Nuclear Fusion:

The Solution to the Worlds Energy Crisis

Monday March 14, 2011 Carolyn Labun, Ph.D

Group Six Writers: Trevor Billows 68711084 Lukas Rusak 77312098 Reid Nielsen 53942090 Heather Mallory 28578102 Jered Lepp 87397107

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Table of Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ iv Glossary .......................................................................................................................................... v Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... vi Discussion Sections ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 2.0 The Origins of Nuclear Fusion .............................................................................................. 3 2.1 Naturally Occurring Fusion ............................................................................................... 3 2.2 Other Uses of Fusion Reactions ........................................................................................ 4 3.0 Current Production of Energy on Earth................................................................................. 5 3.1 Burning Coal...................................................................................................................... 5 3.2 Nuclear Fission .................................................................................................................. 5 3.3 Solar Energy ...................................................................................................................... 6 3.4 Finding a Better Method .................................................................................................... 7 4.0 Atomic Process of Nuclear Fusion ........................................................................................ 8 4.1 How Fusion Works ............................................................................................................ 8 4.1.1 Complexity..................................................................................................................8 4.1.2 The Process.................................................................................................................8 4.1.3 Energy Release............................................................................................................8 4.2 Fusion on Earth .................................................................................................................. 9 4.2.1 Elements......................................................................................................................9 4.2.2 Availability of Materials.............................................................................................9 4.2.3 Experimental Procedure..............................................................................................9 5.0 Fusion Challenges and Solutions ........................................................................................ 11 5.1 Achieving Star-like Conditions ....................................................................................... 11 5.2 Heat Containment/Management ...................................................................................... 11 5.2.1 Magnets.....................................................................................................................11 5.2.2 Modified Super Materials.......................................................................................12 5.2.3 Blankets and Ceramic Coatings................................................................................12

P a g e | iii 5.3 Large Scale Experiment................................................................................................... 13 6.0 Solving the Energy Need on Earth ...................................................................................... 14 6.1 International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) ........................................... 14 6.2 Schedule of Construction ................................................................................................. 15 7.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 16 References ..................................................................................................................................... 17 Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 19

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1: The process of nuclear fusion on the sun..............................................................................................7 Figure 3.1: Evolution of world coal estimates...............................................................................10 Figure 4.1: Atomic nuclear fusion used for energy production.....................................................13 Figure 4.2: A picture of the inside of the tokamak at Joint European Tours (JET).......................14 Figure 5.1: Schematic of a tokamak magnetic fusion device........................................................17 Figure 6.1: An aerial view of the ITER construction site in Cadarache, France...........................20

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Glossary
Antimatter Represents the idea of antiparticle. Just as there is matter made up of particles there is antimatter made up of antiparticles (positron, and antihydrogen). Deuterium A stable isotope of hydrogen containing one neutrons and one proton. ITER International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is the leading research facility responsible for providing the newest knowledge into using fusion to produce energy. Nuclear fission A nuclear reaction where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei or atomic particles; the reverse of nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion A nuclear reaction where two or more nuclei join or fuse together to form a larger and heavier nucleus. Nucleon A collective term for neutrons and protons. Plasma A state of matter where the material is heated significantly and a portion of the particles become ionized. This separates electrons and positive ions. Tritium An unstable isotope of hydrogen containing two neutrons and one proton. Tokamak A device that employs a magnetic field to hold plasma in the shape of a torus.

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Executive Summary
One of the 14 grand engineering challenges of the 21st century is to provide energy through the use of nuclear fusion. The purpose of this research report is to show how nuclear fusion is leading the way as the worlds future energy source. The main points of this paper address: The Origins of Nuclear Fusion, Current Production of Energy on Earth, Atomic Process of Nuclear Fusion, Fusion Challenges and Solutions, and Solving the Energy Need on Earth. Nuclear fusion is a reaction found on our sun and has been the source of life on earth since the beginning of time. Nuclear fusion has been suggested, for over 60 years, as the worlds next future energy source. It is important to look into the current research and development of nuclear fusion to know what direction our world is headed. To quote Soviet fusion pioneer Lev Artsimovich, Fusion will be ready when society needs it, that time is now (Cleary, D. 2006).

The Origins of nuclear fusion section focuses on fusion occurring on our sun and the uses of fusion reactions and discusses how the first use of a fusion reaction was found in the hydrogen bomb in 1952. The second section, Current Production of Energy on Earth, covers the current energy sources that our world relies on such as: coal, nuclear fission, solar energy, and future alternative energy sources. These energy sources are all well known with the possible exception of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is the exact opposite of nuclear fusion where it gives off energy when the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller, lighter nuclei. The third section, Atomic Process of Nuclear Fusion, explains how fusion works and an overview of the fusion reaction. The fusion reaction may seem simple in theory, combining two small atoms, but in real life it takes an immense amount of energy to start the fusion reaction. This section is necessary to understand the basics of a fusion reaction. The fourth section, Fusion Challenges and Solutions,

P a g e | vii outlines the challenges that scientists face when conducting a fusion reaction. The extreme temperature of a fusion reaction is a hard challenge to overcome; magnets, modified materials, liquid blankets, and ceramic coatings are all potential solutions to containing the heat and pressure of the reaction. The final section, Solving the Energy Need on Earth, outlines the next major step for nuclear fusion with the constructing an experimental reactor to test the nuclear fusion reaction process, start to finish. This experimental reactor, called the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, is being constructed to advance nuclear fusion research.

After reading this report, it is recommended that nuclear fusion is supported by any means possible as it is our responsibility to not let this technology slip away. From a business point of view, buying stocks or investing in nuclear fusion is highly recommended. When fusion explodes as the number one renewable energy source of the world, fusion development companies stocks will rise exponentially and stock holders will be well rewarded.

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Discussion Sections
1.0 Introduction
This technical research report has been written in response to one of the 14 Grand Challenges for Engineering put forth by the National Academy of Engineering. The purpose of this report is to discuss the possibilities of fusion being the future in energy production. Nuclear Fusion: The Solution to the Worlds Energy Crisis will discuss the origin of nuclear fusion and how society has already used this technology. Furthermore it will go on to explain the different methods being used today to provide the world with energy. How and why nuclear fusion works will be discussed in detail as well as the challenges encountered when dealing with a process such as fusion. Suggestions as to a solution for this grand challenge of providing energy from fusion will be given and the current major research project underway will be discussed. In preparation for writing this report our research team was divided up and given positions such as project manager, lead researcher and editor. The team then divided up the main topics to be discussed and researched each specific topic individually. Many different tools were used to aid in the research portion of this technical report. As a team it was decided upon to try and use as many peer reviewed articles as possible as having at least two per section was one of the requirements. We found that the best places to find these peer reviewed articles were in databases such as Compendex and EBSCOhost and continued to rely on these two databases for a majority of the research period. In addition to Compendex and EBSCOhost various corporate and government websites were used to find specific information in regards to global energy consumption and construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor.

Page |2 The largest provider of energy in todays society is coal; it is not renewable and has a huge negative impact on the environment. With the coal reserves continuously declining and no major energy source to take its place it is imperative that a new way to provide a sustainable source of clean energy is needed. If scientists can successfully find a way to harness fusion energy, the world will be able to live without worrying about energy consumption for years to come.

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2.0 The Origins of Nuclear Fusion

When looking into nuclear fusion we must first look into where the idea first came from and where our early attempts to harness it were. Fusion existed in stars before anywhere else and the first time society tried to use it weapons were created to harm each other by harnessing the energy given off by the fusion reaction. 2.1 Naturally Occurring Fusion The thought of fusion usually brings to mind the thought of the sun, our main heat source. It gives off immense amounts of heat and energy allowing us to be alive today on Earth. At the suns core it is 15,000,000 degrees Kelvin, that is hotter than anything we can even imagine (Grieb. C, 2006). These temperatures are only possible due to nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms. The fusion process on the sun is shown as: . (1)

The process is actually completed in three steps, the first happens when two hydrogen atoms combine together to form a deuterium atom (heavy hydrogen) (Manuel. O, 2009). Further, one deuterium atom combines with another hydrogen atom and becomes helium, two of these helium atoms can combine to become Helium 4 and when this happens they let out two hydrogen atoms. The process is shown in Figure 2.1. This allows the process to be able to be repeated because there is always hydrogen. The sun has an incredibly large mass of 1.98892 1030 Kg which creates the huge amounts of pressure needed to start the fusion reaction. Once the reaction has started the amount of heat produced adds to the reaction and it becomes self-sustaining.

Page |4 2.2 Other Uses of Fusion Reactions The atomic bomb (hydrogen bomb) was first thought of in the early 1940s. It was predicted that, one gram of deuterium atoms would release the energy equivalent of 150 tons of TNT. (Tucker. J, 1996). When the concept finally became reality in 1952, a hydrogen bomb was let off that was equivalent to 10.4 megatons of TNT (Tucker J, 1996). These early hydrogen bombs were actually a two stage design, the first being an atomic bomb detonating creating nuclear fission. Once there was enough heat it imploded a canister of liquid deuterium causing nuclear fusion and large amounts of energy to be released. The first hydrogen bomb, codenamed Mike, was 20 feet in length.

These two examples are providing grounds for our future in harnessing the power of nuclear fusion for the good of humanity. Studying the sun has provided us with many answers about the process of nuclear fusion. The creation of the hydrogen bomb provided us with further understanding of nuclear fusion and the power that it can provide. Now all that is needed is to put nuclear fusion to good use.

Figure 2.1: The process of nuclear fusion on the sun Note. From ScienceBlogs by Ethan Seigel (2010), retrieved from http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2010/09/the_new_nu_news.php

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3.0 Current Production of Energy on Earth

How our society currently produces energy for the massive worldwide demand. 3.1 Burning Coal With coal being one of the worlds most widely used energy resources it is pertinent to consider the ever decreasing amount of coal available for consumption as well as the negative effects this resource has on the planet. Currently coal accounts for 26.5% of the worlds prime energy sources. As of 2005, coal fired power plants accounted for over 42% of the worlds electricity supply (Hk et al, 2010). Unfortunately, with this being said, these same power stations were responsible for 28% of the global carbon dioxide emissions (International Energy Agency, 2010). It is estimated by the Coal Industry Advisory Board, a sector of the International Energy Agency, that there were 909 billion tonnes of coal remaining for consumption in 2005. With a global consumption rate of approximately 6, 496, 334 thousand short tons of coal per year this resource is estimated to last 155 years (U.S. Department of Energy, 2009). Accounting for an annual growth rate of 5% this number drastically lowers to an astounding 45 years bringing us to the year 2051. By looking at figure 3.1 it is possible to see the declining trend of the worlds coal reserves. It becomes evident quite quickly that although this resource is well researched and widely used, the need for something with more production efficiency, sustainability, and a largely reduced environmental impact is fast approaching. 3.2 Nuclear Fission Essentially being almost the exact opposite of nuclear fusion, nuclear fission requires the nucleus of an atom to split in to smaller, lighter nuclei. This nuclear reaction is an exothermic one which makes it possible to provide energy for both nuclear power and to

Page |6 drive the explosions within nuclear weaponry. In 2005 nuclear power, generated from the process of nuclear fission, provided roughly 5.5% of the worlds energy. Given that this number is small in comparison to other forms of energy production one would think that the hazards and waste as a result of this process would be minimal as well. Unfortunately this is not the case. Only a small portion of a nuclear fuel rod is actually used in the production of nuclear power, the rest is high level waste that is stored away. Currently scientists do not have a method of recycling this waste and so it just sits in containers. With hazardous wastes being so high nuclear fission is not the ideal energy form of the future. 3.3 Solar Energy Every year humans use approximately 4.6 x 1020 joules of energy. This same amount of energy can be provided by the sun alone in just one hour. Although these numbers pose solar energy to be an attractive form of renewable energy, harnessing and storing this energy brings life to a new challenge of converting this energy into a form that is useful to society. Once solar energy has been successfully converted into either electricity or heat it must be stored for time periods that are without daylight. The challenge of finding a cost effective way to store solar energy once it has been converted into electricity and heat has proved to be enough of a challenge that without a phenomenal leap in technology solar energy will continue to be a fill in for other energy sources that are more established and reliable (Crabtree, 2007).

Page |7 3.4 Finding a Better Method Currently there are many projects underway around the world with the same common goal of obtaining more knowledge in various areas of energy production and finding a more sustainable energy resource for future generations. Perhaps one of the more notable and large scale operations currently underway is for the advancement of nuclear fusion. The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) based in Cadarache, France is currently under construction and will be the largest ever built thermonuclear reactor and is anticipated to make groundbreaking discoveries in the area of nuclear fusion. Without projects such as these which are dedicated to researching and advancing the worlds current lack of large scale alternative energy society will be faced with an impending energy crisis.

Figure 3.1: Evolution of world coal estimates Note. From Global coal production outlooks based on a logistic model by M. Hk, W. Zittel, J. Schindler, & K. Aleklett, 2010, Fuel, 89(11), pp. 3546-3558. Copyright Elsevier.

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4.0 Atomic Process of Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion at an atomic level is characterized below. 4.1 How Fusion Works 4.1.1 Complexity The process of nuclear fusion seems simple when looking at the reaction on paper; two smaller atoms are combined to produce one larger atom, a neutron and energy. However with deeper analysis of the conditions required for the reaction fusion is anything but simple. 4.1.2 The Process The process requires two atoms nuclei to be brought extremely close together to fuse and create a single nucleus. An atoms nucleus (made up of protons and neutrons collectively called nucleons) has a positive charge due to the protons (Sciulli, 2001). These like charges repel each other and take a great deal of energy to overcome. However, in order to fuse the nuclei together this electrostatic force must be conquered. Once pushed close enough together the nuclear force (the force responsible for binding the nucleons together) prevails over the electrostatic repulsion allowing the nuclei to attract one another and fuse. 4.1.3 Energy Release When bonds are formed between nucleons significant amounts of energy is released. The mass of the final nucleus is actually lighter than that of the individual nucleons involved and by Einsteins famous formula (E=mc2) this mass is converted to excess energy and huge amounts of it (Lange, 2001). This

Page |9 leads to significant more energy than chemical reactions and nuclear fusion is second to only converting mass directly to energy (colliding matter and antimatter) in terms of producing energy per unit mass. The release of this energy draws interest in the hopes of gathering it. 4.2 Fusion on Earth 4.2.1 Elements Research has led to significant breakthroughs using nuclear fusion as a method to produce energy. The most efficient method on Earth has come from using a deuterium (2H, hydrogen with a neutron) and tritium (3H, hydrogen with two extra neutrons) as fuel producing helium, a neutron, and energy (17.6 MeV) (Smith & Ward, 2007). This is the most efficient method for a laboratory process and is demonstrated in Figure 4.1. 4.2.2 Availability of Materials Deuterium and tritium are both readily available on Earth. Deuterium is a radioactive isotope but can easily be fabricated from water which is abundant enough. Tritium is rare in nature but with a simple nuclear reaction from lithium, also abundant, is practically endless in supply. 4.2.3 Experimental Procedure The fuels are heated to 100,000,000 degrees Celsius, ten times hotter than the sun, to form plasma. When a gas forms plasma, electrons become delocalized from the atoms and the plasma becomes electrically charged. A tokamak (a device that uses a magnetic field produced by electromagnets to hold plasma in a torus

P a g e | 10 shape, see Figure 4.2) is used to house the reaction and harvest the energy produced (Smith & Ward, 2005). Once started the process will be practically self sustaining which allows the new technology to produce greater than break-even energy output. The helium atom remains at a high temperature with energy and electrically charged therefore stays in the plasma to maintain the process. Another 80 percent of the energy produced is received by the walls of the tokamak from a neutron that escapes the magnetic field due to its neutral charge.

Figure 4.1: Atomic nuclear fusion used for energy production Note. From Nuclear Fusion, Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion, 10 March 2011

Figure 4.2: A picture of the inside of the tokamak at Joint European Tours (JET) Note. From Nuclear fusion power: A bright long-term future by C.L. Smith & D. Ward, 2005, Proceedings of the ICE Civil Engineering, 158(6) pp. 59-63. Retrieved from http://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/article/10.1680/cien.2005.158.6.59

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5.0 Fusion Challenges and Solutions

In all designs there are challenges and problems that have to be addressed in order for the design to be successful. If there were no problems to overcome there would be no need reason for one to construct a design that overcomes challenges. The reason for failure of any design is due to the fact that certain problems were not approached and were not dealt with, at worst simply ignored. Nuclear fusion faces its own challenges; these challenges are discussed below. 5.1 Achieving Star-like Conditions
Nuclear fusion requires immense amount of heat for the reaction to take place. Temperatures surrounding the plasma have to replicate the conditions found on our sun; extreme temperatures of 100 million degrees Kelvin must be achieved. Current technology has allowed scientists to achieve these extreme temperatures by combining chain heating procedures such as: Ohmic heating (electrical current applied through plasma), concentrated laser beams, and microwave heating (Lee, 2010).

5.2 Heat Containment/Management

One of the main challenges faced in a feasible fusion method is the ability to contain heat, pressure, and energy of the reaction; this task can appear impossible with temperatures of 100,000,000 degrees Kelvin. In order to handle this problem scientists have employed certain tactics such as: superconducting magnets, modified materials, blankets, and ceramic coatings.

5.2.1 Magnets
Tokamak fusion reactors use an approach of magnetic confinement to carry out the nuclear fusion process. The Tokamak magnetic fusion device, seen in Figure 1 below, uses coils wrapped around a circular tube that is evacuated and filled with plasma (deuterium and tritium fuel). The coils create a magnetic field around the metal walled

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tube which prevents the plasma inside from touching the inner walls. The major challenge faced is creating a magnetic field that is capable of producing values of 10 teslas (Fowler, 1989).

5.2.2 Modified Super Materials The materials of a fusion reactor are subjected to thermal, mechanical, chemical, and radiation loads during reactor operation (Sahin et al, 2008). This being said, the correct material must be capable of handling extreme conditions, be fairly inexpensive, and provide a long service life. Austenitic stainless steels, as stated in the Journal of Fusion Energy, have been chosen as the main structure for ITER due to their excellent manufacturability, adequate mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance (Sahin et al, 2008). 5.2.3 Blankets and Ceramic Coatings Liquid based blankets are very crucial for a fusion reactor as they absorb heat, prevent radiation escape, and absorb tritium (reusable fuel used in the fusion reactor) given off from the fusion reaction. Liquid blankets surround the fusion reactor and can be combined with ceramic coatings to provide excellent containment (Mota, 2011). A ceramic coating made up of 30% SiO2 and 70% Cr2O3 has proven to effectively reduce permeable radiation to the outside world. The benefit of the coating is that it can be applied to vulnerable materials in and around the reactor at a very low cost and high efficiency (Takayuki, 1997).

P a g e | 13 5.3 Large Scale Experiment The final challenge of fusion requires that all the research knowledge gained to this day be incorporated into one large scale experiment. This task is currently in the works at a cost of roughly 16 billion pounds and 10 years of construction to build a test facility called the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor.

Figure 5.1: Schematic of a tokamak magnetic fusion device Note. From Nuclear Fusion by T.K. Fowler (1989), IEEE Potentials vol.8, pp 7-10. Copyright 1989 by IEEE

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6.0 Solving the Energy Need on Earth

The goals of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) will be outlined below.

6.1 International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)

The ITER complex is an experimental facility being constructed in Southern France on a 90 hectare piece of land, see Figure 5.1. It is being designed to draw the information necessary to build a commercial fusion power plant. In this experiment physicists will analyze plasma in the simulated conditions in order to see what is expected from a larger, future power plant. The ITER power plant will be the first facility to produce net power from fusion. This means it will at least be able to dispense as much energy as is put into it (Ikeda, 2010). Power plants up until this period, specifically the Joint European Torus (JET) have only produced a maximum of 70% output energy compared to input. The ITER facility once fully running is expected to have a 1000% output rate. This breaks all previous hypotheses that energy cannot be created, therefore this experiment will provide mankind with a revolutionary future. For example, by putting in 50MW of energy, the ITER is speculated to output 500MW of energy. These profound advances in supplying energy will essentially provide an unlimited source of energy for the years to come. Subsequent to the research performed at ITER, a full-scale fusion plant will be developed called DEMO, basing itself on the results from ITER. This plant is expected to contribute between 2 and 4 gigawatts of power into the commercial grid (Rebut, 1995). The futuristic plant will exceed the 10 times output and provide the world with an incredible amount of energy compared to the little energy that will need to be input.

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6.2 Schedule of Construction

As the ITER facility is currently being built, there is still a short wait for mankind before they can fully delve into the mysteries of fusion. At this point in time the main apparatus for fusion to be carried out is being constructed. The seven main countries working on this project are fabricating this device called a tokamak: China, Europe, India, Japan, Korea, Russia, and the USA. This year, 2011, the facility to hold the tokamak is being constructed and by 2015 the assembly of the tokamak itself will begin. The engineers working on this major project are aiming to have construction complete by 2018 in time for what is hoped to be the first acquired plasma in November of 2019 (ITER, 2011). This being a groundbreaking event for science, and even mankind, analysis of the plasma will be carried out for several years until 2026 when the deuterium-tritium operation will commence. Preceding the deuterium-tritium operations, the ITER complex will create energy and draw data for the future DEMO project until 2038 when it will come to a close. Upon the closing years of ITER, DEMO will be constructed and is speculated to begin supplying the global power grid with energy by the year 2040 and onwards (EC, 2010).

Figure 6.1: An aerial view of the ITER construction site in Cadarache, France Note. From CERN Document Server by Agence ITER France (2009), http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1209650, Copyright 2009 by Agence ITER France/Vision du Ciel

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7.0 Conclusion
We were able to successfully answer our grand engineering challenge of Providing Energy from Fusion. With individual topics such as the origins of fusion power, current production of energy on earth, the atomic process, challenges of fusion, and solving the energy need on earth, the scope of our research covers all necessary approaches to answer this problem. After researching into our topic we were able to come to the conclusion that fusion is not only a feasible energy source, but the best choice against all alternatives.

With all the energy that we consume each day, we must find an alternative energy source. After looking into the background of fusion energy we are able to see why it is the best choice available. Other methods such as coal and solar power have many downsides that dont allow them to be successful in our future. Fusion energy is a sustainable energy source that will be able to supply us with power into the foreseeable future. Being a clean source of energy there is no drawbacks to the environment. Currently the first fusion power plant is under construction and it will be operational in 2019. ITER will prove to the rest of the world that fusion energy is both environmentally friendly and efficient as a power source.

Recommending fusion power is impossible as it isnt available yet. Furthermore, we do recommend that people become more aware about fusion power and all the benefits it provides. Fusion will be our leading energy source in the near future.

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References
Clery, D. (2006). ITER's $12 billion gamble. Science, 314(5797), 238-242. Crabtree, G. W., & Lewis, N. S. (2007). Solar energy conversion. Physics Today, 60(3), 37-41. Deutch, J. M., Moniz, E. J. (2006). The nuclear option. Scientific American, 295(3), 76-83. European Commission. (2010). ITER future and DEMO. Retrieved March 13, 2011, from http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/euratom/fusion/iter/future/index_en.htm Fowler, T.K. (1989). Nuclear Fusion. IEEE Potentials, vol. 8, p. 7-10 Grieb, C., & Raghavan, R. S. (2007). Probing the temperature profile of energy production in the sun. The American Physical Society., 98(14), 141102. Hk, M., Zittel, W., Schindler, J., & Aleklett, K. (2010). Global coal production outlooks based on a logistic model. Fuel, 89(11), 3546-3558. ITER Organization. (2011). ITER & beyond Retrieved March 13, 2011, from http://www.iter.org/proj/iterandbeyond Kaname Ikeda. (2010). ITER on the road to fusion energy [Abstract]. Nuclear Fusion, 50(1) 014002. Lange, M. (2001). The most famous equation. The Journal of Philosophy, 98(5), 219-238. Lee, S., Saw Heoh, S. (2010). Mankinds Giant Step Forward. Nuclear Fusion Energy. Manuel, O. (2009). Earth's heat source - the sun. Energy & Environment, 20(1), 131-144. Takayuki, T. (1997). Research and development on ceramic coatings for fusion reactor liquid blankets. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 248, P. 153-158.
Rebut, P. (1995). ITER: The first experimental fusion reactor. Fusion Engineering and Design, 27, 3-16.

P a g e | 18 Sahin, S., et al (2008). A review on the potential use of austenitic stainless steels in nuclear fusion reactors. Journal of Fusion Energy, Vol. 4, P. 271-277. Sciulli, F. (2001). Neutron and proton structure today. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 359(1779), 241-256. Smith, C. L., & Ward, D. (2005). Nuclear fusion power: A bright long-term future. Proceedings of the ICE - Civil Engineering, 158(6), 59-63. Retrieved from http://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/article/10.1680/cien.2005.158.6.59 Smith, C. L., & Ward, D. (2007). The path to fusion power. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 365(1853), 945-956. Takayuki, T. (1997). Research and development on ceramic coatings for fusion reactor liquid blankets. Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 248, P. 153-158. Tucker, J. B. (1996). Dark sun: The making of the hydrogen bomb. Technology Review, 99(3), 69-71. U.S. Department of Energy. (2009). International energy statistics. Retrieved March 13, 2011, from http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=1&pid=1&aid=2

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Appendix

Figure 3.1: Evolution of World Coal Estimates . (1)