(Mis)Interpretations of Burmese Words:

Part I
In the case of the term Kala (Kula)
By U Khin Maung Saw


I. Introduction:

"Burma Studies" constitute a relatively small field within the larger field of Southeast
Asian Studies. In my experience as a Burma scholar of many years I have come to
realize that the amount of material written in foreign languages about Indonesia and
Thailand, especially on language and literature, far exeeds the material avaible on
Burma. Moreover, on reading material available in foreign languages, I have noticed
that some information is either incorrect or misleading. This wrong or misleading
information is often quoted and disseminated by subsequent authors, leading to a
situation whereby it eventually acquires the status of being true and correct.

There is, in fact, a great deal of material available on the subject of Burmese
language and literature; however, it exists only in Burmese. For most non-Burmese
Burma Scholars these standard sources are, unfortunately, beyond their reach.
Unable to speak, read and write Burmese fluently they are obliged to rely only on
materials written in one of the European languages.

To emphasize this point I would like to cite the Burma scholar U Tin Htway, who is
one of the most experienced Burmese intellectuals teaching abroad, who writes: "For
the scholars and students of Burmese language and literature, the field of study is
enormous and the resources are abundant. But, for non-Burmese scholars, say,
almost all, the abundant resources of Burmese inscriptions and classical Burmese
literatures are, seemingly, beyond their limit, even up to this very day. Most of them,
if not nearly all, had done their work with "hearsay knowledge", through the
informant(s) and unfortunately, for many information they got, they were not able to
scrutinize or to check with standard Burmese literary sources, which are well-
established and had existed for centuries now. However, their achievements should
not be ignored, not even the ones with dubious merit".
1


Although some contributions on the subject of Burmese language and literature,
written by some Burmese intellectuals in English, do exist, unfortunately, these
persons are mainly scholars of English language and literature rather than scholars
of Burmese language and literature. Hence they are more familiar with the English
language and its literature than with their mother tongue.
2
Their contributions have
often been referred to by the non-Burmese Burma scholars; as a result, false
interpretations, predictions and conclusions occur.

One specific example is the (mis)interpretation of the Burmese word Kala
(Kula). Though the word had and has a harmless meaning, some non-Burmese
Burma Scholars misinterpreted this term and given it an unsavoury meaning. In this
article I would like to point out its interpretation according to standard Burmese
sources, the correct usage of the term used by respected scholars and others as well
as misinterpretations used by some scholars unwittingly, as a result of having based
their work on informants who were not scholars and provided information on the
basis of "hearsay knowledge".

II. Interpretations according to the literature:

The first hypothesis postulates that the word Kala (Kula) came from the Pali
word Kula meaning "noble race" (this is a short form of - Kula Putta
which means "son of the noble race"). The word was used for the Indians (People
from the subcontinent) by the early Buddhist people of Burma (Mons, Burmese,
Arakanese, Karens and Shans etc.) because the Lord Buddha himself was an
Indian.

Listed below are some literature sources which support this hypothesis:

(1) The Myanmar Language Commission, Myanmar-English Dictionary, Yangon,
1993, p. 10.
/ kala/ n 1. native of the Indian subcontinent. 2. court-card; picture card. adj of
foreign origin. See also ..- [Pali ]

(2) The Myanmar Language Commission, ..-. ( Myanmar-Myanmar
Dictionary), Yangon, 1991, p. 9
/kla;/ n 1'..- .... .... 2' .. . ...
.. - . .... 3'-.-
. ...- . ... . ..-.. [ ]
Translation: /kala/ n 1. people from the Indian subcontinent. 2. The term
generally used for the natives of the countries west of Burma. 3. Jack, Queen and
King in the playing cards: adj of foreign origin [Pali Kula]

(3) U Wun, -. ..-. (The University Burmese-Burmese
Dictionary), Rangoon, 1952, vol.1, p. 22.
- ... .. ... ...
.. .... .. . _.-.. . . ..
.
Translation: N 1. Indians. 2. General term for the people who came from west
of Burma. ------- adj of foreign origin [Mon Gla; Pali Kula]

(4) U Hoke Sein, _..-. - . (The Pali-Burmese Dictionary),
Rangoon, 1956, vol. 2, p. 329.
, . .-... . .-. ..
Translation: kul [kula] (n) race; noble race; house; parent's house; male donor or
layman.

(5) Judson, A., Burmese-English Dictionary, Baptist Press, Rangoon, edited 1953. p.
173 (First Edition: 1836).

(Pali) n, a race . ; one whose race is distinctly marked, a caste person; a
native of any country west of Burma; a foreigner, ........etc.

In fact, the Burmese use the Pali word Kula (meaning holy, great, noble,
distinguished etc.) in various forms. The following are some examples:

(a, .. (Kula Thamagga)
great/noble organization
United Nations

(b) - _._, (Kula Oatta)
distinguished camel
camel, the distinguished animal

(c) . (Kula Kumari)
noble young lady
young lady of the noble race

(d) - - (Kula Pabbata)
great/distinguished mountain
mountain range

The second hypothesis states that the word Kala (Kula) was derived from
the original Mon word Gla, meaning good or noble people.

Here are some sources which support this hypothesis:

(1) Yule, Henry, Col. and Burnell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson, Calcutta, 1990 (First
Edition 1886), p. 495.

"The true history of the word has for the first time been traced by Prof. Forchhammer
to Gola, the name applied in old Pegu inscriptions to the Indian Buddhist immigrants,
a name which he identifies with Sanskrit Gauda, the ancient name of northern
Bengal, hence the famous city of Gaur".

(2) The Kalyani Inscription, Pegu, 14. century, written in Mon language.

(Translation): "The heroes Sona and Uttara were sent to Ramaa, which forms a
part of Suvannabhumi, to propagate the holy faith ........ This town is called to this day
Gola mattikanagara, because of the many houses it contained made of earth in the
fashion of houses of the Gola people."

(3) U Wun, -. ..-. (The University Burmese-Burmese
Dictionary), Rangoon, 1952, vol.1, p. 22.

. .. .. .. . ...
.. .... .. . _.-.. . . ..
.
Translation: N 1. Indians. 2. General term for the people who come from west
of Burma. ------- adj of foreign origin [Mon Gla; Pali Kula]

(4) The word for the people from the subcontinent in the Modern Mon language is
Gola. Po Karens named the Indians Kula, Sgaw Karens called the Indians Kola and
the Thai word for Indians is Kal.

The third hypothysis claims that the word Kala (Kula) is the corruption of the word
Cola/Chola.

Here are the sources which support this statement:

(1) Yule, Henry, Col. and Burnell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson, Calcutta, 1990 (First
Edition 1886), p. 257.
"Chola, as the name of Tamil people and their royal dynasty appears as Choda in
one of Asoka's incriptions, and in the Telugu inscriptions of the Chalukya dynasty."

(2) Myanmar-English Dictionary, Department of the Myanmar Language Commision,
Ministry of Education, Union of Myanmar, "A History of the Myanmar Alphabet, p.iv.
"In South India, the Andhra dynasty arose after the dissolution of the Maurya
kingdom. Then arose such dynasties as Pallava, Kadamba, Calukya, Rashtrakuta
and Cola. During the reign of those dynasties there developed from Brahmi such
scripts as Pacchimi scripts in the west, Madhya Pradesh script in the middle region
and, in the south, such scripts as Telugu, Kanati, academic Grantha, Tamil which are
contained in Kadamba, Calukya and Rashtrakuta. These Indian scripts descended
from Brahmi and spread to Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and
Indonesia along with Indian beliefs and culture in the period of 100 A.D to 800 A.D
and helped in the development of indigenous scripts in those regions ".

Since the early Indians who came to Southeast Asia by sea route and brought scripts
were from Southern India, it is very possible that those people were called
Cola/Chola people by the natives. So, it cannot be ruled out that Cola/Chola is the
origin of the Mon word Gola/Gla, the Karen word Kola/Kula and the Burmese word
Kala/Kula.

As I have pointed out from the literature the word Kala is derived either from the Pali
word Kula or from the Cola/Chola dynasty of South India, which the Mons adapted to
Gola or Gla and the Burmese in turn pronounced as Kala. All of the above
hypotheses demonstrate that the word Kala had and has no negative connotations.
It could be said to have a harmless or even a positive meaning.

The word Kala is an old word. Even in Pagan Stone Inscriptions (12
th
to 14
th

century A.D.) words such as .._ (Kala Kachethi meaning Indian dancers)
.._ (Kala Pathathi meaning Indian drummers) can be detected. Temples
built in an Indian style are known as . (Kala Kyaung meaning Indian
monastery). If the word Kala were to possess a derogatory meaning, the Burmese
would not have named their temples using the prefix Kala.

King Narathu, son of King Alaung Sithu from the Pagan Dynasty, was named
. (Kalaja Min; the king killed by the Kalas) by later historians because he
was assassinated by the Indians. The Arakanese king .- Nara-meik-hla alais
..-. Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan in Arakanese pronunciation) the last king
of the Laungkrat (._, Dynasty, and who was also the founder of Mrauk U
(.., Dynasty in A.D. 1430, was given the pseudonym _.
(Kalapyipar Min, the king who took refuge in the land of Kalas) by later historians
since he was obliged take refuge in Bengal in order to escape a Burmese invasion.
Nobody would have dared to apply such an epithet to their king if the word Kala
were perceived in any way vulgar.
[Compare here, . -.- King Nara-thiha-patei of Pagan, who was also known as
-- .. (Tayok-pyay Min, the king who ran away from the Chinese) because he
had to leave the capital city (Pagan) as a result of the invasion of the Chinese (the
armies of Kublai Khan) in A.D. 1287].

The name of one of Burma's most famous historians, who wrote three important
chronicles during the Naungyan (Second Ava) Dynasty was U Kala. If the
word Kala were to have a derogatory meaning, this famous Burmese historian would
certainly have sought to change his name.

The Burmese, the Mon and the Arakanese, in particular kings, traditionally believed
that they were the descendants of the Sakya Sakis, the race from which the Lord
Buddha came. This means they believed themselves to be descendants of an Indian
race. In this case, what posible reason that have for degrading or discriminating
against the inhabitants of the subcontinent?

In the Burmese language, there are many cases where the term Kala is used either
as prefix or affix to form a new noun by demonstrating that it is of foreign origin,
coming, in general, from the countries lying west of Burma, particularaly the Indian
subcontinent. The following are some examples.

Type A (prefix)

(1) -
Indian rice/paddy
rice/paddy of Indian origin
wheat

(2) -_
Indian preserve/pickle
pickle or preserve of fruits/vegetables in Indian style
Chutney or Indian style pickle

(3)
Indian/foreigner sit
the thing which foreigners use for sitting
chair

(4)
Indian bean
beans eaten by Indians passionately
gram, chick pea

(5) .
Indian white
the foreigners who are white
Europeans, Caucasian

Type B (affix)

(1) -
goat Indian
goat of Indian/foreign origin
sheep

(2)
lever Indian/foreign
lever of foreign origin
mechanical jack, motor car jack

(3)
bird Indian/foreign
bird of Indian/foreign origin
black-necked stork (Xenorhynchus asiaticus)

(4) --
bulbul (a kind of small bird) Indian/foreign
bulbul of foreign origin
Eurasian jay (Garrulus leucotis)

(5) .
parrot/parakeet Indian/foreign
parrot/parakeet of Indian/foreign origin
slaty-headed parakeet (Psittacula himalayana)


III. Some examples of the usage of Kala in standard literature:

(1) Yaw Atwinwun U Pho Hlaing, - .-.-. (Utu Bawzana Thingaha
Kyan), Mandalay, 1880, p. 89.

._.. ..- .._
Translation: The people from the west are named Kala by the Burmese.

(2) Pagan Wundaukmin U Tin, .... --. (Myanmar Minmyar
Okchokpon Sardan), Rangoon, 1931, pp. 33-35.

. ._ ------
Translation: -----that there are more than 60 Kala [Indian] races.

(3) ..- .-- (Ah-yedawbon Ngasaung Dwai), Thudhammawaddy Press,
Rangoon, 1920, p. 356.

..... ---
Translation: The Kalas [Indians] and the Panthays [Chinese Muslims] settlers in the
town ----)

(4) Manlei Sayadaw, .-.-....- (Maha Thutakari Margha Dewa
Lingathit), Rangoon,1904, (reprinted 1938), p. 37

.- ----
Translation: The Kalas [Indians], Pathis [Muslims] and the Bayinjis [Catholics] are --

(5) Taw Sein Ko, - .-.- -. (Hluttaw Hmattan), Rangoon, 1915, p. 29.

. .- ----
Translation: The rebels, the Kalas [Indians] and Englishmen ---

(6) _ _ .....-- . -. - (To Amarapura with love),
"Homily Written Letter in a Sympathetic Vein", of "Kyeegan Shingyi", a famous
Buddhist monk, written in 18
th
century during his visit in Rangoon).

.-- . .. ..- ..-. --
Translation: Armenians, Catholics, Negroes, also Tamils and plenty of other Kala
(Indian) races, I don't know all of them but some (has beard and moustache) similar
to that of the alchemist "Zawgyi", all kind of foreign sailors (in Rangoon habour)-------

IV. Some examples used by respected persons:

(1) General Aung San, the father of Burmese independence:

On the 13. July 1947, six days before he was assassinated, General Aung San, the
national hero of Burma, gave a speech which in the event turned out to be his last
speech. In that speech he pointed out that Burmese people were prodigal and
wasteful and therefore some import items should be cut after attaining Burmese
independence.

_ .-. (Hsi ko kalapyi ka wei ya te); which can be roughly
translated as "cooking oil is imported from 'the land of Kala' [India or the
subcontinent]".

If the word Kala had a vulgar association, General Aung San would not have used it
in his speech.

(2) U Nu, the first prime minister of the Union of Burma:

In his famous book .- . -._ (literally: Burma, during these five years) which
was translated by J. S. Furnival as "Burma under the Japanese" U Nu wrote on page
17:
- ._ . . .-- .... .
.-.._
Translation: The Kala [Indian] contractor did not want to do his job any more and ran
away from Mandalay.
On page 205 he wrote:
.- -. . (Preparatory Committee) . _-...
-.._ -.---.. .__- . - _
.--..._ ._ .._._ .- ._. -_, - -
Translation: One day about a month after the formation of the Preparatory
Committee, Dr. Ba Maw consulted a famous Kala [Indian] palmist in his (prime
minister's) office (as to whether he will be assassinated).

(3) U Thein Pe Myint, a well known author, journalist and former general secretary of
the Burmese Communist Party:

In his famous book - . -. (Communism and "We Burmese [Association]"), he
wrote on page 170:
.. -.__. . ....._-.
-.... ---... -.-. _.._ ..
-_-...... -- _ .-- _ ...
-. ..._ --.-_._.
Translation: The poor Kalas [Indians] noticed the gratitude (of Burma and the
Burmese people) and that they could come to Burma, could work there and settle
there, so they never troubled any Burmese. Some times they showed their solidarity
with their Burmese counterparts. It was proven in many strikes, such as in the oil
field workers' strikes in Yenangyaung and Syriam that Kala [Indian] workers were
struggling alongside Burmese workers.

V. Some examples from the important documents:

, .-- .. _. - .. ._--. .- ,
, -, _.- [Declaration of the Anti Fascist Peoples'
Freedom League, Declaration no. 1, August 7, 1944, Clause 2 (O)], where it was
written:
3

. . .-. . - -.. _-.
.. -. . . .. - .-. .
Translation: The government is obliged to protect the political, economical and
social rights of the minority ethnic groups such as Karens, Shans, Palaungs,
Taungthus, Kachins, Chins, Mons, Tayok [Chinese] and Kalas [Indians].

, ... .--._ .... - ,
, [Declaration of the Underground Communist Party of Burma, February 27,
1945, Paragraph (6), Clause (4), where it was written:
4

---- --- ._ ---. - - _ -.._
..-- -._- ...- _.-.. ._ --- . ..-
-._- .- ..-. -.._
.-. .- -.- --- ._ -. -
._ ._ _-_._
Translation: With regard to the Army of the Kalas [Indians]:
5
There are two
possibilities: the Army of the Kalas [Indians] (ie. the Indian National Army lead by
Subas Chandra Bose) will either retreat together with the Japanese Army or they will
split inside Burma. If the Army of the Kalas [Indians] should split up, this may lead to
riots in Burma. If possible, we must try to organize the Army of the Kalas [Indians] so
that they will join us in the anti-Japanese revolution.

VI. Misinterpretations:

(a) created by the "ultra" nationalists:

During the British colonial period Indian immigration to Burma was sufficiently large in
number so that some "ultra" nationalists took to creating a new definition for the word
Kala. Some claimed that the origin of the word Kala came from the Burmese verb
ku); meaning to cross over, and (la); meaning to come, which can be
translated as "the one who came across the sea". This definition, although harmless,
was an enforced Burmanisation. Even today, some people use this colloquial
explanation. However, there is definitely no scholarly basis for this definition.

If the above were at all plausible, then, by the same token, the Burmese word for
Black African, Kappali, derived from the original Arabic word Kafir meaning
infidel or non-believer of Islam, could be claimed to derive from the Burmese verb
(kap) meaning "to approach" or "to stay near" and the Burmese word (pali)
which means "to talk in sugar-coated words". In this way, it might be possible to
misinterpret the word Kappali to mean "he who stays near and uses sugar-coated
words", which is not the case.

Here I would like to cite Hobson-Jobson of Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell, page
495 where it was written: Kula, Kla, n.p Burmese name of a native of Continental
India; and hance misapplied also to the English and other Westerns who have come
from India to Burma; in fact used generally for a Western foreigner.
The origin of the term has been much debated. Some have supposed to be
connected with the name of the Indian race, the Kols; another suggestion has
connected it with Kalinga (see Kling); and a third with the Skt. kula, caste or tribe;
whilst the Burmese popular etymology renders it from ku, to cross over and la, to
come, therefore the people that come across (the sea). But the true history of the
word has for the first time been traced by Prof. Forchhammer to Gola, the name
applied in old Pegu inscriptions to the Indian Buddhist immigrants, a name
which he identifies with Sanskrit Gauda, the ancient name of northern Bengal, hence
the famous city of Gaur (see GOUR, c.).

14
th
cent, - "The heroes Sona and Uttara were sent to Ramaa, which forms a part
of Suvannabhumi, to propagate the holy faith ........ This town is called to this day
Gola mattikanagara, because of the many houses it contained made of earth in the
fashion of houses of the Gola people." Inscr. at Kalayani near Pegu, in
Forschammer, ii.5.


(b) created by the Indian community in Burma:

Although the word Kala has a harmless meaning, the people from the subcontinent
do not like to be called Kala. They feel insulted because the word Kala means
"coloured" or "blackie" in their Indic languages such as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali. In
particular, Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis living in Burma often complain to
foreigners, especially to non-Burmese Burma Scholars that they feel discriminated by
the people of Burma, especially by the Bamas (the Burmese), the Rakhines (the
Arakanese) and the Mons, calling them Kala ( meaning "blackie" in their own
interpretation). Such a misinterpretation was never intended by the people of Burma
(the Burmese, Mons, Karens, Shans and Arakanese (Rakhines) etc.), in fact, on
reflection some people from Northern India and Pakistan are much fairer in
complexion than some people of Burma, especially some Mons, Burmese and
Arakanese (Rakhines)!!

This reaction on part of the people from the subcontinent living in Burma is, I believe
a hypersensitive one and could even be considered as ethnocentric. For, it the
above argument were true, then the following misinterpretation could occur:

(1) The Burmese term for Chinese is Tayok. This word could be claimed to have its
derivation in the Burmese word - (ta) meaning "one" and the Burmese word .-
(yoat) which means "to have bad manners". So, the word Tayok will then be
misinterpreted to mean "the one with bad manners", which is not the case. Moreover,
the Chinese community in Burma have never complained about this word, instead
they are proud to say in Burmese: "We are Tayok".

(2) The Thais call the Burmese Phama in their language. The pronunciation Phama
can be misinterpreted in the Burmese language either as .. (Phama: meaning
"whore") or .. (Pha'ma: meaning "female frog") . However, the Burmese have
never complained about this word!!

VII. Some scholars (unwittingly) misled by informants:

(1) Desai, W. S, India and Burma, Calcutta, 1954, p. 37-38.

"Burmans call Indians Kalas. This term has been interpreted into two different ways.
Ku in Burmese means to cross over; and la is to come. So Kala is the one who has
crossed over and come into the country, that is, a foreigner. The other interpretation
is that it is the Sanskrit Kula meaning clan or caste. Hence it is thought that the term
was applied to Indians since they observe caste. Kalas therefore would mean "the
caste people". Most probably the first interpretation is the correct one. Kala simply
means a foreigner. Europeans are often called by Burmans Kala phyu, i.e. white
foreigners. The term Kala has indeed become in Burma a term of reproach and
should be banned. When the Japanese were in occupation of the country from 1942
to 1945, they forbade the use of this term, substituting Indos ."

I have underlined Prof. Desai's above statement since it is incorrect. In order to
substantiate my critism, I would like to cite some examples from Burmese
newspapers pusblished during the Japanese occupation (1942-45). See also in
Ludu U Hla's .--..- --- -._ - .- (Burma during the
war, as reported in the newspapers, vol. II), p. 19, 46, 92, 186, 292, 308 etc.

(a) ...-- .- _..-. (Myanmaahlin,
"The New Light of Burma", November 5, 1942, Thursday).
. - . ._ - -___. -. -._
-_.- . .. -- .__.
-_. -._._ .- .._
Translation: The meeting for controlling of price and consumer goods was held on
the 2nd. of November at 1 pm. Burmese, Tayok (Chinese) and Kala [Indian]
merchants/brokers in Rangoon attended that meeting.

(b) -..-.-- .- . -... (Bamakhit, "The Burma
Times", November 8. 1942, Sunday):
-- .. -... .- . . .-.
- . .--
Translation: Although Tayok-hybrids [Sino-Burmese] and Kala-hybrids [Indo-
Burmese] have no problems to assimilating into Burmese society, the Anglo-Burmese
prefer segregation. They never mix with the natives.

(c) -..- .- -... _.-- . ,
(Bamakhit, "The Burma Times", November 29. 1942, Sunday) (The speech of
Minister Thakhin Ba Sein)
-. -- ..-.- ._ ..- . .-
- ...
Translation: Soon, our ministry will issue an order so that Burmese and Kala
[Indian] owned steamers can sail along the rivers.

(d) .. . (Myanmaahlin, "The New Light of Burma",
January 8. 1943)
._. -----
Translation: Kala [Indian] refugees -----

If the usage of the term Kala had been banned and substituted by the new
terminology Indos by the Japanese (as claimed by Prof. Desai), those news papers
would have had no other choice but to use the term Indos instead of Kala, otherwise
the editors and reporters might have faced arrest and torture at the hands of the
Kempetai (Japanese Military Police).

(2) Esche, A., Wrterbuch Burmesisch-Deutsch (Burmese-German Dictionary),
Leipzig, German Democratic Republic, 1976, p. 40:

<P> vulg Inder m; Mann m aus dem Westen

According to Dr. A. Esche, the word (Kala) came from Pali, meaning Indian or
man from the west and it is a vulgar word.

In the light of Gen. Aung San's, U Nu's and U Thein Pe Myint's usages (mentioned
above), users of Dr. Esche's dictionary could be confused and may think that Gen.
Aung San, U Nu and U Thein Pe Myint should be condemned either as racists or as
persons with negative attitudes towards people from the subcontinent.
6
In fact, Gen.
Aung San as well as his successor U Nu were very close to fellow Indian politicians
including Ghandi, Nehru and Mohamad Ali Jinnah and they respected these Indian
leaders. Moreover, as a communist, U Thein Pe Myint was very close to his
comrades from the Indian Communist Party.

VIII. Conclusion:

According to the standard literature, the Burmese word Kala (Kula) is the
name for a native of the subcontinent, and is a harmless word. Misinterpretations of
the term were only to evolve only during the colonial era, firstly as a result of overly
sensitive Indians employing their own interpretations, and secondly by "ultra"
nationalists who created wholly new definitions of the term. Those incorrect
interpretations were then amplified and disseminated by non-Burmese Burma
scholars who failed to check with the acknowledged scholars or in standard works on
Burmese language and literature.

I have written this essay in the spirit of the genuine .-- (cetana) meaning "good
will or good intention" for the sake of all those working in the very small field of
"Burma Studies", in particular for "non-Burmese Burma scholars and students", since
most of the standard works and classical Burmese literature is beyond their reach.

Moreover, I have also written this article on the basis of the four "Brahma chariya" or
"the four cardinal virtues or sublime states of mind" namely (i) ..- (metta) "loving-
kindness" to all in the small field of "Burma Studies", (ii) - (karuna)
"compassion or sympathy" for all those who have made misinterpretations
unwittingly, (iii) . - (mudita) "rejoicing at some one's success or prosperity" for
their achievements and contributions and (iv) . (upekkha) "detachment or
indifference or ignorance" for those who are still stubborn and do not want to correct
their misinterpretations.

Notes:
1
U Tin Htway, "Trash from Treasure, In the Case of Judson's Burmese English
Dictionary", in "Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar", The International Conference
on Myanmar, Berlin, 1993.
2
See and compare: U Tin Htway, A Glimpse of General Observations on Burmese
pum, South Asian Digest of Regional Writing, Heidelberg, Vol. 9, pp. 16, 25-27.
3
See also Thakhin Tin Mya, Anti-Fascists Revolution, Head Quarter and Ten
Divisions, (in Burmese), Rangoon, 1968, p. 21.
4
Ibid, p. 51.
5
Japanese trained Indian National Army (INA) headed by Subas Chandra Bose.
6
Dr. Annemarie Esche was the chief supervisor and consultant on Mr. Jens Lorenz's
thesis on Gen. Aung San; Dr. Esche and Jens Lorenz translated Gen. Aung San's
speeches from Burmese into German. U Thein Pe Myint was a communist who was
to become a close friend of both Dr. A. Esche and her husband Dr. Otto Esche, who
served as first secretary of the then East German Embassy in Rangoon (1962-66 and
1975-79). U Thein Pe Myint's wife, Daw Khin Kyi Kyi, was also mentioned by Dr. A.
Esche as one of the consultants in her foreword to her above-mentioned dictionary.
One wonders from which informant Dr. A. Esche received her information? Certainly,
neither from the scholars mentioned in her foreword nor from the standard literature
would substantiate such an interpretation. One can only assume that she obtained
this interpretation either from the Indian (people from the subcontinent) community
living in Rangoon or some "hearsay scholars".