+b
2
.
Congruence in the plane. Just as for geometry on the line we dene
congruence in the plane. Two gures, Figure 1 and Figure 2 in the plane are
congruent if and only if there is a one-to-one and onto map f from Figure 1
to Figure 2 that preserves distance.
An immediate consequence of the lemma above and the denition of
congruence is that any two lines in the plane are congruent, and are con-
gruent to the number line studied in the rst section. In particular, we can
and do dene line segments in the plane as the images of line segments on
the line under the maps Q(t).
Exercises.
(1) What is the length of the segment on the line
1

5
x +
2

5
y = 7
between the points (3, 2) and (1, 3)?
(2) Show that the segment between (0, 5) and (

5, 5) on the line with

equation y = 5 is congruent to the segment in (1).
(3) Find the two segments that have length 5 with one endpoint equal
to (1, 1) on the line
1

2
x
1

2
y = 0.
Now that we have distance we can also dene what we mean by a circle.
524 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
The denition of a circle in the plane. We can now dene the circle
with center O = (a, b) and passing through the point A = (c, d) with A ,= O
to be the graph of the equation
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= (c a)
2
+ (d b)
2
.
From the denition we see that this circle is exactly the set of all the points
in the coordinate plane that are at a distance from the point O that is equal
to the length of the segment OA.
The radius of the circle above is the length of the segment OA which is
the distance from the center O to any point on the circle. (The term radius
is also used to refer to any line segment with one endpoint on the circle and
the other end the center of the circle.) If we denote the radius by the symbol
r, then
(c a)
2
+ (d b)
2
= r
2
and we can rewrite the equation of the circle as
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= r
2
or expanding out using the formula (AB)
2
= A
2
2AB +B
2
,
x
2
+y
2
2(ax +by) +a
2
+b
2
= r
2
.
A key question is how many points do two circles have in com-
mon. If two dierent circles have the same center, then they must have
dierent radii, and it follows that the circles have no points in common. So
if two circles are to have any points in common they must either be the same
circle or they must have dierent centers.
Let us look at some examples.
(1) The rst circle has radius 1 and center (0, 0), x
2
+ y
2
= 1, and
the second circle has radius 1 and center (0, 2), so has equation
x
2
+y
2
4y +4 = 1 or x
2
+y
2
4y = 3. In this case, if (x, y) is on
both circles then x and y must satisfy both equations, so x
2
+y
2
= 1
can be plugged into the second equation obtaining 1 4y = 3 or
4y = 4 and y = 1. Since y = 1 and x
2
+ y
2
= 1 it follows that
x = 0 so there is one and only one point of intersection, (0, 1).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................
(2) The rst circle has radius 1 and center (0, 0), and the second circle
has radius 1 and center (1, 0) so has equation x
2
2x+1+y
2
= 1 or
x
2
+y
2
2x = 0. In this case x
2
+y
2
= 1 so 1 2x = 0 and x =
1
2
.
If x =
1
2
and x
2
+y
2
= 1 then y
2
=
3
4
and y =

3
2
. Consequently,
3. DISTANCE IN THE PLANE AND SOME CONSEQUENCES 525
for this example there are two points of intersection, (
1
2
,

3
2
) and
(
1
2
,

3
2
).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(3) The rst circle has radius 1 and center (0, 0), and the second has
radius one and center (1, 2), so has equation x
2
2x+1+y
2
4y+4 =
1 or x
2
+y
2
2(x+2y) = 4. In this case when we replace x
2
+y
2
by 1 we obtain 2(x + 2y) = 5 or x =
5
2
2y. When we substitute
this for x in the equation x
2
+y
2
= 1 we have
4y
2
10y +
25
4
+y
2
= 1
or 5y
2
10y +
21
4
= 0. This quadratic equation does not have any
real solutions since b
2
4ac = 100 105 = 5 is negative, and the
two circles have no points of intersection.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................
These three examples illustrate the general situation. Two dierent
circles in the plane either have no points of intersection, one point of in-
tersection, or two points of intersection, and this can be demonstrated by
looking at the two equations in a way similar to the way we looked at the
three examples above. We have the two equations
x
2
+y
2
2(ax +by) = r
2
a
2
b
2
x
2
+y
2
2(a

x +b

y) = r
2
a
2
b
2
and when we subtract the second from the rst we get a linear equation that
must hold for (x, y) in the intersection:
2(a

a)x + 2(b

b)y = c
where c = r
2
r
2
+a
2
+b
2
a
2
b
2
. Since we have already analyzed the
case where the centers (a, b) and (a

, b

) are the same we can assume that at

least one of the dierences (a

a) and (b

b) is non-zero, and either x or

y is determined in the form
x =
1
2(a

a)
(c 2(b

b)y) or y =
1
2(b

b)
(c 2(a

a)x).
526 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
Plugging this value for x or y into one of the two original equations gives a
quadratic equation of the form mx
2
+nx +q = 0 or my
2
+ny +q = 0, and
since a quadratic equation has either 2, 1, or no roots, the result follows.
Exercises.
(1) Determine the points of intersection, if any, of the two circles x
2
+
y
2
= 4 and (x 1)
2
+y
2
= 1.
(2) Determine the points of intersection, if any, of the two circles x
2
+
y
2
= 9 and (x 1)
2
+y
2
= 2.
(3) Determine the points of intersection, if any, of the two circles (x
2)
2
+y
2
= 1 and x
2
+y
2
= 4.
4. Further Properties of Lines in the Plane
The next question that needs to be studied is this: suppose we have
two distinct lines, how many points do they have in common? To
answer this question we consider two distinct lines ax+by = c and dx+ey =
f with a
2
+b
2
= d
2
+e
2
= 1. We need to nd all (x, y) that simultaneously
satisfy both equations. Suppose a ,= 0. Then we have x =
1
a
(c by) from
the rst equation, and replacing x in the second equation by this expression
for x we have
d(
1
a
(c by) +ey = f, or (e d
b
a
)y = f d
c
a
.
It is an important exercise to check that the only time e d
b
a
= 0 is when
a = d and b = e or a = d and b = e, and we verify this now.
Lemma 7. Suppose that we are given two lines in the plane, ax+by = c
and dx +ey = f with a
2
+b
2
= 1 and d
2
+e
2
= 1. If a ,= 0 then e d
b
a
= 0
if and only if a = d and b = e or a = d and b = e. Similarly, if b ,= 0
and d
a
b
e = 0 then the same conclusion holds.
Proof: With a ,= 0 we have b =
b
a
a and, by the assumption that e
b
a
d = 0
we have that e =
b
a
d. Writing
b
a
= then b = a, e = d and a
2
+ b
2
=
a
2
(1 +
2
) while d
2
+ e
2
= d
2
(1 +
2
). Since both of these are equal to 1,
we have a
2
= d
2
, so d = a. Now, using the equation e
b
a
d = 0 we have
that e = b as well, and the result follows in the rst situation. The proof
of the second statement is identical.
As a consequence, we have that either we can assume the two equations
for the two lines have the formax+by = c and ax+by = f with a
2
+b
2
= 1, or
e
b
a
d ,= 0. In this second case, the coordinate y for any point of intersection
of the two lines is given as
y =
f d
c
a
e d
b
a
=
af cd
ae bd
.
Moreover, since ax+by = c it follows that x =
1
a
(cby) and there is exactly
one point of intersection.
We have shown the following result.
4. FURTHER PROPERTIES OF LINES IN THE PLANE 527
Theorem 4. : Any two distinct lines in the plane either have no points
in common in which case the equations of the two lines are
ax +by = c
ax +by = d
with c ,= d or the lines have exactly one point in common, in which case the
point in common is given by
x =
ce bf
ae bd
y =
af bd
ae bd
.
Finally, we give a special name to two lines that do not intersect.
Definition 4. Two lines in the plane that do not have a point in com-
mon or are the same line are called parallel.
Exercises.
(1) Find the point that is contained on both the line x+y = 1 and the
line 2x y = 3.
(2) Find the point that is contained on both the line xy = 2 and the
line x + 2y = 1.
(3) Verify that the lines x + y = 2 and 3x + 3y = 7 are not the same
line, but are parallel.
If we know that a given line contains 2 distinct points P and Q, and we
have a second line that contains these same two points, then the two lines
must be the same by the theorem weve just proved. On the other hand,
we do not yet know if there is any line that contains P and Q. We now
show that, in fact, there is at least one, and consequently exactly one line in
the plane that contains both P and Q, so any line in the plane is uniquely
determined by any two distinct points that it contains.
Two distinct points in the plane determine one and only one
line. What we need to show is that given two distinct points in the plane,
there is a line that contains them. Let P = (p
1
, p
2
) and Q = (q
1
, q
2
) be
two distinct points in the plane. Let = (q
2
p
2
) and = p
1
q
1
. Then
p
1
+ p
2
= p
1
(q
2
p
2
) + p
2
(p
1
q
1
) = p
1
q
2
p
2
q
1
and q
1
+ q
2
=
q
1
(q
2
p
2
) + q
2
(p
1
q
1
) = q
2
p
1
q
1
p
2
so they are both equal to the same
constant c = q
2
p
1
q
1
p
2
, and since , are not both zero, both P, Q lie on
the line given as the graph of

2
+
2
x +

_

2
+
2
y =
c
_

2
+
2
.
Exercises.
(1) Find the point of intersection of the two lines
3
5
x +
4
5
y = 1 and
4
5
x
3
5
y = 2.
528 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
(2) Find an equation for the line that contains the two points (0, 3) and
(0, 6).
(3) Find an equation for the line that contains the two points P = (1, 0)
and Q = (0, 2).
(4) Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line
3
5
x +
4
5
y = 1 and
the circle x
2
+y
2
= 4.
(5) Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line
3
5
x +
4
5
y = 1 and
the circle x
2
+y
2
= 1.
(6) Find the points of intersection, if any, of the line
3
5
x +
4
5
y = 1 and
the circle x
2
+y
2
=
1
4
.
5. Rays and Angles in the Plane
Let a line in the plane be given as the graph of ax + by = c with
a
2
+b
2
= 1, and let P = (p
1
, p
2
) be a point on this line. Then the map Q(t)
dened by Q(t) = (p
1
+tb, p
2
ta) of the real numbers onto this line takes 0
to P and naturally divides the line into two parts, the points Q(t) for t 0
and the points Q(t) for t 0. These two parts have exactly the point P in
common, and every point on the line is in one or the other of the two parts.
These two parts are called the two rays on the line with vertex P. Thus,
for each point P on the line there are exactly two rays on the line with P
as vertex, and every point on the line is on one ray or the other.
An angle in the plane is a gure composed of two rays with a common
vertex.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Definition 5. Two angles in the plane are congruent if and only if there
is a one-to-one and onto map of the rst angle to the second that preserves
distance.
We call an angle a straight angle if the two rays are distinct but lie on
a single line.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

From the denition, any two straight angles are congruent since, given any
two lines in the plane, a point P on the rst, and a point Q on the second,
then there is a distance preserving one to one and onto map of the rst line
to the second that takes P to Q.
When we have an angle we also have the two lines that contain the rays.
If these lines are distinct, then the two lines intersect only in the vertex of
the angle, and since each line contains two rays with the given vertex, there
5. RAYS AND ANGLES IN THE PLANE 529
are a total of four angles that the two lines make.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition 6. We say that an angle is a right angle if and only if all
four of the angles associated with the original angle by considering the two
lines containing the rays that make up the angle are congruent.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 1. The positive x-axis and the positive y-axis make an angle
that we believe should be a right angle. The square of the distance from (x, 0)
to (0, y) with x and y both non-negative is x
2
+y
2
. If we take the angle made
by the positive y-axis and the negative x-axis, then the square of the distance
from (x, 0) to (0, y) with y non-negative and x non-positive is x
2
+ y
2
, and
if we dene a one-to-one and onto map from the rst angle to the second
by (x, 0) (x, 0), (0, y) (0, y) this map is distance preserving, hence
these two angles are congruent. Similarly the map of the rst angle to the
angle given by the positive x-axis and the negative y-axis dened by (x, 0)
(x, 0) and (0, y) (0, y) is distance preserving as is the rst angle to the
angle given by the negative x-axis and the negative y-axis, (x, 0) (x, 0),
(0, y) (0, y).
These three maps show that all four of these angles are congruent, and
that the angle dened by the positive x-axis and the positive y-axis is, indeed,
a right angle according to the denition.
Example 2. Suppose that we have a line through the origin dened by
ax+by = 0 with a
2
+b
2
= 1. We can dene a second line through the origin
by the equation bx ay = 0, and the map P(t) = (bt, at) maps the non-
negative real numbers t onto a ray in the rst line with vertex the origin,
while the map Q() = (a, b) maps the non-negative real numbers onto a
ray in the second line with vertex the origin. The square of the distance
530 C. THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
between P(t) and Q() is
(a +bt)
2
+ (b at)
2
= a
2

2
+ 2abt +b
2
t
2
+b
2

2
2abt +a
2
t
2
= (a
2
+b
2
)(
2
+t
2
)
=
2
+t
2
It follows that the one-to-one onto map to this angle from the angle dened
by the positive x-axis and the positive y-axis dened by
(x, 0) P(x), (0, y) Q(y)
denes a congruence between these two angles, and the angle dened by the
two rays P(t), Q() with t 0, 0 is a right angle as well.
Corollary 1. The line ax+by = c with a
2
+b
2
= 1 makes a right angle
with the line bx ay = d at their point of intersection (ac +bd, bc ad).
Proof: We map the right angle dened by the positive x-axis and the
positive y-axis to this angle as follows
(x, 0) (ac +bd +bx, bc ad ax)
(0, y) (ac +bd +ay, bc ad +by)
The square of the distance between these image points is
(bx ay)
2
+ (by +ax)
2
= (a
2
+b
2
)(x
2
+y
2
) = (x
2
+y
2
)
and it follows that these two angles are congruent. As a result the two lines
intersect in a right angle as asserted.
In order to complete our discussion of right angles we need to show that
if we are given a line through the origin, ax +by = 0 with a
2
+b
2
= 1, and
another line through the origin, cx +dy = 0 with c
2
+d
2
= 1, that makes a
right angle with the rst line then this second line is bx ay = 0.
To see this we look at the square of the distance between a general point
on the positive ray with vertex the origin for the rst line and for the second
line. For the point (bt, at) on the rst line and the point (d, c) on the
second line the square of the distance is
(a
2
+b
2
)t
2
+ (c
2
+d
2
)
2
2(bd +ac)t = t
2
+
2
2(bd +ac)t.
On the other hand, if there is a distance preserving one-to-one and onto map
of this angle to the angle made by taking the positive ray for the rst line
and the negative ray for the second, we can assume that it is the identity
on the rst ray, and takes the point (d, c) to the point (d, c) for the
second ray (since it preserves distance on the line). But then we must have
that the square of the distance for any two points on the rst angle is equal
to the square of the distance for the corresponding points on the second
angle, which gives
t
2
+
2
2(bd +ac)t = t
2
+
2
+ 2(bd +ac)t,
and the only way this can happen is if bd +ac = 0. Since both a
2
+b
2
= 1
and c
2
+ d
2
= 1 it is direct to check that the only way bd + ac = 0 can
6. EUCLIDS AXIOMS IN THE MODEL FOR PLANE GEOMETRY 531
happen is if c = b and d = a, or c = b and d = a which give the same
line. We have shown
Theorem 5. Given any line in the plane ax +by = c with a
2
+b
2
= 1,
and a point on this line (p
1
, p
2
) then there is one and only one line through
(p
1
, p
2
) that makes a right angle with ax + by = c, the line given by the
equation bx ay = bp
1
ap
2
.
6. Euclids Axioms in the model for Plane Geometry
Here are Euclids ve axioms in a modern translation:
(1) For every point P and every point Q not equal to P there exists a
unique line that passes through P and Q.
(2) For every segment AB and for every segment CD there exists a
unique point E such that B is between A and E and segment CD
is congruent to segment BE.
(3) For every point O and every point A not equal to O there exists a
circle with center O and radius OA.
(4) All right angles are congruent to each other.
(5) For every line l and for every point P that does not lie on l there
exists a unique line m through P that is parallel to l.
We have given a meaning to every term in the axioms in our model
and most of the axioms have already been shown to hold in our model for
the plane. For example, the second axiom is a direct consequence of the
fact that the second axiom has already been shown to hold on the line.
Consequently it holds on every line in the plane. The third axiom follows
from the denition of the circle with center O that contains the point A.
For the fth axiom we have already seen that if we have a line given by an
equation of the form ax + by = c with a
2
+ b
2
= 1, then two distinct lines
are parallel if and only their equations are of the form
ax +by = c
ax +by = d
with c ,= d, and given an arbitrary point P = (p
1
, p
2
) there is a unique line
of this form that contains P, since in this case d must equal ap
1
+bp
2
. This
shows that the fth axiom holds in our model for plane geometry.
Only the fourth axiom remains to be checked. In the last section we
showed that if we are given a line ax + by = c with a
2
+ b
2
= 1 and any
point on that line, (p
1
, p
2
) then there is a unique line containing the point
and making a right angle with the original line, bx ay = bp
1
ap
2
. We
have also shown that this pair of lines is congruent to the pair consisting
of the x-axis and the y-axis. Consequently, it follows that all right angles
are congruent, and the validity of the fourth axiom for our model has been
demonstrated.
APPENDIX D
The Sixth Grade Treatment of Geometry in the
Russian Program
UCSMP translated the sixth grade Russian textbook Geometry, Third
Edition, (1981) by A.N. Kolmogorov, A.F. Semenovich, and R.S. Cherkasov,
but it is currently only available for private research purposes. We give here a
brief survey of the program, along with a small number of sample problems
to give a feel for what this part of the Russian sixth grade mathematics
curriculum is like:
533
534 D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
Circles
(1) Pg. 4 #9. The orbits of satellites are often nearly circular. Assum-
ing that a satellite moves in a circular orbit with the center of the
earth as its center, answer the following questions:
(a) Could 1000 satellites be launched so that their orbits would not
intersect?
(b) Could two satellites be placed in orbits which have the same
radius and do not intersect?
(2) Pg. 4 #10. Construct two circles with a common center O and
radii r
1
and r
2
(r
1
< r
2
). Shade the gures consisting of those X
in the plane for which
(a) [OX[ r
2
;
(b) [OX[ r
1
;
(c) r
1
[OX[ r
2
.
(3) Pg. 5, #17. A gure is called bounded if there exists a disk which
contains this gure. Which of the following are bounded gures: a
point, disk, segment, line, angle, triangle, ray, square? Give other
examples of bounded and unbounded gures.
Measurement
(4) Pg. 6. #21. Find the numerical value of the quantity a = 3cm if
the following are taken as the unit of measure: (a) millimeter; (b)
meter; (c) kilometer.
(5) Pg. 7. #22. How will the numerical value of the quantity change if
its unit of measure is (1) decreased by a factor of 10; (2) increased
by a factor of 100?
(6) Pg. 9. #27. Given that [AB[ = 8cm and [BC[ = 4cm. (1) is
it possible for the distance [AC[ to equal (a) 20cm, (b) 4.5cm, (c)
12cm, (d) 4cm, (e) 3cm, (f) 6cm? (2) Indicate some other possible
values for the distance [AC[.
(7) Pg. 9, #28. The distance AB equals 2cm. (1) What could be
the distance [AX[, where X is an arbitrary point on the circle with
center B and radius 3cm? (2) Is there a point C on this circle such
that points A, B, and C lie on the same straight line?
D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 535
(8) Pg. 19, #67. (1) Calculate the length of a segment if the coordi-
nates of its endpoints are: (a) 2 and 3; (b) 3 and 10; (c) 4 and
9; (d) 7 and 15; 3.7 and 7.3; (f) 6.8 and 12. (2) Find the
coordinates of the midpoint of segment AB if the coordinates of its
endpoints are know to be: (a) A(2), B(3); (b) A(3), B(10); (c)
A(4), B(3).
(9) Pg. 19, #68. The coordinates of points A and B on a line are 7
and 9 respectively. What coordinates can point C on the line AB
have if it is known that: (1) point C lies between points A and B;
(2) point C does not lie between points A and B.
Placement
(10) Pg. 10, #35. Show that the number of point of intersection of three
lines can be equal to 0, 1, 2, or 3.
(11) Pg. 10, #36. How many points of intersection can there be in four
mutually intersecting lines? Make a drawing for each possible case.
(12) Pg. 10, #37. Prove that four point can dene one, for, or six lines:
(13) Pg. 12, #39. Point X lies between points A and B. Is it true that
point X lies between points B and A?
(14) Pg. 12, #40. Is it true that if point X does not lie between points
A and B, then these three points do not lie on the same line?
(15) Pg. 12, #43. Draw the relative locations of the three points P, Q,
and R, if (1) [PQ[ + [QR[ = [PR[; (2) [PR[ + [QR[ = [PQ[; (3)
[RP[ = [RQ[ [PQ[.
(16) Pg. 13, #46. The distance from home to school is 2km, and from
home to the railway station is 5km. (1) Can the distance from
school to the railway station be: (a) 2km; (b) 3km; (c) 6km; (d)
8km? (2) Indicate the greatest and least possible distances from
school to the station (illustrate your answers).
(17) Pg. 13, #47. Figure 14 shows the lengths of hinged rods. (1) fore
each of these hinged mechanisms, indicate the greatest and least
distances that the ends A and B of the rods can be separated.
Draw hinged mechanisms in these extreme positions. (2) Can the
distance [AB[ assume all intermediate values between the greatest
536 D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
and least distances found?
(18) Pg. 22, #70. The following illustration shows various gures which
are unions of line segments. Which of them are simple broken lines?
(A simple broken line is the union of segments A
1
A
2
, A
2
A
3
, A
3
A
4
,
. . . , A
n1
A
n
which, when adjacent do not lie on the same line, and
when non-adjacent have no points in common.)
(19) Pg. 23, #78. Prove that the length of broken line ABC (sum of the
lengths of the segments in the broken line) is less than the length
of broken line AMC, (g. 31a)
(20) Pg. 23, #79. Prove that the length of broken line ABC is less than
the length of broken line AMTC (g. 31b).
(21) Pg. 28, #95. Show by a drawing that the intersection of two
segments can be (1) an empty set; (2) a point; (3) one of the given
segments; (4) a segment distinct from the given segments.
D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 537
(22) Pg. 41. #141. Mark two points A and B such that [AB[ = 5cm.
Construct point X if it is known that: (1) [AX[ = 3cm, [BX[ =
4cm; (2) [AX[ = 2cm, [BX[ = 3cm; (3) [AX[ = 6cm, [BX[ = 1cm.
How many such points can be constructed in each of these cases?
(23) Pg. 42, #143. Draw two circles each of which passes through the
center of the other. (1) How many points do these circles have in
common? (2) What is the distance between their centers?
(24) Pg. 42, #144. Construct points located at a distance a from a
given point A and at a distance b from another given point B. For
what conditions do these points exist?
Congruent Figures: The discussion of congruence and congruent gures
is exemplary:
538 D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 539
Notice, in particular, that by the end of this discussion, these students have
been exposed to the denition of an equivalence relation, though not to the
formal consequence that an equivalence relation decomposes a set into a
union of disjoint subsets.
Problems:
(25) Pg. 62, #206. Can a gure consisting of two points be congruent
to a gure consisting of three points?
(26) Pg. 62, #210 Prove that two segments of dierent lengths are not
congruent.
(27) Prove that two circles of dierent radii are not congruent.
Angles and Angle Measure: Angles and angle measure are dened and
the basic results such as two angles are congruent if and only if the have
the same angle measure are demonstrated. As is the case throughout the
Russian program close attention is paid to denitions as well.
(28) Pg. 66, #220. Draw an arbitrary segment AB. (1) Using a protrac-
tor, construct a triangle ABC if (a) angle A = 45

, angle B = 75

;
(b) angle A = 30

, angle B = 60

. Measure angle C. (2) How many

dierent triangles can be constructed using these data?
(29) Pg. 65, #213. Formulate a denition for the bisector of an angle.
(30) Pg. 66, #223. Prove that the angle between the bisectors of two
supplementary angles equals 90

.
(31) Pg. 66, #224. Formulate denitions for obtuse and acute angles.
540 D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
Rotations:
(32) Pg. 70, #227. What gure is each of the following mapped onto in
a rotation: (1) a line passing through the center of rotation; (2) a
circle whose center coincides with the center of the rotation; (3) an
angle with its vertex at the center of the rotation
(33) Pg. 71, #231. Construct several centers of rotations for which a
given point A will be mapped to another given point B.
(34) Pg. 71, #232. Which gures consisting of congruent semicircles are
mapped onto themselves for some non-identity rotation
(35) Pg. 71, #234. Prove that the regular polygon A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
6
A
7
A
8
(g. 11b) is mapped onto itself for some rotations with center O.
Find the angles of these rotations.
Triangles;
(36) Pg. 85, #275. Given the congruent triangles ABC and DEM,
(1) It is known that [AB[

= [DE[, [AC[

= [DM[. Indicate the
angles of triangle ABC which are congruent to angles D, E,
and M.
(2) It is known that DEF

= ABC, D

= A, E

= B.
What sides of these triangles are congruent?
(3) Prove that each bisector (median, altitude) of triangle ABC is
congruent to some bisector (median, altitude) of triangle DEF.
(37) Pg. 85, #378. Construct a triangle given two sides b, c, and angle
lying between them if: (1) b = 5cm, c = 4cm, and = 72

; (2)
b = 3cm, c = 4cm, and = 108

.
(38) Pg. 85, #280.
D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 541
(1) How many triangles can be constructed congruent to a given
scalene triangle ABC such that they share a given segment as
a side?
(2) Prove that any two such congruent triangles are symmetrical
with respect to some axis.
(39) Pg. 87, #290. According to tradition, the ancient Greek mathe-
matician Thales was the rst to solve the problem of calculating the
distance from shore to a ship. To do this he measured the distance
[AB[ and angle ABC (g. 139) and then, performing several con-
structions and measurements on land, he calculated the distance
[AC[. What constructions and measurements might Thales have
performed in solving the problem? What was his solution based
on?
(40) Pg. 93, #309. Sides AB and CD and also angles A and D of
quadrilateral ABCD are congruent. Prove the congruence of angles
B and C.
(41) Pg. 93, #310. Given two pointe A and B. What is the gure
formed by the set of points X such that (1) [AX ,= [BX[; (2)
[AX[ [BX[; (3) [AX[ < [BX[?
(42) Pg. 93, #311. Towns A and B are located on the same side of a
railway line (g. 153). At what point on this line should a platform
C be built so that (1) the distances [AC[ and [BC[ are equal; (2)
the sum of the distance [AC[ and [BC[ is the smallest possible; (3)
the dierence between [AC[ and [BC[ is the greatest possible?
(43) Pg. 96, #324. How can you use a hinged mechanism with sections
of equal length (g. 159) to construct (1) the bisector of a given
542 D. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF GEOMETRY IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
angle; (2) the midpoint of a given segment; (3) the center of a given
circle?
(44) Pg. 100, #332. Given a point M within triangle ABC, prove
that the sum of the distances from this point to the vertices of the
triangle is greater than the sum of the distances from this point to
the sides of the triangle.
Circles again:
(45) Pg. 107, #356. A circle is divided by two points into two arcs.
What is the measure of each of these arcs if: (1) the measure of
one of them is 30

greater than the measure of the other; (2) the

measure of these arcs is proportional to the numbers 1 and 3?
(46) Pg. 107, #357. (1) Construct and equilateral triangle whose ver-
tices lie on a given circle. (2) Use a ruler and a protractor to
construct a regular ve-pointed star.
(47) Pg. 110, #366. Construct a circle of a given radius r tangent to a
given line a at a given point M on the line.
(48) Pg. 111, #371. Construct a circle tangent to all the sides of a given
triangle.
(49) Pg. 115, #376. Construct a tangent to a given circle passing
through a given point.
APPENDIX E
The Sixth Grade Treatment of Algebra in the
Russian Program
UCSMP translated the sixth grade Russian textbook Algebra, Fifth Edi-
tion, (1981) by Yu. N. Makarychev, N.G. Mindyuk, and K.S. Muravin,
which is currently only available for private research purposes. We give here
a brief survey of the program, along with a number of sample problems
to give a feel for what this part of the Russian sixth grade mathematics
curriculum is like: The table of contents for this volume is as follows:
543
544 E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
The beginning discussion of expressions is quite a bit more precise and care-
ful than is typically the case with U.S. programs. For example, here is the
last paragraph:
The expression
38
(48/6)8
has no numerical value since not all of the
indicated operations can be performed (you cannot divide by zero!).
Such expressions are said to be meaningless.
7. Which of the following expressions are meaningless:
a)
7.845
4.182.092
;
b) 6
1
4
2
1
3
920
;
c)
5
1
3
3
1
6
0.81.2
2
3
?
8. Without doing the calculations, compare the values of the following
expressions:
a) 640
7
16
and 640/
7
16
;
b) 243
_

10
27
_
and 243/
_

10
27
_
.
(1) 41. Give some pair (x, y) of values for the variables x and y which
turns the following propositions into true statements:
a) city x is farther north than city y;
b) word x is part of speech y.
47. Let n be a natural number. Give:
a) the number following n in the sequence of natural numbers;
b) the number preceding n (n > 1) in the sequence of natural
numbers;
c) the product of two sequential natural numbers, the lessor of
which is n;
d) the product of three sequential natural numbers, the greatest
of which is n (n > 2).
64. One reservoir contains 380m
3
of water and another contains 1,500m
3
of water. 80m
3
of water enters the rst reservoir every hour, and
E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 545
60m
3
ows out of the second every hour. In how many hours will
there be an equal amount of water in the reservoirs?
86. a) One side of a triangle is twice as long as the second side, and
3cm shorter than the third side. Find the lengths of the sides
of the triangle, given that the perimeter of the triangle is 33cm.
b) A rectangular sports eld is enclosed by a fence 320m long.
Find the area of the eld, given that it is 40m longer than it is
wide.
126. One shelf contained twice as many books as a second shelf. After 14
books were removed from the rst shelf and 7 books were removed
from the second shelf, there were again twice as many books on the
rst shelf as on the second. How many books did each shelf contain
originally?
Paragraph 8 of Chapter II starts out as follows:
If the domain of denition of a function is a nite set, the number
of elements of which is not very great, then the function can be
given by a listing of all pairs of corresponding elements. Tush, the
function f, given by the description each two-digit number less
than 16 has a corresponding remainder from the division of the
number by 4, can be given by listing all pairs of corresponding
elements:
(10, 2), (11, 3), (12, 0), (13, 1), (14, 2), (15, 3).
Arrows can be used to represent pairs of corresponding elements.
The same set of pairs can be written in a table, where x is the
variable whose value forms the domain of denition of function f
and y is the variable whose value comprises the range of values of
the function:
(Note the care taken to make sure that the domain and range in
these cases are small nite sets. The implication that such methods
can be used to give a function with innite domains and ranges is
a persistent error in U.S. texts.)
546 E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
This is further claried in Paragraph 9 where methods for giving a function
via formulas are discussed.
176. The number 0 corresponds to each two-digit prime number, and the
number 1 corresponds to each two-digit non-prime number. What
number corresponds to 12, to 17, to 29, to 99? Does this description
express a function?
177. Function r is given by the description for every natural number
there is a corresponding remainder when the number is divide by
4. What number is the image of 13, 120, 162, 999? What is the
range of values of function r?
Direct proportion is also handled very carefully. After a thorough dis-
cussion students are expected to solve problems like these:
227. Divide the number 468 into parts proportional to the numbers 3, 4,
6.
228. Find the angles of a triangle, given that they are proportional to
the numbers:
a) 2, 3, 10;
b) 1, 3, 4.
231. An alloy consists of copper, zinc, and nickel, the masses of which
are proportional to the numbers 13, 4, 3. What is the mass of the
alloy if it is known to contain 2.4kg more copper than nickel?
item[302.] Given the sets A = 3, 1, 0, 7 and B = 2, 3, 5.
The relation between sets A and B is given by the proposition
a + b > 0, where a A and b B. Give this relation by means
of arrows.
303. The relation between sets A = 3, 8, 11, 15 and B = 5, 7, 10 is
given by the proposition The dierence ab is a positive integer,
where a A and b B. Give this relation by means of a list of
pairs.
371. The domain of denition of the function y = f(x) is the set of all
non-zero numbers. If x (, 0), then the function is given by the
formula y =
12
x
, and if x (0, +), then by the formula y =
12
x
.
Graph the function f. How can the function f be given by a single
formula?
E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 547
The handling of inverse proportion is worth noting:
253. Are the following assertions true:
a) The time it takes a train to travel from A to B is inversely
proportional to its speed, on the condition that the train moves
at a constant speed.
548 E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
b) The time it takes a typist to type a manuscript is inversely
proportional to the number of pages she can type in one hour.
c) The number of pages in a book that have been read is inversely
proportional to the number of pages which remain to be read.
256. A bar of aluminum and a bar of iron have identical masses. Which
bare has the greater volume, and how much greater, if it is given
that the density of aluminum is 27g/cm
3
and the density of iron is
7.8g/cm
3
?
261. It took 18 hours for a ship to travel downstream. How long will the
return trip take if the ships speed is 26km/hr and the river current
is 2km/hr?
363. The length of a rectangular parallelepiped was doubled, and its
width was tripled. Hom must the height be changed for the volume
of the parallelepiped to remain the same?
364. In 5 hours a freight train covers the distance that a passenger train
covers in 3 hours. The trains left two towns at the same time,
heading towards one another. When they met the passenger train
had traveled 180km. How far had the freight train traveled? What
was the distance between the towns?
Here is the way the program handles division of powers:
E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 549
460. Prove that for any natural number n, the value of the fraction
10
n
+2
3
is a natural number.
550 E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
Here is the way the program begins the general discussion of polynomials:
566. A student found that the values of two expressions in a single vari-
able were dierent for a certain value of the variable. Is this enough
to assert that these expressions are not identically equal on the set
of all numbers?
E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 551
The discussion continues as follows after a complete discussion of mono-
mials:
The problems that follow are some of the more interesting problems from
the rest of the book except for the nal chapter on systems of equations:
594. Some algebra students were given the problem: Find the value of
the expression
(7a
3
ga
2
b + 5ab
2
) + (5a
3
+ 7a
2
b + 3ab
2
) (10a
3
+a
2
b + 8ab
2
)
for a = 0.25, b = 0.347. One of the students stated that there
was superuous data in the problem. Was he correct?
599. Prove:
a) that the sum of any two-digit numbers of the form ab and ba
is a multiple of 11;
552 E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
b) that the dierence of any two-digit numbers of the form ab and
ba is a multiple of 9.
605. Given that x = 5a
2
+6ab b
2
; y = 4a
2
+2ab +3b
2
; z = 9a
2
+4ab.
Substitute these polynomials for x, y, and z in each expression and
simplify it.
a) x +y +z;
b) x y z.
618. A hiker traveled distance AB, equal to 110km, in three days. On
the second day of the hike he traveled 5km less than on the rst
day, and on the third day he hiked 3/7 of the distance covered on
the rst two days. How many kilometers did the hiker travel each
day?
620. A freight train left station A for station B at a speed of 66km/hr
and 20 minutes later a passenger train left B in the direction of A
at 90km/hr. How long did the passenger train travel before meeting
the freight train, if the distance between stations A and B is 256km?
645. A hiker gures that if he walked to the train station at a speed of
4km/hr, he would be a half hour late for the train, and if he walked
at 5km/hr, then he would arrive at the station 6 minutes before the
train leaves. What distance does the hiker have to walk?
669. Find four consecutive natural numbers, given that the dierence
between the product of the two greatest numbers and the product
of the two remaining numbers equals 58.
670. Find three consecutive even numbers, given that the dierence be-
tween the product of the two largest numbers and the square of the
third equals 188.
671. The perimeter of a rectangle equals 60cm. If the length of the
rectangle is increased by 10cm, and the width is decreased by 6cm,
the area of the rectangle is reduced by 32cm
2
. Find the area of the
rectangle.
696. Compare the area of a square and a rectangle, given that the base
of the rectangle is 10cm greater and its height 10cm less than the
length of a side of the square.
720. Two trains set out at the same time from points A and B, 1,020km
apart, heading towards one another. The speed of one train was
10km/hr greater than that of the other. 8 hours later the trains
had already passed on another and were now 340km apart. Find
the speed of each train.
750. Prove that the following expressions cannot take on negative values:
a) b
2
+ 6b + 9;
b) a
2
12a + 36;
c) x
2
+ 10x + 25;
d) y
3
+ 8y
2
+ 16.
772. If the number 8 is written immediately to the left of a three-digit
number, and 619 is added to the resulting four-digit number, then
E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 553
this sum is 40 times greater than the original three-digit number.
Find the original three-digit number.
781. A motorboat traveling downstream for 5 hours covers the same
distance that it can travel upstream in 6 hours, 15 minutes. Find
the speed of the boat in still water, if the speed of the river current
is 2.4km/hr.
836. One number leaves a remainder of 1 after being divided by 5, and
another leaves a remainder of 2. Is the sum of the squares of these
numbers divisible by 5?
903. Do the following systems of equations have solutions:
a)
_
_
_
3x + 5y = 34
4x 5y = 13
2x y = 1;
b)
_
_
_
6x 5y = 15,
13x + 3y = 86,
3x +y = 18?
Here is the discussion of setting up and solving problems using systems
of equations:
554 E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM
Sample problems from this section:
919. In the soccer championships the Dynamo team did not lose a single
game of the eleven games they planed, and they gained 17 points.
How many games did Dynamo win and how many did it tie (a team
gets 2 points for a win and 1 for a tie)?
922. A tank is lled by means of two pipes. If water ows from the rst
pipe for 20 minutes and from the second for 10 minutes, there will
be 120 hectoliters of water in the tank. But if the rst pipe is open
15 minutes and the second 7 minutes, then 88.5 hectoliters of water
will ow into the tank. How many hectoliters of water per minute
ows into the tank through each pipe?
923. I am thinking of two numbers. If you add half of the second number
to the rst number, then you get 65; but if you subtract one third
of the rst number from the second, then you get the rst number.
What numbers am I thinking of?
925. It is necessary to make up 36 kilograms of a mixture of two types
of dried fruit (their prices are 1 ruble 20 kopecks and 1 ruble 50
kopecks per kg) which will cost 1 ruble 30 kopecks per kg. How
many kilograms of each type of dried fruit are needed?
988. Two tourists, with only one bicycle, have to travel a distance of
12km in an hour and a half. Each of them can attain a speed
of 20km/hr on the bicycle and 5km/hr on foot. Can the tourists
E. THE SIXTH GRADE TREATMENT OF ALGEBRA IN THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 555
cover the distance without being late? (Two people cannot ride the
bicycle at the same time).
997. Prove that the value of the expression 11
6
+14
6
13
3
is a multiple
of 10.
1002. If you take a certain two-digit number and split up its digits by
inserting the same two-digit number in between them, then the
four-digit number you get will be 77 times greater than the original
number. Find this number.
1003 Find a three-digit number which is equal to the square of a two-digit
number and the cube of a one-digit number.
1004. When the polynomial 2x
3
5x
2
+ 7x 8 was multiplied by the
polynomial ax
2
+bx +11, the product was a polynomial which did
not contain either and x
4
term or an x
3
term. Find the coecients
a and b and nd the polynomial which was the product.
1013. Can the dierence of two three-digit numbers, the second of which
has the same digits as the rst, but in reverse order ,be the square
of a natural number?
1017. Prove that p
2
1, where p is a prime number greater than 3 is
divisible by 24.
1020. Which is greater
10
10
+1
10
11
+1
or
1o
11
+1
10
12
+1
.