Digital Control

Digital control is the use of digital or discrete technology to maintain conditions in operating systems as close as possible to desired values despite changes in the operating environment. Traditionally, control systems have utilized analog components, that is, controllers which generate time-continuous outputs (volts, pressure, and so forth) to manipulate process inputs and which operate on continuous signals from instrumentation measuring process variables (position, temperature, and so forth). In the 1970s, the use of discrete or logical control elements, such as fluidic components, and the use of programmable logic controllers to automate machining, manufacturing, and production facilities became widespread. In parallel with these developments has been the accelerating use of digital computers in industrial and commercial applications areas, both for logic-level control and for replacing analog control systems. The development of inexpensive mini- and microcomputers with arithmetic and logical capability orders of magnitude beyond that obtainable with analog and discrete digital control elements has resulted in the rapid substitution of conventional control systems by digital computer-based ones.

Discrete Control Devices

Discrete control devices are input/output devices or modules that recognizes only binary on/off signals. A discrete input, also referred to as a digital input, is either on or off. It can be connected to a PLC's discrete inputs. In the on condition, a discrete input is represented internal to the PLC as logic 1. In the off condition, a discrete input is represented as logic 0. A discrete output is an output that is either on or off. Solenoids, contactor coils, and lamps are examples of devices which can be connected to discrete outputs. Discrete outputs are also referred to as digital outputs.

Discrete Control Input Devices

A discrete/digital input typically consists of a power supply (voltage source), a switch and a voltage-sensing device (analog-to-digital converter). Depending on the switchs open/closed status, the sensing device detects a voltage or no voltage condition, which in turn generates a logical 0 or 1, on or off, alarm or normal or similarly defined state. Circuit Diagrams The following circuit diagrams are examples of commonly used digital input configurations.

Input Devices and Sensors Switch

A switch is an electrical device used to enable or disable flow of electrical current in an electrical circuit. Switches may be actuated in a variety of ways, including movement of two

conducting materials into direct contact (mechanical), or changing the properties of a semiconducting material by the application of voltage (electronic). Switches are typically rated in terms of voltage, voltage type (AC or DC), current carrying capacity, current interrupting capacity, configuration, and load characteristic (inductive or resistive). Also specified are applicable ranges of ambient conditions over which the ratings are valid. Current carrying capacity (or current rating) is the maximum current that may continuously flow through the closed switch contacts without exceeding the maximum permissible temperature. Process medium property sensing switches are also rated by parameters such as adjustment range, accuracy or repeatability, and deadband or differential. The range of a control switch is specified by upper and lower process values between which the switch has been designed to operate. The accuracy or repeatability of a control switch is a value typically measured in process units or percent of range that represents the expected maximum deviation from set point at which the switch will operate under test conditions. The switch differential or dead band is the change in process value required to cause the state of the switch to change.

Switch Configurations
Single Pole, Single Throw (SPST)

Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT)

Double Pole, Single Throw (DPST)

Double Pole, Double Throw

Types of Switches
Hand Switches Hand switches are used as digital input devices and in hardwired electrical control circuits associated with digital outputs. Hand switches come in numerous sizes, shapes, and configurations. Common switch types include rotary, selector type switches, toggle switches, and pushbuttons. Selector and toggle switches are almost always maintained contact type. Pushbuttons may be momentary or maintained contact type. Selector switches can have key operators to prevent tampering.

Hand Switches

Limit Switches A switch designed to cut off power automatically at or near the limit of travel of a moving object controlled by electrical means. Limit switches convert mechanical motion or proximity into a switching action. Limit switches are most commonly used to provide position status feedback to the controller for valve and damper positions. A wide variety of configurations are available. Common types include industrial limit switches, mercury, and proximity switches.

Industrial-limit Switch

Mercury Limit Switches

Proximity Switches

Temperature Switches Temperature switches (also called thermostats, aqua stats or freeze stats depending on application) are commonly to provide a digital input when a process medium temperature rises or falls to a set temperature. Switches with a number of different operating principles are

manufactured. Some of the common types include bimetallic, fluid thermal expansion, freeze stat and electronic. Bimetallic temperature switches use a bonded "bimetal" strip consisting of two dissimilar metals with different thermal coefficients of expansion. When the temperature changes, the metals expand or contract at different rates causing the strip to bend. Various configurations such as coiled elements are used to increase the thermal movement to cause two contacts to come together or separate. Some configurations use the bimetallic principle to change the orientation of a bulb containing liquid mercury so that the mercury flows into contact with two electrodes, completing the circuit. Fluid thermal expansion temperature switches use the principle of thermal expansion of a fluid to cause displacement of a bellows, diaphragm, bourdon tube, or piston to open or close a set of contacts. Fluid system based temperature switches can be connected to a remote fluid containing bulb by a capillary tube, allowing the switch element to be remote from the sensing bulb.

Remote Bulb Thermostat

The freeze stat is commonly used to prevent water or steam coils in air handling units from freezing. Freeze stats use a fluid that is a saturated vapor at the switch set point temperature. This fluid is confined within a long capillary tube. The tube is installed in a serpentine fashion over the area of the air stream to being monitored. If any point along the tube falls below the saturation

temperature, the vapor begins to condense causing a rapid change in pressure in the system and actuating the switch mechanism. Electronic temperature switches use the same sensing technologies used for analog temperature sensing to electronically operate a set of output contacts.

Freeze stat

Humidity Switches Humidity switches, or humidistats, are used in discrete control systems to provide a digital input when a process or space humidity level rises or falls to a set level. Common applications are high limit safety interlocks for humidifiers, space or process humidity alarms, and simple on-off humidity control. Mechanical humidistats use a hygroscopic material such as animal hair, nylon or other plastic material that changes dimension with changes in relative humidity. The dimensional change is amplified via a mechanical link to causing a switch to operate. Mechanical humidistats are rapidly being replaced by electronic humidistats that use thin film capacitance or bulk polymer resistance analog humidity sensing technologies combined with electronic switching circuitry to produce a switching action at an adjustable set point. These sensing

technologies are described in the Humidity Measurement portion of the Analog Input Device Section.

Humidity Switch

Flow Switches Flow switches are used to provide a digital input to DDC controls systems when a fluid flow rate has risen above or fallen below the set value. Common applications include safety air and water flow interlocks for electric heaters and humidifiers, chiller safety interlocks, and burner safety interlocks. Numerous technologies are available, but the most common types used are mechanical and differential pressure types. Mechanical flow switches operate on the principle that the kinetic energy of a flowing fluid creates a force on an object suspended in the flow stream. The magnitude of the force varies with (the square of) the velocity of the fluid. Various configurations are used to transfer this force into operation of a switch. Common configurations include paddles or sails, pistons or discs.

Differential pressure type flow switches operate on the principle that a difference in pressure is always associated with fluid flow, or the principle that the total pressure of a flowing fluid is always greater than the static pressure. These differences in pressure can be accurately predicted for a given situation and related to the fluid flow rate. For more information see the Flow Measurement portion of the Analog Input Section.

Differential Pressure Air Flow Switch

Level Switches Level switches are used to provide a digital input when the fluid level in a tank, vessel or sump has reached a predetermined height. Common applications include cooling tower sump level control and monitoring, steam condensate tank level, storm water and sewage sump level monitoring and control and thermal storage tank level monitoring. Numerous mechanical and analog technologies are currently available. Some analog technologies include capacitance, ultrasonic, and magnetostrictive-based devices in combination with solid-state electronics to provide a switching action based on level. More commonly used technologies include devices that employ the use of a float (integral, rod and float, submersible), conductivity probe, or differential pressure mechanism.

Integral float type level switches typically combine an metal or plastic float attached to the arm of a submersible rotary switch mechanism, or a float that encloses a magnet which slides on a hollow rod enclosing one or more reed switches. Submersible float switches utilize an encapsulated integral float type switch or mercury switch suspended on a fluid tight cord in the vessel being monitored. When the level is below the cord attachment, the float hangs down and the switch is in its normally open or closed position. When the fluid level rises, the float rises above the cord attachment point, changing the float orientation. When the float has position has inverted sufficiently, the internal switch changes position.

Level Switch

Pressure Switches Pressure switches are used to provide status indication for fans, filters and pumps, and to provide flow and level status indication by virtue of the predicable relationships between pressure and these values. Pressure switches may be mechanical or electronic.

Mechanical Pressure Switches

Vibration Switches Vibration switches are used to provide a signal when vibration levels in rotating machinery such as fans, reach unsafe levels. Vibration switches are commonly applied on large cooling tower and air handling unit fans.

Vibration Switch

Moisture Switches Moisture detecting switches are commonly used to detect moisture under raised floors, in piping and tank containment areas and in the drain pans of air handling units to alert system operators before damage or flooding occurs. Most moisture detecting switches are instruments of the float type or conductivity type. Float types are adapted to actuate at very low levels. Conductivity types may consist of point sensitive probes located very close to the bottom of a low point or sump where water will collect, or they may be ribbons or strips with wires separated by a non-conductive

material, such that when any portion of the ribbon is exposed to liquid moisture, the electrical circuit is completed and the switch mechanism activates.

Moisture Switch

Current Switches Current sensing relays are used to monitor the status of electrical devices. The devices typically have one or more adjustable current set points. Common applications include fan and pump on/off status feedback. Current switches can detect broken fan belts if properly adjusted. Current relays can also be used for phase monitoring.

Current Switches

Discrete Control Output Devices

A digital output typically consists of a switch (either mechanical as in a relay or electronic as in a transistor or triac) that either opens or closes the circuit between two terminals depending on the binary state of the output. Digital outputs (DO) are typically used to provide on/off control of valves, dampers, electric motors, lighting and external signaling devices, such as alarm bells and indicator lights. Digital outputs may also be used to control analog devices using tri-state or pulse width modulation (PWM). The most common devices associated with digital outputs are relays, contactors, starters and twoposition actuators. Circuit Diagrams The following circuit diagrams are examples of commonly used digital output configurations.

An open collector transistor-type digital output operating a pilot relay, which in turn energizes the motor starter coil for a fan.

A triac-type digital output operating a pilot relay that is used to energize a fan motor starter coil.

Relays, Contactors and Starters

A relay is a device where power applied to a coil or input terminal causes the path between pairs of separate, additional terminals to either allow electrical current flow, or stop current flow. Contactors and starters are essentially relays designed for interrupting and applying power to larger loads (i.e., integral horsepower motors) and significant resistance loads (i.e., lighting and heaters). Types of Relays, Contactors and Starters

The most common types of relays are standard instantaneous control, latching, and timing. Contactors and starters can be considered common types of heavier duty relays with and without load protection. Standard Instantaneous Control Relays Standard instantaneous control relays are electromechanical or solid state. Electromechanical control relays use a magnetic coil and armature to cause contacts to open or close when current is applied to the coil. Solid state relays use semi-conducting devices (such as transistors or triacs) that become electrically conductive between output terminals when a voltage is applied to the input. Relays are typically used to switch AC and DC control signals with voltages from 0 to 600 volts and typically have contact ratings of less than 20 amps. Control relays come in numerous sizes and shapes. Relays used on printed circuit boards for pilot duty can be made very small, with the largest dimension under 1/2 inch (12.5 mm). Modular, miniature and sub-miniature rail mounted plug-in type relays are often used in shop or field-fabricated control panels because they are less costly and easy to mount and replace.

Instantaneous Relays

Latching Relays Latching relays are a variation of the standard instantaneous control relay where the contacts change position when initially energized, but do not revert to the normal state (when the input signal is removed) until a separate reset signal is applied. Latching relays may have mechanical latches using a set and reset coil, or they may latch magnetically. Latching relays are also available with manual reset latches.

Timing Relays Timing relays (also known as time delay relays) are a variation of the standard instantaneous control and latching relay where a fixed or adjustable time delay must occur following a change in the control signal before the switching action occurs. Common time delay relay configurations include on delay, off delay and on/off delay. Numerous other configurations are available.

Contactors and Starters Contactors are essentially large capacity relays specifically designed to control the flow of electrical power to electrical loads, such as motors, heaters and lights. Contactors are multi-pole devices typically arranged to interrupt all energized conductors serving an electrical load, thus removing all voltage from the load. Contactors can include normally closed and normally open contacts, but are most often of the single throw, normally open, double break configuration. Contactors do not include overload protection for the load they are serving. When contactors are applied to control motors, the power circuit must include thermal overload protection for the motor. Starters are specially adapted contactors that include overload protection designed to sense motor overloads and interrupt the power circuit to the motor before severe damage can occur. Contactors and starters are rated according to national and international standards including NEMA/EEMAC (National Electrical Manufacturers Association/Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers Association of Canada) and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). Contactors and starters are listed by recognized testing agencies such as UL (Underwriters Laboratory) and CSA (Canadian Standards Association). Ratings typically include maximum voltage, maximum continuous current and maximum single-phase and three-phase motor horsepower at voltage. NEMA/EEMAC standards for magnetic motor controllers designate two types of motor duty (non-plugging, non-jogging duty and plug-stop, plug-reverse or jogging duty) and a series of standard sizes with standard horsepower ratings for each size. The most commonly used starters and contactors in the United States conform to the NEMA standards.

The oldest and simplest motor overload protection scheme consists of a thermal overload for each power conductor. These power conductors consist of a resistance heating element and fusible metal or bimetallic temperature switch wired in the starter coil control circuit. The resistance heating element heats in proportion to the current flowing to the motor, creating a rise in temperature at the switch element that is proportional to the motor current and the time over which the current has been applied. If the motor overload is severe, heat will build up quickly, and the switch will open in a few seconds or less. If the overload current is just above the overload rating, the switch will take a longer time to open. Thermal overloads are typically non-adjustable, or adjustable over a very narrow current setting range. In recent years, solid state overload relays have been developed that sense the motor current in each phase, digitize it and apply digital logic to determine when an overload or unsafe operating condition exists. Solid state overload relays can typically sense phase failure, asymmetrical current loading, severe overload or locked rotor conditions. Solid state overload relays typically allow for the adjustment of motor full-load current values. They also allow for setting a variety of time-current trip characteristics to provide optimal protection for the motor they are protecting.

Contactors and Actuators Two-Position Actuators

Two-position control is commonly used in a wide variety of control schemes for HVAC applications. Fluid flow, damper position and fuel flow are commonly controlled (depending upon application) to open/closed positions through the use of a two-position actuator. Types of Two-Position Actuators Two-position actuators are used to control the linear or rotary motion of a controlled device (such as a valve or damper) to one of two positions, usually open or closed. The two most common types of two-position actuators are the solenoid type and rotary type. Solenoid Actuators One of the simplest actuators is the solenoid, which consists of a coil wound around a fixed core and a movable core that is usually enclosed in a non-magnetic case. When the coil is energized, the movable core is attracted to the fixed core, causing a rapid linear motion. Solenoid actuators are most commonly applied to small valves for control of water and air flow in pipe and tubing. Solenoid valves are available in pilot-operated models, where fluid pressure of the fluid being controlled actually provides the motive force for operating the valve. The solenoid is used to control the internal flow of the pilot fluid within the valve, causing the operation of the valve. Non-pilot type solenoid valves open and close very quickly and may cause water hammer when used for controlling flow in liquid systems. Pilot-operated valves may be designed for slower opening and closing time to reduce this tendency. Solenoid valves are also commonly applied to the on/off control of pneumatic control air supply (sometimes referred to as EP Relays). Two states, on/off control of pneumatic dampers and

actuators is almost universally accomplished using the electrical signal to operate a solenoid valve that turns air supply to the pneumatic actuator on or off.

Rotary Actuators Rotary actuators typically are based on rotary electric motors combined with a gear train that may be reversible, or combined with a spring, such that the position is reversed by the energy stored in the spring when the motor is de-energized. Spring-return actuators are commonly applied where a device must be returned to a safe or normal position when the power supply or control signal fails. Linkages, rack and pinion configurations, cams and various other mechanisms are used to convert the rotary actuator motion to linear motion when applied to devices (such as globe-type control valves) requiring linear motion for actuation.