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Doordarshan is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharati, a public service broadcaster nominated by the Government of India. It is one of the largest broadcasting organizations in the world in terms of the infrastructure of studios and transmitters. On September 15, 2009, Doordarshan celebrated its 50th anniversary. Doordarshan had a modest beginning with the experimental telecast starting in Delhi on 15 September 1959 with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extended to Mumbai and Amritsar in 1972. Up until 1975, only seven Indian cities had a television service and Doordarshan remained the sole provider of television in India. In 1976 each office of All India Radio and Doordarshan were placed under the management of two separate Director Generals in New Delhi. Finally Doordarshan as a National Broadcaster came into existence.
1.1 Channels
Presently, Doordarshan operates 21 channels 2 All India channels-DD National and DD News 11 Regional languages Satellite Channels (RLSC) 4 State Networks (SN) 1 International channel 1 Sports Channel (DD Sports) 2 channels (Rajya Sabha TV & DD-Lok Sabha)
DD Sports DD Bharathi
Regional
DD Bangla DD Kashmir DD Urdu DD Punjabi DD NorthEast DD Sahyadri DD Gujarati DD Malayalam DD Podhigai DD Saptagiri DD Odia
1.1.2International broadcasting
DD India broadcasts internationally via satellite and it is available in 146 countries worldwide.
2.1 Ku band
The Ku band is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range of frequencies. This symbol refers to "K-under" (originally German: Kurz-unten) in other words, the band directly below the K-band. Ku band is primarily used for satellite communications, most notably for fixed and broadcast services, and for specific applications such as NASA's Tracking Data Relay Satellite used for both space shuttle and ISS communications. Ku band satellites are also used for backhauls and particularly for satellite from remote locations back to a television network's studio for editing and broadcasting. The band is split into multiple segments that vary by geographical region by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). NBC was the first television network to uplink a majority of its affiliate feeds via Ku band in 1983. 2.1.1 Other Microwave Bands Compared with C-band, Ku band is not similarly restricted in power to avoid interference with terrestrial microwave systems, and the power of its uplinks and downlinks can be increased.
It originally stood for Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948. In areas where Over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.
L band S band C band X band
Ku band 1 to 2 GHz 2 to 4 GHz 4 to 8 GHz 8 to 12 GHz 10.95-14.5 GHz 18 to 26.5 GHz 26.5 to 40 GHz 30 to 50 GHz 40 to 60 GHz 50 to 75 GHz 110 to 170 GHz
In the 1990s cable providers began to invest heavily in new digital based distribution systems. Increased competition and programming choices from Direct-broadcast satellite services such as DirecTV, Dish Network, and Prime Star caused cable providers to seek new ways to provide more programming. Customers were increasingly interested in more channels, pay-per-view programming, digital music services, and high speed internet services
2.3 DTH
D.T.H stands for Direct-To-Home television. It refers to a digital satellite service that provides television services direct to subscribers anywhere in the country. Since it makes use of wireless technology, TV channels/programs are sent to the subscriber's television direct from the satellite, eliminating the need for cables and any cable infrastructure.
In DTH telecast, the signals are transmitted in Ku band (10.7 GHz to 18 GHz) and are received by the subscribers through a small dish antenna (about 45cm in dia.) and a set-top box (or an integrated receiver decoder). The DTH system can also provide many value-added services such as the Internet, e-mail, data casting, e-commerce, and interactive multimedia. In order to receive DTH service, you need the following two basic components: 1. Dish Antenna. 2. Receiver /Set Top Box (STB).
Low Power Transmitter (LPT): Transmitted power 100w-500w Local area transmitter covers distance around 21kms E.g.: Located in Kakinada Very Low Power Transmitter (VLPT): Transmitted power 10w Distance covered is around 5-10Km E.g.: Located in Peddapuram
form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it is highly directive. Main advantages to use the parabolic dish antenna are: It is a Passive receiver It receives signal from satellite
If the size of the dish increases gain is also increases. So that receiving capability increases. A typical parabolic antenna consists of a parabolic reflector with a small feed antenna at its focus, pointed back toward the reflector. The reflector is a metallic surface formed into a parabola and usually truncated in a circular rim that forms the diameter of the antenna.
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azimuth is an angular measurement in a spherical coordinate system. The vector from an observer (origin) to a point of interest is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane, the angle between the projected vector and a reference vector on the reference plane is called the azimuth angle.
b) Azimuth angle
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Fig 4.2: Block diagram of receiving section The parabolic dish antenna is metal structure with a shape of half circle, and apart from that at a distance a feed arm is held with support in air to which a low noise amplifier in addition to the low noise block convertor and the internal relay station there is a digital broadcast receiver in for monitoring and later on re-transmission of the signal is done in the transmitting section For transmission, a signal (sound or light) is first converted to an electrical signal using a microphone or a video camera. These signals are then superimposed on to a carrier wave before being sent to the transmitter. Different channels of a radio or television use
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carrier waves of different frequencies. Radio/TV receivers are so designed that they can tune in to a particular frequency of electromagnetic waves at a time they ignore other signals.
The images and sounds corresponding to one particular signal can then be selectively processed and reproduced by the receivers. It is important to remember that radio waves are only part of an extensive spectrum of electromagnetic waves. This spectrum includes such familiar radiations as visible light; ultraviolet and infrared radiations, as well as X-rays and gamma rays. As you may be aware they all exhibit phenomenon of reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference and absorption. Since sound or the image signals both travel as an electromagnetic wave, their velocity is the speed of light and they reach any destination on Earth almost instantaneously. The process of mixing electrical signals from a microphone or a TV/video camera with an electromagnetic carrier wave is known as modulation. At present two kinds of signal modulation are commonly used Amplitude Modulation (AM) and Frequency Modulation (FM). In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier electromagnetic wave at any instant of time is changed corresponding to the amplitude of the signal electric current and in frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier wave at a particular instant of time is changed according to the amplitude of the signal wave. Normally amplitude modulation is used for
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carrier frequencies corresponding to the short, medium and long wavelength bands of radio frequencies. The television signal is made up of two parts, both related to each other by the frequency of the carrier signal. The image signal is amplitude modulated and occupies about three fourth of the total bandwidth (which is usually 6 MHz) the audio component of the TV signal is frequency modulated and has a frequency in the range of the upper quarter of the band frequency range. Television and radio receivers are generally designed to process signals in a certain frequency range which are globally allotted for the respective signals. Normal radio receivers therefore cannot process sound signals meant for televisions. But such radio receivers can be designed. A Radio/TV transmitter performs essentially three functions: generation of the carrier currents for the sound and/or light signals, modulation and amplification of the resulting signal (so that it has enough energy to dissipate over a large area). The carrier currents have frequencies accurate to roughly one part in200, 000. The signals are then sent to the transmission antenna, which in turn, sends the signal out into air as electromagnetic waves. The receiver receives the electromagnetic waves through its own antenna, demodulates the received signal (by mixing with an electromagnetic wave corresponding to the carrier wave frequency generated within itself) and then recreates the original sounds and/or images. The broadcasting range of a transmitter depends both on its power (measured in watts) as well as the frequency of the transmitted signals. For example, a typical strong AM radio station which broadcasts signals in the range of 1000 KHz (in medium wave band) has a power of 50, 000 watts and its signals can be received far away. For example, programs broadcast on Delhi-B by a 50, 000 watts transmitter in New Delhi can be heard at night as far as Calcutta (about 1500 km away). The least powerful AM stations operate at 250 watts and usually serve only neighbouring areas. AIR Chandigarh programmes can be received in Delhi but not beyond. The power of FM stations which broadcast signals in the range of 100 MHz, ranges from 100 watts (which can broadcast up to 30 kilometres) to 100,000 watts, (which can broadcast up to about 100 kilometres). The dependence of the range of a radio signal on its frequency is essentially due to absorption of these waves by matter. As the frequency of the carrier wave increases it is absorbed more readily by the structures in its way. Since the television signals are generally transmitted on carrier waves popularly known as VHF (Very High Frequency waves) they can only be transmitted and received more like light i.e. in straight lines. VHF signals, unlike short-wave radio signals transmitted by radio stations, transmitting in short-wave frequency band, cannot be reflected by the upper layers of
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atmosphere. Television or FM signals therefore cannot be transmitted directly to receivers located at very long distances. But now with the advent of satellites it is possible to beam signals both in VHF and UHF (Ultra High Frequency) range to geostationary satellites, which can then transmit these signals back to another far off location on Earth.
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4.3.3. Tropospheric scatter propagation or forward scatter propagation [above 30MHz i.e. UHF and micro wave range]: The UHF and microwave signals are propagated beyond line of sight propagation through the forward scattering in the tropospheric irregulations. This mode of propagation is of practical significance at UHF and microwave frequency ranges. This mode uses the properties of the troposphere. Hence it is also known as troposphere scatter propagation. This type of scatter propagation also needs to the Ionospheric scatter propagation for frequencies in the lower range. Both Ionospheric scatter and tropospheric scatter produce undesirable noise and fading which can be taken with diversity reception. 4.3.4. Ground wave propagation- plane wave earth reflection: When the transmitting and receiving antennas are elevated the useful propagation can be achieved by means of the space wave propagation. As the two antennas are within the line of sight of each other the propagation of such space wave is also called line of sight propagation. Basically for the line of sight propagation the resultant signal obtained is the combination of the space wave and the surface wave whereas the VHF and UHF transmissions are different. Here the antennas are of two types where the propagation of the signal is done. The word mast means that a supporting structure. 4.3.1.1. Self-supporting mast: It is a general broadcasting purpose antenna here the antenna is held at height so that the transmission of the signals would be without any obstacles. It is generally almost used in all media using sectors. 4.3.1.2. Guided wire mast:
The mast here is suspended from the ground and it is supported by some wires so that it would with stand to the climatic conditions.
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5.1 Audio- Video switcher: This unit performs the function of selecting one of the four sets audio and video inputs. The video input levels to the unit are 0.5 1.5 Vp-p and +10 dB/m respectively. This unit as an associated power supply to derive +15v, +5v and -15v required for its sub units from 230V AC. One of the programme sources (video or audio) can be selected using PUSH button switches available on the front panel. 5.2 Exciter: The audio and video outputs from audio-video switcher unit are fed to exciter unit. The audio input is fed directly to the aural modulator while the video signal is passed through a low pass filter before being fed to its respective modulator. The audio is frequency modulated using 33.4MHz IF. While video signal is amplitude modulated using 38.9 MHz IF. The modulated signals are combined and then up converted to the desired transmitted channel frequency. The video output power level after vestigial sideband filter and mixer is 10MW synchronous peak while audio is 1mW ALC (automatic level control) input is available on VSBF mixer unit which can be fed from P.A stages to keep the overall transmitter power output constant. The power supply need +16V and +28V for the unit is supplied by P.S.U 5.3 Driver Amplifier: The up- convertor signal from the exciter is fed to an attenuator which is placed at the front panel and adjusting the input levels suitably. The signal is amplified using class A
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driver stages. The overall gain of the amplifier can be adjusted by the front panel attenuator control to be about 33db. The output of the amplifier is fed to the directional coupler where in samples of transmitted and reflected power is obtained and fed to metering unit which defects the signal and feds suitable voltage to a DC meter placed at the front panel. The three position switch on the front panel selects the parameters to be monitored viz. vision, power, aural power and reflected power. Readings are to be read with black picture aural power indication is valid for black picture only. A separate exhaust fan operating at 230V AC is provided for blowing off air in the driver unit to control the temperature raise for operation of driver amplifier. A portion of output power is taken to the back panel of the driver unit for monitoring purposes. The front panel output constant called Ale can be fed to the exciter ALC in to the driver output constant at the set level. The availability of the input power 28V to the unit is indicated through a green LED on the front panel DC Check facility is provided to monitor currents of 4 stages of power amplifiers by patching a chord meter on combiner /divider unit. 5.4 Divider: The linearity corrector output is to divide into four equal amplitude and phase outputs to fed four PA to get the required output power. To achieve this connection, a four way splitter is used by terminating unused parts. The four ways splitter doesnt have any achieved components for isolation resistor. It is a micro strip circuit design based on Wilkinsons power divided principles. 5.5 Combiner: The two way power combiner is a sub unit in the 500W transmitter there are such units. A two way combiner is used to combine the outputs of four amplifiers. For the first level combining pairs of amplifiers are combined output or pairs of amplifiers is combined in a second level of combining resulting in 600W peak sync output power. All units are identical electrically and mechanically and are interchangeable. It is based on the Wilkinsons power combiner principle. The combiner is realized as a micro strip line on a PCB substrate with an isolation resistor for isolating all the ports.
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5.6 Power Amplifier Unit: The power amplifier unit comprises of two similar 60W power amplifier modules. The R.F power output from the driver unit is divided in to two parts using the divider in the divider/combiner unit and fed to each 5.0W power amplifiers. Each power amplifier is fed with power input which is amplified to 50W (Sync peak) by four class A paralleled power amplifier stages with a gain of approximately 6 & 10dB for channel 9.10 & 11; 12 respectively. - this output is fed to a directional coupler for obtaining samples of forward & reflected power (30 dB coupling) for monitoring purposes for the control unit. The control unit also obtains the temperature of heavy sink assembly through a thermistor. Separate power supply is made available for each power amplifier (28V, 20A). The power supplies are placed at the bottom portion of chassis assembly. A DC voltage proportional to current drawn by each of the transistor in power amplifier is available from bias unit on DC check connector placed over the front panel. This can be monitored on the current meter provided on divider combiner unit through suitable patch cord provided separately. There are two types of transmitters: 1. V.H.F transmitter 2. U.H.F transmitter.
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5. IF oscillator 6. Control oscillator 7. Aural modulator 8. Audio signal 9. Power combiner 10. Vestigial side band filter 11. Driver 12. +12V regulated power supply
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6.1.6 IF Amplifier:
This section amplifies the input form.The IF oscillator is to provide sufficient excitation to the modulator. It operates as an amplitude limiter and thus maintain a constant output even with changes in the IF oscillator output.
6.1.7 Modulator:
The video signal is applied in parallel to the modulator while the IF is fed in push pull amplifier.
6.1.9 IF Oscillator:
This unit generates the visual IF frequency at 38.9 MHz four outputs is available from this unit. It gives four equal outputs of +14dBm each. The first one goes to the visual modulator unit second one is used for monitoring, third one is taken to the local oscillator and the fourth one to the aural modulator unit.
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two stages. The output of one of the amplifiers is fed to the mixer, is brought out to the socket. The output of the VCO is frequency modulated by the audio signal from the audio amplifiers by injecting the audio signal at the cathode of the Varactor diodes through an RF choke. The DC bias current for the diodes is provided through the resistor. The output level of the VCO is about 0dBm.
6.1.14 Mixer:
The visual IF signal from the IF oscillator (38.9MHz) and the aural IF signal from the VCO (33.4MHz) are injected in the base of the mixer transistor. Coil and capacitor are tuned to 33.4MHz to provide isolation between visual IF port and VCO input port. The mixer output is 5.5MHz. This signal is amplified by a common emitter amplifier, the output of which is transformed into a square pulse. By the square pulse, pulse shaping network formed by diodes. This square signal is further frequency divided by a chain of dividers to give an output square pulse at 537 Hz which is fed to the APC. This division is carried out to minimize the phase error caused by the frequency modulation of audio signal in the VCO.
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overall gain of the amplifier can be adjusted by the front panel attenuator controlled to be about 33dB, such that 25W/30W will available for channel 9 and 10 transmitter and 10W/15W (sync) will be available channel for 11 and 12 transmitters at the output of driver unit. The output of the amplifier is fed to a directional coupler where in samples of transmitted and reflected power is obtained and fed to metering unit which detects the signal and feeds suitable 18 voltages to a DC meter placed at front panel. The three position switch on the front panel selects the parameters to be monitored, e.g. vision power, aural power, and reflected power. Readings are to be read with black picture signal. Aural indication is valid for black picture only a separate exhaust fan operating at 230V AC is provide for blowing of air in the driver unit to control the temperature rise for operation of the driver amplifier. A portion of output power is taken to the back panel of the driver unit for monitoring purpose. The front panel output called ALC can be fed to exciter ALC IN to keep the driver output to constant at the level. The availability of the input power 28W to the unit is indicated through a green LED on the front panel.
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7.1.2 Base Band Corrector Unit: The unit accepts the video signals and introduces the required pre-connection in differential phase, differential gain and luminance and non-linearity in order to compensate for the non-linearity encountered in the power amplifier without introducing any frequency response fall and group delay 7.1.3 Exciter:
The audio and video outputs from audio-video switcher unit are fed to exciter unit. The audio input is fed directly to the aural modulator while the video is passed through a low pass filter before being fed to its respective modulator. The audio is frequency modulated using 33.4MHz IF. While video signal is amplitude modulated using 38.9MHz IF. The modulated signals are
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combined and then up converted to the desired transmitted channel frequency. The video output power level after vestigial sideband filter and mixer is 10MW synchronous peak while audio is 1mW. ALC (automatic level control) input is available on VSBF mixer unit which can be fed from P.A. stages to keep the overall transmitter power output constant. The power supply need +16V and +28V. For the unit is supplied by P.S.U. In addition one +12V supply kept constant ON. Feeds power to oven controlled oscillator in VSBF and mixer unit, in order to maintain high frequency stability.
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Video Characteristics:
Number of lines per picture Interface ratio Field frequency Picture frequency Line frequency tolerance Aspect ratio Scanning frequency for lines Scanning frequency for fields Video bandwidth Approximate gamma of picture signal : : : : : : : : : : 625 2:1 50 fields/sec 25 pictures/sec 1562 lines/sec0.1% 4:3 left to right top to bottom 5MHz 0.5
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mask, keeps the beams from hitting any other colour dots but their own. When the television set shows a colour program, the neuron signals produced by light emitted from the three coloured dots blend together in the viewers brain to produce the perception of all the colours of the original scene. In case of a black and white program the dots appear to produce different amounts of white light. The picture on the TV screen is produced by the process of scanning the electron beam horizontally on the screen at a very fast rate. The beam is guided by the magnetic field produced by the signal electric current fed into coils which are located around the neck of the picture tube. The electron beam scans the screen much as a person reads from left to right, top to bottom. The scanning pattern for the normal TV sets used in India is made up of 625 lines. In a high definition TV it is made up of 1125 lines. As electrons constantly strike the screen, it acquires static electric charge, which can induce electric charge on our hairs on our hands/arms and make hair stick to the screen. A magnet distorts the path of the electron beams used to create the picture and hence the picture formed on the screen gets distorted when a magnet is brought close to it. Transmitting or receiving video signals without modulation/demodulation is indeed possible for short distances it is used in a close circuit television setup. A video tape recorder records and replays the video signal and the audio signals on a magnetic tape very much like an audio tape recorder records audio signal on audio cassettes. A normal TV receiver can receive transmitted TV on fourteen different channels. The frequency of these ranges from54, 000,000 Hz or54 MHz to216, 000,000 Hz, and 216 MHz. The bandwidth of each of these channels is6 MHz. Signals transmitted on such frequencies are known as VHF range, or very high frequency signals. TV signals can also be broadcast on frequencies between 470 MHz and 890 MHz known as the UHF range. Doordarshan in India broadcasts TV programs on the national channel (DD1) in VHF range. Both VHF and UHF signals act much like light, not bending much around the curvature of Earth and pass through the atmosphere. They are also blocked by structures and hills. An airplane coming in the way of the signal and the receiver therefore disturbs TV reception. Television broadcasting antennas are usually placed on tall towers standing on high ground, so that the radio signal which carries the television programme may travel as far as possible. But still the maximum range of a TV broadcast signal is in between 100 to250 km. Television signals are therefore sometimes broadcast via satellites to reach an audience
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farther off. The signals sent to the satellite are in the UHF range and are sent back towards the ground by the satellites. These signals are received by cable operators using large dish antenna. Often there is a limitation posed by the design of older television sets, which allots 6 MHz bandwidth to each channel. In order to overcome this limitation cable operators/recent television sets use single sideband (S Band) technology to modulate/demodulate the signals. Using this technology a larger number of TV signals can be distributed through a cable network. Such signals have bandwidth less than 6 MHzs.
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characteristic of its antenna. The antenna of a FM radio set is often in the form of a stretchable metallic rod, which normally points towards the sky, but one does sometimes experience changes in the sound intensity in an FM set. This is due to the fact that the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves used to carry FM signals is in the range of a few meters the dimensions of our usual rooms. These waves are reflected from the walls of the room and can be absorbed by objects coming in between. Hence sometimes signals become very weak or very strong when the receiver is placed pointing to a certain direction or someone comes in between. The metro channel of Doordarshan is transmitted on a frequency band ranging from 174- 180 MHz; hence an antenna having a dipole about 1.3 meter length is sufficient provided the signal does not get attenuated by the time it reaches the location. You may recall, we have said earlier that as the frequency of the signal increases, it is more susceptible to be absorbed by objects in the way. The metro channel therefore can be easily received only in the cities where it is broadcast, or through the satellite. The signals transmitted from a satellite are also in high frequency range. Ordinary rod antennas cannot pick up such signals, one needs specially designed dish antennas linked to appropriate tuners to pick up and process signals from them. The energy in an electromagnetic wave is easily dissipated by inducing electric current (motion of electrons) in a closed loop of metallic conductors. A receiver enclosed in a cage like structure made up of a metal (popularly known as the Faradays cage) is therefore unable to receive electromagnetic signals, because there is no electromagnetic energy left. One can therefore understand why our transistor radio cannot receive radio programs inside a train or a bus. Such a cage also acts a no entry zone for electromagnetic waves. This also explains the use of shielded wires used for transmission of TV programs by cable networks. A metallic shield around the metallic wire carrying the signal prevents outside interferences as well as attenuation of the signal by leaking of waves to neighbouring locations. But then cable operators often have to compromise with low cost joins between two cables, which are often sufficient for neighbouring TV sets to pick up which explains the reception of cable programs even when you may not have a cable connection. TV signals are easily reflected by huge buildings in the neighbourhood of a transmitter; the reflected signal has a slightly different phase than the original signal and gives rise to ghost images.
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CHAPTER-9 CONCLUSION
We would like to conclude that this training is a very great and enriching the experience to learn about the low power TV transmitter. The transmitter service involves great equipment that deals with monitoring section exciting system and we learn about the above equipment of the Doordarshan relay centre and its working. We also learned about the procedure of transmission, reception. And strengthening of the signal and retransmitting the signal into space for the broadcast around the range of propagation.
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REFERENCES
http://www.google.com/dhoordharshan/ http://www.ddindia.gov.in Antenna Wave And Propagation K.D. Prasad Analog Communication Sanjay Sharma
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