1

Practice Problem Set 1

Exploring the Geometry of Terrestrial Energy
CIV300
Fall 2012


1) When it can be seen, the sun will appear to rise in the East, climb in the sky,
and eventually set in the West. The time at which the sun reaches its
zenith or maximum angle is called solar noon. The figure below is a polar
plot of the suns position and direction in the sky.



(a) Use this plot to confirm that the consistent latitude is indeed about 32
degrees south. (b) Use the plot to confirm that the Earths tilt is 23.5
degrees from perpendicular. (c) Determine the duration of daylight on June
21
st
. (d) Determine, approximately, the average angle the sun makes with the
horizontal on the shortest day of the year. (e) Roughly describe how you
would determine the total solar radiation input on a horizontal plane at Perth
on its longest day of the year.
(a) At solar noon on the equinox (~March 21, Sept. 22), the centre of the sun is in
the same plane as the equator. From the solar chart we see that the solar altitude
angle at noon on March 21
st
is ~58.
The difference between 90and the solar altitude angle at noon on the equinox
gives the latitude. Therefore:

2
Latitude = 90- 58= 32
The following diagram using basic geometry helps to understand this answer.


(b) The suns altitude at noon changes from its maximum at the summer solstice
(June 21st) to its minimum at the winter solstice (December 21
st
). Right in the
middle of this time period is the equinox, described above. Thus, the angle
through which the solar altitude changes is equal from the equinox to the
summer solstice and from the winter solstice to the equinox. The total angle
through which it travels, then, can be divided by 2 to get the Earths tilt. In other
words, the spread of angles at solar noon immediately give twice the earth's
axial tilt . That total angle is showed on the diagram by the vertical line run
through all the dates at solar noon. That line spans ~47, so the Earths title is
23.5.
(c) Using the solar polar chart to determine the duration of daylight on June 21
st
,
we find that sunrise occurs approximately at 7 AM, and sunset at approximately 5
PM. Therefore, the approximate amount of daylight for this day is 10 hours.
(d) The shortest day of the year for the Southern Hemisphere occurs on June
21
st
. We can use the solar polar chart to determine the altitude angle of the sun
at local solar noon, which is approximately 34.5.
(e) The total direct beam solar radiation input on a horizontal plane at Perth on
its longest day of the year (December 21
st
) can be determined using a simple
mathematical approach (we would likely also want to account for the diffuse
component of solar radiation that is incident on a horizontal surface). What wed
do is a numerical integration: we could break the day into (say) 2 hour
increments and for each of these wed determine the average angle of the sun.
Wed then determine the horizontal intensity using Lamberts cosine law and
translate 2 hours at this flux rate into a total energy. Wed walk through the day
in this way and come up with the total. Programs due exactly this kind of thing,
and the web site link we gave with provide this total.
(b) If you visualize this, more can be determined. For example, knowing that
Toronto is found at approximately 44.5 degrees north latitude, and that the
tilt of the Earth on its axis is 23.5 degrees, simple geometry answers the
following questions: (a) How far above Toronto's horizon does the sun
3
achieve at solar noon on the shortest day of the year in the north
hemisphere (21 Dec.)? Also, on this same day, what is this angle: (b) on the
equator? (c) On the Tropic of Capricorn? (d) At 60 degrees north latitude?
(e) At 45 degrees south? (Hint: see the insert on page 71 of our custom text.)


(a) Recall two things: first that there is always some part of the Earth directly facing the
sun, and that the Tropics of Capricorn (23.5S) is the most southerly latitude at which the
sun can appear directly overhead (90above the horizon) at solar noon on December
21. This is when the southern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun at its maximum
extent.


Thus, if you have good intuition you can argue that every degree that you are north or
south of the latitude where the sun is directly overhead will shift the sun a degree less
than 90. This allows direct calculation of the required angles. Thus, at 60N, you are
(60+23.5 = 83.5 degrees from this, and the sun is only 6.5 above the horizon at solar
noon.

Mathematically, if you let northern latitudes be positive, and southern negative, then the
angle is 90 abs(latitude where the sun is directly overhead current latitude). Or you
can argue more geometrically as shown on the next page.

4

Using geometry:

1. Extend equator to the incoming solar radiation to form point A.
2. Label Toronto T and the center of the earth O.
3. OAT = 23.5 (parallel lines, Z)
4. OTA = 180 44.5 23.5= 112(Triangle)
5. = 112 90 = 22

(b) Using similar geometry or direct reasoning, the solar altitude angle on the equator is
66.5.

(c) As reasoned above, this angle is clearly 90(sun directly overhead at noon).

(d) At 60N:


Using geometry:

1. Extend equator to the incoming solar radiation to form point A.
2. OAB = 23.5 (parallel lines, Z)
3. OBA = 180 60 23.5= 96.5(Triangle)
4. = OBA 90= 6.5

(e) At 45S:




5
Using geometry:

AOB = 45 23.5= 21.5
OAB = 180 90 21.5= 68.5(Triangle)
= OAB = 68.5(parallel lines, Z)

2) In a similar way, knowing a few things about gravity and motion allows us to
determine quite a bit about our solar system. (a) Calculate the average orbital
speed (in m/s and km/h) of the Earth around the sun. (b) What is its average
acceleration toward the center, and what produced the required force to
achieve this acceleration? (c) Newtons law of gravitation states that the
gravitational attraction between two bodies is proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
separating their centers of mass. The proportionality constant is usually taken
as 6.6710
-11
N m
2
/kg
2
. Use this law and the fact that an object on the Earths
surface experiences an acceleration of 9.81 ms
-2
to deduce the mass of the
Earth. Use the acceleration of the Earth in its orbit to deduce the mass of the
sun. Compare your answers with generally accepted values of these two
astronomical constants. (d) Using their diameters as presented in class,
determine the approximate average mass density of both the Earth and Sun.

(a) Assume earths path around the sun is circular (which is indeed an excellent
approximation). Determine the length of the earths orbit:

( )
m
m
R L
oe
11
9
10 42 . 9
10 150 2
2
=
=
=

Determine the duration of the orbit (365 days):

s t 000 , 536 , 31 86400 * 365 = =

The average orbital speed:
hr
km
s
m
t
L
v
s
m
5 4
11
10 1 . 1 10 0 . 3
000 , 536 , 31
10 42 . 9
= =

=
=


(b) Determine the average acceleration:
6
( )
2
3
9
2
4
2
10 0 . 6
10 150
10 0 . 3
s
m
m
R
v
a
s
m
oe

=
=


This force is achieved by the gravitation attraction between the earth and the sun.

(c) Newtons law of gravitation is illustrated below:



2
2 1
r
m m
G F =

2 1
F F F = =





To determine the mass of the earth, let m
1
be the mass of the falling object and m
2
be
the mass of the earth. From Newtons second law, the net force on the falling object is
ma F =


Thus,
g m F
1
=


So,
2
2 1
1
e
R
m m
G g m =


( )( )
kg
m
G
gR
m
kg
Nm
s
m
e
24
11
2
6
2
2
10 93 . 5
10 67 . 6
10 35 . 6 81 . 9
2
2
2
=


=
=

Generally accepted value is very close to this: 5.98 x 10
24
kg

To determine the mass of the sun let m
1
be the mass of sun and m
2
be the mass of the
earth; r is the radius of earths orbit around the sun; a m F
2
= where
2
3
10 0 . 6
s
m
a

=
(from 2. (b)).


7
2
2 1
2
oe
R
m m
G a m =


( )( )
kg
m
G
aR
m
kg
Nm
s
m
oe
30
11
2
9 3
2
1
10 02 . 2
10 67 . 6
10 150 10 0 . 6
2
2
2
=


=
=

Generally accepted value is: 1.99 x 10
30
kg, so again we are right in the ballpark.

(d) To estimate the average mass density of the earth:

Earth's mass = 5.97x10
24
kg
Earth's mean radius= 6,371 km

Estimating the volume of the earth:

3 12
3
3
10 08 . 1
) 6371 (
3
4
3
4
km x v
km v
r v
=
=
=

The approximate density of the earth :

3
3 12
24
5528
10 08 . 1
10 97 . 5
m
kg
d
km x
kg x
d
v
m
d
=
=
=

The average earth density is about twice the density of the surface rocks, which seems
reasonable considering the growing pressures and densities as we approach the core.

Similarly, to estimate the average mass density of the sun:

Sun's mass = 1.9891x10
30
kg
Sun's equatorial radius= 696,342 km

Estimating the volume of the sun:

8
3 18
3
3
10 41 . 1
) 696342 (
3
4
3
4
km x v
km v
r v
=
=
=

The approximate density of the sun :

3
3 18
30
1410
10 41 . 1
10 9891 . 1
m
kg
d
km x
kg x
d
v
m
d
=
=
=

The average density of the sun is about the same (a little more) as the heavy water
found in the Dead Sea.

3) (i) What is the rotational velocity (in m/s and km/h) on the equator and at 44
degrees north latitude? (ii) What is its average acceleration toward the center
on the equator, and what produced the required force to achieve this
acceleration?

At the equator earths diameter is 12.7 x 10
6
m.

(i) Determine earths circumference

( )
m
m
D L
7
6
10 0 . 4
10 7 . 12
=
=
=

Determine duration of rotation of 1 day, t = 86,400 s; this gives the rotational velocity

hr
km
s
m
s
m
t
L
v
8 . 1666 0 . 463
400 , 86
10 0 . 4
7
= =

=
=







9

Looking at 44north:


( )
m
m
R R
o
o
e
6
6
44
10 57 . 4
44 cos 10 35 . 6
44 cos
=
=
=




Rotational velocity:

hr
km
s
R
t
L
v
s
m
3 . 1196 3 . 332
400 , 86
2
44
= =
=
=

(ii)

( )
2
6
2
2
034 . 0
10 35 . 6
0 . 463
s
m
m
s
m
R
v
a
e
=

=
=


The earths rotation causes the surface to move fastest at the equator and not at all at
the poles. This causes an apparent force, the so-called Coriolis force, since gravity and
the acceleration are no longer collinear.

4. (i) At what distance from you should a dime (with assumed diameter of 1.8
cm) be placed such that it exactly covers the Sun? How far to cover the
Moon? What does this imply about the nature of a total eclipse? (ii) If the
Earth were modeled as a large globe of 1 m in diameter, how think would a
proportional representation be of the average ocean depth (4 km) and the
average troposphere thickness (12 km)?








10

(i)

m D
s
9
10 39 . 1 =
m d
s
9
10 150 =

m D
d
018 . 0 =





By similar triangles

d
d
s
s
d
D
d
D
=
d
d
m
m
m 018 . 0
10 150
10 39 . 1
9
9
=

9 . 1 =
d
D m

Similarly, for the moon
d
d
m
m
d
D
d
D
=
d
d
m
m
m 018 . 0
10 0 . 4
10 48 . 3
8
6
=

1 . 2 =
d
d m

Since the distances are almost equal, when a total eclipse occurs the moon just blocks
the sun, but leaves only the outer most part so we can see solar flares happening.

(ii) The diameter of the Earth is 1.27x10
7
m. So using a ratio the model heights can be
determined.

The average depth of the ocean

m
h
m
m
mo
4000 10 27 . 1
1
7
=

m h
mo
4
10 15 . 3

=
h
mo
= 0.315 mm

Which is about the thickness of three average pieces of paper. The average
troposphere thickness is obviously three times this value, or about one mm. More
formally:


11
m
h
m
m
mo
12000 10 27 . 1
1
7
=

m h
mo
4
10 45 . 9

=
h
mo
= 0.945 mm


5. Assuming a solar insolation of exactly 1370 W/m
2
, (i) how much total energy
does the Earth receive from the sun? (ii) Approximately what fraction of the
Suns total energy output does the Earth receive? Why is it clear that the
Earth radiates almost the same amount of energy as it receives? (iii) Estimate
the variation of solar intensity, as the average Earth distance from the sun,
between the near side of the Earth and its far side from the sun.

(i) Determine the projected area of the earth

( )
2 14
2
6
2
10 3 . 1
10 35 . 6
m
m
R SA
e p
=
=
=

The energy the earth receives from the sun

( )( )
( )( )
W
m
SA SI E
m
w
p e
17
2 14
10 7 . 1
10 3 . 1 1370
2
=
=
=


This is a good number for basic reference and worth remembering: the Earth receives a
total of about 174 PW from the sun.

(ii) The total energy passing through a spherical shell at earths orbit is

( )( )
2
4
oe oe
R SI E =

Giving a fraction of

( )( )
( )( )
( )
( )
10
2
9
2
6
2
2
2
2
10 5 . 4
10 150 4
10 35 . 6
4
4

=
=
=
m
m
R
R
R SI
R SI
E
E
oe
e
oe
e
oe
e

12
The Earth radiates almost the same amount of energy as it receives because the
temperature of the Earth remains about constant when averaged over its entire surface.
Of course, there are important variations of great significance, leading to the possibility
of global warming, or at other times the initiation of ice ages, or other departures from
expected or normal conditions.

(iii) According to the inverse-square law, solar intensity at each of these points (Far side
and Near side) is inversely proportional to the square of their distance from the sun.
Because the surface area of a sphere increases with the square of the radius.

R
NEO
= Distance from Near side of the Earth to the Sun= R
AEO
- R
e

R
FEO
= Distance from Far side of the Earth to the Sun= R
AEO
+ R
e

R
e
= Radius of the Earth
S
Near
= Solar intensity at Near side of the Earth
S
Far
= Solar intensity at Far side of the Earth

( )( ) ( )( )
( )
2
2
2 2
4 4
NEO
AEO
Near AEO NEO Near
R
R SI
S R SI R S = =


( )( ) ( )( )
( )
2
2
2 2
4 4
FEO
AEO
Far AEO FEO Far
R
R SI
S R SI R S = =


( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
(
(

=
2 2 2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
AEO
e
AEO
e
e AEO
AEO
e AEO
AEO
Far Near
R
R
R
R
SI
R R
R
R R
R
SI S S

R
e
= m
6
10 35 . 6
R
AEO
= m
9
10 150
SI = 1370 W/m
2


( ) 23 . 0 10 694 . 1 1370
10 150
10 35 . 6
1
1
10 150
10 35 . 6
1
1
1370
4
2
9
6
2
9
6
= =
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

Far Near
S S


So the different in intensity between the two sides is about a quarter of a W/m
2
. For
most purposes, such a variation is trivial. However, by contrast, the variation over the
year, as the Earth comes nearer and then moves further from the sun, is slightly more
significant, but still a minor issue for most purposes (and this difference it is partly
compensated for by the difference in the time the Earth spends in these positions.





13
6. Calculate the distance to the perceived horizon as a function of an observers
height h. Assume a flat landscape such as the Ocean.









h = observers height




Using Pythagorean theorem:
2 2 2
c b a = +


( )
e
e
e e e
e e
hR h d
hR h d
R hR h R d
R h R d
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
+ =
+ =
+ + = +
+ = +


For h = 2 m d = 5 km

For h = 400 m (observation deck of CN tower) d = 71.3 km

Note that the technically correct answer would correct for the fact that the distance d is a
little shorter than the circumferential distance, which we could get from the central angle
as a fraction of the total circumference. Such a correction is usually small and is not
required for the purpose of these calculations.

Helpful Simplification: Note in the expression for d that the first h
2
term under the
square root sign is negligible for typical values of d (i.e., h << R). This gives a very
handy approximation:

h hD hR d
e e
6 . 3 2 = = =


if h is in m and the distance d is in km.

This handy formula allows quick estimates, and easy visualization, of Earth horizon
distances in a variety of near Earth contexts.

It is a helpful way to remind yourself of the curvature of the Earth, something that is
surprising easy to forget or disregard. There are endless and important implications of
the Earths shape and motion to terrestrial energy systems.

14
7. You are considering the installation of a solar PV system in the in Iqaluit, NT
(latitude: 63 North. Real cost of diesel fired electrical generation: over 60
cents per kWh). i) Consider the items impacting the location of the modules
and try and list the key inputs to that decision. Ii) Considering that, now think
of the same installation in Toronto. What rationale is there for and against
installing them flush to a flat roof?
(i) Installation is a matter of practicality, cost and energy generation. Typically a
solar system biased for summer production (which this would be given that in winter
there is very little sun due to proximity to the Arctic circle). The rule of thumb for that
is to install at latitude minus 15 degrees, resulting in an ideal angle of 45 degrees.
However that ignores practicalities of snow, snow accumulation and snow sticking to
the sloped glazed surface, high wind loads generated by a pitched install (we are in
a very windy part of the world in the arctic by the coast), cost of installing racking
plus concerns over additional snow drifting over-stressing the buildings structure.
Generally this means comparing the costs of racking and necessary structural
reinforcement with the energy you get at the ideal level.
Mounting vertically may be the simplest and easiest though not optimum for solar
energy.
There is no point chasing mid-winter sun: there is hardly any!
Shading. Row on row shading is also an issue for concern: low sun angles at certain
times of the year result in a question of how much shade to allow. Typically you
calculate the gap required to not have shading at noon on Dec 21
st
, which in this
case would be based on a sun angle of 3 degrees above horizontal, resulting in a
close to infinite shade gap. Therefore a compromise is required.
Interesting fact: a solar PV energy model (PVSol) indicates and optimum install
angle of 51 degrees (best total insolation).

(ii) Flush mount
Positives: low racking cost, no additional wind loading on structure, no shade gaps
required meaning space for more modules on a roof
Negatives: snow burial, lack of service access if close together, dirt
accumulation/less ability for rain to wash clean