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Models of Communication
Harold Lass Well(1948)
He said the convenient way to describe the communication is to answer these questions.

Osgood and Schramm (1954) Communication Model

Osgood and Schramms Circular Model of Communication (1954) was an attempt to rectify the earlier linear models of communication. It can happen within our self (Intra personal communication) or two people (Inter personal communication) each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence use interpretation. It is simultaneously take place e.g. encoding, interpreting and decoding. There basically represents the reciprocal nature of communication.

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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
There are six elements in the process of communication which works as vehicles for sharing information, ideas, and attitude with someone. These elements are 1. Source: Communication starts with the source, a person who speaks write or make facial expression is called the source. It can be individual or a group of people or an inanimate i.e. radio, computer, music group etc. 2. Encoding: Message always remain in the mind of source in the form of an idea. When he give physical shape through transmitting it into words or pictures then it became a message. This process is called encoding. In other words process of giving physical shape to once idea is known as encoding or the speaking mechanism of the source is called encoding. Giving names to think, idea or experience is also called an act of encoding. 3. Message: The coded idea of the sender is called message. When we write the written script is called a Message. Message always transmits from source to destination. An objective of a message is to make understand the receiver as desired by the source. 4. Channel: Channel is a medium or transmitter which carries the message of the sender to the receiver. In case mass communication, channel might be radio, TV or newspaper. The senses or Sensing power of an individual is also a channel of communication. E.g. taste, smell, hear and see etc. 5. Receiver: The recipient of a message is called the receiver. It may be an individual, group of people or an organization. 6. Decoding: Receiver understanding of message is called decoding.

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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are five types of communications. These are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Interpersonal Communication Intrapersonal Communication Macro Group Communication Mass Communication Medio Communication

1. Interpersonal Communication: Communication that takes place between two or a small group of person is called interpersonal communication. It always takes place into face to face situation, and the communicator and destination are known to each other. 2. Intrapersonal Communication: Communication that takes place within him/her self is called intrapersonal communication. Conversation with self and planning or thinking about the schedule of our studies for an examination etc. are the example of intrapersonal communication. 3. Macro Group Communication: This is the most effective form of communication, mainly because the feedback is instant in this situation. Speech of the political leader in a wick stadium is the best example of macro group communication. It usually takes place through microphone and the element of feedback is workable in this type of communication e.g. The receiver (public) can instantly feedback in the shape of applauding to the politician our by hooting his speech. 4. Mass Communication: It is the one in which the message is sent simultaneously to a greater number of people through a mass medium like radio, TV, our newspaper. The receiver of mass communication is separated, heterogeneous and unknown to each other, as well as to the communicator. The process of feedback in this type of communication is mostly slow and delayed. 5. Medio Communiction: It is the one which has some characteristics of interpersonal and mass communication. In medio communication, the message is transmitted through television; telephone etc. for example political talk show.

Awais Nawaz 09030656-028 HURDELS OF COMMUNICATION

Transmitting of message from one person to another is a tough job. Because there is a probability of miss understanding. There is very little chance that the reader will understand exactly the same what the writer mean. Reality is too difficult to describe by words. Denial Kats express that The real world is more complex, more colorful, more multidimensional that the pale worlds or Over simplified signs to convey meaning. There are two types of hurdles. These are 1. Physical Hurdles 2. Psychological Hurdles 1. Physical Hurdles: It is a problem in a way of transmitting message from its source to destination. E.g. you sent a letter to your friend but he did not receive that letter, this is physical problem. Another example is that, there is a speech of president on PTV, but we cannot listen it clearly due to some problem in the transmission. We could term this as general noise. How to overcome Channel noise: The professional communication can overcome channel noise by applying redundancy technique e.g. repetition of main idea of the message. The purpose of this technique is to make sure that the part of the message lost during interruption is communicated again. 2. Psychological Hurdles: It is the kind of hurdle in which the destination receives the message clearly but could not interpret it clearly. There is a great hurdle in the process of communication. Following are the median psychological hurdles. a. Symantec noise: This kind of hurdle is the result of using very difficult jaw breaking and tongue twisting words by the communicator which are outside the frame of references of audience. Semantic noise can be reduced if the communicator defines such terms and adjust vocabulary for the interest of the audience. b. Field of Experience: The psychological hurdle occurs when the field of experience is not common to goal. E.g. Communicator and receiver. The communication would not take place if field of experience is different.

c. Cognition Dissonance:

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It is also one of the hurdles in the process of communication before cognitive dissonance we mean that when a communicator wants to deliver a message to the audience, that is against the already existing believes than it could not be acceptable. This is called cognitive dissonance. d. Frame of Reference: This is yet another hurdle in the process of communication. By frame of reference we mean that the communicator looks at a thing with his or her own perception and define it in his or her own words. e. Poor Understanding: The communication or the intended destination poor in understanding become a great obstacle in a way of communication. f. Expression:

Sometime the expressions of the communicators become hurdle in the process of communication, if it is not in accordance with the situation. g. Change in Custom and Tradition: If the communicator wants to talk about some change in the custom and tradition then definitely his communication will be in failure.

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Effective Communication
1. Message should be Effective: Message need to b design in such a way that the receiver receives the same what the sender wants to communicate. It is also possible when The message is written in the easiest language. Sentence of the message is short and simple. Avoid jaw breaking and tongue twisting words. Message is designed according to the mental level of target receiver and audience. Select only those words or signs which are common to the field of experience of both the communicator and the receiver.

2. Selection of suitable medium: Medium plays a vital role in making the communication effective. Select the medium for which the receivers can have an easy access. They can buy it easily It can communicate in the language of target destination/audience.

3. Receiver Attention: Communication should be made at such time that it can gain the attention of the receiver. 4. Social Values: The message of the communication will be effective if it is composed according to the social values of the given society. 5. Communication and Mental Harmony: The success and failure of the communication greatly depends upon the fact that weather it has harmony with the mental level of receiver or not.

Role of Media in Propaganda

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Agenda setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the news Media. It describes the very powerful influence of media in telling the audience of what issues are important. It depicts the power of media in presenting images to the public. In agenda setting the press and media do not really reflect the reality since they filter and shape it. Public perceive certain issues as more important than other issues, because media concentrate only on few subjects and leads. History of Agenda Setting:

WALTER LIPMAN was the first to describe the agenda setting process in opinion. He wrote Media Is Responsible for the Pictures in Our Heads.
40 years later COHEN further articulated the idea. He argued that Media may not be always successful in telling people what to think about. The first empirical set of agenda setting came in 1972 when MCCOMB and SHAW reported the results of study done during the 1968 presidential election. (Empirical mean which can be tested and implemented easily).

Link between Media Agenda and Public Perception: Public look to the media for news what the media decide is news, what the public recognizes the news. Audience not only learns about public issues and other matters through the media. They also learn how much important to attract to an issue given by the media.

What influences the Media Agenda Content? 1. Influence from Individual Media Workers. Communication workers characteristics personal and professional backgrounds, personal attitudes and professional roles influence the media agenda content. 2. Influence of Media Routines. What gets into the mass media is influenced by the day by day practices of communicators, including deadlines and other time constraints, space requirements in a publication the inverted pyramid structure for writing a news story values the standards of objectivity and the reliance of reporters on official sources 3. Organizational influence on Content. Media organizations have goal with making money one of the most widely shared. These goals of the media organizations can have an impact on content in numerous ways.

4. Influences on Content Outside of Media Organization These influences include interest groups lobbying from certain kind of content. People creating pseudo-event in order to get media coverage and government, which regulates contents directly through libel and obscenity laws.

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5. Ideology influence on Content Ideology represents a society level phenomenon, Fundamental of Ideology. In USA is a belief in the value of capitalist economic system, private ownership, pursuit of profit by self interested entrepreneurs and free markets. These five categories range from individual media workers, representing the most micro level to influence of ideology, representing the most macro level. How Does Agenda setting works? Manhein (1987) has done some work on the conceptualizing of agenda that has potential to aid our understanding of the process of the agenda setting. He proposes that agenda setting involves the interaction of three agendas, the media agenda, the public agenda, and policy agenda. Each of these is conceptualized as involving three important decisions. 1. For the Media Agenda the three dimensions are: a) Visibility The amount of coverage and prominence given an issue. b) Audience Silence The relevance of news content to audience needs. c) Valence The favorable or unfavorable coverage given to an issue. 2. For the Public Agenda the three dimensions are: a) Familiarity the degree of public awareness of a given topic. b) Personal Silence Interest or perceived relevance to ones self. c) Favorability The favorable or unfavorable judgment on the topic.

3. For the Policy Agenda the three dimensions are: a) Support Action more or less favorable to a given issue position. b) Likelihood of Action Probability that a government body will act on the issue. c) Freedom of Action Range of possible government actions.