Innovation in Global Power

A technical journal by Parsons Brinckerhoff employees and colleagues
Issue No. 68 August 2008
Heat Map of Hot Rocks
http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/
NuGas Steam Cycles
Innovation in Global Power
3 MW Mini Hydro Station
Also in this Issue: PB Redesigns Composting Machine; Laying out a Swim Lane Diagram Using Microsoft Powerpoint or Visio; Working with Text in Adobe Acrobat

Introduction (Burton) ...........................................................3
CONTENTS
GENERATION
THERMAL ACHIEVING NEW EFFICIENCIES, REDUCING CARBON EMISSIONS Best Practices Across a Range of Technologies (Kenyon)..4 The Effect of Carbon Capture and Storage and Carbon Pricing on the Competitiveness of Gas Turbine Power Plants (Cook)..................................................5 The NuGasTM Concept: Combining a Nuclear Power Plant with a Gas-fired Plant (Willson, Smith).................8 PB Inspections Help To Ensure Power Plant Safety (Gray) .................................................................................................11 Project Brief: Using Monte Carlo Techniques to Size a Power Station (Emmerton).....................................13 Project Brief: Energizing Singapores Economy (Gill)........13 Combined Heat and Power for USAs Largest Residential Development (Bautista, Swensen)............14 Ensuring Continual Power Supply for New York City Hospitals (Krupnik, Andrews) ....................................16 Changes to Chiller, Boiler and HVAC Lower Energy Consumption at a University Campus (Choi)............18 Power Terminology: Units and Conversions (Ebau) .................................................................................................20 HYDROPOWER NEW TECHNOLOGIES, NEW CONSIDERATIONS Does Hydro have a Future? (Wichall).......................................21 Pumped Storage Technology: Recent Developments, Future Applications (McClymont, Reilly)........................22 Planning for Mini Hydro in Distributed Generation (Mulholland)....................................................................................25 Developing, Engineering and Licensing a New Hydropower Dam (Chan, Schadinger)...........................27 Developing Hydropower Resources in Greenland (Kropelnicki,Tucker, Shiers).....................................................30 Successful Relicensing of a Federally Regulated Hydropower Project (Bynoe, Shiers, Williamson, Plizga)..................................................................................................32 Using OASIS Software to Model Water Allocation for Hydropower Generation Projects (Shiers, Williamson,Tsai) ..........................................................35 Dam Safety: State-of-the Art Methodology Demonstrates that Costly Dam Remediation is Not Needed (Greska, Mochrie).........................................38 Deck Slot Cutting and Tainter Gate Remediation Extend Safe Operations of a Hydroelectric Dam (Buratto, Plizga, Shiers).................................................41 RENEWABLES THE RISKS, CONCERNS AND POTENTIAL The Growing Power of Renewables (Loyd) .............44 Renewable EnergySustainable Economy? (Cook)........45 Test Bed to Turnkey: Introducing New Thermal Renewable Energy Technologies (Burdon) ...................48 Realising the Power Potential from Hot Rocks (Curtis) ..............................................................................................51
Project Brief: Tidal Power (Kydd) .........................................53 Converting Landfill Gas to High Btu Fuel (Lemos)...........54 Photovoltaics, With a Focus on Spain* (Lejarza)..........56
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

TRANSPORTING POWER ACROSS THE GRID Electricity Transmission, Building on 120 Years of Experience (Ekwue)...................................................................58 Meeting the Need for Reliable, Cheaper and Nonpolluting Electricity in Cambodia (Parkinson, Roe).........59 Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Abu Dhabi Transmission Network (Jayasimha) ...................................62 HVDC Transmission Strengthening in Southern Africa (Tuson)......................................................................................63 Assessing Transmission Network Condition: 3D Data Capture and Reporting (Reynolds)......................66 DISTRIBUTING POWER TO USERS The Wide Range of Distribution (Douglas)....................68 Research & Innovation: Using Dynamic Thermal Ratings and Active Control to Unlock Distribution Network Capacity (Neumann) ...........................................69 Upside Down! How Innovation in Distribution Networks is Challenging Tradition (Neumann) .........72 A Survey of Power System Packages for Distribution Network Analysis (Ekwue, Roscoe, Lynch) ..................75 Improving 11 kV Network Performance in Al Ain (Nikolic).............................................................................................77 Energy Demand Management Programs in Western Sydney (Duo)............................................................79
TABLE
OF
PLANNING AND THE ROLE OF REGULATORS

Planning and Regulating Power Infrastructure in a World of Change (Stedall) ...........................................81 Asset Replacement: The Regulators View (Douglas)...........82 New Zealand Energy StrategyA Plan for a Sustainable Nation (Barneveld)...........................................86 Power Articles in PB Network, NOTES, and Powerlines (Chow) ...................................................................89
DEPARTMENTS
Networking: PB Redesigns a Composting Machine for Improved Operations (Alts)* ....................................91 Water Factory Will Help to Address Water Shortage Concerns (Hodgkinson) ....................................94 Swim Lanes Part 2: Laying Out a Swim Lane Diagram using Microsoft PowerPoint or Visio (Sloan)................94 Computer Tutor: Working with Text in Adobe Acrobat Pro: Copy text to other software applications, use built-in OCR, make corrections with the TouchUp Text tool (Hinshaw) ..........................99 PlanetWise: Going Green: Walking the Walk!! (Sammut).......................................................................................101 In Future Issues/Call for Articles ................................102
Guest Editors for this issue: Katherine Jackson and Arthur Ekwue.
Guest Technical Reviewers: John Douglas, Ferrel Ensign, Steve Loyd, Chris Meadows, Brian Van Weele, and John Wichall. Special thanks to Paul Kenyon and Matthew Chan for their assistance. Cover photo (lower right): Tony Mulholland
Note: Soon after distribution, this issue will be available on the Web at http://www. pbworld.com/news_events/ publications/network/ Issue_68/68_index.asp
The Net View: Fishing Power (Clark)....................104

PB Network #68 / August 2008 2
* La edicin en lengua espaola del presente artculo est disponible en la direccin Web de PB Network.

This issue of PB Network focuses on the power expertise that PB provides to clients around the world. There continues to be a rapid rate of change in the global power industry as it responds to a range of external drivers, including governmental and regulatory targets, fuel price changes, rising equipment costs and environmental pressures. These changes are happening at the same time that the demand for electrical power world-wide continues to accelerate at unprecedented rates. PBs ability to innovate has become increasingly important to power clients looking for solutions and a competitive advantage in this rapidly changing environment. Reducing carbon emissions through using more efficient and lower carbon forms of generation, a greater interest in extending the lifetime and capacity of existing power assets, and a requirement to squeeze more into existing land space must all be key to helping ensure a sustainable future One of PBs stated values is to work with our clients to contribute to their success, and a number of the articles demonstrate how we are using innovation to do this, including: Information about the advice we are currently providing to the UK government on carbon capture and storage The creation of the NuGas concept that can improve thermal efficiencies to unprecedented levels by combining nuclear power generation with a small combined cycle gas fired plant The development of designs for high-temperature hot dry rock power generation in Australia PBs role in the research and development of a distribution network active thermal controller that uses local meteorological data to calculate real time equipment ratings and control network power flows. Other articles demonstrate how PBs engineers have successfully applied novel thinking to solving problems on a range of projects, including: Increasing the lifetime of hydropower dams Ensuring that New York City hospitals continue to operate during power blackouts Developing a 3D asset data capture system for transmission networks; and developing demand reduction strategies. Another of PBs stated values is to share knowledge with our colleagues to deliver professional excellence. PB Network and the Practice Area Networks (PANs) all assist with achieving this goal, and I would like to thank all of the PANs, authors, reviewers and the editing team who have contributed to this issue. In the spirit of sharing knowledge with our non-power colleagues, we have included a list of standard power terminology, definitions, and conversion factors (Ebau, page 20). Colleagues have shared over 30 other power articles in recent PB Networks, NOTES, and Powerlines (see list on pp. 89-90). Katherine Jackson and Arthur Ekwue were the guest editors who compiled all the articles and developed the framework for the publication. The guest reviewers who helped hone the technical content were John Douglas, Steve Loyd, Chris Meadows, John Wichall, Paul Kenyon, Brian Van Weele, and Ferrel Ensign. This issue was sponsored by PBs Power business units globally and by four of PBs power PANs (conventional thermal generation; high voltage transmission and distribution; power system planning, analysis, and restructuring; and renewable energy sources).
INTRODUCTION
Eric Burton Managing Director, Power International Newcastle, UK

3
PB Network #68 / August 2008
Thermal Achieving New Efficiencies, Reducing Carbon Emissions
G EN ERATION:
Best Practices Across a Range of Technologies

The public awareness of climate change and energy issues has risen dramatically in the last two to three years. There appears to be growing acceptance of the need to be energy smart and to reduce carbon emissions. An example is the identification of energy savings by finesse of thermal cycle. The NuGas concept and the energy efficiency projects at Co-op City and the SUNY campus in Brockport, New York combine an already efficient plant in a way that gains an extra advantage. The process for cleaning the steam and evaporator units at the Keppel Energy Plant in Singapore reduced on-site time and improved steam and water quality during commissioning. These are elegant no-cost or low-cost solutions that were developed by thinking that went the extra step. The demand for increasing thermal efficiencies in our power plants is pushing up temperatures, making it even more important to ensure safe design and operation of these facilities. Stewart Gray has developed an expertise in hazardous areas engineering due, in part to having witnessed many instances of people not understanding the rules and vocabulary involved, and he knows of the severe consequences that can result. His article highlights some of the steps engineers can take a various stages to help ensure such disasters do not occur. The paper on carbon capture and storage gives insight to a dilemma facing many of PBs clients. The world-wide management of carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere is crucial to slowing the rate of global warming. This can be achieved by combinations of improved efficiency in combustion of fossil fuels, moves to low-carbon or carbon-free fuels, or carbon capture. At present carbon capture is not mandated but this may arise, just as happened with reduction of nitrogen oxides emissions (NO and NO2). As with Renewable Energy Certificates, a market may develop to provide incentives to clean operators, funded by penalties on those with less clean processes. PB is well placed to assist its clients in this topical and important area of technology. The use of Monte Carlo techniques is a novel approach to optimize generation capacity for a random load profile. The team went beyond traditional engineering analysis, reduced uncertainty and provided the client with increased confidence in PBs appraisal. Other PB teams can adopt this approach to determine the most economical technical solution yet minimize the risk of a shortfall in installed capacity. The emergency power generation project for hospitals in New York City applied PB expertise and good practice to solve a real and serious issue with old and inadequate life-safety equipment. The projects required improvement work to progress on old, dispersed, sometimes poorly documented infrastructure without disruption to essential services. These articles illustrate projects and technologies with a range of complexity, but each team has a depth of expertise and knowledge to assist clients in its sector. Please see page 89 for a list of many additional thermal generation and carbon reduction articles from past PB publications.
Paul Kenyon Engineering Manager, Newark, New Jersey

The Effect of Carbon Capture and Storage and Carbon Pricing on the Competitiveness of Gas Turbine Power Plants By Dominic Cook, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, 44 191 226 2203, cookDo@pbworld.com
Carbon capture and storage presents an opportunity for the continued use of fossil fuel in power generation whilst mitigating its contribution to carbon emissions. But at what cost? Will electricity still be affordable? Will the technology be attractive to investors? The author explains the capture and transport/ storage processes, explores the answers to these questions, and tells about some considerations clients will face when deciding whether or not to implement CCS. Current thinking is that atmospheric CO2 concentrations must be stabilised at 450 parts per million by volume if we are to at least slow down, if not stop, global warming. This goal will require a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by a factor of four to five in the industrialised nations. Whilst there is a continued and necessary focus on the development, improvement and implementation of renewable and carbon-neutral power generation technologies and the adoption of energy efficiency measures, there is a large gap in the short and medium terms in the level of carbon reductions that can be delivered through these routes alone. The power generation industry produces about half the worlds CO2 emissions, so it offers considerable opportunity for introducing large-scale emission reduction technologies. Current global debate is focussing on the development of carbon capture and storage (CCS), which can extract 85 percent to 95 percent of the CO2 produced by a fossil-fuel power generation facility. Even though carbon capture reduces a plants thermal efficiency, meaning that the use of fuel per unit of electricity produced increases, the overall carbon reduction is still high about 80 percent to 90 percent. The effectiveness of carbon capture technology on power plant emissions is illustrated in Figure 1. CCS technologies impact the cost of electricity generation, however, so if we are to move forward with this technology, it is important that we consider the impact of carbon pricing on lifetime costs, the attractiveness of the technology to investors, and how varying the carbon price will affect the competitiveness of gas turbine plant with other methods of power generation.
Carbon Capture Technologies

The main carbon capture technologies under development are classed as either pre-combustion or post-combustion. The one pre-combustion and two post-combustion options available, which represent the first generation of commercial carbon capture, are shown in Figure 2 and reviewed below.
Pre-combustion. The fuel is first reformed into more basic constituents by its reaction with oxygen. The fuel can be solid, such as coal, petcoke or biomass; liquid, such as a heavy fuel oil; or gas, such as natural gas. The resultant product, known as syngas (synthetic gas), contains mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Other constituents include some methane, some carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and many other minor compounds including ash if a solid fuel is used. Ash is usually in a fused form and easily separated from the syngas. The syngas is treated to convert the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide that is removed in a chemical absorption process, leaving a predominantly a high purity hydrogen gas stream suitable for compression, transportation and long-term sequestration.
Figure 1: Effectiveness of Carbon Capture.
The main plant components of the pre-combustion reformation and capture stages are considered to be proven technologies, although there will be some process engineering required to bring these to the scale required for large scale CCS. Some further operational proving of the gas turbine for use on hydrogen fuel is required before the process can be regarded as being a normal operational procedure.
Post Combustion. A post combustion carbon capture plant can use the same fuels as a pre-combustion capture plant. The fuels are combusted in either conventional boiler plant or, if suitable, in gas turbine plant. The flue gases are treated to remove particulate matter
Figure 2: Carbon Capture and Storage Schematic.
and sulphur dioxide, and to reduce nitrogen oxides before entering the carbon capture process. The carbon dioxide is absorbed into a chemical solution1 to remove it from the flue gas, which is then emitted to atmosphere. The carbon dioxide gas is removed from the absorbent, compressed and transported for long-term sequestration. The challenge with this technology is the need to scale up to utility-size capture.
Oxyfuel. An oxyfuel plant is one in which the fuel is combusted in oxygen supplied by an air separation plant rather than air. The resulting flue gases are purified to remove particulate matter and sulphur dioxide, and to reduce nitrogen oxides. Some of the captured carbon dioxide is recycled and mixed with the oxygen feed to the boiler plant to control combustion temperature. The remaining carbon dioxide is then purified, compressed and transported to long-term storage.
Technology Analysis and Lifetime Cost of Generation

For the purposes of reviewing the position of gas turbine technology within a carbon Table 1: Estimated Capacity of constrained world, it was CO2 Storage Options. (Source: IEA-GHG, 2004) necessary to identify those power generation technologies where gas turbines will continue to have a use and, importantly, the competitor technologies. The technologies reviewed included: Coal supercritical pulverised fuel plant with flue gas desulphurisation with and without carbon capture Coal integrated gasification combined cycle plant (IGCC) with and without carbon capture Gas fired combined cycle plant with low NOx burner technology with and without carbon capture New generation nuclear power plant. Our analysis considered the impact of carbon and capital on the lifetime cost of electricity generation. The extent to which carbon pricing feeds through to the cost of electricity generation depends on the amount of free allocations provided by government to individual plants. Given that different allocation methodologies will be adopted in different countries globally, it was considered to be of more value to assume no allocations and that the full cost of carbon flows through to the end electricity generation cost. The level of carbon captured within the carbon capture options will be specific to each plants detailed design. The costs associated with the transport and storage of carbon were based on various reference sourcesan indicative value of $10/ton CO2 sequestered was used.2 The Capital costs and operation and maintenance costs were based on those observed in the market and included adjustments for the recent increases in the underlying materials costs, such as: Steel: 35 percent increase since 2002 Copper: 400 percent increase since 2002 Nickel: 400 percent increase since 2002. The analysis showed that the addition of carbon capture and associated transport and storage charges added about 35 percent to 63 percent to the lifetime cost of electricity generation. Introducing a carbon cost payable by the generation plants for all CO2 emitted increased the electricity costs across the board, as would be expected. For example, if a $25/ton charge were placed on all CO2 emissions, the gap between non-carbon capture and carbon capture would be narrowed to 6 percent to 22 percent due to the proportionately larger impact the carbon cost has on the non-CCS plant.
The aim of oxyfuel development is to use as much of the existing and proven equipment as possible; although some issues remain relating to the control of combustion temperatures within the boiler and the scaling up of air separation plant to the size necessary for use in power plant applications.
Carbon Dioxide Transport and Storage

Transport. Captured carbon dioxide is transported to a longterm storage location by either pipeline, truck, train, or boat, although only pipeline would be feasible for the quantities resulting from large-scale power generationmillions of tonnes per year. The pipeline could transport carbon dioxide in the gaseous phase, at pressures below 71 bar, or at higher pressures where the carbon dioxide is present as a supercritical fluid giving benefits from lower frictional losses. The scale is such that a new pipeline infrastructure would be needed. Storage. Storage of carbon dioxide is assumed to be in geological formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline aquifers and unmineable coal seams. These formations need to provide storage with negligible leakage to ensure that the carbon is sequestered over geological timescalesthousands, if not tens of thousands of years.
The estimated global potential for the storage of CO2 in these various sinks is detailed in Table 1. As would be expected, the capacities for the oil/gas and coal storage options are considerably smaller than those for the saline aquifers. Even with the present global carbon dioxide emissions of about 25 billion tonnes per year, the available storage capacity extends for about 55 years to about 435 years. Whilst this is not a solution, it does provide us with a temporary breathing space in which to find and implement alternative means of energy provision to satisfy human, social and economic aspirations.
1 A number of possible chemicals can be used. Amine, ammonia, and potassium bicarbonate are just a few. 2 Imperial College, Potential for Synergy between renewables and Carbon Capture and Storage.
across the board, as would be expected. For example, if a 25/ton charge were placed on all CO2 emissions, the gap between non-carbon capture and carbon capture would be narrowed to 6 percent to 22 percent due to the proportionately larger impact the carbon cost has on the non-CCS plant.
Figure 3 shows that the carbon costs incurred by unabated generation increase the cost of generation significantly whilst maintaining the mix of generation technologies to coal, gas and nuclear. There did not appear to be a clear winner.
Figure 3: Relative costs of plant with and without carbon capture.
These projects will be implemented at various times up to 2015, with the majority scheduled for delivery around 2010. The fact that these development projects are moving forward is a step in right direction; however, there is a need to accelerate this if we wish to contain the global concentrations of atmospheric CO2 below the 450 ppmv level that is presently given as our target.
Other Opportunities
A carbon capture plant had been considered to date as being inflexible in its operation and less able to respond to short-term changes in electricity demand. This view is changing, however, with recent studies considering the specific capabilities of the power generation plant and the carbon capture plant separately. With this new view comes the potential to include additional carbon storage on post-combustion capture plants, a change that will allow additional power to be provided from the generator in response to system events, such as transmission system faults, power station forced outages, or spikes in demand. This change could provide valuable flexibility services to the transmission system operator when rapid response to system events is required. In the case of pre-combustion plant, whether the fuel is coal or gas, the hydrogen fraction of the syngas could provide the beginning for establishing a hydrogen economy. This would be prior to the commercial realisation of nuclear fission. It would also be applicable in countries that do not have sufficient insolation (incident solar radiation) or available land area to drive large solar plant that could be used to generate hydrogen.
Where Are We Now?

A number of CCS projects of varying sizes are underway around the world. The European Union (EU) projects are shown in Figure 4. As can be seen, only three are identified as being operational with the bulk being in the planned stage.
Figure 4: Carbon Capture projects in the European Union.
Summary
The technology relating to carbon capture is progressing and reaching a point where it is at a pre-commercial stage. The mechanisms to allow the costs associated with carbon emissions to incentivise investment in carbon capture plant are beginning to emerge, but they will need a strong political will to ensure that the costs associated with carbon emissions become sufficient to tip the balance in favour of carbon capture. This political decision will need to take into account the extent to which the end customer incurs additional charges and the rate at which any additional costs are introduced into the economy. This is a balancing act and it will have a time constant associated with it. It must be remembered, however, that:
CCS IS NOT A SOLUTION ITS A STOP GAP!

Dominic Cook has 20+ years of utility and consultancy experience in the power industry. He has been involved in regulatory audits and the development of power generation plant, and in providing advice to financial institutions. His publications included Powering the Nation in June 2006 and he is presently involved with the UK government on the carbon capture competition. Note: This article was adapted from a paper presented at the annual conference of the Institute of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engineers (IDGTE) in November 2007.
The NuGasTM Concept: Combining a Nuclear Power Plant with a Gas-Fired Plant
By Paul Willson, Manchester, UK, 44 161 200 5210 willsonPa@pbworld.com; and Alistair Smith, 44 161 200 5114, smithAlistair@pbworld.com
Nuclear power is experiencing renewed interest around the world because of its low carbon emissions and affordability. As with other thermal generation technologies, however, its thermal efficiency is limited. PB has developed a new concept that combines current nuclear technology with combined cycle gas turbine technology to achieve unprecedented levels of thermal efficiency. The authors explain how it works and how it can be implemented in new installations or in retrofitting existing nuclear stations.
PBs power specialists in the UK have developed and patented a completely new concept for high-efficiency electricity generation. This ground-breaking development, called NuGasTM, combines the advantages of nuclear power generation with a smaller combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT)-based power technology to create a low-cost, highly reliable hybrid system that: Increases output and thermal efficiencies to levels that are far higher than even the most ambitious forecasts Achieves a simple, safe and effective interface between the cycles. Improved performance comes from better use of heat in the steam cycles of the CCGT and nuclear plant where currently unavoidable large temperature differences prevent the maximum work being obtained from the heat. By linking a CCGT with the low-temperature steam cycle typical of a nuclear power plant, these temperature differences can be reduced significantly, releasing additional power output without going outside conventional design conditions. Because NuGasTM enhances thermodynamic cycle design rather than changing operating conditions to improve efficiency, it introduces no new technology risks in its implementation. This is a significant advantage over the more complex and unproven technologies being introduced for new gas turbine designs as engineers pursue ever higher temperature operation. NuGasTM can be used either for retrofitting existing nuclear stations or for new-build installations. While the new-build design allows for maximum optimization, the retrofitted option will enable rapid return on investment with minimal impact on normal day-to-day operation of the existing nuclear plant during construction of the CCGT unit.
Improving Thermal Efficiency

When analyzing a nuclear power station design, the question often asked by non-engineers or scientists is why cant you convert all the heat generated in the reactor into electricity? For example, the thermal efficiency of the latest pressurized water reactors (PWRs) is just 37 percent. Even if there were no losses in the system, the maximum Ideal Efficiency would still be well below 100 percent. For a PWR operating at an upper steam temperature of 540F (280C), the maximum possible efficiency would be just 45 percent. The way to push the Ideal Efficiency up is to increase the upper temperature in the cycle, which is why gas-cooled high temperature reactors are again being considered. Temperatures have been pushed up also in fossil fuelled power plants, and the most modern coal-fired super-critical boilers can achieve a thermal efficiency of 44 percent. This level is now being exceeded when two cycles are combined, such as the CCGT, where temperatures are around 2300F (1200C) and a thermal efficiency of 57 percent can now be achieved. The desire to raise system efficiencies beyond current levels has proven challenging, however. Despite considerable investment in research and development, it appears that significant incremental improvements are becoming more expensive and harder to achieve without sacrificing reliability. By combining current nuclear and CCGT technologies. NuGasTM raises thermal efficiencies to unprecedented levels. Under this concept, the two separate power generation systems can operate in tandem as a single combined unit on the same site. In the case of breakdown or planned maintenance, either the nuclear plant or the gas turbine-powered unit can revert to independent operation, thereby maximizing availability of power and minimizing upset to the power networks.
The basic concept would allow a large nuclear power plant with a typical output of 800 to 1700 MWe to be combined with a 300 MW CCGT generating unit. Linking the steamcycles of the two plants enables them to operate as an integrated power production unit and reduces losses of potential output, increasing total efficiency. Cycle efficiency gains enable the CCGT to contribute an increased output for no additional fuel, with the efficiency of converting the energy in the gas to electricity increased to about 62 percent.
feedwater, which is returned to the nuclear cycle (D), ensuring that the inlet temperature to the steam generator is maintained close to the design value. The heat in the gas turbine exhaust below about 320F (160C) (E) is used to heat part of the condensate from the high temperature steam turbine (F) before it is deaerated and returned to the nuclear cycle feed pumps (G). The remaining condensate from the high temperature steam turbine is returned to the nuclear cycle condensate system (H). The flows of energy around the cycle differ somewhat to those in a conventional CCGT. Figure 2 shows a simplified Sankey diagram for the NuGasTM cycle, including the energy exchanges between the CCGT and PWR cycles shown along the lower edge of the diagram. Identifying the separate performance of the CCGT cycle when it is linked to the PWR cycle requires that the design PWR energy balance be maintained. Thus, the CCGT returns power to the PWR to compensate for the reduction in output due to the borrowed steam and returns rejected heat in the CCGT cooling water to the PWR to account for the reduced heat rejection from the nuclear turbine condenser. The diagram therefore shows the additional energy input, the additional losses and the additional power generated by the cycle, demonstrating its high efficiency.
How NuGasTM Works

Although a CCGT system has a high thermal efficiency, it relies on using the heat from the exhaust gases of the gas turbine to boil water to produce steam that drives the turbine. As the exhaust gases cool, water is evaporated in the boiler tubes but temperature differences of up to 400F (200C) arise in the boiler due to the large amount of heat needed to evaporate the water. These temperature differences limit the potential work that can be extracted from the steam, reducing the output of the steam cycle. The NuGasTM cycle overcomes this limitation by borrowing a small proportion (typically 10 percent) of the steam from the nuclear steam cycle (point A on Figure 1). The dry saturated steam is superheated using the exhaust heat of the gas turbine. The high temperature steam (B) is then used to drive a separate conventional condensing steam turbine to provide additional output from the plant. Superheating steam rather than boiling water enables a much lower temperature difference to be maintained in the heat recovery system, maximizing the value of the energy recovered. The heat in the gas turbine exhaust flow between about 570F and 320F (300C and 160C) is recovered via a high temperature economizer (C) to generate high temperature
Figure 1: Schematic Combination of the Steam Cycles.
Safety Considerations
Downstream failure is limited. The extraction of steam from the main steam system has the potential to disturb reactor operating conditions. However, the PWR system is designed to allow for a 10 percent step change in flow to the main steam turbine without exceeding the appropriate limits for a frequent operating condition. It is likely, nevertheless,
Figure 2: Simplified Sankey Diagram for NuGas Cycle.
that a suitably qualified shut-off valve and additional bypass valves would be needed to limit the potential impact of any downstream failure in the NuGasTM cycle.
Installation risks are minimized. The interconnection design minimizes installation risks and ensures that the main plant is unaffected by maintenance of the NuGasTM plant and that CCGT operation can continue independently of reactor operation. This is fundamental, as significant costs would be charged by the grid operator for increasing the loss of generation resulting from a single fault. In addition, the project economics would be adversely affected if the availability of either plant was to be degraded by the linking of the cycles. Safety case is maintained. NuGasTM raises overall efficiency by enhancing the thermodynamic cycle rather than changing operating conditions, so in addition to being inexpensive, it introduces no new technology risks in its implementation. The plant design incorporates additional systems to control high temperature steam flows linking the nuclear and CCGT units, ensuring that the integrity of the nuclear safety case is maintained.
additional capacity with no additional fuel burn. Pessimistically at a fuel price of $7/MMBTU, a cost that is conservatively below current levels and below recent longer term forecasts, the investment to combine the plants would have a typical payback time of less than three years. At higher gas prices, the benefits are increased and the payback period correspondingly reduced.
Backfit
The renaissance of interest in new nuclear power plants will mean that by 2015 and beyond more nuclear plants will be brought on-line, but for the next seven years utilities waiting for their new nuclear plants to be licensed and built may be faced with a generating capacity gap. Some utilities are, therefore, considering building interim plants with a low capital cost and rapid construction times, characteristics of the CCGT. Building a CCGT and combining it with an existing nuclear power plant can provide a rapid method for increasing power generation capacity with exceptionally high thermal efficiency, making it far more profitable than stand-alone CCGTs. The necessary connections to the nuclear steam cycle can be readily made during the refuelling outages on the nuclear plant, thereby minimizing disruption and cost. A further key advantage for the NuGasTM concept arises where the nuclear plant has increased operating margins such that more heat can be emitted by the reactor. In some cases this extra output cannot be converted to electricity as the existing steam system cannot operate at significantly higher rates. Because the NuGasTM cycle increases steam utilization capability by at least 10 percent, it can use excess steam without expenditure or shutdowns for costly steam cycle upgrades, making the NuGasTM conversion even more attractive financially.
To ensure that all the additional hazards associated with the introduction of the CCGT are assessed, a full HAZOP has been carried out to ensure that risks are well within the currently assessed fault scenarios.
New Build
Currently, the two leading candidate PWR designs for new nuclear construction are the Evolutionary Pressurized Water Reactor (EPR) from AREVA with a nominal power rating of 1600 MWe and the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor with an output of around 1140 MWe. Either the EPR or AP1000 could be integrated with a NuGasTM cycle to offer extra capacity with the highest possible efficiency for fossil fuel conversion without significantly increasing the loss of output in the event of a reactor trip. If the NuGasTM concept was applied to an AP1000 with a nuclear plant electrical output of 1140 MW, the combined plant would have an output of approximately 1470 MW for an additional capital cost of around $250 million ($800 to $1000 per incremental kW). The cost of the NuGasTM integration is approximately $50 million, which can be considered to offer
Conclusion
By re-examining power generation options and focusing on improving efficiency to reduce carbon emissions, it has been possible to developing a novel concept that brings together the best aspects of nuclear and gas-fired power generating technologies. The concept is now being developed with utilities and plant vendors, with a target of going into service before 2013.
Paul Willson, Deputy Director of Engineering, Generation within PBs power and energy business in Manchester, has worked for PB and its predecessors for more than 25 years. He leads the Development and Emerging Technology Group, which is responsible for independent power and water project development and for innovations. Paul is co-inventor of the NuGas technology. Alistair Smith, Director of Nuclear Services for PB based in Manchester, has worked in the nuclear power industry for 27 years and has worked on all phases of the nuclear plant lifecycle covering design, construction, operation and decommissioning. He is the chairman of the UK Institution of Mechanical Engineers Nuclear Power Committee, chairman of the Nuclear Industry Associations industrial group, and is a spokesman for the UK nuclear industry.
PB Inspections Help to Ensure Power Plant Safety

By Stewart Gray, Bangkok, Thailand, 66 (0) 2343 8866, gray.stewart@pbworld.com
The author provides some insight into the application of engineering to prevent explosions and fire in highly hazardous areas of power plants fuelled by oil or gas.
In modern thermal power plants fuelled by either oil or gas, fuel handling processes give rise to situations where electrical equipment could cause an explosion due to a hot surface or a spark. Indeed, there have been several incidents in the past where lives have been lost and plant destroyed. Places where these situations arise are termed hazardous or classified areas. Special engineering practices designed to prevent explosions in these areas are available. These practices are often misunderstood and applied incorrectly, however, expert supervision should always be used at a project start-up to ensure such engineering practices are implemented properly. The following information is based on the experiences of some of PBs workers in this field, particularly our assessments of power plant installations and our ensuring that relevant codes and practices, local statute and insurance requirements are adhered to.
Acronyms/Abbreviations
IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission
Applicable Codes or Practice

The code or practice applicable to each installation is normally determined by its locality, although the several different practices applied worldwide have many similarities. The most commonly applied codes are International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60079 Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70 National Electrical Code. Both define sets of special precautions (types of protection) required for electrical equipment in hazardous/classified areas using some very definite vocabulary.
Figure 1: Schematic of the principle of a flameproof enclosure.
Choice of Types of Explosion Protection

It is important to establish the extent of hazardous areas that exist at an early stage of any plants design. These areas are customarily delineated using a plan called a hazardous areas layout drawing. While it is always best to install the electrical equipment elsewhere, doing so is often unavoidable. All electrical equipment installed in a hazardous area requires explosion protection. IEC 60079 defines nine types of such protection. Of these, the three types of protection most commonly found in modern power plant are: Flame proof enclosure (type d). This technique limits the effect of an explosion. Parts that could cause an explosion are placed inside a special enclosure that is strong enough to contain an internal explosion (Figure 1). The resulting hot gasses exit through a specially machined path that is relatively long and narrow. As they exit they are cooled sufficiently to avoid spreading the explosion outside. The main uses for this type of protection are electrical power equipment, switches, etc. While this is a well known technique, it is somewhat less readily available than others. It is also expensive and requires special installation rules. Increased safety (type e). This technique (Figure 2) prevents explosions. Parts that could cause an explosion are made with a superior degree of safety, including long creepages and clearances, and temperature limitations. Its main use is for junction boxes. This technique is well known, readily available, and inexpensive. Its use requires observation of special design and installation rules. Intrinsic safety (type i). This technique (Figure 3) also prevents explosions. The circuit is arranged so the amount of energy that can flow into the hazardous area is limited and incapable of causing an ignition. Normally, energy limiting barrier devices used in the safe area contain zenner diodes or optical isolators to achieve the energy limitation. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the hazardous area part of the circuit cannot store large amounts of energy (i.e., use of low capacitance cables).
Figure 2: Schematic of the principle of increased safety.
Figure 3: Schematic of the principle of intrinsic safety.
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The main uses of type i are for instrumentation, telecommunication devices, and similar equipment. It is well known, inexpensive and readily available, but special design and installation rules need to be followed. Two categories of intrinsic safety are available. Category ia, which provides the highest degree of explosion protection available, ensures safety under two faults. Category ib ensures safety under a single fault.
as summarised in the box below. In addition, the check-sheets should contain a record of each items certificate number. The methods used are straightforward; however, each item of plant has its own peculiarities and some of these are often overlooked. The importance of this matter dictates that an expert lead the inspection at this stage.
Minimum Check Points for Installation of Three Common Types of Explosion Protection
Flame pr o o f e n c l o s u r e i n s t a l l a t i o n ( t y p e d ) .
Design and Assembly Stage Inspections

Inspections of the installation need to be conducted throughout the stages of its life cycle in accordance with IEC 60079.
Design Stage. Inspections should start at the design stage by means of design review because mistakes identified at this stage are almost always easier and less costly to rectify. Factory Assembly Stage. When factory assembly of skid mounted equipment is completed and after the factory has conducted its own inspection, an inspection done by our team is advantageous. Whilst this does not present a comprehensive picture of the final installation, it can often show mistakes, and corrective measures can be planned during shipping to the construction site.
The EEx d label is correct. The cover has been fitted correctly. The serial number on the cover and base unit match (if applicable). Cable entries are by means of EEx d certified gland (special rule for enclosure > 2 litre size), EEx d certified plug or stopper, EEx d certified cable bushing/termination or sealed conduit. All conduits are wrench-tight with at least five full threads engaged. Any reducer used is certified.
Incr e a s e d s a f e t y i n s t a l l a t i o n ( t y p e e ) .
Final Construction Inspection

A final construction inspection, along with possible rectification of any mistake, is mandatory before explosive fluid can be introduced to the plant. The objective of the inspections is to verify the installation complies with the applicable code of practice. In the case of IEC 60079, this requires ensuring that the appropriate components were selected and that they were installed correctly. Discovery of an installation mistake at this stage may lead to project time delay.
Verification of Explosion Protection. The first part of any inspection work is to make sure that the equipment is explosion protected in conformance with IEC 60079. Whilst it may be labelled with compliance information, a visual check of labelling is not enough. It is necessary to obtain a copy of the original certificate of conformance and use this as the inspection star t-point. The inspector should check the cer tificate validity, cross check the cer tificate against equipment labels and verify the installation method complies with the requirements as stated in the cer tificate. Use of Check Sheets. It is good practice to record the outcome of the inspection using check-sheets. The minimum points to be considered are peculiar to each type of protection,
The EEx e label is correct. Any breather is of an approved type (see certificate schedule). Any breather is installed in correct face. Any unused cable hole is sealed properly. All terminal screws are tightened, including spare terminals. Insulation is within 1 mm (0.04 inch) of the terminal throat. If mineral-insulated copper clad (MICC) cable is used, an EEx e gland is applied. The glanding technique maintains IP54 (washers may be used). There is no more than one conductor per clamp, unless a special joint is used. Terminal creepages and clearances are within specifications. Terminal temperatures will not exceed the temperature of the component certificate. All terminals and accessories have been installed per the manufacturers recommendations. Terminal ratings do not exceed their label.
Intrinsic safety installation (type i).
The barrier is installed in safe area (may be in zone 1 area if inside

EEx d enclosure).
The EEx marking is correct on the barrier and device, if applicable. Wiring has been segregated. Enclosures are protected to at least IP20. Earthing has been connected in accordance with the EEx certificate. Wiring properties are consistent with EEx certification. If a colour code is applied, the colour used is light blue.
Related Web Sites:

Additional information about the use of electrical equipment in hazardous areas is publicly available at numerous certification body and specialist manufacturers Web sites, including: http://www.baseefa.com/ http://www.mtl-inst.com/ http://www.ptb.de/index_en.html http://www.stahl.de/en/start.html
Stewart Gray is a principal engineer with more than 30 years project engineering experience, including 10 in a construction-based consulting role. With his detailed knowledge of the subjects of safety and inspections, he has identified a variety of hazardous area installation errors on behalf of several clients before their plants went into service. In most cases, these errors were attributable to incorrect material selection or inappropriate installation techniques.
Project Brief: Using Monte Carlo Techniques to Size a Power Station By Mike Emmerton, Hong Kong, 65 6290 0737, emmertonM@pbworld.com
1 Two earlier PB Network articles
tell how Monte Carlo techniques were used in risk management. Please see: Project Risk Management and Madrids New Airport by Paul Callender, Issue 51, January 2002, pp. 56-58 and on line at http:// www.pbworld.com/news_events/ publications/network/issue_51/ 51_24_callenderp_madrid airport.asp. A Risk Assessment and Analysis for an Existing Water Conveyance Tunnel by Kyle Ott and Joe Wang, Issue 51, January 2002, pp. 38-40, 43 and on line at http://www.pbworld.com/news_ events/publications/network/ issue_51/51_17_ottk_risk assessmentanalysistunnel.asp
In early 2007, PB was selected to assist one of the worlds largest port owner-operators to determine the least-cost approach to meeting the power needs of a proposed container port development in Pakistan. The major electrical loads of a container port are the quay cranes used for loading and unloading container ships. The client required our power specialists to determine whether a stand-alone power station would be more economical than using on-board quay crane diesel motors. The key challenge in sizing the power station was to deal with the uncertainty associated with the loading pattern of 16 quay cranes. The electrical loads of these cranes vary with their duty cycles, and the total load varies with the number of cranes in operation In turn, this, is dependent on the rate of arrival/departure and the capacity of the container ships. Our team combined engineering and Monte Carlo techniques to successfully deal with this problem. Monte Carlo is a method of analyzing stochastic processes, which are those governed by laws of probability, that are so difficult that a purely mathematical treatment is not practical.1 Client feedback indicated that this technique was the most convincing method they had seen used in the industry, whereas solutions based on traditional engineering methods only were judged to be unreliable or conservative.
Mike Emmerton is a management consultant who has been with PB since 2004.
Project Brief: Energizing Singapores Economy

By Kamaljit Gill, Singapore, 65 6533 7333, gillK@pbworld.com
PB acted as owners engineer to Keppel Energy for its development of the Keppel Merlimau Cogen power plant, a 500 MW combined cycle facility on Jurong Island in southwest Singapore. The plant now supplies power to the Singapore grid, and has provision to feed process steam to chemical plants that are due to be part of the evolving petrochemical industry on the island. Construction began in March 2005. Our management team ensured that everything was in place well ahead of the schedule set by the turnkey contractor, an effort that helped lead to the plant seeing provisional acceptance in April 2007. The project adopted the acid cleaning method, which replaced the usual steam-blow procedure. This resulted not only in a shortened timetable, but in improved qualities of steam and water for commissioning. Our team also helped to meet stringent regulatory requirements. The plant was the first independent power project to comply with Singapores Energy Market Authority (EMA) rules following deregulation of the countrys electricity market in 2003.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.keppelenergy.com/ http://www.ema.gov.sg/ http://www.pbworld.com/
Kamaljit Gill is a senior mechanical engineer who has been with PB since 2005. He was the lead mechanical engineer supervising the installation and construction of GTs, ST, HRSG, piping, tanks and balance of plant equipment on site, including chemical cleaning, steam blowing and performance testing of turnkey systems. He was also reviewing engineering design documents and drawings from contractors, monitoring schedules and quality of execution during site implementation to ensure that the plant complies with contractual requirements. Kamaljit was also a member of the commissioning team, supervising, internal commissioning activities - conducting internal and regulatory testing, reliability runs and performance guarantee testing.
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Combined Heat and Power for USAs Largest Residential Development

By Dennis Bautista and Eric Swensen, New York, New York, 1-212-613-8840, swensen@pbworld.com
The project described in this article started as refurbishment of a central heat/chill plant to include combined heat and power (CHP) for a baseload of approximately 26 MWe. The majority of CHP in USA is heat matched with top-up electrical power from the utility provider. Our team identified benefits for an over-size (40 MWe) CHP plant able to export up to 16 MWe to the utility grid.
PB was engaged as prime consultant to upgrade the central boiler/chiller plant at the largest cooperative residential development in the USA, which is named Co-op City. Located in New York Citys borough of the Bronx, Co-op City is home to approximately 55,000 residents. It consists of 15,372 residential units in 35 high-rise buildings and seven clusters of townhouses, three shopping centers, parking garages, schools, and houses of worship (Figure 1). Riverbay, the corporation that manages Co-op City for the residents, wanted to make a number of improvements for greening the complex. These included: upgrading the central plant, improving the buildings energy efficiency, extending the existing waste recycling schemes, and introducing water-conserving technologies. The objectives of the central plant upgrades were to reconfigure the systems to optimize steam and energy utilization during peak and off peak seasons; make the development self-sufficient for heating, cooling, and power; and lower emissions.
The Existing Boiler/Chiller Plant

The existing plant had been configured as a thermal plant with electric generation to provide for the parasitic loads of the plant. As studied, the plant comprised the following, all of which were fired on No. 6 (residual) fuel oil: A central boiler plant with combined gross steam generating capacity of approximately 442 tonne/hour (975,000 lbs/hr). One high-pressure boiler 34.5 barg (500 psig) with rated capacity of 138 tonne/hour (305,000 lbs/hr). Two low-pressure boilers. Four multistage steam turbine driven centrifugal chillers, each with original rating of 6,250 tons refrigeration. During spring and fall when there is little requirement for heating or cooling, the steam demand may be as low as from 4,536 kg/hr to 13,608 kg/hr (10,000 lbs/hr to 30,000 lbs/hr), while winter peak heating demand can be more than 226,800 kg/hr (500,000 lbs/hr). Steam is used for domestic water heating all year round, chilled water production in the summer, and space heating in the winter. The old 7.5 MVA steam turbine generator (STG) had not been operational since 1996, and the superheated steam from the high-pressure boiler was now directed to the pressure reducing/de-superheater station and low-pressure header to supplement the low pressure boilers steam supply. The electrical loads were supplied from Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Con-Ed), the local utility. The load ranged from an annual average demand of 12 MWe to a peak demand of 23 MWe.
Related Web Sites:

New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA): http://nyserda.org/default.asp Riverbay Corporation: http://www.riverbaycorp.com/ newrb
Configuration Study and Critical Analysis

PB provided a configuration study and critical analyses that recommended installation of combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) cogeneration plant to replace the existing electrical supply from Con-Ed and to meet the thermal demand of the complex. Included were a combined heat and power (CHP) study, chiller upgrade study, cooling tower study and miscellaneous plant upgrades.
Figure 1: View from the refurbished cooling tower showing some of the Co-op Citys 35 high rise buildings in the background.
The CCGT system selected by the client from options presented by PB went beyond the straight replacement of plant. It was designed for flexibility of operation and retained usable equipment where possible. Although the majority of CHP in the USA is heat matched, an oversize (40 MWe) plant with power-export capability was selected. This oversize system (Figure 2) included: Two new 13 MWe gas turbine generators, each with a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), fired on natural gas as primary fuel or No. 2 (distillate) oil as back up fuel. A new 15 MWe extraction condensing steam turbine generator. This generator uses the existing condenser, which has a maximum steam capacity of 29,483 kg/hr (65,000 lb/hr). Consultation with the original equipment manufacturer confirmed sufficient capacity. The two existing central plant low-pressure boilers, which will continue to operate on No. 6 (residual) fuel oil. A new dual fuel (gas/oil) packaged boiler rated at 68 tonne/hr (150,000 lbs/hr) that will provide further flexibility.
Figure 2: Combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant representative of installation at Co-op City.
minimized the impact on the existing system. The primar y features of the existing central chiller plant were: Chillers. Four Worthington multistage steam turbine driven, centrifugal chillers, each with original rating of 6,250 tons refrigeration. Turbine Drives. The multistage steam turbine drivers were each rated 2,289.3 kW (3,070 hp), designed for 10.3 barg (150 psig) steam supplied from the existing central boilers. Performance. Design chilled water flow rate was 37 8 liter/minute (10,000 gpm) each. The main components of the chiller plant upgrade were: Replacement of the chiller unit driveline to a more efficient, single-stage turbine. The new driveline lowered the output of each chiller to 5,000 tons (total combined capacity of 20,000 tons), but improved chiller efficiency by 33 percent. New high efficiency tubes for the evaporators, condensers and steam condensers. A new digital control system. The chilled water plant configuration study and engineering was undertaken in September 2004. The upgrade of the chiller plant commenced in summer of 2006 and was completed a year later. The final EPC cost was $12 million. The chiller plant efficiency was improved from the existing steam rate consumption of approximately 15 lb/ton-hr to 10 lb/ton-hr
Other Supporting Tasks

Several other tasks included in our scope supported Riverbay Corporations goal to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. Some of them are discussed here briefly. The PB CHP study started in May 2004 and was completed in October 2004. Following the study and configuration analysis, PB performed owners engineering services to procure the gas turbine and award an engineer, procure, construct (EPC) contract. The contract was awarded April 2006 and construction commenced in June 2006. The installation was completed in early 2008 and, at the time of writing, was ready for testing and final Con-Ed approval of the interconnection arrangements. The final EPC cost was $67 million.
Cooling Tower. The existing five-cell Marley mechanical draft evaporative cooling tower was refurbished to address the additional heat rejection from the new cogeneration plant. Switchgear. A short circuit and protection relay coordination study indicated that upgrading of the existing switchgear was required. The new 13.2 kV switchgear includes individual generator circuit breakers, connection to the new plant switchgear and parallel operation with the Con-Ed utility. The switchgear was installed by the client. Financial Grants. We investigated the availability of grants and successfully applied to the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), a public benefit corporation created in 1975 to help reduce New York States fossil fuel consumption.
Chiller Upgrade
The other major component of our plant work was a configuration study and engineering ser vices to upgrade the existing central chiller plant. The goals were to increase efficiency and reliability with construction that
Dennis Bautista was lead mechanical engineer on the Co-op City project. He is a former PB employee. Eric Swensen, an assistant vice president and senior engineering manage, has extensive experience in power engineering, ranging from initial feasibility studies and conceptual design, through detailed design, construction, and commissioning.
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Ensuring Continual Power Supply for New York City Hospitals By Ross Krupnik, New York, New York, 1-212-613-8889, krupnik@pbworld.com; and
Warren Andrews, Atlanta, Georgia, 1-404-364-2650, andrewsW@pbworld.com
Several of New York Citys hospitals and diagnostic and treatment centers needed upgrades to their power systems to ensure they would maintain services during power outages. The author tells about much of the research and planning PB conducted for these upgrades and, equally important, for ensuring that interruptions to power were minimized during construction.
Related Web Sites:
Dormitory Authority of the State of New York: www.dasny.org New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation: www.nyc.gov/hhc
The Northeast Blackout of 2003, the largest power outage in North American history, revealed poorly performing stand-by emergency generators and emergency power distribution systems at some of New York Citys hospitals. This event led NYC Health and Hospital Corporation (NYC HHC), the owner, to have feasibility studies performed for upgrading emergency power systems at several of its major hospitals and diagnostic and treatment centers. The following year the Dormitory Authority of the State of New York (DASNY), which acts as NYC HHCs agent, retained PB to validate the aforementioned feasibility studies and to develop design and construction documents for upgrading the emergency systems at nine hospitalsBellevue, Coler, Elmhurst, Goldwater, Gouverneur, Harlem, Lincoln, Queens and Woodhulland three diagnostic and treatment centersCumberland, Segunda Ruiz Belvis, and Morrisonia. Bellevue, Elmhurst, Harlem and Lincoln Hospitals received priority over the other facilities because they serve as Level 1 trauma centers.1 At the time of writing (May 2008), Bellevue and Elmhurst Hospital projects were in the middle of the contractor bidding process. PBs role was similar for each hospital: Investigate the site. Measure and record existing running loads. Perform load analysis. Provide a study report to document findings and recommendations to address system deficiencies. Meet and correspond with local utility companies to request upgrades in utility services. Provide bid documents and construction suppor t services to upgrade emergency systems, including replacing and adding generators; synchronizing generator switchgear ; and incorporating bypass isolation type transfer switches, emergency distribution switchboards and panelboards. Provide bid documents and construction support services to address code violations associated with the existing emergency systems and to connect code-required HVAC equipment to emergency power.
Design Challenges
Ross Krupnik, an electrical engineer, has a B.S. degree with a double majorelectrical and computer engineering, and biomedical engineering. He completed his advanced studies in electrical engineering in June 2008. Ross joined PB in 2006 and served as an engineer on the hospital studies covered in this article. Warren Andrews, a senior engineering manager and PB vice president, was program manager for the New York City hospitals project. He specializes in power design. Warren has been with PB since 1997.
1 Level
General Challenge. Implementing electric power upgrades within active hospital facilities is challenging, and it is essential that electric power be maintained during construction. Even a partial loss of power can cause severe operational problems along a chain of activities: Power loss to lighting systems can make it impossible to dispense medicine accurately, carry out precise medical laboratory work or perform surgical procedures. Power loss to refrigerators storing tissue, bone or blood can leave the facility without crucial resources. Power loss to essential life support equipment, such as heart pumps, medical vacuum pumps, dialysis machines, and ventilators, can result in loss of life.
1 trauma centers offer the most comprehensive emergency medical and surgical services available to patients suffering traumatic injuries.
Developing design and construction documents that virtually eliminate interruptions to electric power during construction was paramount. Thorough up-front planning was essential so that these documents incorporate effective strategies for minimizing the impact of construction on hospital operations. We exercised just such careful planning for the NYC HHC facilities, and included language for sequencing construction into design and construction documents for each one. During the
planning phase, our team: Performed detailed surveys and consulted with facility administrators, maintenance and operation staff and other personnel to gain a thorough understanding of specific functions in each area of each facility Identified and documented the location of all essential equipment, and critical and life-safety loads Identified the local source of normal and emergency power serving all these loads Identified areas in each facility that would serve as swing space for locating temporary power distribution equipment. This planning allowed us to produce drawings specifying construction phasing for accurate, detailed equipment removals and relocations and for temporary power. It also enabled us to identify windows of opportunity for scheduled, short-duration interruptions of power to minimize impacts on facility operations.
Bellevue Hospital. After our analysis of the existing and planned electrical loads, we discovered that the hospitals existing four 400 kW generators and one 600 kW generator could not accommodate a total failure of the normal electrical power feed from the local utility. We proposed: Replacing the 400 kW generators with four new 725 kW generators and one 1500 kW generator to provide enough power for the existing and future loads. These would be installed and synchronized with the remaining 600 kW generator. Replacing the existing emergency switchgear. Modifying and upgrading 35 of the 47 existing automatic transfer switches (ATSs) to accommodate future loads. Upgrading various systems, including the fire pump, fire detection system, fire alarms, and alarms for medical gas and vacuum systems.
offer it more protection against flood damage. We raised the generator six feet (2 m) and placed it on a new platform. It will be supported in an areaway next to an on-ramp along the FDR Drive, a heavily traveled highway on Manhattans east side. The 47 ATSs are located in electrical rooms throughout the hospital. Our engineers had to arduously examine the available riser space to determine where the replacement switches could be located. This effort required the engineers to visit each floor of the hospital and venture into areas that required special security by the hospital or NYC Department of Corrections because of the patients that occupied those areas.
Elmhurst Hospital. As was the case at Bellevue, Elmhurst Hospitals current generators could not accommodate a total failure of the normal electrical power feed from the local utility. We proposed installing generators at three locations, each with different setups, and making additional upgrades, as follows: Replacing one 350 kW generator with a new 600 kW generator and synchronizing it with an existing 400 kW generator Replacing another 350 kW generator with a new 600 kW generator Synchronizing three existing 600 kW generators with one new 1500 kW generator Upgrading 16 of the 30 existing ATSs and adding five new ATSs to accommodate future loads Upgrading various systems, including the fire pump, fire detection system and fire alarms.
Various components of the emergency electrical equipment are located throughout the hospital rather than at centralized locations. Further, Bellevue Hospital is Americas oldest public hospital, and now has little room for larger equipment. We collaborated with facility management and the manufacturer of the switchgear, ATSs, and generators to fit the equipment in the available space. (For example, once we determined how much space was available for switchgear, manufacturers worked within those restrictions to develop switchgear frames (boxes) that fit.) The four 725 kW generators will be installed on the 13th floor close to the existing 600 kW generator, while the 1500 kW generator was planned to be installed in the sub-cellar. The paralleling switchgear for these generators is on the 13th floor. Toward the end of the design process, DASNY asked that we revise our design for the sub-cellar 1500 kW generator to
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The generators at the three locations will be activated based on the particular load that was lost and the size of the power outage. If for some reason the local generator cannot supply enough load, it will activate and synchronize with the 1500 kW generator. This built in redundancy helps to assure that patients, doctors, and hospital staff will not notice the change from normal to emergency power. While Elmhurst is not as tall a building as Bellevue and has its emergency power equipment at three centralized locations, these locations are located at nearly opposite ends of the hospital. This configuration requires that cable between the generators and paralleling switchgear be run through the cable support system in the sub-basement. The conduit runs are layered many times over and noticeably reduce the height of portions of the sub-basement corridors. An electrician at this hospital told us that the supports for the conduit had to be replaced recently because the weight of the conduit caused the supports to buckle. This reduced the available space for new conduit and made it more challenging to run new feeders. PB worked closely with facility management and its electricians to make the most efficient use of the hospitals remaining space for new feeders and equipment.
Changes to Chiller, Boiler and HVAC Lower Energy Consumption at a University Campus
By Damee Choi, New York, New York, 1-212-613-8835, choiD@pbworld.com
New York State has a goal of cutting energy use in schools and other government facilities by fifteen percent by 2015. Our work at the State University of New York campus in Brockport illustrates how PB is helping the state meet this goal. Improvements to the boiler system and other energy saving measures resulted in a six percent reduction in energy consumption.
PBs power specialists have been working with New York Power Authority (NYPA) for more than a decade to undertake energy conservation designs for college campuses, municipality buildings and state office buildings throughout New York State. At the State University of New York (SUNY) campus at Brockport, New York, we developed improved systems and plant that reduced energy consumption, enhanced the reliability of campus systems and increased the comfort and safety of building occupants. Some of the key features of this work included: Introducing a distributed chilled water loop that linked individual chillers in various buildings to increase part-load efficiency Linking boilers in individual buildings to improve their use and extend boiler life by reducing cycling.
Getting Started
The Brockport campus is comprised of 40 buildings, most of which are 30 to 50 years old. We assessed these buildings and their chiller, boiler, and heating, ventilation and cooling equipment for potential energy conservation measures. Our team conducted an extensive data collection on the campus equipment to perform cooling and heating load calculations. An economic analysis (life-cycle cost analysis) was performed using Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC) 5.2 software, which was developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology under the Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP). The software methodology complies with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) international standards related to building economics as well as FEMP guidelines for economic analysis of building projects. We developed a number of energy conservation measures (ECMs) that were subsequently ranked based on payback and client preference. The college approved seventeen of them, and PB provided the detailed design and construction management for the work.
AC: Air conditioning ECM: Energy conservation measures HVAC: Heating, ventilation, air conditioning LED: Light-emitting diode NYPA: New York Power Authority SUNY: State University of New York VAV: Variable air volume VFD: Variable frequency drive
Distributed Chilled Water Loop

A key energy savings was obtained on the chiller system providing air conditioning (AC) for the buildings. The campus had eight electricity-driven water-chillers located in individual buildings. Many of the chillers were either oversized or inadequate for the required duty. By their nature, constant speed chillers operate most efficiently when the cooling load is close to the chiller capacity. They become less efficient in part load use, which is the majority of the cooling season. We designed an underground chiller water loop running in concrete tunnels to connect the individual chillers into a distributed chilled water plant. This technique, normally adopted only in centralized plant systems, improved utilization of the installed capacity and increased the seasonal efficiency. Fewer chillers run during partial load conditions, so the lives of individual machines will be prolonged and efficiency increased. System redundancy improved also, and it was possible to install additional air handling units without the addition of new chillers. Installation of underground piping is always a challenge and this case proved to be no exception. Although we had the campus underground utility records, we asked the contractor to investigate pipe routing with ground penetration radar. We had to confirm that we would not encounter abandoned asbestos piping that was not shown on any drawings, gas distribution lines that were not active, or stone foundations of old houses along the way.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.brockport.edu/ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ femp/ http://www.astm.org/ http://www.nyserda.org/ programs/state.asp
Improving Kitchen Steam Boiler Operation

The original boiler was sized to meet the kitchen load demand, but over time part of the steam kitchen equipment had been converted to direct gas or electric fired equipment, so the boiler had become oversized, resulting in extreme short cycling and a drop in efficiency. We installed a steamto-water heat exchanger up stream of a direct fired gas domestic hot water heater serving the kitchen. The system was arranged to meet the kitchen steam demand first and, if steam was available, to then feed the new heat exchanger. Cold water to the domestic hot water heater passes first through the new heat exchanger and is heated there by the excess steam. It then flows to the direct fired heater. If the available steam is adequate for domestic hot water production, then the heater does not fire. If the steam boiler capacity cannot meet the demand at this moment, then the heater fires and heats the water to the desired temperature.
HVAC Upgrade. At the Metro Center, which has class rooms and lecture halls, the HVAC system was upgraded to include a new variable air volume (VAV) system with summer economizer. This replaced the old high pressure air handling units and window mounted direct expansion (DX) units. Fin tube radiation installed at the building perimeter improved occupant comfort and eliminated the need for costly reheating systems. The chiller was replaced with a new, high efficiency unit.
We replaced the constant volume/reheat AC system at the faculty office building, which comprised seven old rooftop units. The new VAV system, which has superior efficiency and provides better air distribution/occupant comfort, will be controlled by the campus building management system.
Heat Recovery. Because there are many heat generating HVAC systems on the campus and needs for the heat throughout the campus, we implemented a heat recovery system where it made economical sense. One example is the Tuttle Nor th spor ts complex, where heat from the computer room A/C condenser was dissipated by a cooling tower. This heat will now be recovered to heat the Olympicsize swimming pool water. Other energy savings at the pool include a roll-over cover to conserve heat when the facility is not in use and VFDs for the water recirculation pumps. Vendor Misers. Lights on the large number of vending machines throughout the campus operated around the clock, as did the compressors for soda vending machines. We introduced vendor-misers, which are proximity sensors that activate the lights on vending machines when approached by a potential user. Shortly after a machine dispenses its product and the buyer walks away, the vendor-miser shuts the power, vastly reducing the energy consumption of the unit. Other Measures. Other measures that contributed to the energy savings and are worth mentioning include: Replacement radiator steam traps and float and thermostat traps at steam risers in the steam supply mains in several buildings and the elimination of steam leaks Air-air heat recovery units for building exhaust A thermal ice-storage system for the sports complex Water meters Lighting motion sensors in several locations Replacement of incandescent lights and T-12 compact fluorescent lights with low wattage compact fluorescent lights and T-8 or T-5 compact fluorescent lights with electronic ballasts LED-type exit signs Double-pane windows in the campus library and administrative complex Improved roof insulation and weather stripping for exterior doors.
Wide Range of Additional Energy Conservation Measures

The following energy conservation measures that we implemented can often be applied to other projects.
Water Pump Control. In a number of buildings, we installed variable frequency drives (VFDs) on the water pumps and outside air fans to minimize the water pumping cost and outside air conditioning costs. For example, the Tuttle North building had five constant speed pumps that served the heating system. VFDs were installed at these pumps and the three-way heating coil control valves were converted to operate as two valves to support the variable flow operation. During the occupied hours, the pumps modulate flow to the coil, which reduces power consumption particularly at partial load conditions. When the building is unoccupied, the flow is maintained at 20 percent to avoid coil freezing. CO2 Sensors. The majority of buildings featured air handling units that operated with a fixed amount of fresh air intake that was independent of the building occupancy. This mode of operation, common for building design until several years ago, results in unneeded energy consumption. We introduced CO2 sensors (indoor air quality sensors) that reduce the fresh air intake, and consequently, the heating and/or cooling energy consumption, particularly when the building is only partly occupied.
The CO2 sensors are located in the return air ducts of 56 air handling units. They have automatic controls to modulate their outside air dampers and exhaust dampers to suit building occupancy. The CO2 sensor readings fluctuate depending on building occupancy levels. The outside air is set to a minimum rate required for the building minimum exhaust.
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Savings and Benefits

NYPAs Energy Services Program, established in 1990 to fund energy-efficiency improvements, finances energy conservation projects for schools and other government facilities in New York State so they have no up-front costs. The SUNY Brockport project benefited from NYPA assistance with capital costs and also grant assistance from New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) for the energy-efficiency improvements. The ECMs implemented provided an estimated annual savings of 2,132,328 kWh
($212,600 at the current rate of $0.0997/kWh) and 553,570 therm ($566,900 at the current rate of $1.024/therm). Currently, the NYSERDA Enhanced Commercial/Industrial Performance Program (C/IPP) incentive amounts to $180,000 based on the projects demand reduction of 650 kW and electricity consumption reduction of 1,175,000 kWh per year. Perhaps even more important is the significant energy savings to be realized by the measures our team introduced at SUNYs Brockport campusenergy savings that will help New York State meet its conservation goals.
Damee Choi is a senior mechanical engineer specializing in power systems and energy conservation design. She has been involved also in all phases of engineering design projects, from inception to construction. Damee has been with PB for more than eight years.
Power Terminology: Units and Conversions

Compiled by Cristian Ebau, Godalming, UK, 44 148 352 8932 ebauC@pbworld.com
The following information is included to help readers who are not power specialists understand the units of measures and terminology used in some articles, particularly for expressing various forms of energy.
Units A barg Btu dyn gn GWh J kp kV kVA Mmscfd
Ampere Bar gauge British Thermal Unit Dyne Standard Gravity Gigawatt hour Joule Kilopond Kilovolts Kilovolts-Ampere Million standard cubic feet per day (of gas)
MPa MVAr MW MWe MWh N Nm3 psi psig V VAr W
Mega Pascal Mega Volt-Ampere reactive Megawatt Megawatt electrical Megawatt hour Newton Normal cubic metre Pound-force per square inch Pound-force per square inch gauge Volt Volt-Ampere reactive Watt
Btu. One Btu is approximately 1054-1060 joules, or 252-253 calories. Calorie. One calorie is the amount of heat (energy) required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1C (1 cal = 4.1868 J). Joule. One joule is the work done, or energy expended, by a force of one newton moving one metre along the direction of the force. In lay terms, one joule is the energy required to lift a small apple 1 m (3 feet) straight up (1 J=1 Nm=1 Kgm2s2 = 0.23885 cal). Kilowatt. The kilowatt (kW) is typically used to state the power output of engines and power consumption of tools machines. An electric heater with one heating element might use 1 kW. A typical automobile engine produces mechanical energy at a rate of 25 kW while cruising. Megawatt. The megawatt (MW) is used mainly to state the transfer or consumption of energy of, for example, large electricity motors, lightening strikes, and engineering hardware. A large residential or retail building may consume several megawatts in electricity power and heating energy. Megawatt electrical (MWe) and Megawatt thermal (MWt). Megawatt electrical (MWe) is the term used by engineers to distinguish the electricity output of a thermal power station versus the larger thermal output, which is described by megawatt thermal (MWt). For example, a nuclear power plant uses a fission reactor to generate 2109 MWt (heat), which creates steam to drive a turbine, which generates 648 MWe. The difference is heat lost. Ton (refrigeration). One ton of refrigeration = 12,000 BTU/hour, or 3526 W. Watt-hour (Wh). Watts multiplied by a period of time equals energy. If a 100 W light bulb is turned on for one hour, then the amount of energy used is 100 Wh, or 0.1 kWh (1 Wh = 3600 J).
Cristian Ebau joined PB in April 2006. He worked as a planning technician in the Power Networks department until October 2007, when he joined the Energy & Utility Consulting department. Christian is currently under training as a power systems engineer.
Hydropower - New Technologies, New Considerations
GENERATION:
Does Hydro Have a Future?

Hydropower has been around for centuries and hydro-electric power has been providing clean energy since electro-magnetic generators first became available. The U.S. Department of Energy (http://www1.eere.energy.gov) claims the first use of a hydro-electric supply in 1880 for Michigans Grand Rapids Electric Light and Power Company, generating electricity by dynamo belted to a water turbine at the Wolverine Chair Factory. Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org) claims, The worlds first public electricity supply was provided in late 1881, when the streets of the Surrey town of Godalming in the UK were lit with electric light. Coincidentally, I write this introduction from PBs Westbrook Mills office in Godalming, which some say was the site used for the original hydro station. So is hydropower an outdated technology with nothing new to offer? Is it too big, too costly and too ugly? Is it a threat to indigenous peoples, river life, the rain forests, the ozone layer, apple pie, motherhood and life as we know it? Does it have a future? The critics of hydropower and dams more generally have used most, though probably not all, of the arguments above in recent years. As colleagues articles clearly show, PB is finding novel solutions to old problems and, with its work on relicensing of existing stations and licensing of the new developments in the USA, is bringing a broad range of skills and professionalism to issues of safety, environmental impact, stakeholder interests and techno-economic viability. It is particularly heartening to note the work on the Massena Grass River Project, where a new dam and power house will replace a 200-year-old weir and restore a lake-side aspect to the town. That the Tapoco Project, first licensed in 1955, may now continue to operate until 2045, is a significant achievement for PBs team and a good indicator of the worth of hydropower as a long-term, cost-effective source of clean energy. The range of hydro work described by colleagues demonstrates that hydropower comes in many sizes and types, from mini-hydro applications to the massive and complex pumpedstorage schemes handled by our teams in Christchurch, New Zealand. Most definitely in the large and complex category is the study being handled by our hydro specialists in Boston for the Greenland aluminum smelter project, comprising three underground power houses, which together may require ten dams, three canals and seven tunnels. The articles that follow clearly show that hydro is not a one-size-fits-all technology, far less that it has had its day. PB is using an exceptional range of expertise to find modern solutions that address both the practical engineering problems posed by a project and the hearts and minds issues that are vital for project success. So does hydro have a future? With oil at $250 a barrel, the growing pressures to reduce global carbon emissions and an estimated 4000 to 6000 TWh/year worldwide of untapped energy from hydro, absolutely!
John Wichall Engineering Manager, Godalming, UK
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Hydropower New Technologies, New Considerations
Pumped Storage Technology: Recent Developments, Future Applications

By Ian McClymont, Christchurch, New Zealand, 64 3 963 1501, mcclymontI@pbworld.com; and Paul Reilly, 64 3 356 3048, reillyP@pbworld.com
The authors introduce pumped storage technology, highlighting its benefits and the role it is likely to play in power generation in the future. They then tell how their team is helping to enhance the efficiency of pumped storage facilities and advance the design of these facilities.
Pumped storage technology has been around since early last century and is generally used today for power systems that have either no conventional hydro plant or a high thermal-tohydro generation mix. Its primary purpose is to smooth the generation requirements of thermal plants, offering an alternative to relatively expensive gas turbine peak generation and lessening load fluctuations on coal-fired steam plants. PBs core hydropower experts in Christchurch have attained significant experience in pumped storage projects over the last ten years, particularly from pre-feasibility to tender design. Recent assignments include work in South Africa, Philippines, Indonesia, Scotland and Australia. Scheme sizes have ranged from 300 MW to a recent 1332 MW scheme in South Africa.
Pumped Storage Offers Technical, Environmental and Economic Benefits

Pumped storage schemes typically comprise a high-level reservoir and a low-level reservoir linked by a waterway, and a powerhouse. The waterway can be penstocks on the surface, tunnels or a combination of both. The powerhouse comprises one or more reversible pumpturbines, each connected to a motor-generator. In pumping mode, the unit spins the runner (impeller) in one direction to pump water from the low to the high reservoir, consuming electricity during off-peak times, when it is relatively cheap. In generation mode, the unit acts as a turbine/generator, spinning in the opposite direction as water runs from the high-level to the low-level reservoir, supplying electricity at peak times of the daily load demand cycle. By its nature, pumped storage results in a net loss of energy. Typically approximately 70 to 75 percent of the imported energy is returned to the grid (known as the cycle efficiency), with the rest lost due to friction, efficiency losses, and parasitic losses (energy used to operate the station lights, cooling, drainage pumps, etc.). Therefore, the price differential between peak and off-peak electricity pricing needs to be sufficient to cover the energy loss, operating cost, and asset capital recovery costs if the pumped storage station is to be adequately profitable. While the main benefit of pumped storage is smoothing of the grid, the stations offer other benefits, including: Frequency regulation and reserve generation. Load following to balance the mismatch of power supply and demand at the shoulders of the daily power demand profile. Voltage support to the transmission network. Black start capability (the ability to start generating without external power from the grid). Potential overall reduction in CO2 generation. Although the pumped storage station is a net generator of CO2 if supplied by fossil sourced energy, its inclusion in a grid potentially allows thermal plants to operate with a higher overall efficiency, resulting in a net reduction in CO2 for the whole system. Lower overall operating costs of the power grid. Even though pumped storage results in a net increase of system generation overall to serve the power demand of the pumped storage plant, it can result in an overall lower system fuel cost by: Avoiding or reducing alternate gas turbine and diesel peak generation Enabling other thermal generating plant to run with lower reserve generation allocation Enabling steam plants to operate at a higher average efficiency Reducing other sub-optimal operations, such as overnight hot standby and cold starting of steam sets.
Key Differences From Conventional Hydropower

Studies for pumped storage have similarities with conventional hydro; however, some important differences that must be considered, many of which can make pumped storage more desirable, include the following: Hydrology is often of much less significance and is often related only to the initial filling of the reservoirs, make up of losses, riparian flow releases or flood considerations. Market conditions play a significant role in pumped storage, with key issues being demand for power, price differential between peak and off-peak power, transmission restrictions, and possible forms of power purchase agreements. An established spot market for reserve generation and other transmission ancillary service can enhance the commercial feasibility of the project. There is possibly more freedom in site selection for pumped storage schemes; however, the ratio of horizontal distance to height between the reservoirs needs to be low to reduce losses and improve the cycle efficiency.
Advancing Pumped Storage Design

Our team has been involved in two recent pumped storage projects for which we made significant contributions and boosted our expertise in the processa tender design in South Africa and a pre-feasibility design in Asia.
Tender Design for South Africa Project. The South African project, called Ingula (previously Braamhoek), is a 1332 MW underground scheme being developed by Eskom, South Africas main power utility. The station contains four single-stage reversible units located in a single underground cavern, with a second cavern containing the transformers. PB was subcontracted to a joint venture to undertake the tender design of the scheme, with our role being powerhouse mechanical and electrical designer, and we provided some above-ground electrical design. This assignment covered the main generating plant and most of the auxiliary plant.
and risks of the transformer options. Our knowledge on this particular GIS applicationsuitability, environmental impact and fit for purpose issuesincreased immensely. Pump turbine setting. The client wanted minimal cavitation risk on the pump-turbine runner (impeller). Cavitation is the phenomenon where vapour bubbles form in low-pressure regions. If these vapour bubbles collapse near the surface of the runner, they can cause pitting of the runner surface that, over time, causes a reduction in efficiency and is expensive to repair. The occurrence of cavitation is a function of the depth of the runner below the tailwater level, known as submergence. The greater the submergence, the less possibility of cavitation, however the trade off is increased civil construction costs. A conservative setting of the runner elevation with a 4-m (13-foot) margin, based on a simultaneous four-machine pump load uptake operation, was the criterion adopted to avoid the hydraulic condition that is conducive to cavitation. Hydraulic transient analysis. Together with a third party we undertook waterway transient modelling (a computer study of surges and water hammer within the waterways). Our team developed the scenarios and start conditions for the model, advised on how to improve the runner characteristics, and reviewed the model outputs for sensibility. Reservoir operation modelling. We developed a computer model of the scheme reservoirs to verify three primary requirements were met: Energy storage provided for the 21,000 MWhr needed by the client Full-load reserve generation was still available at the end of any given week A 4-hour emergency reserve was always available, as were buffer storage for riparian stream releases and evaporation loss compensation during the dry season. A dynamic simulation software package using SimApp, developed by Buesser Engineering, was used to model the nonlinear reservoir volume, waterway head loss, pump-turbine flow, seasonal variations for evaporation loss replacement, riparian releases, and power characteristics; and to simulate their interactions with an hourly station operating mode profile over a weekly period. The simulation took the total waterto-wire energy conversion. We considered this to be a more appropriate method than a spreadsheet model to determine the imported and exported energy through out the weekly cycle. It was commercially important that the model was re-run through the development to check that the requirements were always met. Removal of the turbine runner without removing the generator. We conducted a study to determine if the runner could be removed sideways from the turbine without removing the generator rotor to reduce the duration of turbine refurbishment. This required a wider-than-normal
As part of the work, we undertook the following studies: Comparative study of gas-insulated system (GIS) vs. oil-immersed transformers. The former posed environmental risks (SF6 gas is highly ozone depleting) but offered significant benefits, particularly for an underground powerhouse cavern, of no explosive or fire risk. The traditional oil-immersed type transformer was selected, however, on the basis of cost and manageable risk and because it was a known commodity, whereas the SF6 was new technology with limited proven application for the operating voltage. Measures were incorporated in the design to reduce the risk of fire and explosion, such as containment walls, smoke extraction, and protection devices. Our team developed a subjective valuation assessment matrix to quantify the merits
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access way into the turbine pit, with an unsymmetrical load distribution. The integral design of the generator support bracket foundation with the turbine pit wall was complex and fraught with constructability issues to ensure that the machine alignment during a worst case operating scenario would not exceed generator design tolerances. The alternative of supporting the generator thrust bearing directly off the pump-turbine head cover would have negatively impacted on the access to the pump-turbine for routine maintenance and deemed no overall reduction in the total unit outage for major pump-turbine overhauls. A partial compromise was reached by ensuring there was enough height in the turbine pit to temporarily lift and suspend the headcover to work on the turbine. Pump starting system. The client specified originally a dual static frequency converter system (SFC). These devices act like a variable speed drive to start the unit in pumping mode. In conducting a reliability cost benefit study for the forecasted pump duty, we verified that a single SFC system with 50 percent redundancy resulted in considerably lower plant and powerhouse construction costs.
Pre-Feasibility Design for Asia Project. This project, which is for an independent power producer (IPP) and is confidential, is a 300 MW two-unit pumped storage scheme. We recently completed the pre-feasibility conceptual design stage, for which we developed two interesting solutions: Ring dyke embankment. We located a suitable location for the lower reservoir, which fit in well with other desirable features at the selected location. There was no natural depression for the upper reservoir, however, particularly at a high enough elevation to offer an attractive economic solution. We investigated placing a ring dyke embankment on top of the hill to create the upper reservoir. This option gave a more attractive ratio of head to horizontal distance between reservoirs, a key survey requirement for identifying potentially economic reservoir locations. Deep silo powerhouse. Instead of the conventional underground scheme, we proposed a deep silo powerhouse approximately 130 m (427 feet) deep (Figure 1). Silo powerhouses have been used on other projects, but we could not find any example of one as deep as this one. The silo powerhouse eliminates many of the tunnels required for an underground powerhouse such as those for vehicle access and ventilation, and hence was intuitively cheaper when considering the local topography.This concept was adopted for the purposes of costing the scheme in parallel with a market and economic study to verify in principle that there was a potential commercially viable project.
The Future of Pumped Storage

The advances mentioned above and others in pumped storage technology, plus the fact that underground schemes are often desirable because they minimise visual impacts, will continue to make pumped storage an important part of power generation schemes in the future. For example, a scheme with the sea as the lower reservoir (i.e., pumping sea water) is in operation in Japan. This type of scheme may be suitable in other locations around the world. In addition, variable speed generators have been installed in some pumped storage plants to obtain the best turbine efficiency in generating and pumping modes. Traditional large pump storage will benefit from the renewed interest in nuclear power generation expansion, as such plants operate at a constant load and need to be complemented with other more dynamic and flexible generators to suit the varying power system load demand. Finally, pumped storage will play a key role also in alternative power generation schemes. For example: Pumped storage has significant advantages in networks with a high proportion of wind power. Disused deep open cast and underground mines could be adapted for pump storage. There are benefits to be gained from combining tidal generation with pumped storage to optimise power delivery when the tidal pattern is out of phase with the power demand.
Acknowledgements. The authors wish to thank Mr. F. Louwinger of Eskom Holdings Ltd for his consent to the publication of this article and for his useful comments. Ian McClymont is an electrical engineer with more than 30 years experience on hydro-electric power development and refurbishment projects. He has considerable experience with pre-feasibility and tender designs of pumped storage schemes. Paul Reilly, a mechanical engineer, heads the hydro group in Christchurch, which provides a range of services including new development design, refurbishment/ enhancement, owners engineer, and due diligence. He has worked for more than 14 years on numerous international and New Zealand hydro projects.
Figure 1: Conceptual design of a deep silo powerhouse.
Both of these solutions will be tested at the feasibility stage when geological drilling is performed to better understand the site conditions and an alternative underground scheme will be studied and priced to verify the better option.
Planning for Mini Hydro in Distributed Generation

By Tony Mulholland, Christchurch, New Zealand, 64 3 963 1514, mulhollandT@pbworld.com
Mini hydro generation is on the rise around the world for two primary reasons recover energy and meet growing demands for distributed generation. Tapping into his expertise in hydro scheme development, the author outlines some primary considerations for planning and developing a mini-hydro facility, which is defined broadly as 100 kW to 10 MW.
PHOTOGRAPHER: TONY MULHOLLAND
We in the Christchurch office have seen a renewed interest in small hydro by owners seeking to increase revenue by recovering potential or kinetic energy in waterways from existing and new plant (Figure 1). Typical applications include: Energy recovery from water storage and water supply pipeline outlets Replacement of inline pressure reducing valves (as found in industrial process plant and municipal water distribution pipework) Environmental release turbines at water storage dams Irrigation canal outlet structures and drop structures Lock gates Even old watermills. Small hydro is also key to distributed generation, which is seen as increasingly important in future power generation. Financial incentives are available in many countries to supply green energy, which can significantly increase the value of hydro energy sales. The author has experience of schemes in Australia and UK that achieve almost double the value for their energy when compared to energy from fossil fuels. When considering a mini hydro facility, a large range of options and engineering factors need to be taken into account. The following discussion is based on our extensive experience in hydro scheme developmentstarting in the pre feasibility stage and continuing through design, construction, operations and maintenance.
Planning for Mini Hydro: Concept Design

The usual approach to planning a mini hydro is to begin with a pre-feasibility study to: Evaluate the energy resource that can be recovered (in MWh) Find out critical information about the site, such as the head and flow durations, transmission connection point, and voltage. Establish the number of generating units and unit capacity (kW or MW).
Figure 1: A 3 MW mini hydro station connected to an existing dam outlet works.
Normally the first estimate of the number of units and capacity is obtained by selecting the arrangement that provides the maximum net present value (NPV). This is done by evaluating the financial value of the energy recovered and the corresponding capital costs for various sizes of generating plant. Depending on turbine type and site flow duration, a further complexity to this process is that more units may provide a better efficiency over the flow range. From information gained in the pre-feasibility study, a preferred concept design can be prepared. This design will later form the basis for the specifications/detail design for tendering. In the distributed generation case, the mini hydro will generally be connected to a local power network. A connection usually requires permission from the network owner, who will be particularly interested in the type and size of generator being selected, and will have a list of requirements for connection, such as protection requirements. Early in the study the engineer should clarify with the network owner that the generator can be connected to the network and discuss what, if any, modifications are required of the existing transmission network. Sites that are remote from an existing network may make the scheme not viable because of the level of investment required in transmission infrastructure. Developers and owners generally prefer induction generators for mini hydro because they are cheaper and simpler than synchronous generators. Induction generations do have a
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disadvantage, however, par ticularly in larger sizes, where they can cause large variations in voltage and power factor on the local network. For this reason, the network owner may have rules about the maximum size of induction generators allowed to connect, and require power factor correction.
Technical and Economic Feasibility

Once a concept design has been completed and the transmission aspect investigated, the engineer can confirm whether the scheme is technically feasible. Next should follow the consideration of economic feasibility. We strongly recommend that an engineer prepares the first cut of this analysis given that engineering knowledge is important to the application of the costs in the analysis. In addition, the analysis process provides important feedback to the engineer on the design, and may force a rethinking of some aspects of the project. PB has recently undertaken a scoping study for Tillegra Dam in New South Wales, Australia, to determine what options are available to recover energy from the environmental flow discharge. This study has shown that the environmental flow can be accommodated by a small hydro turbine for minimal project cost (comparatively speaking); however, a larger turbine may also be justified to recover energy from some of the water that would otherwise be spilled past the dam in periods of high lake inflows.
Conditions of contract cause many an engineer to run for cover. For the value of the contracts considered here, standardised conditions such as those within the International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) or the joint IMechE/IEE Committee Model Forms of General Conditions of Contract (e.g., MF1 or MF2) should be used. It is strongly recommended that no modifications be made to the standard conditions, and that any particular issues be covered only in the special conditions. The special conditions should cover penalties for non-performance and must be reasonable, otherwise they will adversely impact the tendered prices. Overall the commercial conditions should not substantially outweigh the technical specifications. A lightweight specification will not be fixed by heavy-handed commercial clauses and general ignorance of the requirements for a successful mini hydro. In the last year, we completed the technical specification for the turbine and generator for the Gippsland Water Factory in Victoria, Australia.1 The turbine will replace a pressure reducing valve that is currently used to dissipate the energy in the raw water supply before returning it to a reservoir. This project is an example of how existing infrastructure can be modified at relatively low cost to capture the otherwise wasted energy and convert it to electricity. Some of the generated energy is then used at the nearby water factory. When completed, this project will provide a sustainable energy source that will reduce energy costs at the facility and, in the long run, will benefit the community.
Specifications and Conditions of Contract

Specifications should be written by someone who is well experienced in hydro and understands what information is required by the tenderers. There is much to be considered in the detail that is beyond the scope of this article; however, a few key decisions should be made before beginning.
Tenders and Tender Evaluation

Tenderers must be given sufficient time to write their tenders. This should be a minimum of one month for small jobs, and up to several months for more complex jobs, such as those requiring civil works or the supply and install of the entire scheme. We believe economising on the turbine/generator set is unwise. As with most electromechanical equipment, increased quality and efficiency is matched by increased price. There are some very good manufacturers who maintain the latest in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) programs and hydraulic test programs. In general, their equipment will be more efficient then that produced by manufacturers with less sophisticated design and equipment. Economic analysis of the capital and life time operating costs, as mentioned earlier, is essential to discern whether additional revenue from higher efficiency and reliability is compensated by the higher capital cost. Readers are warned to beware of suppliers claiming efficiency in the top of the range that large turbines typically (page 37)
1 To
Q and A
Question:
Would a smaller unit be sourced as a package?
John Wichall, Senior Consultant, PB Network Guest Technical Reviewer
Answer :
This is often the case, although for a recent 250kW unit the utility preferred a particular supplier and could buy the generator (a Siemens product) for significantly less money than the suppliers chosen brand.
The first choice is to decide how the equipment will be supplied. This includes decisions on whether: The turbine and generator will be separate packages and matched together at site The control and auxiliary systems will be included with turbine or generator or be a completely separate package The contract will be an equipment supply, or supply and install, or supply and supervision type.
learn more about the Gippsland Water Factory, see "Water Factory Will Help to Address Water Shortage Concerns" by Tony Mulholland, pp.94-95.
Developing, Engineering and Licensing a New Hydropower Dam

By Matthew D. Chan, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-5009, chanM@pbworld.com; and Stefan Schadinger, 1-617-960-4976, schadinger@pbworld.com.
A number of challenges faced PBs team when developing a new hydropower dam in the eastern USA. These included managing a new FERC licensing process, providing ice control in the river, and addressing several aquatic life environmental concerns.
Acronyms
FERC: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission HEC-RAS: Hydrologic Engineering Center River Analysis System ILP: Integrated Licensing Process MED: Massena Electric Department NYS DEC: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
The Town of Massena Electric Department (MED) has proposed to construct the Massena Grasse River Multipurpose Hydroelectric Project (Project), which will provide hydropower, a reservoir (creating town waterfront), ice management, and other benefits. Located in upper New York State, this will be one of the first new hydropower dam projects in the eastern USA to use the Federal Energy Regulatory Commissions (FERCs) new Integrated Licensing Process (ILP) at an undeveloped site.1 PB was retained by MED to develop, license, and engineer the dam.
The Grasse River

The Grasse River is a moderate-sized river with a medium gradient. It is characterized as a cool/warm water river with an estimated average flow of 31.1 m3/s (1,100 cubic feet per second, or ft3/s) and median flow of 19.5 m3/s (690 ft3/s). The drainage area as measured at the proposed dam incorporates 93 percent of the basin (Figure 1). The Grasse River is dammed 72.4 km (45 miles) upstream of the proposed project by a small run-of-river operation, and it had been dammed in the village of Massena by a low-head weir for nearly two centuries until a breach during the spring of 1997 (Figure 2). This breaching caused loss of aesthetic value and loss of the waterfront amenities that three local communities enjoyed. Generally, the Grasse River is unaltered in its physical form except downstream of the proposed dam, where an old power canal joins the river and distinguishes the beginning of the lower river, which has been dredged.
Scope of Work
The project will consist of a new concrete gravity dam with an integral powerhouse (Figure 3). The powerhouse will include a single turbine generator and is expected to produce an average annual energy of 10,000 MWh. The surface area of the impoundment will be approximately 120 ha (300 acres) and 13 km (8 miles) long and, except for the
Figure 3: Aerial view of the Town of Massena and the proposed dam location on the Grasse River.
Figure 1: The Grasse River Watershed. Figure 2: Remnants of the low-head concrete dam. The new hydropower dam is proposed downstream of the old dam.
1 The integrated license process is one of three licensing alternatives offered by FERC, the others being
the alternative and traditional licensing processes (ALP and TLP). ALP is discussed in a following article, Successful Relicensing of a Federally Regulated Hydropower Project by Kareem Bynoe et al.
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addition of the lower 1.3 km (0.8 miles) of new impoundment, would restore the previous reservoir footprint. The project would operate in an instantaneous run-of-river mode where discharge equals inflow; i.e., without provision for water storage or regulation of downstream flow. It would also provide ice control measures to prevent the formation of ice dams downstream, which could result in bottom scouring and re-suspension of contaminated sediment. PBs overall scope covers: Project management, including planning, budgets, scheduling and project control systems Licensing, including coordinating the FERC ILP, managing environmental studies, applying for the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers Clean Water Act Section 404 Permit and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC) Clean Water Act Section 401 Water Quality Certification Permit and, finally, applying for the FERC license Engineering, including feasibility studies for structural, geotechnical, hydrology and hydraulics, and electrical analyses Specialty tasks/interests, including fish passage, HEC-RAS modeling of river hydraulics, stability analyses, and ice management.
owner intends to re-apply for a license or a developer intends to apply for a new license. Preliminary application document (PAD). Prepared by the owner or developer, the PAD brings together all existing, relevant, and reasonable information about the existing dam or proposed dam site. It identifies information gaps and proposes studies needed to address them, and it includes a finalized licensing process plan and schedule. Scoping process. FERC conducts site visits to the existing dam or proposed project site, holds public meetings, and discusses the project with stakeholders to refine the issues. Stakeholders make study requests and then FERC issues a scoping document outlining issues related to the project. Study planning. The project owner or developer submits a draft study plan to address issues identified during the scoping process. Stakeholders comment on the draft study plan, and the owner/developer submits a revised, final study plan. FERC then determines if the final study plan is adequate or requires changes. Certain stakeholders, i.e., agencies, have a right to dispute the FERC determined study plan, which starts a trial-like process for determining if the studies are needed. Study types. The types of studies that are typically required for the ILP include fish passage, instream habitat assessments, rare, threatened, or endangered species, macroinvertebrate insects, recreational and cultural resources, wetlands and aquatic vegetation, and birds. Studies may require collection of surveys or field data or, when possible, may use existing information compiled into a report. Challenges during the ILP process to date have included: A lack of understanding of the ILP by stakeholders. The fast pace and demanding schedule of the ILP on all stakeholders. Difficulty stakeholders seemed to have transferring the ILP to decisions on a new dam. Prior to this project, the ILP has been primarily used for relicensing existing hydropower projects. A study dispute panel process, which was initiated by a stakeholder. The new FERC dispute panel process is a trial-type proceeding used within the ILP to resolve study disputes. In this case, NYS DEC disputed several FERC-approved study plans. Our team worked directly with NYS DEC officials to resolve several issues deemed disputes of methods within proposed study plans that all parties (FERC, MED and NYS DEC) accepted in general (as opposed to disputes of plans, whereby parties disagree on the need to conduct a study). For example, while everyone agreed a study of lake sturgeon movements was needed, the NYS DEC wanted three continuous radioPB Network #68 / August 2008 28
Regulatory Challenge: FERC ILP

FERC initiated the ILP in 2003 and it became the default process in July 2005. The first license issued under ILP was granted in December 2007. The ILP attempts to streamline the licensing process by providing a predictable, efficient, and timely process while maintaining adequate resource protections. Its three fundamental principles are to: Identify issues and resolve study needs early in the process to fill information gaps and thereby avoid studies after license filing Integrate other stakeholder (non-federal agencies) permit process needs into the FERC process Set a time frame to complete all steps of the ILP for all stakeholders, including FERC. To date, we have managed the project successfully through the following ILP steps: Preliminary permit application (PPA). This permit is used to reserve the right to develop a site while owners/ developers investigate the potential for dam construction. It is limited to three years and developers must demonstrate to FERC that sufficient development progress is ongoing or the permit may be revoked. Multiple six-month preliminary progress reports. These repor ts to FERC demonstrate that a developer is making progress towards filing a license application. Notice of Intent (NOI). This indicates than an existing dam
receiver monitors and only two had been proposed. We agreed to install a third monitor and worked with NYS DEC to identify the site for the monitor and NYS DEC withdrew its dispute. In this way, our team resolved many disputes of methods prior to the panel convening, leaving only a few issues that required a FERC ruling. At the conclusion of the dispute panel process, FERC determined that the NYS DEC disputed studies were not required. This ruling was consistent with PBs assessment and in favor of MED, saving the client substantial resources.
Environmental Challenges
The successful development of this project will depend on regulatory acceptance of engineering and dam operation plans to address key natural resource impacts. Issues beyond fish passage mitigation include habitat and population impacts, and potential impacts to: New York State-threatened fish (lake sturgeon and eastern sand darter) Fishes of concern (chinook salmon, walleye, muskellunge, American eel, Atlantic salmon) Freshwater mussels of concern (pocketbook, elktoe, yellow lampmussel, and black sandshell) Water quality (dissolved oxygen, temperature) Macroinvertebrate communities Fisheries communities Wetlands Submerged aquatic vegetation. PB is overseeing field studies of these issues as part of the ILP.
Engineering Challenge: Ice Control

The Town of Massena and Village of Massena waterfront properties are exposed seasonally to the effects of high flows in ice cover conditions and ice pack flowage events, both of which affect areas proposed for re-development in local community revitalization plans. Further, ice dam formation (also referred to as ice jams) in the lower river has been identified as a mechanism by which contaminated river sediments can be re-suspended. Options to address the impacts of ice jam related sediment scour are being considered as part of the evaluation of longterm remedial options. One possible solution is the MED project itself, into which we have integrated ice control into the engineering design as an option. Higher springtime flows will pass through deep-set, bottom-opening flood release gates instead of passing high flows over a spillway, a typical feature of many dams. Using bottom-opening gates will retain ice behind the dam. A careful analysis of upstream effects associated with retaining the ice behind the dam, including computer modeling, is being performed and is under evaluation by independent, leading international ice-experts and the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (Hanover, New Hampshire). PB is working with this team to ensure that any upstream impacts are accounted for in both the design and operations of the project. Draft study results indicate that ice retention at the dam could effectively eliminate conditions under which ice jams form in the lower river.
Related Web Sites:
Project Status
In 2008 the project will enter the first official field season of the FERC ILP pre-filing steps. Sometimes two years are required for field studies, but the MED team pursued a strategy of pre-license field work in 2006 and 2007 to reduce the overall project schedule. We anticipate FERC accepting some of that work in lieu of required FERC approved studies in 2008. When field work has been completed and accepted by the FERC, we will prepare a Preliminary License Proposal (PLP), followed later by a License Application. The analysis of the river hydraulics will be complete and the conceptual engineering designs will be 30 to 40 percent complete at the filing of the PLP. Filing of the PLP will depend on the FERC ruling that all studies have been completed to its satisfaction.
www.ferc.gov www.med.massena.ny.us http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/licensing/ilp/ flowchart.pdf

Matthew Chan joined PB in January 2008 as a supervisory environmental scientist after six years of consulting on hydropower projects with a nationally recognized environmental consulting firm. Matt holds a doctorate degree in Fisheries Science, and has 16 years experience of specialized knowledge of river ecology, habitat, and flow regimes. Stefan Schadinger is a lead engineer with PBs Boston Hydropower Group. He has 13 years experience in hydropower engineering, eight of them with PB. Stefans expertise is structural engineering and he has much practical experience on dams, dam gates and power plant components.
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Developing Hydropower Resources in Greenland

By Jesse Kropelnicki, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4975, kropelnicki@pbworld.com; Gillian Tucker, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4993, tuckerG@pbworld.com; and Paul Shiers, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4990, shiers@pbworld.com
The authors tell about their work in determining the feasibility of a hydropower facility that will use glacial runoff as its water source. This work included calculating the power potential and costs and performing a risk assessment.
In May 2007, the Greenland Homerule Government signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Alcoa Inc. for the evaluation and potential implementation of an aluminum reduction (smelter) plant in western Greenland, near either Nuuk, Maniitsoq or Sisimiut. Alcoa chose PB to act as owners engineer for the feasibility stage of the development of hydropower resources and transmission facilities needed to provide low-cost electricity to the plant. We expect that two to three hydropower developments will be needed.
About Greenland
Greenland, also known as Kalaallit Nunaat (meaning Land of the Greenlanders in Kalaallisut, an Eskimo-Aleut language), is a self-governing Danish province, and it is the worlds largest island. It has an area of 2,166,086 km2 (836,109 square miles), 81 percent of which is covered by the Greenland ice sheet. All of its towns and settlements are located along the ice-free coast, with approximately half of the 57,000 inhabitants settled along the west coast in Sisimiut and Maniitsoq in the north and Nuuk and Paamiut in the south. The principal income in Greenland derives from the shrimp fishery, although publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities also play a dominant role in the economy. Tourism has the potential to create economic growth, but it is constrained by Greenlands short warm season and high travel costs.
Project Overview
The project will use glacial runoff as its water source for two to three major hydro sites. With there being one peak period each year during which the reservoir fills uplate spring and summera very large reservoir volume is required to capture and maintain the water needed to generate power for the smelter year round. The project will also require: Nine to ten dams Two to three canals Six to seven tunnels An underground power plant for each hydro site. Combined, these sites would have an installed capacity of 600 to 750 MW. The largest dam would be 40 m (130 feet) high, and the estimated total length of tunnels will range from 60 to 85 km (37 to 50 miles). The length of transmission line required may be as high as 700 km (435 miles). Civil infrastructure, including harbors, camps, roads and heliports will also be developed to support construction of the project. The project cost is currently estimated at $1.5 billion US.
The Greenland hydro project will be similar conceptually to the be similar conceptually to the Krahnjkar Hydroelectric Project (Figure 1) in Iceland (owned by in Iceland (owned by Landsvirkjun), which uses glacial runoff to generate nearly 4,600 to generate nearly 4,600 GWh/year (based on installed capacity of 690 MW) for Alcoas of 690 MW) for Alcoas Fjaral aluminum smelter in the port of Reyarfjrur. This project Fjaral of Reyarfjrur. This project was completed recently and is discussed in National Geographic recently and is discussed in National Geographic magazine (March 2008) and currently on the magazines Web site on the magazines Web site (see Related Web Sites). Sites).
Figure 1: The conceptually similar Krahnjkar Dam in Iceland during its construction.
In 2007, we completed various field studies with the assistance of outside consultants and several technical analyses, including:
Geotechnical and hydrologic investigations Field measurements of flow and sediment Transmission line conceptual design and cost Office studies of scope and cost of each of the site developments Aerial survey and topographic mapping. The field studies were a challenge to carry out due to the very short viable weather season and limited in-country resources. We met these challenges through careful logistics planning and by using the help of technical specialists from Iceland and Greenland, with those from Iceland having had recent similar experience with the Krahnjkar Hydroelectric Project. We also had PB staff in Greenland for various parts of the study period to help with the coordination of activities and carry out the geological studies. Based on the findings from the field studies, we then: Carried out conceptual engineering for the dams, tunnels, canals, roads and transmission lines Calculated the power potential for each site under consideration, and did an economic analysis of power costs Assessed project risks.
Power Potential and Costs. As part of this effort, we did extensive work on maximizing the power potential available from increased inflows to reduce overall project and power costs. This optimization was a particular challenge, but it was required to help create an efficient construction cost of power for Alcoa. This effort involved a review of the geologic conditions on site, hydraulic inflow data, and aerial survey data. With this information we were then able to configure the project structures in a way that created the maximum power possible given the inflow conditions and terrain. The evaluation also dealt with projected long-term increases in average annual inflow, where hydro development to date looked at historical flow records over a long period of time and evaluated wet and dry years during this period, as well as long-term average flow, and assumed these trends would continue in the future. Risk Assessment. As part of this effort, we assessed the project upsides and identified potential fatal flaws. This study included a preliminary evaluation of natural hazards, such as seismic impact on the project structures, drift ice and avalanche hazard on transmission lines, reliability and redundancy of the transmission lines, and geotechnical evaluation of the project
civil structure foundation areas. These studies were carried out by use of the aerial survey photos and on-site geologic field survey of the expected civil works areas. Our results, together with input from various consultants, gave us an initial view of the project natural hazard potential. For example, analysis of drift ice and avalanche hazard will directly influence the final selection of routes for transmission lines. In turn, the available, reliable transmission line routes influenced the potential sites for optimal dam locations and the smelter facility, as well as project costs.
Conclusion
On February 21, 2008, the Greenland Development, LLC, identified Maniitsoq (Figure 2) as the favored location for the smelter. To reach this decision, Greenland, in coordination with Alcoa and PB, considered many project aspects such as construction costs, nature and environmental issues, and regional development.
Figure 2: Maniitsoq, the town selected as the preferred site.
At the time of writing, we are planning for the 2008 field studies required for the project. These studies will provide information that will enable us to further develop the cost/schedule estimates and advance the project design. If the project continues forward, construction is expected to start in 2010 and be completed in five years with aluminum production commencing at the end of 2014. This project is expected to help Alcoa meet its global business objectives while dramatically boosting the economy of Greenland and enhancing the countrys profile in the rest of the world.
Related Web Sites:
http://www.aluminium.gl/content/us http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/iceland/del-giudice-text
Jesse Kropelnicki is the lead engineer for the Greenland project. He is a structural engineer with almost ten years experience in hydropower, water resources and thermal power projects. Jesses expertise includes detailed structural analysis and coordination of technical efforts. Gillian Tucker is a civil engineer whose experience includes various aspects of hydroelectric dams and facilities. Her specific hydroelectric experience includes the preparation of Part 12 safety inspection reports, supporting technical information documents (STIDs) and potential failure mode analysis (PFMA) reports in accordance with FERC. Paul Shiers is a PB vice president with 38 years experience in hydroelectric power and water resource engineering. He is qualified as an independent consultant and PFMA facilitator for FERC Part 12 safety inspections under the new FERC DSPMP requirements. Paul has served as project manager for multiple hydropower projects, and completed an assignment as principal engineer for work performed under a multi-year continuing services agreement with FERC as the senior technical resource for hydro relicensing and compliance tasks.
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Successful Relicensing of a Federally Regulated Hydropower Project

By Kareem Bynoe, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4977, bynoe@pbworld.com; Paul Shiers, 1-617-960-4990, shiers@pbworld.com; Shirley Williamson, 1-617-960-4995, williamsonSh@pbworld.com; and Tony Plizga, 1-617-960-4972, plizga@pbworld.com
In this article the authors tell how they helped to manage the complex relicensing process of the Tapoco Project, a 380 MW hydropower facility in North Carolina and Tennessee. Their focus is on meeting statutory requirements that did not exist at the time the first license was issued, particularly those regarding stakeholders concerns about natural resources and the need to reach consensus among all parties involved. This article is the first of three about Tapoco. The next one is about water allocation modeling for the relicensing and the third is about dam safety.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) regulates non-federal hydropower projects on waterways within the USA by issuing operating licenses and then monitoring their compliance. Many licenses, which extend for 30 to 50 years, were issued in the 1950s and 1960s, so a large number of hydro projects are currently undergoing relicensing. The multistage relicensing process can take as long as a decade to complete. It is expensive and difficult to manage, and unsuccessful outcomes can result from either schedule or cost overruns during relicensing, or from settlement agreements that sacrifice too much project value during stakeholder negotiations.
New Licensing Requirements

Public expectations for hydropower projects and their effects on the environment have changed during the last 30 to 50 years. Consequently, FERC now has statutory requirements to give equal consideration to: Developmental values, including energy generation, irrigation, flood control and water supply Non-developmental values, such as fish and wildlife resources, visual resources, cultural resources, recreational opportunities and other aspects of environmental quality. With these new requirements comes a more significant role for public input in the relicensing process. A large number of participants can be involved now, including federal and state agencies, local governments, non-governmental organizations and other interested parties. Further, FERCs current license conditions can place new requirements on project owners that have long term-cost implications. These are in addition to the cost of the relicensing process itself. It is critical, therefore, that owners build broad-based stakeholder support for the new license terms in order to: Relicense a project with reasonable license terms Complete the relicense procedure on schedule and within budget Avoid the prescription of costly license conditions by FERC.
Acronyms
ALP: Alternative Licensing Process FERC: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
The Tapoco Project

In March 1955, FERC issued a 50-year license to the Tapoco Division of Alcoa Power Generating Inc. for the Tapoco Project, which includes four hydroelectric dams in North Carolina and Tennessee and has an installed capacity of 380 MW. Environmental features abutting the project include the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Cherokee National Forest, and the Nantahala National Forest. The projects license extended through February 2005. Tapoco hired PB in 2000 to serve as owners engineer responsible for providing regulatory, environmental science, engineering and economic consulting services. We teamed with Long View Associates, a regulatory, environmental consultant. Of FERCs three licensing processes alternative, traditional and integratedour team recommended and Tapoco accepted the alternative licensing process (ALP) because it lends itself to settlement agreements.1 Under the ALP, the project owner, stakeholders, and agencies are encouraged to develop study plans and license applications in a collaborative fashion. The ultimate goal is to increase efficiency and avoid the later-stage disputes that can be common in the other license processes.
1 You can read about the Integrated
Licensing Process in a preceding article, Developing, Engineering, and Licensing a New Hydropower Dam by Matthew Chan and Stefan Schadinger. Also, see Related Web Sites for links to more information about FERCs three licensing procedures.
Managing Large Amounts of New Information

The major technical challenge in relicensing has two parts: Quantify the effects of new license conditions on the developmental and non-developmental
costs and benefits (again, with developmental meaning the hydro projects future energy generation capacity and revenues, and non-developmental meaning the environmental and social resources) Make these costs and benefits understandable and credible to a stakeholder group comprised of technical agency staff and laypersons. Two critical aspects of this challenge presented challenges of their own, which were to: Manage the evolving body of knowledge about the project that develops during relicensing Understand the interrelated effects of new information on the environmental resource requirements and the economic viability of the project. New information generated during the relicensing process includes studies required to address information gaps on environmental issues. This new information then generates a new understanding of project impacts on the environment for all stakeholders and on the economics of the project, which change because of the costs associated with steps needed to protect those resources. The results of these studies also drive the costs of relicensing and of implementing the license conditions that, depending on the results, may require mid-process corrections in engineering design, proposed operations or relicensing strategy. We continually scrutinized these new studies to ensure that they did, in fact, address the information gaps and that the new information could be fed back into the relicensing process to help stakeholders assess potential impacts and then make informed decisions.
A master stakeholder meeting schedule, which included full stakeholder meetings and smaller technical workgroup meetings to help ensure that key stakeholders were available.
Natural Resource Concerns. It was important that we consider the broadly stated public concerns about natural resources, but in doing so that we identify those that were relevant in conjunction with stakeholders who focused on the core issue. The critical steps we took here were to: Sort out those concerns that had project relevance from those that did not Translate the relevant concerns into study goals Develop study plans to meet the goals Define the appropriate metrics by which project effects would be measured Define a scale describing the magnitude of the environmental or social effects (e.g., very adverse, adverse, neutral, beneficial, very beneficial). Open Study Approach. We conducted studies in an open and cooperative manner with key public agencies and their technical experts to ensure that we provided highly credible resource information in a way that was cost-effective. We met this goal over time by using the following techniques: Meeting with the stakeholders early and often to establish a professional rapport, and then maintaining it by keeping the key people involved over the multi-year life of the process Addressing all stakeholders questions and taking every opportunity to inform them of new information Enlisting regionally experienced specialty subconsultants to perform the environmental and social resource studies Using the same study protocols and methodologies that the stakeholders would have used where possible Inviting stakeholders into the field to observe the studies. Stakeholder Expectations. It was important that the stakeholders recognized that not all resource values and uses could be optimized simultaneously, and that they acknowledged resource constraints and balance trade-offs among various project aspects and among other stakeholders. The best example of this was our use of OASIS, a water allocation model, to illustrate during meetings how the lake recreational users desires to keep the lakes at full-pond level all year long was in direct conflict with the fisheries biologists, who wanted increased flows released downstream of the project to support aquatic life. Operating Policy. Most natural resource protection, mitigation, and enhancement measures reduce the owners flexibility to generate electricity when power, and its value, are at a premium. Our challenge was to craft an operating policy that addressed the stakeholders interests without causing excessive revenue loss. To accomplish this goal, we used OASIS to develop a
Ensuring Stakeholder, Owner and Agency Collaboration

The ALP requires that study plans and license applications be developed in a collaborative fashion. Collaboration can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, however, and consensus can be difficult to reach. Some of the challenges we faced and the steps we took to meet them are as follows.
Consultation. We made continuous efforts to identify, involve, and communicate with resource agencies, municipalities, tribes, non-government organizations, and the interested public. At the outset of the process we established: A formal stakeholder communications protocol, which was an agreement with the stakeholders on how the group would interact over the multiyear process, including topics such as a standard of courtesy, what behavior constituted the basis for participation, and how the group defined consensus. Technical workgroups by resource area, which were subgroups of stakeholders who were recognized by the larger group as technical specialists in each area and were authorized to review and recommend acceptance of the technical study scopes and results to the larger group.
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water allocation model to simulate the protection, mitigation and enhancement measures and quantify their effects on both future power generation and revenues, and on reservoir levels and downstream flows. 2 Over a three-year period we met with the stakeholder group each month and presented the model as it was developed, calibrated and verified. Once the model was ready to simulate operating alternatives, the stakeholders were allowed to define alternative operating policies that they wanted to simulate. PB conducted the simulations and presented the results, illustrating the trade-offs among alternatives to the group.
operating policy and share the pain among all of the stakeholders to reduce the impact of droughts. Land exchange. Our team and the National Park Service executed a land exchange agreement allowing FERC to license the project and accompanying lands. Large contiguous tracts of land were placed under conservation easement, and new areas and sensitive habitats are now protected, providing significant environmental benefits to the Great Smoky Mountain National Park and East Tennessee. PBs geographic information system (GIS) capabilities supported this effort and helped the team to bring the parties into agreement. Although not a term of the relicensing process, another accomplishment that is significant and worth noting is that the new license supports continued employment of more than 2,700 people at Alcoas aluminum smelting facility. It does so by maintaining low-energy input costs to the products manufactured at the facility and, thereby, ensuring the businesss economic competitiveness.
Significant Accomplishments
The most significant and important accomplishment was FERCs issuance of a new 40-year license to extend Tapocos operations through 2045. This was accomplished through a Relicensing Settlement Agreement that was negotiated by our client and our team, executed with numerous agencies and non-governmental agencies, and accepted by FERC with minimal supplement conditions. The components that made the license significant were the: Settlement agreement. This agreement included the following protection, mitigation and enhancement measures and terms: Higher reservoir levels for longer summer reservoir recreation, increased head for power generation, and water storage for drought mitigation Increased flow releases to enhance downstream aquatic habitat and improve downstream water quality and quantity by increasing dilution of downstream effluents. A low-inflow protocol that is triggered during agreedupon low-flow conditions to override the normal
Conclusion
The new Tapoco Project license is long-term, mutually beneficial to all parties and socio-economically beneficial to the eastern Tennessee region. It was considered a successful license for three primary reasons: It had broad-based external stakeholder support. It was completed on schedule, meaning time extensions were not required from FERCs allotted five- to seven-year timeframe, and within budget. Environmental issues were addressed in meaningful ways that reflected value to the stakeholders and avoided prescriptive solutions that might have been applied by FERC.
Related Web Sites:

FERC licensing processes: http://www.ferc.gov/industries/ hydropower/gen-info/licensing.asp Tapoco Project: http://www.alcoa.com/tapoco/en/home.asp
2 See the following article, Using OASIS Software to Model Water Allocation for Hydropower Generation Projects by Paul Shiers, Shirley Williamson and Chii-Ell Tsai for more
information about how PB used OASIS to estimate Tapocos future power generation and revenues.
Kareem Bynoe is a senior engineer currently working on the relicensing of Alcoa Power Generation, Inc.s Yadkin Project. He is also managing the development of a GIS database to support the feasibility study of hydroelectric developments in Greenland. Paul Shiers is a PB vice president with 38 years experience in hydroelectric power and water resource engineering. He has served as project manager for multiple hydropower projects, and completed an assignment as principal engineer for work performed under a multi-year continuing services agreement with FERC as the senior technical resource for hydro relicensing and compliance tasks. Shirley Williamson is a senior supervising civil engineer with 29 years experience in hydropower. She has been responsible for NEPA-based environmental assessments ranging in size from the 38 plant system of the Tennessee Valley Authority to an individual 2.5 MW facility under FERC jurisdiction. In addition, Shirley has developed and implemented reservoir operations studies, drought protocols, flood studies, and project safety response plans and training programs for owners of hydroelectric facilities. Tony Plizga is a senior principal engineer with 36 years experience in civil-structural engineering and design. Since joining PB in 2000, he has worked on various hydroelectric projects within the Boston Office Hydro Group. Tony is currently responsible for the FERC safety related tasks on the Tapoco and Yadkin Projects, which include a total of eight hydroelectric developments.
Using OASIS Software to Model Water Allocation For Hydropower Generation Projects
By Paul Shiers, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4990, shiers@pbworld.com; Shirley Williamson, 1-617-960-4995, williamsonSh@pbworld.com; and Chii-Ell Tsai, 1-617-960-4974, tsai@pbworld.com
Relicensing the Tapoco hydropower facility meant that balance had to be achieved between stakeholders concerns and the owners concerns about the natural resources involved. Water allocation modeling was critical to illustrating the effects of alternative operating policies and helping all parties involved reach consensus in a timely fashion.
The Tapoco Project, introduced in the preceding article,1 includes four hydroelectric dams in North Carolina and TennesseeSanteetlah Dam on the Cheoah River, and Cheoah, Calderwood, and Chilhowee Dams on the Little Tennessee River. As part of Tapocos relicensing process, it was important that the owner and stakeholders reach agreement on operational policies for the dams that: Protected the reservoirs and natural resources in a way that met National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) assessment requirements Ensured sufficient energy generation, flood control and water supply. In February 2003, Tapoco participated in negotiations with stakeholders to review alternative operating policies and determine which policy met these goals best. The aim was to develop a comprehensive settlement agreement to submit as the preferred alternative for FERCs NEPA assessment of Tapocos relicensing application. Negotiations focused on operational alternatives at two reservoirs: Santeetlah Reservoir, regarding Santeetlahs reservoir guide curve and various supplemental flow releases into the bypassed section of the Cheoah River. (A reservoir guide curve describes the optimal water storage and usage based on inflow models for a project.) Calderwood Reservoir, regarding a range of supplemental flow releases into Calderwoods bypass reach. PB used the water-allocation model OASIS, by HydroLogics, Inc., to develop and evaluate the operational alternatives and to quantify the effects of alternatives on reservoir water levels, stream flow, electricity generation, and the value of such generation. Using OASIS in real-time settlement discussions with stakeholders was critical in moving forward toward a negotiated agreement.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.hydrologics.net/ oasis.html
OASIS Model Overview

PB and Tapoco chose OASIS, a generalized modeling program for water resource systems, because of: Its robust modeling capabilities for optimizing power dispatching, water allocation, energy generation, and energy value on an hourly basis Its commercial availability and compatibility with personal computers The regulators familiarity with the model The ability to run the model in a real-time setting.
1 The Tapoco project is a 380 MW
hydropower facility owned by the Tapoco Division of Alcoa Power Generating Inc. Its 50-year Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) license was set to expire in February 2005, and PB was hired in 2000 to manage the relicensing process. The preceding article, Successful Relicensing of a Federally Regulated Hydropower Project by Kareem Bynoe and others tells about how the PB-led team managed the relicensing process.
OASIS simulated the routing of water through the project, represented by a system of nodes arcs and inflows (defined below), by solving a linear program. OASIS operating rules were expressed as either constraints or goals: Constraints defined physical rules in the project, such as flow continuity, and had to be obeyed. Goals were rules that OASIS tried to meet. By their nature, goals were in competition with other goals, so typically all goals could not be satisfied. Goals were given relative priorities to describe their importance among other goals. OASIS never lost or created water in its accounting because every node had a continuity of flow constraint.
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Using OASIS for the Tapoco Project

Input: Schematic, Inflows, and Site Specific Information. We defined the physical layout of the project by a system schematic (Figure 1) composed of: Nodes, which are points of interest, such as a reservoir (nodes 110, 120, 130, and 140) Arcs, which convey water between nodes Inflows, which allow water to enter from outside the project system, such as a tributary.
Calibrated the model to set the proper priority regarding generation among the four reservoirs consistent with their historical operation. The verified model was shown to simulate historical project generation to within 1 percent annually and to within 2 percent monthly.
Facility Characteristics. Prior to running OASIS, we defined certain reservoir and powerhouse characteristics. The starting elevation of each reservoir and the reservoir elevation at which flood gates operated were specified. Storage-versus-elevation relationships were required for each reservoir in order to satisfy the continuity of flow constraint of reservoir nodes. Operating Rules. OASIS also required that reservoir operating rules (goals) be prescribed for each dam and prioritized. Under its existing license, Cheoah, Calderwood and Chilhowee were operated in a modified run-of-river mode, while Santeetlah was operated in a store-and-release mode in accordance with an elevation guide curve. Tapoco generally operated the hydro plants during peak power hours to maximize the value of generation. To simulate this policy, OASIS was configured to dispatch water hourly to maximize the value of energy. The value of generation was assigned from a time series of hourly energy values based on historical hourly energy values. Station Performance. Power station performance or the conversion from water to energy, was defined for each hydro plant. At Cheoah, Calderwood, and Chilhowee, where the head is relatively constant, the power station conversion was defined simply as a function of plant flow. At Santeetlah, where the head varies 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 m) annually, plant output was defined as a function of both head and flow. In addition, the minimum and maximum discharges per hour for each plant were defined. Alternatives. To model the alternatives being considered for Tapocos license submittal, OASIS had to model revisions to the reservoir elevation guide curve at Santeetlah and releases from Santeetlah and Calderwood Dams. We considered several non-power releases from Santeetlah, including aquatic minimum flow releases, disturbance flow releases, and recreational boating flow releases. We also considered continuous minimum environmental flow releases at Calderwood.
Figure 1: Tapoco Project OASIS Schematic.
Santeetlah Reservoir (node 110) exhibited the schematic components typical of all reservoirs, including tributary inflow and four outflowsflows to the hydropower units, spill at the dam, environmental flows (supporting aquatic habitat and river geomorphological processes); and recreational boating (whitewater) flows. Inflows to Cheoah Reservoir were regulated flow releases by Tennessee Valley Authoritys2 Fontana Dam and unregulated tributary inflow. These included the effects of evaporation, which were calculated from Tapoco historical records.
Model Calibration and Verification. Before using the model, we verified its ability to represent existing operations accurately, including the dispatch of water among the reservoirs and conversion of water into energy. To do so, we: Collected data from three representative years to reflect the historical range of hydrologic conditions. Used the model to simulate historical operation, comparing computed reservoir elevation and outflow with historical data, and verifying the models ability to simulate accurately the movement of water through the system and the energy generated at each of the four plants.
During settlement discussions, the owner and the stakeholders agreed that under the proposed preferred NEPA alternative to FERC, the new project license would allow for the dispatch of water at Santeetlah with the following priorities, to which the model was configured: 1. Release minimum flow and release disturbance flow 2. Maintain reservoir elevation according to proposed guide curves 3. Release recreational boating flows 4. Generation.
2 Created by a U.S. Congressional charter in 1933, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is the USAs largest public power company, providing electricity to nearly 8.5 million customers.
The OASIS model and how it was used evolved during the consultation process. Initially, Tapoco and the stakeholders developed alternatives independent of the model and evaluated the alternatives in an office setting. We first used the model to simulate a base case condition, which was the Tapoco project with current operating rules in effect. Next, we simulated alternative operating scenarios and the results for each alternative (estimated reservoir water levels, stream flows, generation, and value of generation) were compared to the base case. As Tapoco moved into formal negotiations with stakeholders, OASIS was used more in real-time discussions. During negotiations, the stakeholders discussed the model results and requested modifications to the alternatives. We made modifications and ran OASIS real-time at meetings, and presented and discussed the preliminary results. After the meetings, we verified the preliminary results and obtained final results. If there were any notable differences between the two, then the final results were distributed to stakeholders via e-mail within a few days. This approach kept the pace moving quickly for all those involved in the settlement process.
Using OASIS to evaluate alternative operating scenarios in a real-time environment proved to be key to reaching a negotiated settlement between Tapoco and the stakeholder coalitions. FERC issued a new license implementing the agreement in January 2005. This license and the associated settlement agreement were critical to Alcoas continued operation of the smelter facility located at Alcoa, Tennessee.
Paul Shiers is a PB vice president with 38 years experience in hydroelectric power and water resource engineering. He is qualified as an independent consultant and PFMA facilitator for FERC Part 12 safety inspections under the new FERC DSPMP requirements. He has served as project manager for multiple hydropower projects, and completed an assignment as principal engineer for work performed under a multi-year continuing services agreement with FERC as the senior technical resource for hydro relicensing and compliance tasks. Shirley Williamson is a senior supervising civil engineer with 29 years experience in hydropower. She has been responsible for several NEPA-based environmental assessments ranging in size from the 35-plant Tennessee Valley Authority system to an individual 2.5 MW facility under FERC jurisdiction. In addition, Shirley has developed and implemented reservoir operations studies, flood studies, and project safety response plans and training programs for owners of hydroelectric facilities, including interfacing with owners and public safety agency staff. Chii-Ell Tsai is a supervising engineer with 44 years engineering experience. His water resources activities have include: OASIS modeling; spillway adequacy evaluation and stability analysis; water profiles and evaluation of power and energy for a proposed hydroelectric project; the preparation of emergency action plans for dam failure; and studies of energy consequences of modified reservoir operation policies on generation.
Planning for Mini Hydro...
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achieve. These suppliers are more than likely exaggerating their machines capabilities. Unfortunately, efficiency claims are difficult to verify before the asset is installed because model efficiency tests are simply not cost effective for machines of this capacity. Ideally, the supplier has either built a turbine close to the head and flow available at the site from which the efficiency can then be based on, or has completed a model test of a similar turbine as part of the development process. In any case, tenderers should be asked how they derived the efficiency figures presented in the tender. In most cases, verification to site efficiency test codes, such as IEC600041, can occur only once the turbine is at site. The measurement accuracy can be expected to be about 2 percent at best. Compensation from the supplier for an underperforming turbine will normally be capped at a maximum of 10 percent of the value of the contract, which may not provide adequately for the lost revenue over the life of the equipment. This point further emphasises the need for caution when evaluating tenders.
Q and A
Question:
What measures were adopted in the selection of bidders, specification or bid evaluation process to screen our poor quality or performance?
John Wichall, Senior Consultant, PB Network Guest Technical Reviewer
Answer :
That is a bit of a complex subject to get into here, as this topic could be an article in itself. As a minimum, bid evaluation should focus on reputation, referees, technical compliance with the specification, and performance (weighted efficiency) of the turbine for the smallest turbines. Then many other factors need to be considered, such as long-term operating cost, non-price attributes etc. Non-price attributes generally cause havoc with tender evaluation, and I am a subscriber to the view that if you cant ascribe a value or potential value, then it should not be included in your evaluation (e.g., no points system). The non-price attributes, cost adjustments, plus the performance evaluation can be added to the tender price to identify the best tender.
Conclusions
Hydro is an essential part of the renewable generation mix of the future, even though some consider it to be old technology. As we know, planning is the key to the success of a project. I hope this ar ticle has provided useful insight into the development in small hydro.
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Tony Mulholland, a mechanical engineer who has been with PB for more than two years, has played a key role in all phases of several mini-hydro facilities, being involved in planning, design, and construction. He also has extensive experience in other hydro-electric projects, and has a keen interest in renewable energy sources.
Dam Safety: State-of-the-Art Methodology Demonstrates that Costly Remediation is Not Needed
By Jay Greska, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-5021, greska@pbworld.com; and Bryce Mochrie, 1-617-960-4971, mochrie@pbworld.com.
Updated federal regulations require owners of hydroelectric dams in the USA to evaluate the safety of their facilities under all potential failure modes. In the case of one of the Tapoco Project dams where there was concern about potential scour, the authors based their investigation on recent research that applies specifically to jet streams, versus gradually varied flow. This approach was used successfully on this project and is applicable to other scour impact areas subjected to free falling water.
Plunge jets from overflow spillways are capable of eroding the bedrock upon which many dams are founded. Over time, this process can lead to undermining and eventual dam failure, especially if the bedrock is weathered or of poor quality. Comparing the stream power of the plunging jet at the point of impact to the erodibility index of the bedrock enables us to determine the scour threshold of a dams foundation and the dams overall susceptibility to scour.
Overview of Tapoco Projects Santeetlah Dam

Constructed in 1928, Santeetlah Dam is a concrete gravity and arch structure 321.3 m (1,054 feet) long with a maximum height of 60 m (197 feet) (Figure 1). It is one of four dams comprising the Tapoco Project, a 380 MW hydropower facility in North Carolina and Tennessee1. The dam is located roughly 72 km (45 miles) south of Knoxville, Tennessee, and includes: An integral intake section Left and right non-overflow gravity sections Two 42.7-m (140-foot)-wide thrust blocks A 97-m (318-foot)-long arch section connecting the two thrust blocks An 8-km (5-mile)-long pipeline to the 45 MW generating station. Santeetlahs six Tainter gates2 in the two thrust blocks are used to pass floods. They have a combined capacity of approximately 532.4 m3/s (18,800 cubic feet per second, or ft3/s) at the 553.8-m (1,817-foot) full-pool elevation (Tapoco datum), which is the crest elevation. Historical flood flow discharges have generally been limited to the Tainter gates, with little or no flow overtopping the arch. At reservoir levels above full pool, flow is regulated by a combination of the Tainter gates and the arch, which acts as an ungated spillway during floods. Spills over the arch create a rectangular jet that plunges at low flows onto a concrete apron constructed in 1938 to absorb the energy of such spills. The apron, located just below the arch between the thrust blocks, extends downstream from the toe of the arch for a distance of 19.8 m (65 feet) at an average elevation of 496.8 m (1,630 feet). When total flows at the dam exceed approximately 849.5 m3/s (30,000 ft3/s), the plunge jet would land beyond the apron, potentially eroding the exposed bedrock in the riverbed (Figure 2). This flow level (849.5 m3/s) represents a relatively small overtopping flood event compared to the 5,776.7 m3/s (204,000 ft3/s) probable maximum flood (PMF). The wedge-shaped area just below the arch backs up the water and acts like a plunge pool during flood events, with the arch and thrust blocks forming the sides of the pool and the apron at the upstream portion being the bottom. The plunge pool provides some protection for the concrete and bedrock, with water depths increasing as the arch discharge increases. This is due to the 32.9-m (108-foot)wide constriction between the two spillway toes, which controls tailwater depths as reservoir elevations exceed full pool and water is discharged over the arch.
1 The Tapoco Project is the focus of the two preceding articles, which are about its relicensing by the Federal
Figure 1: Santeetlah Dam Looking Upstream.
Regulatory Energy Commission in 2005, a project for which PB served as owners engineer.
2 A Tainter gate is a type of radial-arm floodgate used in dams and canal locks to control water flow. See also the
Figure 2: Arch Dam Elevation Showing Jet Trajectories.
following article, Deck Slot Cutting and Tainter Gate Remediation Extend Safe Operations of a Hydroelectric Dam by Marc Buratto et al for more information about Tainter gates.
The Need to Investigate Potential Foundation Erosion During Overtopping Floods

Under FERCs new Dam Safety Performance Monitoring Program, owners of hydroelectric dams must evaluate the safety of their facilities under all potential failure modes. As such, the hydraulic performance of high hazard dams, such as Santeetlah, whose failure could endanger lives or property, must be evaluated to the PMF level. Because spillway overtopping during a high-flow event had eroded more than 9.1 m (30 feet) of bedrock depth at Tapocos nearby Calderwood Dam during construction, FERC had become concerned about the potential for foundation erosion at Santeetlah Dam, stating: The consultant should provide an appraisal of potential foundation erosion during overtopping. The erodibility of the rock below the arch section should be specifically addressed to determine if it could be lost during an overtopping flood event....
scour susceptibility based on the concretes proper ties. Our results were as follows: Bedrock. A minimum Kh was estimated at 3,411 with an equivalent applied power of 445 kW/m2. Concrete. A minimum Kh was estimated at 3,000 with an equivalent applied power of 405 kW/m2.
Figure 3: Jet Power at the Base of Santeetlah Dam for Various Reservoir Elevations.
Our Investigation Approach

Foundation scour from plunging jets is the result of turbulent, fluctuating pressures. Under certain conditions, these fluctuating pressures are capable of loosening and eventually dislodging large blocks of rock. Using the methods in Scour Technology Mechanics and Engineering Practice3 and FERCs Engineering Guidelines for the Evaluation of Hydropower Projects (see Related Web Sites on the following page) we quantified the bedrocks susceptibility to scour and estimated the mean and fluctuating dynamic pressures at the bottom of the plunge pool for various arch discharges. Power values for the plunging jet in kW/m2 were then determined for various reservoir elevations. We estimated the likelihood that a scour hole would form during any given event by comparing the jet power at the bottom of the plunge pool to the threshold value of the bedrock or concrete. This methodology differs from conventional scour analysis, which involves the estimation of shear stress based on flow depth and energy slope, and is more suited for laminar, gradually varied flow. Conventional scour analysis was not performed because flow conditions at the dam, i.e., the plunge jet, were not suitable for this type of analysis.
Comparing the Power of the Plunge Jet to the Susceptibility to Scour

Downstream hydraulics and plunge jet trajectories were investigated at reservoir elevations ranging from a small overtopping flood up to a major flood just below the PMF. Here we present two examples.
Small Overtopping Flood. At a reservoir elevation of 554.7 m (1,819.8 feet), which was 0.9 m (2.8 feet) above the spillway crest, the total discharge at the site was 847.9 m3/s (29,943 ft3/s) with 119.7 m3/s (4,226 ft3/s) overtopping the arch dam (assuming all six gates were fully open). The wedge-shaped area at the toe of the arch would be filled to a depth of 1.3 m (4.3 feet).
Estimating the Susceptibility to Scour of Bedrock and Concrete

We estimated the bedrocks susceptibility to scour using its erodibility index, Kh, (Figure 3). Then, based on a combination of geologic data, field observation and engineering judgment, we took a similar approach in quantifying the concrete aprons
3 G. W. Annandale. 2006. Scour Technology: Mechanics and Engineering Practice.
The resulting jet was approximately 0.2 m (0.7 feet) thick at issuance and 0.8 m (2.5 feet) thick at impact. It hit the tailwater near the downstream edge of the apron 19.0 m (62.3 feet) from the toe of the arch with an applied power (neglecting aeration) of 894 kW/m2. The jet began to break up about 6.4 m (21 feet) below the point of issuance, or approximately 48.8 m (160 feet) above the water surface, however, so the spray that actually hit the tailwater did so with only a fraction of the jets original power. By the time it reached the bottom of the pool, the applied power of the jet was reduced to 97 kW/m2, well below the 405 kW/m2 minimum threshold value of the concrete (Figure 4 on the following page).
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
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Major Flood. The PMF would have a duration of approximately 72 hours and a peak discharge of 5,776.7 m3/s (204,000 ft3/s). It would occur typically during a springtime precipitation run-off event, although it could occur any time of year, particularly during the summer and fall hurricane season for the southeast USA. Because the upper nappe associated with this event impacts the bottom of the walkway above the arch, thereby reducing its scour potential, it was not studied. However, the major flood just below the PMF with 5,245.0 m3/s (185,225 ft3/s) was studied. During this event, approximately 3,127.6 m3/s (110,448 ft3/s) overtops the arch. This is the maximum discharge at which free flow occurs, and thus was assumed to have the highest scour potential. The reservoir elevation for this event, 560.3 m (1,838.2 feet), was more than 6.4 m (21.2 feet) above the arch crest. The resulting plunge jet was 2.0 m (6.6 feet) thick at issuance and 5.9 m (19.4 feet) thick at impact, and it hit the plunge pool 45.9 m (151 feet) from the toe of the arch with an applied power (neglecting aeration) of 2,780 kW/m2. In this case, the jet began to break up about 18.2 m (60 feet) below the point of issuance, or more than 27.4 m (90 feet) above the water surface, so the spray that hit the water did so with only a fraction of the jets original power. By the time it reached the bottom of the pool, the applied power of the jet was reduced to 303 kW/m2, which is well below the 445 kW/m2 minimum threshold value for erodibility of the bedrock (Figure 4).
In summary, the total stream power values at the base of the arch varied from 97 kW/m2 to 303 kW/m2, values that are well below the 405 ft3/s and 445 kW/m2 minimum threshold values of the concrete and bedrock, respectively.
Conclusions
Based on our investigation, we determined that Santeetlah Dam meets all safety requirements. Overtopping of the arch section up to the PMF will not cause scour, which could otherwise lead to undermining and possible dam failure. Insofar as remediation-whether it be extending the apron or constructing a toe dam and permanent plunge pool, both of which would have cost several hundred thousand dollars-we demonstrated that none was needed. This state-of-the-art approach, used successfully to evaluate the scour potential of hydraulic discharge chutes, is applicable to other scour impact areas subjected to free falling water.
Related Web Sites:

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission: http://www.ferc.gov /industries/hydropower/safety/guidelines/eng-guide.asp
Figure 4: Scour Estimation for Santeetlah Dam Using Annandale and Ing Method.
Jay Greska, P.E., is a lead engineer with PBs Hydropower & Water Resources Group in Boston. He joined the firm in 2006 and has more than 20 years of experience in roadway design, bridge hydraulics, stormwater management and hydraulic modeling of large dams. Bryce N. Mochrie, P.E., is a senior principal engineer with PBs Hydropower & Water Resources Group in Boston. He joined the firm in 2000 and has more than 35 years of experience in the civil/structural design, inspection and licensing of water resource and power projects.
Deck Slot Cutting and Tainter Gate Remediation Extend Safe Operations of a Hydroelectric Dam
By Marc Buratto, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4973, buratto@pbworld.com; Anthony Plizga, 1-617-960-4972, plizga@pbworld.com; and Paul Shiers, 1-617-960-4990, shiers@pbworld.com
Cutting expansion slots cut into a dams concrete spillway deck is one of the structural repairs that may be necessary to ensure that aging hydroelectric dams operate reliably during storm or flood events. PB oversaw implementation of such a solution for a dam where structural movement caused problems with gate operations. The authors tell about the slot cutting and gate remediation, and measures taken to protect water quality during the process.
Narrows Dam is one of four dams that comprise the Yadkin Project, a hydroelectric plant owned and operated by Yadkin Division of Alcoa Power Generating, Inc. The Narrows facility includes four units with a total capacity in excess of 110 MW. It generates more than half the hydropower for the Yadkin Project. Completed in 1917, Narrows Dam is a concrete gravity structure with a maximum height of 61 m (200 feet). It consists of a main dam section and a bypass spillway structure (Figure 1). The main spillway deck has an integral concrete slab and steel beam support system spanning between spillway piers. It is restrained laterally by a non-overflow section at one end and an intake structure at the opposite end. No expansion joints were included in the original design of the spillway deck. Twenty-two Tainter gates are installed atop the main spillway to release surplus water during storm or flood events. Each is 7.6 m (25 feet) wide by 3.7 m (12 feet) high.1 The lack of expansion joints caused a portion of the deck slab adjacent to the intake to buckle under normal thermal conditions in the early 1990s. This buckling caused a redistribution of built-up forces in the deck to the nearby piers, resulting in the movement of the pier caps towards the intake. As a result, several Tainter gates could not be fully opened during the five-year full-open gate testing exercise in 2001, causing concerns about safety. Continuous dam safety is mandated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), the licensing agency, so a remediation program was enacted to restore full opening of all the Tainter gates. PB was responsible for the engineering and construction oversight of the remediation effort. Our recommendation called for cutting new slots into the deck and rehabilitating the gates. In addition to the actual slot cutting, the effort involved: Installing instrumentation to monitor deck and pier movements Mobilizing and setting up cutting equipment, environmental compliance equipment and support systems. Developing a quality control inspection program to make sure the field activities were completed correctly during construction.
The Slot Cutting

Three methods of cutting were consideredthe diamond wire saw, concrete saw, and overlapping drill core methods. Most dam sites use an overlapping drill core method to re-establish expansion joints due to deck configuration, construction joint layout and other issues, such as embedded conduits. In this situation, the configuration of the deck and slots ruled out the use of the concrete saw method, and aesthetic issues associated with the overlapping drill cores ruled out that method. The wire saw method allowed the most favorable option for removing the saw cable if binding occurred during cutting due to slot closure. Removal could be accomplished by simply making another wire saw cable to cut through the bound cable without significant demolition activities adjacent to the cuts. A 1.6-cm (0.625-inch) diamond wire saw was used to cut the slots. Slot cutting work was confined to the deck of the main spillway, right non-overflow section, and the deck between the intake and bypass spillway. One slot was cut first at the right
Figure 1: The Yadkin Projects Narrows Dam in North Carolina.
1 A Tainter gate is a type of radial-arm
floodgate used in dams and canal locks to control water flow.
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the slurry coming directly out of the slot cut. In addition, the contractor installed troughs on both sides of the piers under the deck to collect water that seeped through joints to the underside of the deck. Water was pumped from the upstream dam reservoir into the collection bin until it was nearly full. This water was then pumped and used as lubrication for the wire for the remainder of cutting activities at that pier, being collected and re-circulated until the slot cutting was completed. After that, the re-circulating water was pumped to a settling tank where solids were allowed to settle out. The effluent from the settling tank, which was clean water, was discharged to the reservoir. This method for collecting and processing the slurry and fluids from the cutting activities was reviewed and approved by the State of North Carolina Department of Water Quality. No unanticipated environmentally related incidences occurred during the slot cutting activities.
Figure 2: Cross Section View of Pier Slot Cuts.
non-overflow section to relieve as much of the built-up stresses as possible, then six sets of two slots were cut in piers along the main spillway. Joints were spaced along the spillway deck about four bays apart or at approximately 120-foot (37-m) intervals. The slot cutting activities occurred during the summer months, so a thermal increase of about 50F (10C) was used to evaluate the required width of the slot. This thermal change required a minimum slot width of about 0.4 inch (1.0 cm). The wire slots in the piers on the main spillway extend through existing construction joints in the concrete deck to a minimum depth of approximately 0.51 m (20 inches) across the width of the deck (Figure 2). The concrete deck is reinforced, however, the reinforcement does not extended into the unreinforced pier through the construction joints. In addition, the steel beams also supporting the concrete deck did not extend through the existing construction joints. Therefore, no steel beams or reinforcement were cut. The primary objective of the slots was to provide open joints to allow for thermal expansion of the concrete deck. Re-cutting was required at only three slots in two different piers due to closure of initial cuts. The exposed slot cut areas (top and upstream/downstream faces) were sealed with a foam backer rod and sealant. Initial closure after all slots were cut was approximately 3.0 cm (1.2 inches), and the total accumulated available slot closure was 200 cm (8 inches). The final slot gap widths ranged between 1.5 cm (0.59 inch) and 2.0 cm (0.78 inch).
Instrumentation
Narrows Dam has an instrumentation program that includes manual and automated instruments to monitor the overall safety aspects of the site. Prior to the deck remediation program, instrumentation included high order survey pins, piezometers and seepage measurements. We recommended the addition of inclinometers, tiltmeter plates and deck slot monitoring pins prior to the start of slot cutting activities because it was critical that the dams behavior be monitored while work was in progress, and equally important that the long-term effects of the new expansion slots be monitored.
Tainter Gate Remediation

The Tainter gate remediation included: Removing the existing side rollers, which prevented the gate skin plate from cutting into and binding on the concrete piers Trimming the edges of the Tainter gate steel Installing grooves in the concrete piers Replacing the side seals. Tainter gates are illustrated in Figures 3. The side rollers had been added to the ends of the top and bottom horizontal girders on each side of the Tainter gates in the early 1990s to
Protecting the Water

A unique challenge we faced during the fix was in meeting the clients request that we prevent the cuttings and the resulting cutting slurry from entering the project waters. We required that a slurry catch basin (collection bin) be installed on the upstream and downstream sides of the piers to collect
protect the edges of the gates and to facilitate smooth operation during opening. The continued tilting of the piers during the 1990s led to excessive force buildup, however, and local abrasion (due to excessive frictional forces) of the concrete at the upper right side roller. The visual scarring of the concrete was evidence of the local concrete abrasion (Figure 4). Although the side rollers did provide protection for the edges of the gate, they did not stop the gates from binding.
Figure 3: Closed Tainter gate viewed looking downstream (top) and upstream (bottom).
gates needed to be trimmed and which piers needed to be grooved. Twenty gates required trimming on at least one side, and twelve required trimming on both sides. Figure 5: Image of gate repaired with Twelve gates groove. required that the concrete pier be grooved (Figure 5) on the right side, and one required pier grooves on both sides.
Summary
At the time of writing, the slot cutting had been completed for nearly six years and the Tainter gate remediation for more than four years. The deck monitoring pins have shown that the concrete decks between the expansion slots expand and contract seasonally with an amplitude of about 0.65 cm (0.25 inch). All gates continue to operate successfully and open fully. We expect that this work will maintain reliable hydropower generation for the Yadkin Project long into the future by maintaining the associated dam in a safe condition. In conclusion, the installation of spillway deck slots, trimming of the gate skin plates, and the grooving of the concrete piers have significantly extended the useful life of the 86-year old Tainter gates at Narrows Dam.
Figure 4: Image of local concrete abrasion due to excessive frictional forces from gate binding.
The gate clearances and the extent of pier tilting were not the same in each spillway bay. To ensure that appropriate gate trimming and concrete grooving were performed on each pier, we determined for the construction specification the tolerances and criteria for determining which
Related Web Sites:

http://www.alcoa.com/yadkin/en/info_page/relicensing_overview.asp
Marc Buratto has nearly three decades of experience in the engineering and design of power stations and other types of facilities. Marcs expertise includes finite element stress analysis and stability analysis of existing structures, preparation of FERC safety inspection reports and Potential Failure Mode Analysis (PFMA) Reports as part of the new Dam Safety Performance Monitoring Program (DSPMP), concrete and steel design and analysis, and Tainter gate assessments and modifications. Tony Plizga has 36 years civil-structural engineering and design experience. Since joining PB in May 2000, he has worked on various hydroelectric projects within the Boston Office Hydro Group. Major tasks include site inspections and reports, gate upgrades, instrumentation data evaluation, stability analyses, rock anchors, GIS oversight and FERC relicensing support. Paul Shiers is a PB vice president in hydroelectric power and water resource engineering. Having 38 years of engineering experience, Paul is qualified as an Independent Consultant and PFMA facilitator for FERC Part 12 safety inspections under the new FERC DSPMP requirements.
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Renewables - The Risks, Concerns and Potential
GENERATION:
The Growing Power of Renewables

PB has a strong track record in renewable energy projects, including wind power, geothermal, biomass, hydropower and solar energy. Given the current worldwide concerns about the depletion of fossil fuels and the desire to reduce CO2 emissions, this edition of PB Network takes the opportunity to look at some of the range of projects and studies in which PB engineers get involved. The articles in this section cover a wide spectrum of new and emerging technologies being applied throughout the world. In the first, Dominic Cook taps into PBs experience across the breadth of power generation technologies to compare the generation costs of traditional and newer generation technologies. This information is key to governments around the world addressing their potential mix of power generation technologies. Then, building on PBs background and expertise as lenders engineers, Ian Burdon describes those processes required in introducing and financing new commercial scale technologies. This topic, too, is key to our understanding of factors that impact our power generation future. Geothermal energy is an impor tant energy source in Australia, and Allan Cur tis describes a project in which PBs design exper tise examined different methods of conver ting this heat source to electrical power. The next ar ticle shows PB as EPC contractors rather than consultants, and Roger Lemos describes the design and construction of a gas processing plant in Connecticut. It was designed to collect and process landfill gas, conver ting a waste gas to a high Btu gas of pipeline quality. Moving to Europe, Rafael Lejarza gives an insight into photovoltaic (PV) power generation and, in particular, PBs involvement with PV projects in Spain. Finally, Peter Kydd describes briefly a tidal power project on the Severn Estuary in south west England. This set of articles illustrates PBs breadth of experience ranging from high level studies to designing engineering solutions, all of which will help countries around the world to reduce their carbon footprints. Please see page 89 for a list of many additional articles on windpower, minewater, geothermal, carbon reduction, and other renewable topics from past PB publications.
Steve Loyd Chief Thermal Plant Engineer, Newcastle, UK Coordinator of PAN 13, Conventional Thermal Generation
Renewables The Risks, Concerns and Potential
Renewable Energy Sustainable Economy?

By Dominic Cook, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, 44 191 226 2203, cookDo@pbworld.com
This article is based on a report produced to inform the debate around the future mix of power generation in the UK during the governments 2006 Energy Review by providing an independent statement of the costs of power generation at that time. It not only reflects the high level of work done by PBs power specialists, it provides readers with answers to some questions clients around the world contend with.
Table 1: Characteristics and costs of technologies studied.
Renewable technologies are at differing stages in their development. Onshore wind generation, for example, is regarded as being virtually competitive in its own right without external support given the right combination of project specifics. This stage of advancement contrasts with those of other renewable energy generation technologies that struggle to break out from the prototyping stage and find convergence on a single implementation model (for example, wave/tidal). The technologies that are considered in this article are: Coal pulverised fuel Gas-fired combined cycle gas turbines Coal IGCC Nuclear Onshore wind Offshore wind Wave Tidal. Biomass This list includes technologies that are available currently and those that are considered to comprise the next generation of renewable generation. They were compared using a discounted cashflow model of the technology capital and operational costs over a typical project life. Long-term gas and coal fuel prices were assumed to be 37 pence/therm and $49/tonne. Whilst there are local cost factors that affect the analysis, the main factor is the relative price for each energy source.
Technology Summary
The characteristics of the various power generation technologies reviewed are discussed below and summarized in Table 1.
Coal pulverised fuel. Conventional pulverised fuel (PF) combustion is a common form of generation technology found throughout the world. It is well proven and considered to be a mature technology. The key design features of a conventional PF plant are the pressure and temperature at which steam is generated. The majority of plants installed to date operate at subcritical steam conditions; however, supercritical and advanced super-critical boilers are becoming the technology of choice for new coal plant construction.
1 These are the estimated
engineer/procure/construct (EPC) costs for each technology excluding owners soft costs and contingency.
A new coal-fired PF plant will have to meet environmental legislation to be considered a best available technology and will have to meet environmental legislation through the fitment of emissions control systems. These are important aspects of all types of coal PF plant, and the associated costs can be minimised through the specification of the fuel to be burned.
Combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT). In a CCGT power plant, the hot exhaust gases from the gas turbine are delivered to a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) where heat energy in the gases is transferred to water, which is then converted to high-pressure, high-temperature steam. This steam is then delivered to a steam turbine. About two thirds of the electrical power is derived from the gas turbine and one third from the steam turbine.
Our study assumed the use of a state-of-the-art heavy-duty gas turbine based CCGT because of the high cost of gas fuel and the high level of competition between electricity generators.
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The exhaust gas emitted from a gas turbine in combined cycle mode is the same as from one in open cycle mode; however, the quantity of emissions for a notional level of output (CO2 per kWh) is greatly reduced owing to the higher power output of CCGT plant.
Coal integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC). Integrated gasification plants offer reduced environmental emissions, but at an increased capital cost when compared to more conventional combustion technologies. This technology allows the use of a wide range of fuel sources that would not typically be used in conventional thermal power. It is also one of the technologies associated with carbon capture and sequestration.2 The synthetic gas that is derived from the fuel gasification can be cleaned prior to combustion, giving emissions comparable to those of natural gas plant and thermal efficiencies of up to 43 percent. Further, the technology enables the carbon fraction in the fuel to be removed prior to combustion, when there is a need for carbon capture and sequestration.
are likely to be the most strongly contested values of all the power generation technologies and, therefore, the values used in our evaluation were considered to be conservative.
Onshore wind. Development of onshore wind turbines has moved to a point where the plant is considered to be almost able to compete on a level playing field in terms of price with other more conventional technologies. Its viability remains highly dependent on the wind resource in each location, however, and this variability in the plant output continues to incentivise developments in electricity storage technologies.
The installed cost of wind power projects has seen a rise over recent years due largely to the increase in wind turbine prices resulting from increases in energy costs and raw material costs (steel, copper and blade materials). Turbine manufacturers have also used the upturn in world demand to increase their margins on the back of a scarcity of turbine manufacturing capacitythe economics of supply and demand.
Offshore wind. The trend continues towards larger turbines with larger rotor diameters. It is expected that these advancements will result in reductions in specific costs in the longer term, although the present trend is upwards owing to continued learning and competitive pressures from oil and gas industries for the vessels and personnel necessary for installation in a marine environment. Economies of scale are likely to be realised as the size of wind farm projects increases. Wave and Tidal. Wave and marine generation broadly encompasses five types of technology considered to be relevant to the UK: Tidal barrages. Seawater flows through constructed barrages is used to power turbine generators.3 Offshore tidal current turbine. Energy in the currents created by tidal streams is used to generate electricity. Pelamis sea snake. When floating on the sea, hinged joints between the snakes semi-submerged articulated cylindrical sections move with the waves, powering hydraulic motors that then generate electricity. Oscillating hydroplane. Energy in the currents created by tidal streams is used to generate electricity using the principle of an oscillating hydroplane. Oscillating water column device (OWC). The OWC device comprises a partly submerged concrete or steel structure, open below the water surface. Air is trapped inside above the water-free surface. The oscillation of the internal free surface produced by the incident waves makes air flow through a turbine that drives an electric generator.
Appropriate treatment of the by-product streams from the gasification process and ensuring a safe design means that the capital cost of such plants is high. Further, the operational experience of these plants is also relatively limited.
Nuclear. In the UK, nuclear power plants currently account for just under 20 percent of total electricity demand, with most of this power coming from advanced gas-cooled reactors.The older Magnox reactors will have been shut down by 2010. Only one reactor, the pressurised water reactor at Sizewell B is planned to be in operation beyond 2024.
The UK governments Energy Review in 2003 declared that new nuclear plants would not be considered, although the option would be kept open. The main reason for this view was that the abundance of low-cost fossil fuel generation (predominantly gas) had led to low-cost base-load electricity prices. This was the situation in all countries that had access to low-cost fossil fuels. This backdrop has changed significantly with much higher oil and gas prices, with oil seemingly breaking high price records weekly, and the requirements in Kyoto signatory countries to reduce carbon emissions. Whilst these factors have changed, the issues of long-term solutions for the used nuclear fuel and the irradiated plant and equipment from the reactor remains, however, and continue to present significant political, social and financial challenges. A cost estimate of 1.5bn at the end of the operational life has been included in our evaluation to account for decommissioning. It should be noted that nuclear power plant costs
2 Please read The Effect of Carbon Capture and Storage and Carbon Pricing on the
Competitiveness of Gas Turbine Power Plants, a preceding article by Dominic Cook, to learn about how carbon capture and storage works and what are its prospects in the electricity generation market.
Significantly, the present status of development of wave and tidal generation devices is summarised by the Carbon Trust as follows: Overall, devices are at early stages compared to
3 Peter Kydd discusses tidal barrages in a following article, Project Brief: Tidal
Power.
other renewables and conventional plant, and crucially, optimal designs have yet to be converged upon. A few large-scale prototypes have been built and tested in real sea conditions, but no commercial wave and tidal stream projects have yet been completed.
Biomass BFB technology. Bubbling fluidised bed (BFB) is a well-proven technology suitable for small (less than 100 MWe) biomass power plants. (Biomass is plant or animal matter or biodegradable waste used as fuel.) The BFB provides thermal inertia that makes it suitable for combustion of fuels of high and variable moisture content and fuels that are difficult to pulverise effectively, such as woody materials.
mechanisms to continue their development towards commercial reality. Carbon costs are beginning to form a significant portion of the overall cost of generation for fossil fired power plants. As the allowances provided decrease and the carbon price increases, this effect will be more pronounced, with the gap between the fossil fired and renewable generation sources being reduced. This reduction alone is not sufficient to give the commercial incentives to build renewable plant, and there will be a continued need for support mechanisms be it through feed-in tariffs, renewable obligation mechanisms or other such support schemes.
Base Comparison
The base assumption is that the cost of carbon is based on the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and is based on a 25/tonne long-term cost. The quantity of allowances provided to the electricity generators is assumed to be phased out by 2018,4 when they will need to purchase carbon certificates for their emissions. Comparison of the technologies with each other and in relation to the present expectation of market forward electricity pricing (Figure 1) reveals that there are two distinct groups of technologies: Those that are viable (or marginally so) with the present market expectations Those that will continue to require support from external
Summary Renewable generation will continue to need support mechanisms to ensure that the best use of the resources is made and that the best value is returned in terms of carbon reduction and energy delivered. Nuclear plant continues to have uncertainty surrounding decommissioning costs and the need for a long-term solution for spent fuel from nuclear plant. The expectations are that any new build is likely to replace existing nuclear capacity only and, therefore, would not result in a net gain in carbon savings. Conventional fossil-fired generation plants are likely to continue to feel the pressure through uncertainty surrounding future carbon allocation levels, carbon pricing, fuel pricing and security of supply.
Figure 1: Comparative Costs of Generation.
Dominic Cook has 20+ years of utility and consultancy experience in the power industry. He has been involved in regulatory audits and the development of power generation plant, and in providing advice to financial institutions. His publications included Powering the Nation in June 2006 and he is presently involved with the UK government on the carbon capture competition.
4 Phasing out assumed to be 90 percent to 2010; 50 percent between 2013 to 2017 and 0 percent from 2018 onwards. 5 Standby energy is the cost to provide replacement power when a plant suffers a forced outage.
47
Test Bed to Turnkey: Introducing New Thermal Renewable Energy Technologies

By Ian Burdon, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 44 191 226 2444, burdonI@pbworld.com
The step between a laboratory-scale research project and a full-scale, commercially-viable scheme that will attract investors is large. Considering a generic fuel-energy conversion process, the author describes the commercial climate in which such a project has to develop, grow and survive and the types of risk assessment needed. This information will be useful for those assisting organisations seeking financial support to take an advanced-technology process from a proven design concept to commercial operational service.
Governments in many countries are encouraging private sector developers to invest in their national electricity systems and sell power to the distribution companies for onward supply to consumers. Commercial viability is a fundamental requirement for any process or project that is intended to supply electricity to the competitive market place. Expensive new technology and that which is unproven or of a small-scale cannot compete with tried and tested combined-cycle gas turbine plant fired on plentiful natural gas. Thus, it is suggested that these new technologies, such as advanced conversion technology, will be hard pushed to find a secure place in a market place where the emphasis is on low capital cost and technical efficiency for large-scale power production. One area that does offer some chance of success lies in the field of renewable energy. The ability of a process to accept a feedstock that is sustainable, such as biomass, or can be considered as a renewable can be beneficial for technological development in the context of a national renewable energy policy. Such a policy manifests itself, for example, in the UK where government has set targets for 10 percent of all electricity production to be from renewable energy sources by 2010. Premiums paid for renewable energy can compensate for the inevitable high capital cost of the technology and the disadvantages arising from dis-economies of scale. In addition to economics is the important issue of competition between rival technologies. Factors that developers are likely consider when selecting a particular technology will include: Previous operating experience. If the technical process has been developed from laboratory prototypes, data will need to be gathered on: Its thermal efficiency in recovering useful energy from the feedstock The production of by-products (and co-products if relevant), particularly discharges to air, water and land, which will be of keen interest to the environmental regulatory agency. Scale of process. Those investing in a project where significant scaling-up is needed to attain critical commercial mass will require evidence that such a scale-up is a practical proposition and that the relevant mechanical engineering and thermochemical conversion factors have been taken into account. The risks inherent in the scaling-up will be of special interest to those involved in the independent project appraisal. Current status of technology. The development status of the technology is interrelated with the feedstock type to a large extent. For example, whilst the gasification of a coal feedstock is a relatively well understood and well tried process, the gasification of many biomass-type wastes is not, certainly outside of a research laboratory. Cost/MW of capacity. Significant advantages in terms of thermal efficiency or environmental emissions will have to be expected if a relatively expensive processes is to catch the attention of a developer.
Figure 1: Contractual Arrangement for Independently Financed Energy Conversion Project.
Financing a Project
The majority of independent energy projects promoted in countries such as the UK, which have a non-parastatal electricity supply industry, have been funded on the project finance basis, with approximately 80 percent of the cost being borrowed and then repaid from the net revenues of the project. The remainder of the finance required comprises equity from the project sponsors.
The project sponsors establish a special purpose company (the energy company) that serves as the vehicle to take the project forward. This company becomes the counter-party to the various agreements for goods and services that essentially comprise the project. The primary agreements for a typical renewable energy project are similar to those for conventional projects. Their essential elements are as follows: Fuel or feedstock supply. Agreements as to quantities, quality, availability, price, and any related fees or conditions. Heat and electricity off-take. Usually a pro-forma agreement with one or other of the generating companies (or perhaps electricity supply companies) for a fixed term sometimes at a premium price. Design and construction of the facility. A turnkey arrangement that obliges the contractor to assume responsibility for completion date, final cost and performance of the facility. Operation and maintenance. Agreement with the O&M contractor as to the quality assurance system in place, audits, and performance targets. Secondary agreements cover the lease or sale of land; finance; statutory consents, such as planning, integrated pollution control, consents to build a power station, licence to generate electricity, etc. The primary agreements are written such that each complements the others. For example, the specification and quantity of feedstock supplied corresponds with that required by the plant to be built under the design and construction (D&C) contract to deliver the electrical energy output specified in the electricity off-take contract. At the same time, the obligations contained within the operation and maintenance (O&M) contract require specific levels of fuel conversion efficiency and plant availability to be attained by the operator in line with the terms and conditions of the electricity off-take contract.
Risk and Critical Issues

The majority of risks associated with a given project (Table 1) can be covered in the contractual arrangements described above. Project financiers will wish to see a suitable spreading of risks and mitigation of them (perhaps by insurance) over all the project participants. It is highly unlikely that the lending banks will agree to bear any of the risks. Matters that would typically be regarded by lenders as representing a potential risk include: Technology. Lenders will expect an independent engineer to report on the technical specification for the plant and require evaluation of the appropriateness and track record of the relevant technology in the proposed application. Lenders will likely regard untried features as unacceptable risk.
Table 1: Categories of Risk In a Typical Renewable Energy Project.
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Contractors. Lenders will consider the reputations and financial strength of the principal contractors when assessing risk of default in relation to any function that is material to the projects success. Security of cash flow. Lenders will analyse all factors that may have a bearing on the projects ability to maintain a comfortable cash flow beyond the prospective term of the borrowing. Such factors include, for instance, the security of the fuel supply and contingency arrangement for alternative fuel Statutory authorizations. Lenders will check on all factors affecting the consents and permits necessary for the commencement and continuation of the project. Success in structuring and obtaining finance is closely linked with developers ability to identify risk, design technical solutions and allocate contractual responsibility. Often developers seek expert advice in each relevant field early on so that there is a coherent strategy from an early stage. Some of the relevant issues that relate to risk analysis include: Financial model. A crucial test is how the economics of a project stand up to the perceived areas of risk. Any prospective lender will want to see a financial model that shows how the sensitivities of the various parameters at risk affect the project economics. Contractual framework. The contractual framework will need to take account of the risk factors that are relevant to the specific features of the project. Setting up this framework involves careful planning on the identity of the contracting parties and assessment of their capacity to discharge their obligations, the scope of the positive obligations under each contract and the effect of limitations of liability. Financial structure. A detailed evaluation of the capital requirement and the balance between equity or risk capital and loans will be required. The proposed gearing will
indicate the potential reward for the providers of equity and be an important indication of the way in which the developers have considered the allocation of risk. Lenders gain confidence in developers if the proposed financial structure takes them into account. Insurance. Lenders will require that the insurance cover is planned for many of the areas of perceived risk with reference to the specific detail of the project. Specialist insurance brokers can assist in creating an effective insurance programme.
Conclusions
Translating thermal conversion research into a full-scale, practical, process plant in which technical risks are understood and can be quantified is bound to be a difficult task, but every new development has to star t somewhere. The commercial world of electricity supply, in which the thermal conversion process hopes to find an application, is changing rapidly, and the support and sustenance that prototype processes might have received in years gone by from central authorities are now vanishing. The requirements today are generally for tried and tested, reliable and easily maintained technology capable of providing a supply of electricity using indigenous fuels. Advanced technologies, not long out of the research stage, are unlikely to satisfy such demands. The drive to use more non-fossil fuels in electricity production to meet climate change accords is likely to change these requirements, however, and provide the stimulus to technological development of new thermal conversion processes. The financing of such projects will require intensive analysis of the intrinsic technical risks of the process. The satisfaction of such a risk analysis will require the production of comprehensive data (and its intensive scrutiny) on operational performance and design, par ticularly in relation to scaling-up from the test-bed to the turnkey, commercial, installation.
Ian Burdon is responsible for directing all activities within PB (Power) on sustainable energy developments, including renewable energy, energy from waste, advanced energy technologies, such as gasification and pyrolysis, and low and zero-carbon clean energy technologies. He has had an involvement as either project manager or project director on a wide variety of renewable, waste and other energy projects. Ian is active in the affairs of the Institution of Engineering and Technology, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Association for Consultancy and Engineering and the Environmental Services Association. He maintains close contacts with developers and banks involved in energy projects for which he often acts as technical advisor. Note: This article was based on a paper about thermal conversion technologies for use in waste management that was for presentation at the Chartered Institution of Waste Management annual conference, Torbay, UK, June 2008. Copies are available from the author. Acknowledgements: Thanks are due to the directors of PBs power specialists for permission to publish this article. It is emphasized that the opinions expressed are entirely those of the author and in no way reflect the corporate attitudes or views of PB.
Realising the Power Potential From Hot Rocks

By Allan Curtis, Brisbane, Queensland, 61 7 3854 6852, curtisAl@pbworld.com
Australia is one of many nations that have made commitments to reduce greenhouse gases and change to more renewable energy sources. Hot dry rocks has the potential to make a very significant contribution to these aims, but also presents many engineering challenges. PB has developed designs to accommodate the very severe conditions surrounding hot rocks and maximise the power that can be produced.
Hot rocks have been investigated as an energy resource for approximately thirty years; but their exploitation for power generation had been hindered until recently by the many significant drilling challenges associated with very deep drilling, being able to achieve a sufficiently high flow of water through the rocks by hydraulic fracturing, and high pressures and temperatures for pumping. Now, the worlds first high temperature hot dry rock development is nearing completion at Soultz in Southern France. It is expected to produce about 1.5 MW using an organic Rankine cycle plant. (The thermodynamic Rankine cycle converts heat into work.)
Tapping into Australias Hot Rocks

Australia has considerable quantities of deeply buried radiogenic (hot rock) granites. Figure 1 shows the potential resource at 5000 m (16,400 feet) below ground. As can be seen, there are large areas where rock temperatures exceed 250C (482F), but they are all in remote areas far from populated areas (Figure 2). Geodynamics Ltd, which focuses on developing renewable geothermal energy generation from hot rocks, has geothermal rights to approximately 2000 km2 (772 square miles) of land near Innamincka in the Cooper basin where, to date, it has drilled three wells. Testing on its Habanero 1 well has revealed that granites at about 4200 m (13,800 feet) below ground contain super-pressured saline water (brine) and yield well head pressures and temperatures of approximately 33 MPa and 250C (4,790 psi and 482F). The presence of brine came as a surprise to Geodynamics, but it avoids the need to locate a source of water that can be injected down into the high temperature zone. The potential demand for injection water would have presented a significant problem in this water-starved area of Australia. Geodynamics has just completed drilling Habanero 3 with its new drilling rig, which allows them to drill a 215 mm (8.5-inch) hole up to 6000 m (19,700 feet) deep. This new well, the largest one of this depth drilled onshore in Australia, will enable circulation testing, which will prove (or disprove) the resource and enable Geodynamics to evaluate equipment for full scale power plant development. At the measured brine temperatures and the anticipated heat extraction rates, the expected net power output from the 2000 km2 that Geodynamics has rights to is in the order of 10 GW.
PBs Role: Power Production Technologies

Figure 1: Heat map of Australia.
Geodynamics is seeking to complete the engineering and detailed costing for a nominally 50 MW power plant by the end of 2008, with an objective to have the plant operational by
Figure 2: Cooper Basin location.
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the end of 2010. Their longer term objective is for a rapid development of the resource to 500MW generating capacity. PB was hired by Geodynamics to evaluate alternative power production technologies and prepare a budget costing for a proposed modular power plant. To prove the geothermal resource, we designed a test facility and a small (1.2 MW) pilot-scale power plant using Habanero 3 and Habanero 1 as production and reinjection wells. We considered various options to maximise the potential power generation capacity based on 100 percent return of geothermal brine to the deep aquifer without depressurisation of the geothermal brine or the consequent release of the dissolved non-condensable gases, such as methane and carbon dioxide. Options evaluated were: Kalina cycle. This technology uses a varying mix of ammonia and water around the cycle to maximise the energy recoverable. The boiling water and ammonia mixture can closely follow the brine temperature in the high-pressure heat exchangers. Organic Rankine cycle. This technology uses an organic fluid, such as pentane, which is preheated and then vaporized in a series of heat exchangers. The high-pressure vapour can then be used to drive an expander in a manner similar to a conventional steam turbine plant. Flash steam cycle. We developed this new concept after early modelling showed that a conventional steam power plant in which the water is preheated and then boiled in a series of heat exchangers could not realise the full potential for heat recovery from the brine. Under the flash steam cycle, circulating water is heated so that there is a constant temperature differential between the brine and the circulating water. The high temperature clean water can then be flashed down in two stages to produce steam that passes to a conventional steam turbine. The exhaust from the turbine is then cooled in an air cooled condenser, and this condensate is returned to the circulating water flow. A summary of the performance and strengths and weaknesses of the various options is shown in Table 1. Based on a detailed investigation of power plant options, the client elected to proceed with the proposed flash steam cycle.
Figure 1: Summary of Performance Strengths and Weaknesses
Power Plant Modular Approach

Preliminary modelling has indicated that the production and reinjection wells should be spaced approximately 1000 m (3,200 feet) apart to achieve good long-term output from the geothermal resource. The cost of surface piping was found to be significantly higher than the marginal additional cost of deviated (directional) drilling, so we developed a configuration of five production and four reinjection wells that could be drilled from a common pad. The expected flows from the five production wells total approximately 500 kg/s (1100 lb/s) of brine, which will yield an average net power output of about 48 MW. This output is toward the upper capacity limit available from a standard, two-cylinder, low-pressure steam turbine. The deviated drilling limitations and steam turbine size limitations both suggested that this would be a convenient module size for development of the geothermal resource.
High Pressure Heat Exchangers

The brine heat exchangers have a very high design pressure that is in the range used for super-critical boiler feed pre-heaters. Unlike these heaters, however, the brine heat exchangers will require full access on the tube side so the tubes can be mechanically cleaned to remove scale that can result from the brine flowing through. We have had considerable difficulty in finding heat exchanger vendors who have the technology and experience in such high pressure construction and are willing to make an offer to design and build. It would seem that there is easily sufficient work available for the few experienced vendors available that they do not need to pursue comparatively small one off jobs. To overcome this problem, we have undertaken the thermal and mechanical design of the high pressure heat exchangers so that otherwise competent vendors are able to offer a construction only service. The design that we developed uses heavy forged tube plates and channels with pressure seal style, flat plate closures to the channels.
Reinjection Pumps
A review of available pumping technology for reinjection of the high pressure brine revealed that the multi-stage centrifugal pumps used in the oil industry represent the best available technology. These pumps have been developed to handle gassy hot fluids contaminated with sand, and they have given very good service. These pumps are offered conventionally in a submersible pump configuration that makes the seal design comparatively simple. For ease of servicing, however, our installation required a horizontal surface mount pump with conventional motor drive.
Such a configuration presents very significant mechanical seal problems due to a maximum pump pressure of 45 MPa (6,530 psi). Schlumberger, the pump vendor, was able to adapt its standard horizontal surface pump to take a new tandem seal design from Flowserve that uses brine that has been cooled through a small air cooler to provide the required seal water.
Figure 3: Proposed power station.
Plant Configuration
The final proposed plant configuration is shown in Figure 3. As can be seen, the air cooled condenser dominates the facility. This novel variation on a conventional geothermal flash steam power plant that PB developed offers many advantages in that it: Enables a very high recovery of energy from the geothermal resource Utilises well proven technology Provides a low risk solution to our client Maximises the number of potential vendors for key items of plant. The heavy industrial experience of our staff in the Brisbane office has been used to provide a design for the high pressure heat exchangers and to overcome the lack of expertise with otherwise skilled fabricators in this class of construction. We were also able to arrive at a comparatively simple high pressure pump design in cooperation with a pump vendor.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.soultz.net/version-en.htm http://www.geodynamics.com.au
Allan Curtis has been involved in heavy plant and process engineering for more than 35 years. His particular field of specialisation includes boiler and associated equipment design. Allan has been a key player in the design of several cogeneration plants incorporating biomass fired boilers or conventional gas turbine fired heat recovery boilers.
PROJECT BRIEF: Tidal Power

By Peter Kydd, Bristol, UK, 44 117 933 9232, kyddP@pbworld.com
PB leads a consortium appointed by the UK government to evaluate options for tidal power generation from the Severn Estuary. The different options being studied include tidal barrages over 10-miles (16-km) in length spanning the English and Welsh coastlines, as well as tidal lagoons, tidal reefs and tidal fences. The majority of the options impound large volumes of water as the tide rises and then release it through turbines once sufficient generating head is created. Operation is similar to a hydropower plant, except that energy is produced in synchronization with the tides. The barrage options would require the construction of a dam across the estuary incorporating turbines and sluice gates and associated navigation locks. Tidal lagoons are artificial tidal impoundments constructed in shallower water areas but
which do not dam the estuary. Tidal reefs and tidal fences are variants that utilize only a proportion of the available head but have reduced environmental impacts. With the tidal range of the Severn (the vertical difference between high and low tide), being up to 14 m (42 feet)the second highest tidal range in the worldan estimated 5 percent of current UK electricity demand could be generated at a cost of circa US $30 billion. In addition to evaluating the engineering and technological aspects of the project, the PB-led team is under taking a 2-year strategic environmental assessment of the options. This is a major element of the overall feasibility study, which concludes in mid 2010.
Peter Kydd is director of planning and environment in the Europe and Africa region (EA). He has 30 years experience working in the transportation, power, water and environmental sectors in the UK, Europe, Africa, Caribbean and the Pacific, primarily in the fields of strategic and planning consultancy.
53
Converting Landfill Gas to High-Btu Fuel

By Roger J. Lemos, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-617-960-4898, lemos@pbworld.com
Landfill gases can no longer be released into the atmosphere in the USA. PB helped to design two of the largest and most sophisticated plants that clean these gases and convert them to a high-quality fuel suitable for use in homes, industry and energy generation. These facilities run unattended 24 hours/day.
PB teamed with EMCOR Energy and Technology of Connecticut, the construction contractor, to engineer, procure, and construct (EPC) two high-Btu landfill gas projects for Beacon Energy of McLean, Virginiathe Greentree Landfill Gas Project and the Imperial Landfill Gas Project. Our role was to engineer and design a gas processing facility that would take raw landfill gas from a landfill and clean it through a process of compression, filtering, moisture removal, and membrane separation so that it would meet the gas quality requirements of the interstate gas transmission system. The product gas is transported via pipeline to the interstate gas pipeline system and then sold as green energy. These two projects are among the largest and most technologically sophisticated projects of their kind ever undertaken. The Greentree Landfill Gas Project (Figures 1 and 2) has the capacity to produce 5.38 mmscfd (144,453 Nm3/day) of high Btu product gas, and the Imperial Landfill Gas Project has the capacity to produce 2.69 mmscfd (72,226 Nm3/day) of the same. PB was responsible for: Architectural, civil, structural, mechanical, electrical, and controls system design Startup and performance testing of each facility to ensure that the projects met the production and quality requirements of the contract.
Btu: British thermal unit kJ/Nm3: kiloJoule per normal cubic meter Mmscfd: Million standard cubic feet per day Nm3/day: Normal cubic meters per day
Background and Overview of the Projects

The decomposition of waste in a landfill produces methane gas and carbon dioxide that, if not controlled, are released to the atmosphere. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations require these landfill gases be captured and thermally destroyed to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions. All landfills are required to have top and bottom liners and gas collection systems to capture the landfill gas. Thermal oxidizers (known as flares) are then used to destroy the methane gas. The EPA has a program called Landfill Methane Outreach Program that encourages the beneficial and productive use of the methane produced by landfills as a fuel source. The composition of landfill gas is typically about 50 to 55 percent methane and 30 percent carbon dioxide. Water vapor, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide and some trace elements make up the remainder of the gas composition.
Figure 1: Greentree Landfill Gas Facility. The building housing the gas cleanup equipment is flanked by the SulfaTreatTM removal tanks on the left and the electrical switchgear building on the right.
Figure 2: facility. The gas compressors raise the gas pressure to 200 psig before it reaches the Air Liquide membrane separation equipment.
The Btu content of landfill gas is low, but sufficient to produce heat in a boiler or electricity in a reciprocating gas engine. High-Btu landfill gas projects can raise the Btu value of the landfill gas considerably, however, and remove harmful contaminants. Interior of Greentrees gas processing The high-Btu projects we designed increase the methane content to about 95 percent by removing other elements of the landfill gas by the following methods: Carbon dioxide and oxygen: a membrane separation technology provided by Air Liquide Water vapor: a series of knock-out tanks, demisters and coalescing filters Hydrogen sulfide: a chemical absorption process. The resultant product, or residue gas, has a Btu value of more than 960 Btu/cubic foot (37,684 kJ/Nm3). It meets all the requirements for pipeline quality gas that is used in homes, industry, and energy generation.
Project Challenges Met on Time

We started working with the project developer, Beacon Energy, in September of 2004 to meet the first challenge of this project, which was to get project financing. It was at this early stage that we elected to team up with EMCOR Energy and Technology. Working with these two firms, we reviewed the feasibility of both projects, evaluated technical alternatives, visited the project sites, and developed preliminary engineering solutions that would meet the technical and commercial requirements. These efforts were successfully culminated when in July of 2006 the project received $60 million in non-recourse financing from John Hancock Financial Services, Inc. A key factor in obtaining the non-recourse financing was the guarantees of schedule, cost, and performance in the EPC contract between Beacon Energy and EMCOR. Engineering and design of the two projects started in July of 2006 with the execution of the EPC contract. The challenges that faced PB during engineering and design included: Specification and procurement of the gas blowers, compressors, Air Liquide membrane units, hydrogen sulfide removal system, electrical switchgear, and plant control systems Coordination of the plant design with the upgrade of the landfill gas collection system, modification to the landfill gas flares, pipeline to interstate gas pipeline system, and utility electrical interconnection Site civil grading and drainage Building and equipment foundations Mechanical piping systems Electrical power and control systems Plant control system. Construction of the Greentree Gas Processing Facility started in October of 2006 and was completed in August of 2007; and construction of the Imperial Gas Processing Facility started in November of 2006 and was completed in September of 2007. The aggressive construction schedule could not have been achieved without the cooperation of the members of PBs civil engineering group and power hydro structural group, who were responsible for the site civil, grading and drainage, building foundation, and equipment foundation design.
contract. They were, and both projects have been operating continuously since turnover to the client. They had many notable commercial, technical, and environmental accomplishments, including those that follow.
Most Notable Commercial Accomplishment. These are the only landfill gas projects that have qualified for long-term non-recourse project financing. Project financing was difficult to obtain due to the size and complexity of the projects and the fact that unproven new technology would be used to process the landfill gas. Major Technical Accomplishment. The engineering and design of the landfill gas processing equipment and control systems was the major technical accomplishment. The membrane separation technology used to separate the methane gas from the landfill gas had never been used before at the scale of the Imperial and Greentree Projects. PB and EMCOR had to perform extensive engineering and design to integrate the gas collection, compression, moisture removal, hydrogen sulfide removal, and gas separation technologies into a seamless process that could run unattended 24 hours a day. A complete and fully automated plant control system had to be developed to allow the plant to be operated safely. Most Impressive Environmental Benefit. Harmful greenhouse gases were eliminated from the environment and converted into green energy, thereby also reducing dependency on foreign sources of energy. A quantification of environmental benefits, using the EPAs Landfill Gas Energy (LFGE) Benefits Calculator, yields annual benefits equivalent to any one of the following, based on 15,000 standard cubic feet/minute (402 Nm3/min) of landfill gas being processed: Reducing CO2 emissions by more than 200,000 tons/year Removing emissions equivalent to more than 340,000 vehicles Planting the equivalent of more than 490,000 acres of forest Displacing the use of 4.0 million barrels of oil Producing enough energy to heat approximately 112,000 homes.
Project Successes
Upon the completion of construction, PB conducted the performance testing to ensure that each facility was in compliance with the performance requirements in the
The significant technical and environmental accomplishments were recognized when the EPAs Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) awarded the Greentree Project the 2007 EPA Project of the Year Award.
Related Web Sites:
www.epa.gov/landfill
Roger Lemos is a vice president with the PB Power group in Boston. Since starting with PB in 1994, Roger has worked on power projects throughout the USA ranging from 4 to 640 megawatts.
55
Photovoltaics, With a Focus on Spain

By Rafael Mnez. de Lejarza, Barcelona, Spain, 34 93 508 8520, lejarza@pbworld.com
The author sheds light on the growth in solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation around the world. He then tells about some of the work PB is doing in Spain, which is emerging as one of the worlds leaders in PV power. This work includes geotechnical work, foundations, environmental studies and yield production assessments.
The photovoltaic (PV) market has grown quickly in the last few years. Worldwide, 1,598 MW of photovoltaic power were installed during 2006 and 2,246 MW during 2007, representing a more than 40 percent increase in installation activity in one year. Total PV capacity at the end of 2007 was 8.7 GWp. Indications are that the solar PV market will keep growing and expectations for its future are bright. Locations of the worlds large-scale PV plants (those above 200 kWp) are as follows: Almost 80 percent in Europe (700 MWp) Approximately 16 percent (142 MWp) in the USA Just under 4 percent (34 MWp) in Asia, with much of this being in Japan. Other areas of the world, namely Africa, South America and Australia, are home to less than 1 percent of the worlds large PV plants. Nevertheless, we expect to see an increase in PV installations in these regions and in China, which has considerable potential for PV generation.
European Sector
Western European counties vary in the scope of their adoption of PV installations. For example: Germany has exceeded the predictions for PV installations, with that country now having about 60 percent of Europes large PV plants. Spain has 35 percent (245 MWp) of Europes large-scale PV plants. Spain was also the most active market in 2007, installing 451 MW PV power capacity of any type, for a total of 697 MW PV by the end of 2007. Italy reached 2.4 percent in 2007, with 17 MWp. Portugal and the Netherlands have a bit more than 1 percent. Belgium, Luxemburg and Switzerland have less than 1 percent. Decreasing feed-in tariffs are supporting the rise in PV installations. For example, France and Italy offer compensation incentives when PV systems are integrated into buildings. The lowering tariffs, which will increase the profitability of PV installations, and the high number of hours of sunshine in many European countries could make increased investments in PV worthwhile. Currently, the Spanish market is regulated by legislation that requires a feed-in tariff, depending of the type of plant and power. Changes are expected due to upcoming new binding laws that will affect these tarrifs, but what these changes will be is still not clear. Spains high interest in PV is due in part to its solar radiation, which enables installations to obtain a high output per kWp. Spain has now achieved 85 percent of the objective defined in its Renewable Energy Plan (REP) 2005-2010. Forecasts are that the PV market in Spain will continue to grow after a slight slowing down. It is also expected that technological improvements in manufacturing and the resultant decreasing prices of PV cells will further encourage investment in Spains PV installations.
Related Web Sites:

RETSCREEN http://www.retscreen.net/ PVGIS http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/ European PV IndustryAssociation http://www.epia.org Spanish PV Industry Association http://www.asif.org/ http://www.pvresources.com/ http://www.solarserver.de/ Spanish association of renewable energy producers http://www.appa.es http://www.renewableenergy magazine.com/
Rafael Mnez. de Lejarza has worked five years with PB. He has twenty years professional experience as engineering manager and head of energy projects, and five years experience as systems and start-up engineer in nuclear power plants. Rafael has worked as an expert consultant with the International Atomic Energy Agency (OIEA). From the PB Barcelona office he leads a staff team working on conventional and renewable energy power plant developments.
1 La edicin en lengua espaola del
New Technologies
PV cell production has increased globally in the last decade. The predominant technologies used include the following: Wafer-based crystalline silicon, which is considered the first generation PV technology. There are two variants of these cells with different material structuresmono- or multicrystalline. About 90 percent of all PV applications are currently silicon wafer-based. Thin-film technologies, or vacuum technologies, where the solar cells are deposited directly on a glass or plastic carrier substrate. Thin-film technologies either use a very thin coating of silicon, which uses up to 99 percent less silicon than a solid silicon cell, or use no silicon whatsoever and rely on other photovoltaic materials. Existing thin-film technologies are: Thin-film silicon (TFSi), which is based on amorphous silicon or silicon-germanium and
presente artculo est disponible en la direccin Web de PB Network.
microcrystalline silicon. Copper-indium/gallium-diselenide/disulphide and related HII-VI compounds (CIGSS), which have the highest efficiency of the thin-film technologies Cadmium telluride (CdT), which is simple and stable due to its ionic nature. Thin-film production is not very high currently, but it might grow by 2010 due, in part, to the advanced thin-film technologies being developed. A factor driving such development has been the shortage in silicon production, especially during about 2004 to 2006, coupled with the computer chip industrys high demand for silicon and ability to pay high prices for it. Manufacturers are developing new products and solutions for using less silicon per MW. An example of this is concentrating photovoltaic (CPV), which uses tandem triple-junction cells that are reaching higher system efficiencies.
Toledo, Spain Project. We performed an independent engineers study for a 10 MW PV plant with double axis tracking system in Toledo, Spain, to be considered in a purchase decision.
Technical Skills and Roles

As it happens with other renewable energy sources, the process of developing a PV plant involves a wide range of technical skills and roles. Different actors who are responsible for different areas have contributed to our projects from a technical point of view and by helping to meet the diverse requirements of many state, regional and local agencies that issue all required permits. Typical required technical studies we have been managing for our clients in Spain include those discussed below.
Geotechnical studies on the ground conditions. These studies require rotary tests with sample core extraction for standard penetration tests (SPT) on a sample of locations in the PV plant terrain in order to define the geotechnical engineering proper ties of the soil. Field surveys are also required so that the geological conditions of the terrain are taken into consideration when defining the types of foundations for the module structures.
Projects That Are Helping Spain Meet Its Renewable Energy Goals
A major boost for PV plant development was brought by the Spanish Royal Decree 436/2004, which spurred growing interest among companies and investors. PBs power specialists in Spain have been involved in several important PV initiatives, including the following. Aldover PV Plant. In 2004 we started the complete development activities for the 5 MW Aldover PV project using fixed PV module technology. Our tasks on this project include: Providing advice on the interconnection process with the local electricity company and on the PV plant permitting procedure Preparing the technical project for the application request for the Register of Special Electricity Producers (REPE), and for the Administrative Authorization Managing the technical documentation and environmental licenses application request. In addition, the regional administration obliged our client to downsize the available land to implement the PV plant due to environmental and landscape issues. In response, we investigated how to maximize the installed power within the allowed land surface. Juneda PV Plant. In 2006, we started the complete development activities for the 0.9 MW Juneda PV project with fixed PV module technology, providing services similar to those provided for the 5 MW Aldover PV Plant. Capmany PV Plant. In 2006 we commenced the development activities for another 0.4 MW photovoltaic plant (Capmany PV project), with fixed- and single-axis tracking system PV module technology. Central Spain Project. Since the end of 2007 we have completed a due diligence of four photovoltaic plants with 15.9 MW total power, fixed PV module technology in central Spain, required for the assessment of the potential asset purchase.
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The foundation type used commonly is a concrete foundation. Recently, however, more simple and cost-effective methods have been applied by drilling the structure base sheets into the ground when the soil conditions are appropriate. Special solutions for unstable or unpredictable grounds can be applied by drilling to install posts/piles to support the PV module structures. This latter method is considered a special solution used to sort out later problems that would appear if the PV panel structures were mounted in unstable/unpredictable soils. In this case, a concrete foundation would be used to join the structure base with the posts.
Environmental impact assessment studies (EIA) and landscape studies. These studies are commonly required by the environmental departments of the administration. The studies were key documents in the permitting process for the PV plants mentioned above because environmental impacts have become more and more important to the public audience, and they are crucial for the regulatory authorities that issue the permits. Yield production assessment reports. These reports are essential for the financial assessment of the project. Software used commonly to make such assessments includes PVsyst, Censolar or FVExpert. We have used the first two of these to carry out yield production estimations for the client.
A Growing Trend
Indications are that PVs will become increasingly important in the growing renewable energy participation in the energy generation mix around the world. Currently we are investigating opportunities in southern Europe and northern Africa, areas that are showing a growing interest in renewable energies.
TRANSMISSION
AND
Transporting Power Across the Grid
DISTRIBUTION:
Electricity Transmission: Building on 120 Years of Experience

Since 1899, PB has been involved in all aspects of electrical power transmission, ranging from feasibility studies and design of industrial and rail transpor tation systems to large power utility systems. The scope of the transmission projects we have under taken recently is vast, and includes: System studies of power flow, fault level, stability and insulation co-ordination; and implementation of schemes to maximise power transmission levels Control of system voltage and power flows under normal and faulted situations Design of overhead lines and substations Development and implementation of transmission and sub-transmission projects. Some specific projects include the development of the first 500 kV transmission network in Indonesia; expansion and refurbishment of the 400, 275, 132 kV networks in Orissa, India; specification, approval and supervision of the first 500 kV system in Argentina, the Northern Ireland Interconnector 275 kV transmission system; the Merowe Dam Project 500 kV/220 kV transmission and substation in Sudan, the; 500 kV transmission line and substation for the 1200 MW Illijan Power Plant in the Philippines; and the feasibility study for developing an off-shore HVDC network to interconnect renewable energy sources for transmission to UK load centres. The articles in this section illustrate the breadth of the technical knowledge and expertise within PB in creating innovative solutions geared towards the maximisation of existing assets necessary in transmitting power across the grid. PBs role as a lender engineer is demonstrated in the first article by Fleur Parkinson about a power transmission project in Cambodia. This project enabled PB to draw on one of its strengths: the adoption of a multidisciplinary approach and involvement of engineers across different national boundaries to address the challenges of that project. The second article by M.R. Jayasimha describes the upgrading of the Abu Dhabi transmission network to 400 kV due to increase in load growth. HVDC technology has been used to transport powers over long distances using cables. The next article by Paul Tuson proposes a possible HVDC transmission link so that the power utilities within the South African Development Community countries can take advantage of availability of fuel resources to supply power at minimum cost, improve system reliability and maximise reserve margins. This section concludes with an article by Conor Reynolds illustrating the far-sightedness of some of our specialists who developed an accurate and cost-efficient network assessment programme for transmission networks, but can be equally effective for other applications within the power industry. Please see page 89 for a list of several articles on transmission projects from past PB publications.
Arthur Ekwue Principal Power Systems Engineer, Godalming, UK Coordinator of PAN 57, Power System Analysis, Planning & Restructuring
Meeting the Need for Reliable, Cheaper and Nonpolluting Electricity in Cambodia
By Fleur Parkinson, Hong Kong, 852 2963 7640, parkinsonF@pbworld.com; and Jon Roe, Singapore, 65 6290 0615, roeJ@pbworld.com
A major new electricity transmission project in Cambodia helped to lower the cost of electricity significantly and improve its reliability and provision in the northwest portion of the country. The authors summarize PBs involvement in the project and discuss the challenges faced by the project team, including those related to performing site work under adverse conditions.
Cambodia has made considerable progress in reforming its power sector, particularly in passing the Electricity Law in 2001 and establishing a regulator. The country has had one of the lowest electrification rates in Asia, however, with only 12 percent of its population (approximately 14 million) connected to a power supply. In addition, Cambodia has some of the highest electricity costs in the world. The main supplier of electricity is the state-owned Electricite du Cambodge (EDC), which is aided by a few local independent power producers (IPP). Generation is provided mainly by using diesel generators, so already high costs have increased with rising oil prices. While the supply of electricity is fairly reliable in the main towns, its high price has led many large consumers to run their own generators (also diesel). Provincial towns and rural areas rely on even more expensive and less efficient diesel generating units that provide erratic supply. The only power in rural areas and in villages along the transmission lines is generated through the use of car batteries that local entrepreneurs charge by using diesel or petrol generators. The cost of power in these areas is twice that supplied in the towns, and the discarded batteries create a hazardous waste issue. Electricity is the main concern for the development of the private sector as the limited supply of electricity raises production costs and limits technology development compared with neighboring countries. One of the countrys key priorities in the medium term is to alleviate shortages of reliable power and reduce electricity costs in order to help develop its economy and reduce poverty. To this end, a new transmission project was recently completed that imports electricity from Thailand to the northwest region of Cambodia.
Transmission Project Overview

Figure 1: Route of Cambodias new transmission line in northwest region.
Power is imported into Cambodia from the 115/22 kV Aranyaphathet substation located in Thailand, 15 km (9 miles) from the Thai/Cambodian border. Power is transmitted to the town of Banteay Meanchey, where the line diverges south and east to supply the towns of Battambang and Siem Reap (Figure 1). The transmission project aimed to meet the urgent need of electrical power in all three regional centers. The need was considered especially great in Siem Reap, however, to support a rapidly growing tourist industry attracted by the Angkor Wat World Heritage Site. Prior to energization of the transmission project, a number of newly constructed hotels in the area relied on in-house generators fuelled by imported diesel. The project, which will be part of the national grid, includes: Three 115 kV/22 kV substations (at Battambang, Banteay Meanchey and Siem Reap) One 115 kV switching station Approximately 221 km (137 miles) of a single-circuit 115 kV transmission line traversing three provinces of northwest Cambodia. The transmission line uses standard self-supporting reinforced-concrete poles 22 m (72 feet) high, allowing 80-m (262-foot) spans. The poles are inserted into precast concrete foundations with double-circuit 400 mm2 (0.6 square-inch) all aluminum conductor configurations. All line elements follow the standardized Thailand design for 115 kV transmission lines using concrete poles and steel lattice towers.
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The transmission project was built along existing roadways and on four plots of land to accommodate the three substations and switching station (Figure 2). Some 18 km (11 miles) of the transmission line crosses paddy fields through an optimized bypass route around Banteay Meanchey to reduce the need to acquire land in the town. This section uses self-supporting steel lattice towers 35 m (115 feet) high, which allow 260-m (853-foot) conductor spans, thus reducing the number of towers and attendant land purchases.
Figure 2: Transmission towers crossing a rice paddy field between Battambang and Banteay Meanchey.
Project Challenges
While the project, being a basic transmission line, was appropriately straightforward and did not present particularly difficult or innovative technology, working within a country that is developing and is largely undeveloped outside the main cities proved challenging. Issues that were interesting and somewhat unique to this project included those discussed below.
Former War Zone Challenges. The transmission line crossed no mans land, a 600-m (2,000-foot)-wide strip between Cambodia and Thailand that was heavily mined during Cambodias civil war. This well-vegetated area (a result of the landmines) is owned by neither Thailand nor Cambodia, although both countries wish to keep the land in its current state for security reasons. The presence of landmines over this wide swath resulted in the design and construction of two suspension-type towers 82 m (269 feet) high supported by two anchor-type transmission towers 44 m (144 feet) high). This design was used previously for crossing the Mekong River. The ground below the transmission line close to this border had to be cleared of landmines before construction could begin. Technical Challenges. We concluded that the substations and switching station had been installed and tested to a high standard and the components were determined to be well proven and of standard design.
In 2005, a thirtyyear concession to develop a build, operate and transfer (BOT) project was awarded by the government of Cambodia through EDC to Cambodia Power Transmission Lines (CPTL), a private joint venture between SKL Groups A.S.K. Co., Ltd. and M O Consolidation Service Ltd. A power transmission agreement (PTA) was signed between EDC and CPTL committing EDC to pay a transmission charge calculated from the amount of 22 kV energy received at the various delivery points.
PBs Involvement
The transmission project is the first private sector power transmission project in Cambodia and one of the countrys first commercially financed projects. PB was appointed by Asian Development Bank (ADB) to serve as the lenders engineer for ADB and a small group of commercial lenders on a US $20 million loan to CPTL. The total cost of the project was estimated at US $34 million. Our team visited the project on a number of occasions, conducting inspections before and during construction, which commenced in January 2006, and prior to energization in November 2007. In December 2007, we completed the technical due diligence by reporting on the design and installation of the substation and transmission lines and on the outstanding environmental and social issues. The project involved the collaboration of PB specialists among different disciplines (PB advised ADB on technical, environmental and social issues) and across different continents (PB specialists were sourced from Australia, Singapore, the Middle East, Hong Kong and Thailand).
As with all projects, there were local conditions to consider. Flooding of the fields in the wet season, for example, influenced the materials and structural aspects of the poles. We were required to verify whether the poles were of a design suitable for the terrain. Concerns were raised following two separate incidents in which the concrete poles had failed, resulting in the collapse of the several poles. Reasons for these failures were: A Caterpillar excavator that was working on a separate road upgrade project dug around one of the pole foundations and exerted pressure on the exposed foundation. A large mango tree blew onto the line during a heavy storm. Our assessment was that the poles had been constructed to international standards, but were subjected to undue forces that they were not designed for (nor would be expected to be designed for) as a result of third party actions and extreme weight that was above the design loads. Improvements are still being made in order to balance the requirements of the transmission project with other development infrastructure projects in Cambodia. In one instance a temporary road bypass scheme meant that one of the transmission poles ended up in the middle of a carriageway with cars having to drive on either side of it. In another, a heavy vehicle weigh station (from another project) had been built
directly underneath the line and we were required to assess whether any further construction rectification was necessary. Our team is currently providing operation and maintenance assistance so that prudent international utility practices are applied in operation and maintenance and that the transmission line is maintained and operated profitably for the life of the project loan.
Environmental Challenges. To satisfy ADBs terms of lending, we conducted a review of the project against both ADBs lending policies and the Equator Principles (2006). The transmission project was considered to be a Category B project and was expected, therefore, to have very minor and only temporary adverse environmental and social effects during construction and essentially no effect of either kind during its 30 years of operation. The low environmental risk was assigned to the project mainly due to the small foot print of the poles and the fact that approximately 92 percent of the transmission line was being built along existing roads rights-of-way (ROW), with the remainder in paddy fields with no requirement for large-scale removal of vegetation.
determine if affected persons had been compensated and if they were satisfied with the compensation. The audit consisted of extensive public consultations, site visits and numerous household calls. The assessment confirmed that project property has been purchased at market rates with willing buyers who participated voluntarily in the transactions and that people were happy with the compensation (which was often in excess of compensated paid by similar development projects in Cambodia).
Conclusions
With the transmission line now up and running, Cambodians are less dependent on the more expensive option of smallscale diesel-based generation that emits more carbon dioxide and, therefore, has a greater environmental impact. Private establishments, such as shops and restaurants, have been able to extend operational hours and invest income, previously spent on electricity, in their business. A testament to this advantage came from a restaurant owner who was able to buy a refrigerator because her electricity costs were now 70 percent lower per month (from US $100 to US $30) even though longer operating hours were possible. Furthermore, the electricity supply was reliable. Although we were employed by ADB, we worked closely with both the client and the developer to overcome technical challenges as they arose, which meant that we could suggest solutions to improve the project as it developed. We are currently assisting the client and developer fur ther by investigating the possibility of using step-down transformers so that rural electrification can be achieved and more Cambodians can benefit from the project. The transmission project will substantially promote development, as it will provide the means by which EDC can import least-cost electricity for distribution to underserved regional load centers. As demand grows, EDC will be able to use larger, more efficient generating units, and eventually reduce tariffs to levels competitive with the rest of the region.
Related Web Sites:
World Bank (2007): Cambodia Country Information <http:// web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIA PACIFICEXT/CAMBODIAEXTN/0,,menuPK:293861~pagePK:141159~ piPK:141110~theSitePK:293856,00.html> [Accessed 22 April 2008]
Fleur Parkinson is an environmental consultant based in the Hong Kong office. Fleur has experience in completing environmental projects for clients in a number of sectors and is currently involved in undertaking energy-related projects in Asia. Jon Roe is the environmental consultant for the PB Singapore office. Jon has a strong background in environmental impact assessments, construction and contaminated land projects in Australia, and has been actively involved in the environmental aspects of a wide range of PBs energy projects in Asia.
The project was also considered beneficial in that it will substantially displace the inefficient and polluting generation of diesel or bunker oil at the load centers and reduce the need to transport fuel on numerous tanker trucks to feed those stations. It was estimated that the project would forgo the necessity of building an estimated 23 MW to 80 MW in additional diesel or fuel oil plants with adverse environment and road traffic impact and would reduce carbon emissions by at least 32,055 tons a year (assuming 100 GWh of diesel consumption a year).
Social Challenges. In addition to the social due diligence, we prepared a Short Resettlement Plan (SRP) for the project in accordance with ADBs lending requirements. Plots of land for the base of the steel lattice towers, substation and switching station (totaling approximately 5 ha (12 acres) to 4.5 ha (11 acres) for the substations and switching station and, 0.5 ha (1 acre) for the steel lattice tower foundations) were purchased from willing land owners, who were allowed in most instances to continue to use the land to grow rice beneath the towers. Compensation was paid for the placement of certain poles on land already in use. These were mostly encroachments within the ROW even though land was in the ROW and not owned by the affected persons.
The project compensation had been funded initially by the local governments, as is common practice with development projects. There was little management of the compensation monies allocated to the local authorities and practically no documentation undertaken. This made it virtually impossible to establish if the ADB safeguards had been complied with. We undertook an audit of the delivery of compensation to
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Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Abu Dhabi Transmission Network By M.R. Jayasimha, Abu Dhabi, 971 50 4554907, jayasimhaM@pbworld.com
The author tells how PB is assisting Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority to further enhance the reliability of the emirates transmission and distribution network. He focuses on a modification to the switchgear and replacement of power transformers and a substation. Abu Dhabis electricity transmission network was established in the early 1970s at mainly 220 kV and 132 kV levels. Since then, the countrys rapid rates of growth and development and characteristic high increases in load demand have led to an expansion of the network and upgrading to 400 kV. In addition, the Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) initiated a repair and rehabilitation project in 1999 to further enhance the reliability of the existing power transmission and distribution network.1 PB was selected as consultant for this important and technically complicated project. Once we completed the first phase of the project by 2002, we were awarded an extension for the second phase, which included new substations and a new scope of services for the rehabilitation and replacement of existing switchgear in transmission substations. Starting in January 2003, seven construction contracts worth US $70 million were awarded. These contracts included: Single to double bus bar modification of 13 2kV gas insulated switchgear (GIS) in five substations Replacement of ten 132/11 kV 40 MVA power transformers Replacement of the existing 132 kV substation in the Taweelah Power Station Complex.2
Single to Double Bus Bar Modification

The single to double bus bar modification of 132 kV GIS in five energised substations was a very specific and demanding task. The GIS in these substations was already in service for up to twenty years. The modification works required partial and in some cases complete shutdowns of the substation. The works were planned during the winter season because during the summer in Abu Dhabi maximum system demand occurs due to the high air conditioning loads. In one of the substations, the bus bar protection was replaced with numerical low impedance busbar protection during the modification works. In the other four substations, existing low impedance busbar protection was adapted for double bus bar type switchgear. Of the three types of switchgear to be modified, manufacturers had discontinued production of two of them. The busbar and isolator modules required for this modification were manufactured specifically for this purpose by the original equipment manufacturers. Figure 1 shows the switchgear before and after the modification.
Replacement of Power Transformers

For the replacement of ten ageing 132 kV/11 kV 40 MVA power transformers, the design of the new power transformers was adopted to suit the existing transformer compound dimensions and the length of the existing high voltage cables. The opportunity was taken to also replace the transformer protection relays with latest numerical protection relays. In one of the GIS substations, a bus reactor bay was modified to provide a fourth 40MVA transformer. Ten new 11 kV feeders were also provided in this substation to receive power from the newly installed transformer. Existing 132 kV cables were reused providing new terminations at the transformer end,
(page 67)
1 For more information about Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authoritys (ADWEAs) introduction of control systems in its transmission substations and PBs involvement in this
Figure 1: W59 substation before single to double bar modification of 132kV GIS (top) and after (bottom).
work, please read Experiences and Trends in Automating Transmission Substations in Abu Dhabi by Oleg Matic in PB Networks 20th Anniversary issue (Issue 66), pp. 88-89. or on the the Web at http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_66/pdf/66_37_Matic_ExperiencesAndTrends.pdf Another of ADEWAs projects to augment Abu Dhabis electricity supply is covered in 400 kV Interconnection of Abu Dhabi Island by Walter Bullock, PB Network Issue 65, pp.79-80 or on the Web at http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/Issue_65/pdf/079.pdf 2 For information about the use of a PB invention that cut fuel consumption at the Taweelah complex, see How Innovation Can Open Market Opportunities by Paul M. Willson, PB Network Issue 63, pp 71-72 and on the Web at http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_63/63_26_willson_howinnovationcanopen.asp
HVDC Transmission Strengthening in Southern Africa By Paul Tuson, Johannesburg, South Africa, 27-11-787-4141, tusonP@pbpower.co.za
The author discusses some findings from a study PB did to help determine the best technical/financial solutions to improving the electricity transmission system in southern Africa. He tells of potential HVDC projects in the region and proposes a possible HVDC transmission link to the Cape that is fed from generation sources mostly in the north of the country. Africas electricity system is characterized by dispersed loads and generation sources spanning hundreds and in some cases thousands of kilometres. Connecting these generating sources and load centres is a challenge. Hired by Eskom, the South Africa electricity public utility, to derive the least-cost and best technical solution for strengthening power transmission for the Cape in South Africa, we looked into a possible high voltage dc (HVDC) solution to the challenge. Eskom plans to spend more than ZAR 345 billion (US $49.5 billion) on generation, transmission and distribution capital projects in the next five years. Among its projects underway are: 4800 MW coal-fired Medupi Power Station, for which PB is serving as technical advisor and project manager 4800 MW Bravo power station 1400 MW Ingula pumped storage project, for which PB provided engineering services1 Similarly, many of the South African Development Community (SADC) countries have major generation and transmission projects in progress or at various stages of planning. The power utilities in the SADC countries will be seeking to maximize their reserve margins and trade any surpluses of power using transmission systems that connect the large new power sources with the large load systems in compliance with the South African Power Pool (SAPP).
ac: alternating current dc: direct current DRC: Democratic Republic of the Congo HVDC: High-voltage direct current SADC: South African Development Community SAPP: South African Power Pool
The Connection Challenge

Loads in the South African region are growing at an annual rate of between 3 percent and 6 percent. Eskoms 2007 maximum demand exceeded the record achieved in 2006 by more than 1500 MW. As loads continue to grow in the SADC countries, the challenge will be to connect them to new and dispersed generation sources. Figure 1 depicts some possible HVDC solutions in the SAPP. The thick, dotted lines depict possible future HVDC transmission interconnectors.
In the figure, dc lines are shown connecting the Capanda hydro generation in northwest Angola to the Ruacana hydropower station in northwest Namibia. Another possible dc interconnector connects Namibia with Zambia (via a dc link from Gerus substation in Namibia to Katima Malilo in the Caprivi strip) and Botswana (via a dc link Figure 1: from Auas substation in Namibia to Isang substation in Botswana). Possible dc Other possibilities we identified include the following: interconnectors in the South A dc transmission link interconnecting the Kariba hydro Africa Power generation in Zambia with South Africa and indirectly connecting Pool. the DRC hydro generation with South Africa in advance of the proposed WestCor Project, which would connect an initial 4000 MW and eventually 40 GW from the Inga power station in the DRC, 3000 km (nearly 2,000 miles) from South Africa, to various African countries. A dc system connecting existing and planned hydro generation and planned coal-fired thermal generation in the centre of Mozambique with Maputo in the South of Mozambique or with Richards Bay in South Africa. A dc transmission line connecting Zambia to Tanzania via Kabwe or Pensulo substations in Zambia and Iringa or Singida substations in Tanzania. 1 For more about pumped storage technology and the Ingula project, please read Connecting the major generating centre in the north of South Pumped storage technology: recent developments, future applications a following Africa with large load centres in the Cape and Kwazulu article by Ian McClymont and Paul Reilly. Natal areas.
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Typical HVDC Configurations

The following are typical HVDC configurations (a dc line with connected converters is referred to as a pole): Monopole with earth return or metallic return (with monopole designs, the earth electrode or metallic earth return conducts full current during normal operation) (Figure 2) Bipole with earth return or metallic return (Figure 3) Bipole without earth return or metallic return.
Center drawing depicts a bipole configuration without a metallic return. Right drawing depicts a bipole configuration on a single structure. The advantage of a double-circuit tower bipole configuration is the lower cost (one tower and set of foundations instead of two). Its disadvantage is its vulnerability to common mode failure; e.g., a tower collision can take out both lines and, thus, both poles instead of only one line. In Africa, where there are semi-deserts or sparsely populated areas, monopole earth return configurations may be attractive due their low costs (only one overhead conductor bundle and one converter is required at each end of the dc link). In addition, these dc monopole links may connect radial ac systems, so the requirement for dc redundancy or for (n-1) operation of the dc link becomes less necessary. In some weak African systems, conventional dc converters or line commutated converters (LCC) cannot operate as the short-circuit-to-power transfer ratios at both converters do not exceed the necessary level of three (SCR<3) to enable the thyristors to commutate correctly. In these instances, fault level strength can be increased by applying synchronous condensors (SCOs), which are generators without a prime mover, at the converter ac terminals. Voltage source converter (VSC) solutions that are not dependent on system fault level strength can also be used to connect weak ac systems.
Figure 2: Monopole with earth or metallic return.
Figure 3: Bipole with earth or metallic return.
In a bipole configuration, the converter stations are arranged to operate at equal but opposite line voltage so that the current in the earth return path is very small under normal operation. One of the advantages of the bipole dc configuration if there is a working earth return path or a metallic return is its 50 percent redundancy. With one pole out of service, the remaining pole operates in monopole mode and can still transmit 50 percent of the link power. Bipoles can be designed to transmit up to 75 percent of link power for short periods under loss-of-pole contingencies if the converter equipment is designed for short-time overload. Figure 4 shows some transmission tower configurations for monopole and bipole dc solutions. Left drawing shows the simplest monopole earth return tower configuration. In this instance, the earth electrodes and the earth return operate continuously.
HVDC Strengthening to the Cape

One option we proposed was dc transmission strengthening to the Cape in South Africa. Such strengthening is needed because the transmission system to the Cape region is presently unfirm when both Koeberg generator units are out of service due to the operating limit on the Capes network.
Figure 5: The South African generation and transmission system. 2006-2026 generation and load migration.
Figure 4: Some Tower Configurations with Earth Returns: Monopole (left), Bipole (center), Bipole on single structure (right).
Figure 5 depicts the South African generation and transmission system in a highly schematic way. The major generation system in South Africa, which is located in Mpumalanga, supplies Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, Richards Bay, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. When and if the Medupi, Mmamabula and Mmamantswe power stations are commissioned (in the north west of South Africa and in Botswana), capacity on the Mpumalanga power stations will be released to supply large growing load in the Central Area, Eastern area and the Cape. Medupi power station is an Eskom coal-fired power station with a design capacity of 4800 MW. Mmamabula and Mmamantswe power stations are proposed IPP coal-fired power stations north of Gaborone City, in Botswana. The dc transmission will not be stranded if large generation power stations are constructed in Cape Town because it can be used to transmit power from the south to the north when large nuclear power stations come on stream in the Cape and increase the stability of the transmission link. A second option is to strengthen the networks to the Cape via a 765 kV ac system from Zeus Substation in Mpumalanga to Omega Substation near Koeberg Power Station in the Cape (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Proposed ac strengthening to the Cape. 2012 765 kV Zeus-MercuryPerseus-GammaOmega.
Figure 7: Proposed dc strengthening to the Cape. 2012 765kV AC Solution followed by DC to Gamma from Zeus.
Another benefit of a dc link to the Cape, as stated above, would be its contribution to system stability, over the very long transmission distance (1400 km) between northern generation and southern generation systems.
Conclusions
DC can be a cheaper transmission alternative to ac over long transmission distances while also improving system stability and providing improved reliability due to the requirement for fewer conductor bundles and the redundancy in the dc bipole configuration. Depending on the nature of the African systems involved, cost effective monopole earth return dc options can be investigated. Where more reliable and robust transmission systems are required, bipole dc systems can be investigated. DC is a credible transmission option for strengthening the Cape in South Africa.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.eepublishers.co.za/view.php?sid=5057
Figure 7 shows part of the ac system as proposed in the previous Cape strengthening option followed by a dc bipole system from Zeus Substation to Gamma Substation in the Northern Cape. A 500 kV 2000 MW bipole solution could be investigated. This solution would add 1000 MW power increments in each pole of the bipole, matching the power output of single Koeberg Power Station units. Operationally, a loss of a single pole would only disrupt the system by 1000 MW. The 1000 MW disruption could be reduced if the remaining pole is designed with a short-time overload capability.
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Acknowledgment: I wish to thank fellow engineers and colleagues for their assistance and contributions to this article. Paul Tuson is a degreed Transmission Studies Specialist with more than 18 years post graduate experience in power electrical engineering in Southern Africa, the UK, Australia, the USA and the Middle East for voltages up to 765kV. Key experience is in the areas of system analysis and financial/economic evaluation of capital projects and aggregate expansion plans. Paul specialises in complex system modelling in the areas of loadflow, fault, transient stability and dynamic stability, and he is proficient in a range of power simulation software including PSS/E, DigSilent, PowaMaster, ReticMaster, ETAP, ERACS, EDSA and CYME. Other studies he completed recently include an HVDC and FACTS interconnector study in Namibia for NamPower (350kV dc), a 25- year least cost transmission master plan for Tanzania (330kV and 220kV), and generation integration studies for various utilities in the UK, South Africa and Tanzania.
Assessing Transmission Network Condition: 3D Data Capture and Reporting

By Conor Reynolds, Brisbane, Queensland, 61 7 3854 6431, reynoldsC@pbworld.com
Electricity transmission companies face a continual challenge to reduce the costs of system operations and maintenance while increasing network availability and reliability. PB is involved in developing a system that will help them. It is accurate and efficient, enables more effective asset management, and accommodates the changing ways in which people process information.
Each transmission line and structure is a composite of thousands of components in differing conditions and with different remaining lives. The condition of components overall degrades as the network ages, yet the condition of individual components upgrades as maintenance works are completed. In the past, this information about the condition of Australias and New Zealands electricity transmission line networks had been gathered by field staff using a paper-based system. The information was compiled and held by contractors hired to conduct the condition assessments. The 3D Asset Data Capture System began as a solution to the problems associated with managing data coming from the field in this waythose commonly being: Inaccurate recording of which steel components needed to be replaced, resulting in the need for a revisit and, in cases, re-inspections. Inability to upload history in the field and have it for reference, resulting in a common complaint from clients being that component conditions sometimes seemed to improve with time! In reality, this misconception was due to the field staff not knowing what the last inspection results were. Too simplistic data gathered at times, so often details about when critical components required future maintenance or replacement were not logged. Inability to produce reports quickly once inspections were completed. Cumbersome interrogation of the gathered information at later dates.
System Overview
Our system moves the process of network condition assessment from one that was difficult and costly to one that is much more accurate and efficient. It is a dynamic 3D graphic model of a structure and its components with client-specific defined assessment values (Figure 1). The graphic model can access geographic and environmental information through a geographic information system (GIS) network.
Figure 1: A screen shot of the 3D interface.
Field staff enter the structure and component condition information via a touch-screen on a laptop that is designed for field conditions, known as a tough-book. They can upload photos to the database via digital cameras and record global positions (GPS) of access routes to sites and tower positions for future reference, if required. The condition of all key components is recorded, whether they are defective or not. After the on-site assessment, this information is uploaded to a corporate asset database that is held by PB, and then interrogated with specialist reporting software. Outputs can be formatted as required for each client. As the information is in a digital format, it can also be arranged for the client to view and run reports as required through a network connection. The system provides an excellent overview picture of the current condition of the line for corporate planning. At this stage of development, the clients requirements for data scoring and reporting are used to match its internal process, but this can be reviewed if required for future projects.
Building a history of this corporate asset data gives management new abilities to analyse the data to: Show patterns, such as a replacement pattern for a selected component on the whole network Perform predictive modelling, such as planning for future maintenance work and replacement dates Improve budgets or costing, such as estimating the cost of future works or valuing part or whole of a line network. PB is one of three firms involved in this project with Powerlink, Queenslands regulated electricity transmission company.
base designers used their experience in meeting aviation and military requirements to trace small components back to their source and history when developing this system. We believe that this product can be very powerful, especially where power stations and substations are involved. For example, a 3D image of a complete substation can be developed that enables an operator to view a screen that highlights items requiring maintenance or replacement rather than having to read through a report that is run from a data base or similar format. This capability will become ever more important in the future. It is understood that the new generation of engineers entering the market place are able to understand 3D images better than they are able to understand pages and pages of printed repor ts. Emerging systems need to accommodate this shift.
Where can this go to from here?

PB designed the structure of the data base to be as flexible as possible for other applications in the power industry that require data capture, monitoring and reporting. The data
Conor Reynolds is a transmission line engineer who has worked in the main three areas of transmission line services, being contractor, client engineer and design consultant. He has gained his experience over a career of more than 18 years working for projects and clients including Sizewell B power station construction, Transpower New Zealand, and National Grid (UK). He is currently engineer and manager of transmission lines.
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Abu Dhabi Transmission Network

and 11 kV cables from the transformer to switchgear were replaced with new ones.
(continued from page 62)
stage of diversion to facilitate the diversion. Also included in the project was replacement of 132kV cables from three generator transformers to the 132kV switchgear.
Replacement of a Substation
The construction of a new 132 kV GIS substation was completed in a power station complex, with a total generating capacity of about 400 MW. This effort included diversion of the following from the existing substation to newly built 132 kV substation: The 132 kV feeders, including four generator feeders Two 400/132 kV 500 MVA inter bus transformers Two 132/6 kV 40 MVA transformers feeding the nearby desalination plant. The 132 kV feeders diversion started in December 2005 and was completed in April 2007. The works continued during two winter seasons, with a long gap in between during summer of 2006. The emphasis during the 132 kV feeders diversion was the continuity of the generation and total transfer of the feeders control to the new substation, including control and monitoring of the facility from for National Control Centre. A provisional 132 kV cable interconnector between the old and new 132 kV substations was established in the initial
PBs Role
PB was the consultant for these projects, responsible for feasibility study, site survey, tender documents preparation, technical and commercial evaluation, site supervision and warranty services. This was the second phase of the project for rehabilitation and reconstruction of transmission network in Abu Dhabi. Our firm has continuously contributed to improvements to the Abu Dhabi transmission network conditions during the past ten years, bringing old switchgear to the level of the most modern design and equipment solutions. All of these works were performed in tight time schedules limited to the winter season only with severe Health Safety and Environment conditions imposed, and with the substations remaining live and supplying power to consumers. These conditions required engagement of our very experienced engineers team familiar with high voltage substations design and operation and capable of making difficult decisions.
Moola Reddy Jayasimha is a senior electrical design engineer in PB Power Networks Middle East, based in the Abu Dhabi office. He is coordinator of design of high voltage and extra high voltage transmission projects, acting as project manager for a 400 kV substation project in Abu Dhabi. He has more than 24 years experience, of which more than 10 years have been with PB and its predecessors.
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TRANSMISSION
AND
Distributing Power to Users
DISTRIBUTION:
The Wide Range of Distribution

PB offers considerable expertise, knowledge and engineering capability in the field of electricity utility distribution at all voltage levels and on networks as diverse as those supplying high load density urban areas to those in rural networks in developing countries. Based at worldwide locations, mainly in Australia, Middle East, New Zealand, South Africa and the UK, PBs distribution engineers are skilled in power system planning and analysis and in the engineering of overhead line, cable, substation, protection, automation and control projects. Increasingly, PBs attention is turning to future developments to accommodate renewable distributed generation on traditional distribution networks, as is reflected in the articles that follow. Alex Neumann describes a research project to develop a thermal active controller to exploit short and medium term capacities of power network components thereby allowing increased utilisation of distribution network assets. In his second article, he reviews how the introduction of distributed generation is leading to innovative changes in the traditional design of distribution networks. The fast moving facilities provided by proprietary planning packages for distribution system analysis are reviewed in the article by Arthur Ekwue, Nicola Roscoe and Charles Lynch. The introduction of overhead line equipment to improve the network performance and power quality of the 11 kV network supplying Al Ain, Abu Dhabi Emirate, is a pioneering project under demanding conditions, as described by Aleksander Nikolic. From Australia, Hanzheng Duos topical ar ticle describes demand side measures (DSM) as applied to a network in Sydney to reduce peak demands and so defer or avoid capital expenditure. Other recent leading-edge work by PB not mentioned in these articles includes: Advice on the planning of urban distribution networks for Nanjing, to the State Grid Corporation of China and the Jiangsu Electric Power Corporation Asset valuations and reviews of forecast expenditure of three electricity distribution businesses for the Energy Regulatory Commission of the Philippines Engineering of protection, automation and control schemes to improve the reliability of medium voltage networks in Scotland Review of future network architectures to accommodate increasing levels of distributed generation for the Electricity Networks Strategy Group in the UK. A list of several articles on distribution systems, electricity networks, and substations from past PB publications is found on page 89.
John Douglas Specialist Consultant, Energy and Utility Consulting, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Coordinator of PAN 53, High Voltage Transmission & Distribution
Research & Innovation

Explore the Possibilities...
Using Dynamic Thermal Ratings and Active Control to Unlock Distribution Network Capacity
By Alex Neumann, Newcastle, UK, 44 91 226 2460, neumannA@pbworld.com
PB leads a team developing a new device that will exploit the dynamic thermal capability of distribution system equipment by taking advantage of cooling factors such as ambient temperature and prevailing wind. Results to date are positive, indicating that when it is completed in late 2009, this prototype controller will facilitate increasing connections of distributed generation to distribution networks.
The location of the generation resource for optimal energy yield often coincides with sparse or electrically weak distribution network infrastructure. As a result, there are instances where the connection of distributed generation (DG) requires network reinforcement, which is sometimes deemed uneconomic to the generator. It is acknowledged that technical barriers such as voltage rise, reverse power flows and fault levels, particularly in weak networks, may inhibit the size of DG connections. To facilitate such generation connections, OfGEM, the UKs electricity and gas regulator, offers incentives to distribution network operators (DNOs) to connect and manage DG via an appropriate control scheme.1 There is the potential to reduce the requirement for expensive network reinforcement and new wayleaves, and to allow larger amounts of energy to be imported from DG developments by exploiting the short- and medium-term thermal ratings of distribution network components, par ticularly given the intermittency of cer tain types of renewable generation and the effects that prevailing weather conditions can have on the rating of outdoor distribution equipment.
PB Leads Consortium Developing Thermal Controller

A PB-led consortium in the UK is undertaking the research and development of a distribution network active thermal controller that uses local meteorological input to calculate real-time equipment ratings and to control network power flows. The group expects to achieve a deeper understanding of power system thermal capabilities and to apply this knowledge to developing an active controller that can safely and economically exploit the thermal ratings of plant. The proposed controller represents a move towards increased automation of distribution networks, so the team will also give consideration to the effect of this automation on power system operational staff. Their aim will be to ensure an appropriate balance between those issues requiring action by the staff and those that can be accommodated by the introduction of further intelligence (distributed or centralised) in the network management systems of the future. The consortium includes Durham University; Scottish Power Energy Networks; AREVA T&D, one of the leading players in power transmission and distribution; and Imass, a leading IT company providing custom software applications and services.2 The consortiums work is part-sponsored by the UK governments Technology Strategy Board (TSB). PBs contribution has been further supported through its Research & Innovation (R&I) Program.
CIM: Common Information Model DG: Distributed generation DNO: Distribution network operator DTR: Dynamic thermal rating OfGEM: Office of Gas and Electricity Markets SOA: Service-oriented architecture TSE: Thermal state estimation
1 OfGEMs incentives are offered through
its Registered Power Zone and Innovation Funding Initiatives program.

2 It should be noted that dynamic thermal
The Thermal Controller

A service-oriented architecture (SOA) is being implemented for the thermal controller using Web services. SOA is a software development technique that groups different functionalities into atomic services (as shown in Figure 1). These services communicate with each other by passing data from one service to another, or coordinating an activity between one or more services.
ratings (DTRs) are the research focus of a number of other institutions at present, including Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) in the USA for security and increased capacity of transmission networks; NUON, a leading energy company in the Netherlands, for coping with load growth and delaying infrastructure investment; and Energy Networks Strategy Group within the UK as an identified short-term solution for accommodating DG.
Figure 1: Service-oriented architecture to be adopted for the thermal controller.
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Controller Inputs
Network Management System. It is expected that electrical input for the thermal controller will be provided through the DNOs network management system. The input will allow faults and network reconfiguration events to be detected from the circuit breaker status signals, and power flows through system components to be monitored. Other electrical measurements, such as generator outputs, network loads and voltages, will be used for the simulation task described later in this article. External Parameter Processor. This service calculates the values of external parameters, such as wind speed, wind direction, air and soil temperatures, and solar radiation around the distribution network. This information will be based on signals from a small number of meteorological measurement units. Mathematical interpolations will be used initially, the accuracy of which will be verified using real measurements from the site trial network. Following the verification stage, the development team will decide to either continue on this path or improve the algorithms to increase the accuracy of the parameter estimation. Thermal State Estimation (TSE). TSE, the service that calculates component ratings from external parameters, is a fundamental part of the active thermal control system that this project aims to realise. It will: Allow the precise assessment of each components thermal rating Reduce the number of necessary measurements from network instrumentation Increase the reliability of assessments in case of measurement or communications failure. Component thermal models. An example of the thermal model to calculate the component rating for overhead lines (OHLs) is presented below. OHLs are the most exposed (to wind) power system component, and their DTR offers the greatest exploitation opportunity.
These results show a large variation in DTRs, with a mean ratio of approximately 250 percent of the static rating that is currently used. This variation in equipment ratings lends DTRs to applications with a control system that can manage the power flowing through the particular network components.
The TSE Algorithm. A probability distribution is calculated for component thermal rating, based on probability distributions for each meteorological measurement and external parameter value. The method is described graphically in Figure 3 with: NM being the number of meteorological measurements NP being the number of meteorological parameters NC being the number of components.
The weather parameter probability estimates calculated in the external parameter processor act as an input to DTR algorithms and are used to calculate the rating and associated probability for each of the relevant network components. Correlation between the external parameter processor calculation results and the historical measurements will be used to increase the precision and reliability of the estimates, and may be applied during measurement and/or communication system failures.
Network Optimisation. Optimisation will take place using power flow sensitivity factors that relate changes in component power flow to changes in generator output. The load-flow engine will be used to simulate the state of the network and validate the generation set point(s) proposed by the optimisation service, thereby ensuring that the power flows across the network are managed effectively. Power flow limits and statutory voltage regulations will be adhered to following any control action.
Figure 2: Ratio of thermal to static line rating over one year.
The model for OHL current rating is based on the energy balance equation: q c + q r = q s + I 2R where the heat produced by the Joule effect (I 2R ) and solar radiation (qs ) is balanced with the heat dissipated by radiation (qr ) and convection (qc ). The most important and changeable of the terms presented above is the convective heat exchange, which is strongly influenced by wind speed. Figure 2 shows the results of simulations carried out at Durham University. The ratio of dynamic thermal rating (DTR) to nominal rating is shown over the period of one year. It was calculated using real weather data and the equations presented above for a LYNX conductor.
Figure 3: Thermal State Estimation process.
The final stage of the active thermal control system response is to dispatch a set of suggested operating set points to the generation schemes within the jurisdiction of the thermal controller.
The Prototype Controller. It is expected that the natural home of the thermal controller application would be within the software of the network management system. The prototype controller developed as part of this project will, however, be hosted on a separate system, taking in some data from the network management system and some additional data.
The Site Trial Network

A section of Scottish Power Energy Networks distribution network has been made available to the development team for the field trials and development of the prototype thermal controller. The selected network delivers power from an offshore wind farm to the UKs interconnected power system using 33 kV and 132 kV circuits. The site trial network will be used as a source of electrical, thermal and meteorological data that will be gathered using existing and new measurement equipment installed specifically for this project. It will be over-instrumented so that sufficient information can be gathered to validate the thermal algorithms that were developed as the initial stages of this project. Selected signals will be used for the prototype controller, with the validation exercise providing an understanding of the number of additional measurements (meteorological, electrical and thermal) that will be required to ensure the algorithms are capable of providing DTRs of the required accuracy and reliability.
DTR algorithms use information local to each component and may also be used to provide a useful protection function. Drawing on AREVAs experience, we proposed implementing these algorithms within AREVA MiCOM protection relays. The cubicles housing the relays would act as collection points for the relevant data, which would also be passed on to the host of the thermal controller. Figure 4 shows the prototype controller layout in basic graphical form. Under normal operation, the thermal controller and the relay would run the same algorithm predicting the thermal limits of the component. If for some reason the network management system and thermal controller fail to stop a component reaching its thermal limit, the relay would trip the circuit breaker protecting the component.
Development Overview and Conclusions

This project is into its second year and thermal algorithms have been developed for overhead lines, underground cables and transformers. Encouraging desktop simulation results based on actual UK meteorological data suggest appreciable headroom exists that may be exploited with the implementation of our active thermal controller. These simulations considered the site trial network and selected generic UK distribution networks, and gave our team an appreciation of the potential benefits of applying DTRs on the UKs distribution networks. Scottish Power Energy Networks is currently procuring thermal and meteorological measurement equipment to be installed on the site trial network, which will be commissioned during planned network outages during mid-2008 (Summer). The model validation and prototype development will follow the installation of the measurement equipment, with project completion scheduled for September 2009.
Figure 4: Graphical representation of the prototype controller.
Related Web Sites:

http://my.epri.com/portal/server.pt? http://www.iee.org/oncomms/pn/powerca/dg-seminar.cfm http://www.ensg.gov.uk/assets/kel003110000.pdf
Alex Neumann is a senior power systems engineer specialising in the elements of power system design, analysis and operation. He has been with PB for six years since moving to the UK from South Africa, where he worked for the System Operations Division of Eskom Transmission. Alex is currently working as project manager for the research project discussed in this article alongside PBs Ian Burdon, the project leader.
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Upside Down! How Innovation in Distribution is Challenging Tradition... By Alex Neumann, Newcastle, UK, 44 91 226 2460, neumannA@pbworld.com
Towards the end of 2007 PBs power specialists in the UK undertook a review of innovation in distribution networks. Northern Ireland Electricity (NIE) was looking to prioritise its internally funded research investment spending, and tasked us to advise on the current innovation work across international distribution networks. This article provides a brief summary of some of the work that we identified as part of this project. With distributed generation (DG) offering a relatively clean and green source of power generation, development and deployment of these smaller and dispersed generation technologies is being incentivised around the world. Distribution systems of the future must be flexible and responsive components. This is a far cry from the traditional design specifications that assumed one way power flows to dumb loads. In 2005 OfGEM, Great Britains energy regulator, introduced the Innovation Funding Initiative (IFI) and registered power zones (RPZ) as part of its distribution price control aimed at stimulating research and development on the UKs distribution networks. British distribution network operators (DNOs) have embraced these schemes, with more than 150 IFI projects and three RPZs being registered. A recent extension by OfGEM has confirmed that IFI funding will continue up to 2015 to allow projects with timescales greater than five years to maintain their momentum. Several of the innovations covered in our review are discussed below.
Operational Innovations
Several UK DNOs have reported actual cases where constraint management techniques could be applied to their distribution networks to avoid network reinforcements and thereby facilitate more efficient generator connections.
On-line Control. Greeces Hellenic Transmission System Operator introduced a novel type of interruptible contract for wind generators in congested areas of its network. An on-line control scheme is used to regulate the output of wind farms and allow increased penetration of wind generation, while maintaining network security levels by using a control scheme to monitor system bottlenecks. This system can take action by applying either preventative or corrective control modes, depending on the desired level of system security. Dynamic Thermal Ratings. Dynamic thermal ratings of power network equipment are being investigated in R&D projects in Great Britain and Northern Ireland. This active management of constrained connections has the potential to unlock additional power transmission capacity at times when DG is operating at peak output.1 Central Networks, the electricity distribution company serving central England, has developed an RPZ that applies an active rating to a 132 kV overhead line based on real time measurements of ambient temperature and wind speed. Fault Current Limiting Devices. Increased levels of DG will result in increased local distribution system fault levels. When the network fault level approaches the rating of its switchgear, the connection of more generation may result in costly asset replacement or connection at higher voltages. Active fault current limiting devices, such as Is limiters and fuses, have been developed for low voltage and high voltage distribution applications up to 36 kV. These devices are not considered to be failsafe however! We concluded that their installation leads to difficulties complying with UK Health and Safety legislation, which is unlikely to change in the near-term. As such, it is unlikely that these devices will offer a practical solution to increased network fault levels.
DFIG: Doubly fed injection generators DG: Distributed generation DNO: Distributed network operator FCL: Fault current limiter IFI: Innovative funding initiative LV: Low voltage OfGEM: Office of Gas and Electricity Markets RPZ: Registered power zone SCFCL: Superconducting fault current limiter
1 PB is leading a collaboration project
to develop a generator controller that regulates output based on the thermal ratings of the distribution system. To read more about this project, which is investigating the potential headroom that may be exploited on distribution overhead lines, cables and transformers, please see the preceding article, Thermal Controller Project Innovation in UK Distribution Networks also by Alex Neumann.
Newer technologies, such as solid state circuit breakers and superconducting fault current limiters (SCFCLs), do offer superior performance, however, when compared with existing commercially available FCL devices. The most significant advantage is their automatic recovery property, which allows continuous operation of the device on the power system. Some SCFCLs are considered fail safe and can be built to exhibit negligible impedance during normal system operation. One disadvantage is a power loss under normal operating conditions caused by the current leads passing from room temperature to cryogenic temperature. Research associated with SCFCL technology is focusing on 110 kV voltage levels and above, positioning the devices
initially at the more capital intensive power networks where the potential financial benefits are more substantial than those at lower distribution levels. AREVA has developed a prototype magnetic FCL (MFCL) for 400 V application. Central Networks IFI report indicates that part of its network will be used to trial the MFCL, which it expects is more promising (than SCFCLs) as it uses permanent magnet material and is easier to handle. The Electricity Networks Association in England has a research project underway to develop a fault level instrument that will provide real time estimation of network fault levels taking into account all connected elements (e.g. motors, DG, etc.). Scottish Power is participating in this project and estimates that this prototype instrument is at least three years from adoption.
Voltage Control. The installation of high voltage/ 400 V transformers with on-load tap changers (OLTC) would improve voltage control of the low voltage networks. AREVA is currently developing a two-position tap changer for such applications and there are plans to trial this on the United Utilities network in Great Britain. Series connected power electronic single phase LV voltage regulators are currently being trialled by United Utilities and Scottish Power to solve customer under and over-voltage complaints on their networks. Although the regulators used were designed initially for single phase operation, they have been used also to solve threephase voltage complaints on the Scottish Power networks.
on power systems following network disconnections. This is not permitted in many countries as these islands can give rise to safety, power quality and operational problems. The UNIFLEX-PM consortium project is aiming to develop and experimentally verify new and innovative power conversion architectures for universal applications in power networks. The converters will be capable of running a standalone power system both coupled with the wider distribution network or in island mode using islanding detection algorithms, voltage and frequency control and energy management using storage. A graphical depiction of a future power network utilising the UNIFLEX converters is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Future Active Network with UNIFLEX-PM system.

Source: J. Clare and F. Iov, Fs UNIFLEX - PM. CIRED 2007, Workshop on Power Converters for the Future European Electricity Network presented on 25 May, 2007, (Slide 13).
GenAVC is being trialled by EDF Energy and United Utilities to optimise network capacity and generation export. The GenAVC system uses state estimation techniques to feedback nodal voltage level into the substation voltage control scheme to reduce or increase the primary busbar volts accordingly. This solution is currently being trialled on 33/11 kV transformers to control 11 kV system voltages.
Reactive Power Compensation. Reactive power compensation can be used to control voltage and increase capacity by injecting or absorbing reactive power at the point of connection. Dynamic reactive compensation can enhance system stability and quality of power supply, providing fast reaction to voltage fluctuations and controlled damping of oscillations on the networks. The D-VAR is a type of static compensator that detects and instantaneously compensates for voltage disturbances by injecting leading or lagging reactive power at key points on the network using power electronic converters. This device can connect to network voltages up to 35kV and can inject up to +/- 8MVAr.
Energy Storage Technologies. The need to continually balance supply and demand for electricity, coupled with the intermittency of DG output and peaky demand curves, makes electricity storage a tasty proposition on future electricity networks. Energy storage technologies offer a local solution by regulating power flows by either employing peak load shaving or regulation of power sent out from DG installations (e.g., wind farms). Energy storage devices must be capable of fast operation to allow participation in fast acting energy management schemes of the future. Commercially available energy storage technologies are presented in Figure 2, categorised by output capacity and supply capability.
Demand Side Innovations: Smart Meters

Involving the consumer in the electricity market is a sure way of increasing awareness and provides opportunities to increase consumer efficiency and incentivise adoption of small scale DG technologies. Today, widespread smart meter installation is more commonly driven by the cost savings associated with the elimination of meter readers as well as more timely
Widespread DG may lead to the formation of power islands

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tariff structures to discourage the use of electricity during peak periods. The meters are also fitted with thermal overloads to limit the load taken by the customer. In the UK, EdF Energy currently has a smart meter trial that will see 3000 smart meters being installed over a two-year period. One of the aims of the project is to measure how much energy customers will save by becoming aware of their consumption habits.
What Does the Future Hold?

Microgrids incorporate the application and control of distributed energy resources (i.e., microgeneration, controllable load and storage). The idea behind the microgrid concept is to reduce the burden on the grid operators by clustering and decentralising the operation and control of lower voltage distribution networks. A microgrid should able to operate safely and efficiently when coupled with the greater distribution network, and be capable of islanded operation. The Japanese are regarded as the world leaders in microgrid demonstration projects, with the New Energy and Industrial Technology Organisation (NEDO) providing funding and management services for research and development pilots. Most of the topics discussed in this ar ticle are expected to form part of truly active power networks of the future. Innovation currently underway will refine and further develop the tools required to move from the static distribution systems of days gone by towards flexible microgrids of the future. Watch this space...
Figure 2: Characteristics of energy storage technology.

Source: F. Lov, and F. Blaabjergs. Advanced Power Converters for Universal and Flexible Power Management in Future Electricity Network.
and accurate billing. Incentives offered by suppliers and system operators (e.g., dynamic energy pricing) can be translated through smart meters to the energy consumer and, in so doing, realise appropriate consumer behaviour ; provide quick demand response and more efficient energy usage. The largest known implementation of smart metering is in Italy, where ENEL Telegestore programme has seen smart metering installed in 27 million homes, introducing flexible
Related Web Sites:

Central Networks Regulatory Report for DG Incentives, RPZs & IFI: http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Pages/OfGEMHome.aspx Scottish Power energy Networks Innovation Funding Incentive, Annual Report, Issue 1 - 31st July 2007: http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Pages/OfGEMHome.aspx. EDF Energy Networks IFI/RPZ, Annual Report, April 06 - March 07: http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Pages/OfGEMHome.aspx. IFI Annual Report 2006/07: http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Pages/OfGEMHome.aspx. American Superconductor Dynamic Reactive Power Compensation. Utilizing State of the Art Power Electronics Technology: http://www.amsuper.com/documents/PES_DVR_01_0804a.pdf. Clare, J. and Iov, F , UNIFLEX - PM. CIRED 2007, Workshop on Power Converters for the Future European Electricity Network: http://www.eee.nott.ac.uk/uniflex. Lov, F and Blaabjerg, F., Advanced Power Converters for Universal and Flexible Power Management in Future Electricity Network: http://www.eee.nott.ac.uk/uniflex/. Hatziargyriou, N., Asano, H., Iravani, R and Marnay, C., Microgrids: An overview of Ongoing Research, Development, and Demonstration Projects, IEE Power and Energy Magazine, July/August 2007: http://www.smartgrids.eu/documents/docs_interest/Nikos_et_al_Power+Energy_jul-aug_07_article.pdf
Alex Neumann is a senior power systems engineer with the Power Division of PB. He specialises in elements of power system design, analysis and operation.
A Survey of Power System Packages for Distribution Network Analysis

By Arthur Ekwue, Godalming, UK, 44 (0)148352 8609, ekwueA@pbworld.com; Nicola Roscoe, Manchester, UK, 44 (0)161200 5193, roscoeN@pbworld.com; and Charles Lynch, Northwich, UK, 44 (0)16064 7889, calynch@PowerAnalysis.co.uk
The authors present the results of a survey undertaken amongst distribution network operators around the world to identify tools that would be suitable for the distribution networks of the future. Their objectives are to share this technical information with other power engineers within PB and to improve the awareness within our firm of future trends and how we are contributing to them.
The global trend to reduce greenhouse emissions is leading to increasing levels of new electricity generation from renewable sources and the embedding of this new power within electricity distribution networks. These changes will have some implications for the electricity distribution networks and their operators (DNOs). For example: The connection of renewable generation could raise the fault levels on existing transmission lines to values beyond the capacity of existing switchgear because of the fault contributions from the renewable generators themselves. The new generation sources could displace existing conventional methods of generation that, historically, have provided the response characteristics needed to maintain the overall integrity of the transmission system. This could result in instability problems when the intermittent generators supply a significant proportion of system demand, especially at light loads. Voltage control and power quality problems can arise when generators embedded within the distribution networks start or stop generating power. If not properly regulated, this could cause other network users to suffer voltage fluctuations outside the acceptable statutory limits and inject unwanted harmonics into the voltage waveform. Such changes, and increasing power loads, are putting new demands on DNOs and on the software packages they use to perform the critical analyses of their networks performance. One of our clients, a DNO facing these issues, wanted to upgrade its network analysis system accordingly, and hired PB to identify: Power system analytical software that will be suitable for distribution networks of the future Strengths and weaknesses of such software packages as seen by users, including ease of use. We approached this task by conducting an extensive survey of DNOs around the world. Some did not want to share this information, but those who did were equally interested in learning of our findings. While PB uses or has used many of the commercially available packages mentioned in this ar ticle, it was not our task to provide our judgment of them, but to repor t on the experiences that DNOs had with them. It should be noted that several of the packages are used for transmission network analysis also, but investigating that application was not within the scope of this project.
The Survey
The main questions of the survey centred on the availability of power system analysis tools to assist in the connection of embedded generation on the 33 kV, 11 kV and LV (low voltage) networks. This included software packages used for: Load flow, fault level, transient stability, reliability (customer interruptions and customer minutes lost calculations), contingency studies and protection coordination Power quality studies, including voltage unbalance, flicker, motor starting and harmonics. The survey included some open ended questions aimed at learning: Whether the DNOs had geographic information systems (GISs) and, if so, whether there were links between the GIS and the planning software How DNOs rated the software packages they used in terms of usability, manufacturer support (e.g. technical support, user groups etc) and cost Whether the DNOs had any plans to change or upgrade the software they used currently and, if so, what alternatives were being considered.
Arthur Ekwue and Nicola Roscoe are principal power system engineers and professional associates. Arthur is based in Godalming and Nicola is in Manchester. Charles Lynch is the principal engineer/director of Power Analysis Limited, which is based in Northwich, UK.
1 L A Jorge et al, DPlan: Through
R&D into a World Class Product, Proceedings of EPRI Latin American Conference and Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2001.
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Commercially Available Software
We were interested in learning about the usage of commercially available power system analysis packages we were aware of for distribution network planning. These and the related Web sites are as follows: DINIS (Distribution Network Information System) by ICL: http://www.dinis.com/ Interactive Power Systems Analysis (IPSA) by TNEI: http://www.ipsa-power.com/ CYMDIST (CYME International Inc., USA-Canada: http://www.cyme.com/ The summary of responses to a question regarding what ERACS (ERA Technology Ltd, UK): software packages are used for several 33 kV planning http://www.era.co.uk/Services/eracs.asp studies is shown in Table 1. Power Factory (DIgSILENT GmbH, Germany): http://www.digsilent.de/ It is expected that those software packages that incorporate SynerGEE Electric: http://www.advantica.biz/default.aspx?page=323 the modeling of embedded generation with comprehensive analytical features, reasonable cost, adequate customer SINCAL (Siemens, USA): support and ease of use will become prime analytical tools http://www.siemens.com/power-technologies/software that can be considered suitable for the distribution networks DPLAN Distribution Planning of the future. ETAP Power Station (Operation TechnoloTable 1: Consolidation of Responses to Question 1(a): What software package gies Inc, USA): http://www.etap.com/ (including version) do you use for the following 33 kV planning studies? NEPLAN (BCP, Switzerland): http://www.neplan.ch/ An assessment of the technical features of each software is not presented in this article; however, readers seeking more information may contact the authors.
3. The majority of the respondents use the same software for 11 kV and 33 kV distribution networks. 4. Many of the DNOs do not use any software package for their low voltage planning studies. Those who do use either DINIS, CYMDIST or WinDebut. 5. For power quality studies, the DNOs either use the same software packages for load flow and fault level calculations, are not doing these studies, or currently outsource these studies. 6. Many of the DNOs have a GIS system, but only one imports network data from it.
Conclusions
Fifteen DNOs in Europe, Africa, Middle East, New Zealand and Australia responded to the survey. We had no response from USA. We noted details of the various distribution network structures, including voltage levels and network design, and took them into consideration when reviewing the results. The main conclusions reached are as follows: 1. In the UK, for example, the majority of DNOs use one or more of PSS/E, IPSA and DINIS, although more products are starting to be used as the international market in system analysis software develops. IPSA was developed in the UK by UMIST (now par t of the University of Manchester) with contributions from several of the UK DNOs. 2. Many of the DNOs outside of the UK use SINCAL.
Improving 11 kV Network Performance in Al Ain

By Aleksandar Nikolic, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, 971-506614170, nikolicA@pbworld.com
This 11 kV OHL network performance improvement project is a pioneering one, and it is proving to be very demanding. It introduces the most advanced OHL equipment for the first time in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.
Al Ains 11 kV distribution network is spread over 11,275 km2 (4,350 square miles) and divided in four regions: City, Northern, Western and Southern. The 11kV overhead line (OHL) feeders are present in all regions and distributed mainly in desert areas, providing power to remote farms and water wells. Some of the OHL have mixed loads, however, particularly within housing or industrial areas. The 11 kV OHL network was subject to frequent power supply interruptions, low power factors and unacceptable voltage drops. Al Ain Distribution Company (AADC) decided to improve network performance and network reliability in order to provide consistent customer power supply and to maintain acceptable limits of voltage drops and power factors. The project initiator and coordinator, AADC Operation and Maintenance (O&M) department, decided to introduce the most advanced 11 kV OHL equipment. PB was awarded the consultancy, which covers study, design, tendering, project management and warranty services. The network performance improvement was divided into the three following projects related to the different network parameters and OHL equipment: Performance. 11 kV pole mounted autoreclosers were introduced for the network performance indices improvement, such as system average interruption frequency index (SAIFI) and system average interruption duration index (SAIDI). PBs scope of work for this project includes tendering, autorecloser location pinpointing including all necessary data collection and calculations, project management and site supervision. Power factor. 11 kV pole mounted capacitor banks were introduced for the power factor improvement and loss reduction. PBs scope of work for this project includes site survey and data collection, study, design and tender preparation. Voltage profile. 11 kV pole mounted voltage regulators were introduced for the voltage profile improvement. PBs scope of work for this project includes tendering, project management and site supervision.
AADC: Al Ain Distribution Company OHL: Overhead line
Using Some Latest Technology Developments

The OHL equipment, being exposed to different and often severe weather conditions, is always subject to improvement. The weather conditions are particularly severe in desert areas, where more weather-resistant equipment requiring as little maintenance as possible is needed. We evaluated a range of solutions, but taking these severe conditions and our clients objectives into account, we recommended that some of the latest technology developments be introduced. Autoreclosers. Bidders offered more than seven different manufacturers. After the detailed technical evaluation, the autoreclosers with the higher fault current interruption rating were approved. These had provided more that ten thousand maintenance free operations, and they included the latest vacuum switch technology with dual magnetic actuator mechanisms, housed in solid insulation. At the same time, more advanced control units with flexible communication protocols were introduced to provide future autorecloser integration in AADCs remote control system. Voltage regulators. The main technology development is related to the voltage regulator tap changer and control unit. The approved voltage regulators are equipped with tap changer capable to perform 32-step operations within 15 seconds, providing fast response to voltage fluctuation. Control units are provided with tap changer contact duty cycle monitoring facility as well as flexible communication protocols for remote control and supervision.
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Capacitor banks. Switched, kVAr controlled, pole mounted capacitor banks with the single pole vacuum switches have been proposed for this project. The latest technology development is related to the vacuum switch and the control unit. The zero voltage closing facility is introduced to reduce transient effects due to capacitor bank closing operation (Figure 1 and Figure 2).
Autorecloser location pinpointing. The challenge was to propose autorecloser locations taking into consideration the similar average number of customers per autorecloser and the different regional demographies. The constraints were to propose autorecloser locations on existing free H poles close to the existing access roads. We used the combination of the GIS data collection and the site survey to verify proposed locations. Capacitor bank study. The AADC 11 kV OHL network is facing huge MVAr demand fluctuation, not only between the summer and the winter period, but also within the same month (Figure 3). Some feeders are short ones, and some of them are extremely large. Some feeders are lightly loaded with only a few distribution transformers connected, and some of them are overloaded with more than 150 distribution transformers connected.
Figure 1: Voltage profile without zero voltage closing facility.
Figure 2: Voltage profile with zero voltage closing facility.
The Challenges We Faced

We faced challenges during different project activities such as data collection, autorecloser location pinpointing, capacitor bank calculation and design. Data collection. The feeder topology data were required for the autorecloser pinpointing and capacitor bank placement study. The site survey was not the most effective method of gathering data because more than 270 11 kV OHL feeders are distributed over 11,275 km2 (4,350 square miles). As a solution, we Figure 3: The sample MVAr demand used the AADC geoprofile. graphical information system (GIS) as a source for conductor data, cable data, distribution transformer and other feeder topology data collection.
It was quite a challenge to propose capacitor unit and capacitor bank rating to satisfy the uniformity request and to cover all feeders load diversity.
Conclusions
The majority of the transient faults, as the most frequent power supply interruption factor, will be cleared with the autorecloser closest to the primary substation. Depending of the total number of customers connected to the feeder, additional autoreclosers are provided to reduce permanent faults impact on the network performance indices. After the capacitor banks installation, AADC benefits will be the power factor improvement, loss reduction and released feeder capacity. The loss reduction savings only will provide return on investment in less than two years period. PB has made a significant contribution to this pioneering project in Abu Dhabi Emirate, a project that will serve as an example for future distribution network development projects. It is the first of its kind for AADC, and one that will be referenced for other distribution network performance improvements in the region.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.aadc.ae/
Aleksandar Nikolic is PMP certified project manager and is a principal resident engineer with PB Power Networks Abu Dhabi. His specialization is project management, power transmission and distribution. He has more than 22 years of experience including almost 2 years with PB.
Energy Demand Management Programs in Western Sydney By Hanzheng Duo, Sydney, New South Wales, +61-2-92725168, hduo@pb.com.au
The importance of demand management is increasing as the needs grow for more electricity but fewer carbon emissions and for sustainable network development. The topic of this article is a network-driven demand management approach for Western Sydneys Wetherill Park industrial area, where reductions were made at the localized sub-zone level.
Figure 1: Map of Integral Energys network supply area.
Integral Energys electricity distribution network in western Sydney serves more than 2.1 million people across 24,500 square kilometres (9,500 square miles) (Figure 1). The network is made up of approximately 28,000 transmission, zone and distribution substations and 315,000 power poles bound together by 33,000 kilometres (20,000 miles) of underground and overhead cable. Western Sydney has experienced rapid development in recent years due to new release areas and a booming economy. As a result, an ongoing trend within Integral Energys supply area is the transformation of the network from one that serves a rural or semi-rural to one that serves a more densely populated urban area. Summer peak demand has been growing quickly also, driven primarily by air conditioning loads in residential areas. This growth is reflected in the summer demand forecasts shown in Figure 2. The rapid growth in demand has been a great challenge to maintaining the network reliability and to sustainable development. The various areas In Western Sydney are experiencing demand growth at different rates. While Integral Energy is planning network augmentation to ensure system reliability, it is also pursuing demand side management (DSM) and other energy efficiency measures as alternatives to supply-side solutions. PB was hired in 2005 to serve as technical advisor and provide program management services for a number of DSM programs for western Sydney.
DSM Approach
The concept behind DSM is to reduce peak demands to below the network capacity limits in the parts of the network (localised programs) where required and, by so doing, defer or avoid capital expenditure. Peak demands tend to occur relatively infrequently. They pose a substantial risk that the network might not be able to supply the needed power, however, making it important that supply networks have sufficient capacity for handling these peak demands. Government supports the DSM approach. Electricity distributors in New South Wales (NSW) operate under the NSW Electricity Supply Act 1995, which includes a licence requirement to investigate demand management alternatives to network augmentation for specific capital expenditure projects. The approach to DSM in western Sydney is different from the approach we have taken in large, densely populated areas. For example, a goal of the demand management planning project for Sydney's central business district was to collect information from a wide range of areas.1 On our current project, Integral Energys DSM programs concentrate on demand reduction for smaller networks, or zone substations. As with any demand management program, however, the challenge is to manage the changing consumer behaviour by developing and implementing a suite of initiatives aimed at encouraging them to reduce energy consumption at particular times.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.integral.com.au/
Wetherill Park Industrial Area DSM

The Wetherill Park industrial area has been experiencing steady growth of about 1.7 percent per year and the substation supplying the industrial and surrounding residential
1 To read about PBs work on the
Demand Management and Planning Project (DMPP) for New South Wales Department of Planning, see Demand management for Sydney CBD and Inner West Area by Hanzheng Duo and Damir Jaksic, PB Network, Issue No. 65, pp. 90-91.
Figure 2: Summer demand forecasts.
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area was approaching its transformer capacity limit. The demand reduction required to defer the construction of a new zone substation for three years was 5,400 kVA. Our team was responsible for developing the demand reduction strategy. Some of our steps were to: Identify and approach the high demand customers Conduct energy audits at customers sites to identify demand reduction/energy efficiency opportunities Recommend demand reduction/energy saving measures Coordinate the implementation of these measures, including incentives and other support that Integral Energy offered. One of the challenges is to obtain electricity customers commitment to participate in the program. We worked closely with Integral Energy to develop approaches by using various measures, such as financial incentives, media exposure and case studies to get customers involved in the program. Typically power factor correction (PFC) and lighting control measures are cost-effective for industrial sites, and there are also some load-shifting oppor tunities. (In recent DSM programs, we involved PBs community consultant team in Sydney to approach the customers. This step has been proved to be effective.) During the program, we also developed close relationships with technology suppliers, and we were able to provide expert advice and implementation coordination. This step also helped us to minimize our financial risks. The program ran for two years and was successful in achieving the demand reduction target (Figure 3). Key results are: Thirty customers participated in the program. Forty-seven initiatives were identified representing a 6,647 kVA of demand reduction potential. Twenty-seven of these initiatives were implemented, resulting in a 5,546 kVA demand reduction. An energy reduction of 202 MWh per year was achieved. A reduction of 260 tonnes of CO2 gases per annum was achieved.
Figure 3: Wetherill Park zone substation summer peak demand. Note that the 2003/04 summer was hotter than normal and achieved a higher than normal peak demand.
Outcomes and Lessons Learned

Network-driven DSM programs are effective mainly in industrial and commercial areas where there are more opportunities to work with several large customers. Also, the current regulatory regime in NSW requires evidence of a network capital expenditure item being deferred as a result of the DSM program. This requirement forces DSM programs to be localised, and to concentrate on only the customers supplied from the constrained part of the network. As indicated above, one of the main challenges in any DSM program is to encourage customers to respond positively to requests for demand management. This challenge is due, in part, to the following: Electricity is an invisible input into a customers process or business. The savings from demand management programs may not be identified easily. Energy efficiency is typically not a core business function. Many demand and energy reduction initiatives require up front investment to deliver future benefits. Electricity is a relatively low-cost input for many businesses (and households). We have, however, observed positive changes in customers attitudes in working on a subsequent project in the Minto Industrial Area due to recent increases in electricity prices; government regulations, such as the federal government Energy Efficiency Opportunities (EEO); and the growing awareness of climate-change issues. We hope to see this trend continue on a new DSM project that we won recently and expect will get underway in July 2008, the Chipping-Norton Industrial Area. These two projects are also in Western Sydney.
More to Do
Great potential exists in demand management. Successful DSM programs will reduce network investment for network suppliers, save operating costs for end-users, improve network reliability and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Unfortunately, this potential is not yet well understood by many network suppliers and end-users. A concerted effort by the industry, regulators and government is needed to encourage consumer acceptance of DSM programs and to change consumers attitudes about electricity consumption. It is important that PB act as a catalyst to provide knowledge and information that will help achieve such changes and the resulting sustainable development.
Hanzheng Duo is a senior energy management consultant with PBs National System and Electrical Team in Australia. His areas of expertise are energy efficiency, renewable energy, power system and greenhouse gas management. He has been project manager and technical leader for several demand management programs. Hanzheng has a Ph.D. in power system planning and is a visiting fellow at the School of Photovoltaics and Renewable Energy, University of New South Wales.
Planning and the Role of Regulators
Planning and Regulating Power Infrastructure in a World of Change

PB is actively involved in the planning of power systems and the provision of strategic advice on energy supply issues throughout the world. Recognising the magnitude of the investment and asset lives of power infrastructure, the decisions we make today in the planning and regulation of power infrastructure will result in technologies and systems being implemented that will benefit people for decades and directly affect the price paid for electricity, the environment and the security of supply enjoyed. With a number of utilities around the world having asset bases that are aging and operating beyond their book lives, this is an increasing area of focus. John Douglas outlines how PB has supported regulators in ensuring efficient asset replacement strategies are adopted by utilities while, in the Transmission section, Conor Reynolds presents a paper on 3D data capture and reporting for transmission network condition assessment. The increasing concerns over cost and security of resources combined with a challenge for all countries to migrate to lower carbon energy systems are particularly important in todays world of global energy markets. In his paper, Nick Barneveld describes the ramifications of New Zealand migrating to provide more sustainable energy solutions from a supply/demand perspective, while Alex Neumanns papers in the Distribution section present how developments in distribution technology combined with changes in approach to the way distribution systems are designed can address these challenges. PB has been and is at the heart of not only these issues, but many others. For example, we also provide advice on the restructuring and regulation of electricity supply industries. Since advising in the UK on the worlds first electricity industry privatisation, our firm has led the way in developing and implementing solutions for deregulation and restructuring worldwide, including Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, the Middle East and South America. Our strength is a strong engineering understanding and capability of power and energy systems combined with utility operations experience. We constantly adapt and improve our techniques to ensure we can deliver solutions appropriate not only for today but also for the future. Please see page 89 for a list of many articles related to power system planning and innovations from past PB publications.
Bruce Stedall Operations Director, Power Systems and Energy Strategic Consulting Newcastle, UK
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Asset Replacement: The Regulators View

By John Douglas, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, +44 191 226 2252, douglasJak@pbworld.com
The expenditure required to replace ageing assets for a mature electricity transmission or distribution network can represent half of the network operators capital budget, and these costs continue to rise. In a regulated power supply industry such as exists in the UK, the regulator often has limited resources to perform a budgetary review in comparison with those available to the network operators who prepare the budget, but must ensure that an appropriate level of network performance is achieved at an efficient level of cost. PB has developed an asset replacement model that is helping provide regulators with the information they need to make their decision. The author describes the model and recent changes in views on asset lives and changes to the regulatory review process.
Setting the level of revenue a network operator can charge to fund operations and/or replacement of assets is generally the responsibility of the utility regulator, who acts in the interests of the customers. The regulator has to balance the expenditures required, particularly for long-term reliable performance of the network, against the corresponding allowed revenue, the level of which is based on a regulatory price control review generally conducted every four to five years. As part that process, regulators can apply three tests: Is there a justifiable need for the expenditure? Have efficient design and life-cycle costs been taken into consideration? Is the timing of the expenditure appropriate? At the same time, some recent developments among network operators are that they: Are increasing the attention they give to managing their aging transmission and distribution assets, including monitoring the condition of their assets more extensively Are adopting risk-based planning methods Have introduced annual expenditure and activity reporting to regulators Have a limitation of resources available for asset replacement programmes. The level of asset replacement activity depends considerably on judging when an asset is life expired. There is generally a tendency for network operators to forecast high. If an unreasonably high expenditure was allowed under incentive-based price control regulation as in the UK, the network operator might readily achieve efficiency savings to the detriment of the customer. A key distinction between a network operator and the regulator in the regulatory review process is that more information and time are available to the former. A regulator views the network at a high level, so requires a means of modelling proposed asset replacement. Accordingly, PB has developed an asset replacement model that has been used to review corresponding expenditure for a number of regulators in different countries.
Review of Replacement of Assets

Network assets are generally judged to have average lives of about 40 to 60 years, or even longer for some cable types. The asset age situation in the UK is illustrated in Figure 1, which shows the percentage of value of existing transmission and primary (33 kV+) distribution assets that was installed each year over an 80-year span. Installation activity reached a peak in the mid 1960s, some 40 Figure 1: Comparison of transmission and years ago, and the network distribution asset values by age in the UK. operators are presently forecasting rapidly rising replacement quantities and expenditures. On its own, Figure 1 may be regarded as evidence of age, but not as need for replacement. The principal drivers for replacement of assets include: Poor condition, e.g., reliability, failure, obsolescence High environmental impact, e.g., oil-filled apparatus, overhead lines
Safety concerns, e.g., poorly performing switchgear, line fittings Improved performance, e.g., increased functionality of a new asset High operating costs, e.g., frequent repair and maintenance, energy losses and outages.
Network Operators Asset Replacement Assessment

Asset management systems incorporate a comprehensive database of network assets, including their characteristics and functions, details of their condition (repor ted and updated at appropriate intervals) and performance, and their repair and maintenance histories. From such a database an assessment of the expected remaining lives of the assets can be made, including identification of replacement candidates. This assessment is key to the planning and prioritizing process when preparing a programme and budget for asset replacement.
by year. It can be seen that most of these types of asset were installed between 20 and 35 years ago. The retirement percentage profile in the example is assumed to be a normal distribution with a mean of about 40 years and a standard deviation of 4 years. The model can, however, accept any shape of retirement profile provided the sum of the percentages to be retired in any one year does not exceed 100 percent. The quantity of assets for retirement in any year is the summation of the cross-multiplication of the retirement profile and the asset age profile (sumproduct function). For the next year the retirement profile is advanced by one year with respect to the age profile. The retirement profile in the example is relatively narrow, so there is a high quantity of assets to be replaced in the initial years, reflecting assets that are older than the retirement profile. Furthermore, the replacement assets tend to reflect the original age profile. A broader retirement profile would have the effect of smoothing out the year on year replacement. Due to the influence of assets introduced in later years, the smooth solid line representing the projected retirement profile of the existing asset base diverges from the dotted line, which represents quantities of replacement assets to be introduced in each year in future. This divergence begins at the point in the distant future at which replacement assets introduced in the near future begin to be replaced themselves in accordance with the same retirement profile being applied to the existing asset base. In practice the retirement profiles should reflect the actual ages at which assets are being replaced. The outputs of the model are the replacement quantities and expenditures by asset category and by year. The model also: Allows users to undertake scenario analyses by examining the sensitivity of the modelled output to variations in asset lives Provides a network-wide strategic view of the risk to be assessed in terms of percentage weighted average remaining life of an asset category. Although the model considers like-for-like replacement, the level of betterment due to, say, replacement with increased capacity or putting cables underground can be reviewed through consideration of cost differentials. Separately, account is also taken of assets replaced because of system development.
Regulators Review: Asset Replacement Model

PB acted as engineering consultant to OfGEM, the British energy regulator, for recent transmission and distribution price control reviews. In carrying out this task, we developed and applied the replacement profile model illustrated in Figure 2. The inputs are: Asset age profiles Asset retirement profiles Unit replacement costs.
Figure 2: Replacement Profile Model. (Example is for the asset type: 11 kV pole mounted transformers.)
Trends in Estimated Asset Lives

The asset age profile data for existing assets in the example were averaged over five-year periods due to the way the historic data was recorded, hence giving the stepped profile. In practice, most operators are able to provide age profiles The average lives of most of the principal British distribution assets show an increasing trend, as presented in Figure 3 on the following page. These new numbers also illustrate that the modelling of asset replacement is dependent on
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assessments of asset lives that are extending as condition assessment techniques improve. Where the retirement profiles are considered as normal distributions, the standard deviations have also shown an increasing trend, typically from about 8 to 11 years.
TPCR (2000/1 to 2004/5) allowed and actual non-load related (largely asset replacement) expenditures. TPCR2006 (2005/6 to 2011/12) forecast and allowed non-load related expenditures.
Figure 4: Comparison of operators forecasts and regulatory allowances.
The allowed distribution expenditure represents an increase of some 34 percent over the annual average expenditure of the historic period. The increase in allowed transmission expenditure represents a virtual doubling of that expenditure on an annual basis, however, due largely to increases in refurbishment of overhead lines and replacement of switchgear and cables. The allowed expenditures were determined largely by the model described earlier.
Figure 3: Trends in average lives of distribution substation assets (top) and in average lives of distribution lines and cables (bottom).
Similar developments in the assessment of the asset lives of transmission plant and equipment have been reported by National Grid in the UK, recognizing that as knowledge has increased, lives have been extended for the majority of assets.
Two of the most experienced regulators, the Essential Services Commission of Victoria, Australia, and the UKs OfGEM have accordingly introduced annual regulatory repor ting requirements for network operators to supplement the price control reviews at four to five-year intervals. These repor ting requirements allow the variances between actual and forecast expenditures to be monitored steadily and so improve the review process.
Comparing Operators Forecasts and Regulatory Allowances

Figure 4 presents comparisons of the respective projected, forecast and allowed annual capital replacement expenditures for the recent British distribution and transmission price control reviews (DPCR and TPCR): DPCR3 (2000/1 to 2004/5) and DPCR4 (2005/6 to 2009/10) asset replacement expenditures where the DPCR3 projected expenditure was the actual expenditure, adjusted by OfGEM for comparison purposes to exclude certain items. The DPCR4 forecast expenditure is that forecast by the network operators and the DPCR4 allowed expenditure is that subsequently allowed by OfGEM.
Using Risk Assessment in Estimating Remaining Asset Life

Risk assessment methods are now used by network operators, as mentioned above, including criticality analysis. Such assessments are an impor tant par t of the detailed and complex process of prioritizing asset replacement. A regulator would also need an overall output metric of asset risk to complement the input-related modelling of asset replacement and output-related annual reporting of network reliability performance. The concept of weighted average remaining life of assets has been used elsewhere to obtain a general view of the appropriateness of asset replacement expenditure levels and may be considered as an indirect
indication of asset risk (Table 1). Caution should be exercised, however, when comparing the weighted remaining lives from different jurisdictions because asset lives may differ.
Table 1: Asset Risk: Weighted Average Remaining Life (WARL).
Conclusions
A regulator requires a means to assess a reasonable level of expenditure on asset replacement by network operators. This can be provided by retirement profile-based modeling, which is also a useful aid to network operators for reviewing programmes built up from detailed considerations, principally of asset condition. There is a general trend to date for asset lives to increase. The integrity of the modelling process remains dependent on quality of data and, to this end, the retrospective modelling of historic replacement enables verification of asset lives. Weighted average remaining life provides an overall output metric of asset risk. PB has applied the model in reviewing the asset replacement expenditure on a number of distribution and transmission price control reviews in recent years for OfGEM in Great Britain, in 2001 for the Commission for Energy Regulation in the Republic of Ireland and in 2006 for the Energy Regulatory Commission in the Philippines. The model has enabled the regulators to make final decisions on the allowed levels of asset replacement expenditure with little challenge.
Figure 5 presents the WARL trends for the assets of a particular network, including the results of sensitivity analysis.
Related Web Sites:

Figure 5: Weighted Average Remaining Life Trends Existing Assets.
OfGEM www.ofgem.gov.uk
John Douglas has more than 35 years of experience in electrical power engineering with PB, specialising in transmission and distribution planning as well as electricity utility regulation. In recent years he has undertaken reviews of investment expenditure on electricity networks in Great Britain, Ireland, Philippines and South Africa. John is coordinator of PAN 53, High Voltage Transmission & Distribution.
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New Zealand Energy Strategy A Plan for a Sustainable Nation By Nick Barneveld, Wellington, New Zealand. 64 4 916 6558, barneveldN@pbworld.com
New Zealand promises to be one of the worlds leaders in taking proactive measures toward sustainability in the electricity sector. The author tells of its goals and strategies, and in so doing, illustrates the promise of the Kyoto Protocol.
CER: Certified Emission Reduction ETS: Emission Trading Scheme GHG: Greenhouse gas NZETS: New Zealand Emission Trading Scheme NZU: New Zealand Unit
The New Zealand government is determined that the country become a truly sustainable nation, and even a carbon neutral nation. Its recently introduced New Zealand Energy Strategy to 2050 (referred to in this article as The Strategy) maps out an ambitious pathway for the reduction of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions. Operating within a framework of competitive energy markets, The Strategy was designed to: Set conditions for capital investment Provide leadership on energy security and climate change issues Respond to the challenges of meeting demand in a growing economy, maintaining security of supply and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Strategy and the associated New Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy introduce initiatives that champion: Renewable energy across the electricity generation market Energy efficiency among transport, domestic and commercial users Development and deployment of sustainable energy technologies. The current electricity sector of New Zealand is characterised by: A long stringy transmission system spanning two islands, which are linked by a high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission line with both over-land and sub-sea components Significant indigenous fossil fuel Tightening supply and demand Rising investment costs and wholesale and retail prices Vertically integrated generator retailers Renewable generation resources that are notable for significant seasonal and year-on-year variability (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Fuel supply Hydro storage trajectories.
New Targets for Low Emissions

A secure energy system with low emissions will require changes in the way electricity, heat and motive power are produced and delivered. For example, the electricity sector, currently sourcing 65-70 percent of its fuel from renewable sources (Table 1), has a target of achieving 90 percent renewables generation by 2025. This very challenging target requires servicing all new demand with renewable generation and reducing existing fossil fuelled thermal generation by more than 50 percent, replacing it with energy generated using renewable technologies. This renewable generation policy position is a major change from the prior neutral policy position. The new policy has been given impetus by a legislated ban1 for the next ten years on new base-load thermal electricity generation, plus New Zealand is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol. Tidal power is one technology that the government is suppor ting, as New Zealand has significant potential available along its extensive coastline. In fact, Crest Energy Limited has applied for environmental consent to construct a marine turbine power generation project in the Kaipara Harbour in Northland, northern New Zealand. The project comprises up to 200
1 At the time of writing the legislation is
in the process of being enacted.
Table 1: Electricity generation by fuel type (2006 calendar year).
completely submerged marine tidal turbines with a maximum generating capacity of about 200 MW. They would be located near the entrance of Kaipara Harbour, one of New Zealands natural harbours that is not used as a major port.2
Figure 2 shows the CO2 emissions from March 2007 through May 2008 from the various generation facilities currently within New Zealands thermal electricity generation portfolio. These levels are based on the current operating regime of the asset portfolio shown in Table 1. They illustrate two factors: The magnitude of the target CO2 emissions from electricity generation. (On a global scale, the emission quantities are very small.) The extreme sensitivity of the existing generation mix with its high proportion of renewable plant to uncontrollable weather influences. The 30 percent year-on-year increase in CO2 emissions for the month of May is a result of a lack rainfall in the hydro generation catchments. The contribution attributed to Whirinaki during April/May 2008 (see Figure 2) is from a 150 MW diesel fuelled open cycle gas turbine power station built by the government to provide back-up to the hydro generators in the event of water shortages. Under NZETS: There will be no free allocation of greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generators and fossil fuels. Larger industrial firms will get a par tial free allocation of emission units to cover their direct emissions and the indirect emissions of their electricity use. They will have to buy NZ Units (NZU) to cover their remaining greenhouse gas emissions The international reductions purchased will be primarily Clean Development Mechanism Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) from developing countries. The price of NZU will be set by international CER prices.
Emission Trading Scheme

The introduction of the New Zealand Emission Trading Scheme (NZETS) was announced in September 2007. NZETS is the first mandatory greenhouse gas emissions control measure in the world that proposes to cover all six Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases: CO2 Carbon dioxide CH4 Methane N2O Nitrous oxide PFCs Perfluorocarbons HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride.
Higher Energy Prices on the Horizon

Meeting New Zealands new targets means that everyone in the country will be affected by higher prices for nearly all forms of energy. Businesses and individuals will be able to manage their exposure to these higher energy prices by: Improving their energy efficiency Developing their own renewable energy sources Investing in their own Clean Development Mechanism projects in developing countries. With NZU prices expected to converge eventually with European Union Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) prices, petrol and
2 For more information about tidal power, see Project Brief: Tidal Power
Figure 2: Electricity generation weekly CO2 emissions March 2007-May 2008. Source: Energy Link Limited
by Peter Kydd on page 53.
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diesel prices will increase by around NZ $0.10/litre. Wholesale electricity prices will rise by nearly 20 percent (Figure 3). This increase can be expected to flow through to nearly 10 percent retail electricity price increases.
Figure 3: Forward price estimate based on $20/tonne CO2 in 2007 escalated @ 7.5%/yr incurred from 2010.
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 2008/ 2009
PB is Supporting New Zealands Becoming a World Leader

PB is involved extensively in the New Zealand energy sector, having played a role in: The development of wind farms; geothermal power stations and steam fields, and hydropower stations The planning, design and implementation of transmission system Areas of sustainable development, energy efficiency and Clean Development Mechanism projects. Current activities in the sector include assisting Contact Energy Limited develop a large geothermal power station, and serving as project manager for the development and implementation of a biodiesel manufacturing facility based on canola seed feedstock for Biodiesel New Zealand Limited. We have also been invited by Crest Energy Limited to propose what skills we can bring to bear on the development of its 200 MW tidal power scheme after they secure the environmental approvals.
NZ $ / MWh
2009/ 2010
2010/ 2011
2011/ 2012
2012/ 2013
2013/ 2014
2014/ 2015
2015/ 2016
2016/ 2017
2017/ 2018
Year
95th Percentile 75th Percentile Average 25th Percentile 5th Percentile
An ETS scheme will not have much direct impact on the wider energy demand in New Zealand because transport fuel use and electricity demand are not particularly price sensitive. The recent dramatic oil price rises have demonstrated the weakness of marginal price signals to reduce CO2 emissions from transport. In addition, major industrial users can expect to get generous free NZU allocations initially. Extensive renewable generation development will require major investments in the transmission grid investment over and above that already contemplated to deal with organic load and generation portfolio growth. This need results from the thermal generation close to demand being replaced by distributed renewable generation located more distant from demand. This major additional investment will result in increased transmission charges to consumers, who will receive no additional commercial benefit. This additional transmission investment will result in an increase to the cost of delivered electricity to all consumers on top of the 10 percent increase expected from the CO2 charge effects on generation costs.
Related Web Sites:

New Zealand Energy Strategy: http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/ ContentTopicSummary_19431. aspx http://www.climatechange.govt.nz/ http://www.biodiesel-nz.co.nz/index.cfm/1,118,0,44,html http://www.contactenergy.co.nz/web/view?page=/contentiw/pages/ ourprojects/temihi&vert=pr http://www.crest-energy.com/ http://www.meridianenergy.co.nz/OurProjects/
Nick Barneveld has worked in business development, corporate strategic energy planning, power station commercial assessment, technical and commercial due diligence, financial modelling including development of technical and commercial assumptions, power station engineering and operations and maintenance and functions. His recent activities include assignments relating to technical due diligence for a successful A$7.4 billion competitive bid for Australian infrastructure assets, the development of a US$4 billion coal to liquids plant in New Zealand, due diligence of a new high moisture content low rank coal gasification technology, exploitation of coal bed methane, an underground coal gasification development programme, and the development of New Zealands first commercial-scale biodiesel manufacturing plant.
Power Articles in Network, NOTES, and Powerlines

Compiled by John Chow, New York, 1-212-465-5249, chow@pbworld.com
PB Powerlines
Eight years have passed since the last PB Network devoted to power, and six years since the last NOTES on power. This is a partial list of the steady stream of power articles that have appeared in three PB publications since then. The 7-page June 2008 issue is typical of the past 17, with 12 provocative titles: Turning the tide into power ; Sunshine in Spain; Celebrating in style; Meeting the need; Green light for Az-zour North; Hot design; New power plant for Portugal; Waste not, want not; Asian expansion; Mining a rich new seam; Laying a strong foundation; and Changes at the top.
NOTES
A World of Power was the last issue devoted to power (Feb 2002). Another 2009 NOTES features power. Power-related articles since 2005 include: Powering the Middle East, Dec 2007, pp. 13-15 The Essentials: Water and Power, Sep 2007, pp. 19-23 Green Power Around the Globe, Dec 2006, pp. 9-11 Building Green Structures in Support of Environmental Quality (section on ethanol plants), Dec 2006, p. 16 First Things First: Clean Air for Students, May 2005, pp. 6-7
PB Network
Innovation in Global Power contains 42 power-related articles (PB Network 68). Power Engineering was the last issue on power and energy, containing 35 power articles (#48, Nov 2000, http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_48/48_Index.asp.) Over 20 power/energy articles have appeared since 2003.
In Issue 67 on Project and Public Communication, June 2008 Addressing a Communitys Concerns about a New Wind Farm. Mark Denny and Richard Wearmouth, Newcastle. Both engineering and environmental knowledge are crucial to the public consultation process in having a new wind farm approved. (#67, pp. 67-68) In Issue 66 on Visions,Trends, Innovations, December 2007 http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_66/66_index.asp Which Will Run Out First, People or Gas? Alan Lawless, Manchester. Is there sufficient talent to handle the future needs of the mature UK gas industry? (#66, p. 29) New Designs of Electricity Networks to Include Renewables and Improve Reliability. Nicola Roscoe and Katherine Jackson, Manchester. We may soon be designing electricity network architectures that are very different from todays. The catalyst for change is the increased levels of renewable generation. (#66, pp. 81-83) Cutting Carbon Emissions by Distributed Energy Generation. Ian Burdon (Newcastle), Tom McKay (London) and Alastair Robinson (London). PB undertook a study for a UK agency about legislative barriers to carbon reductions, and PB recommended a strategy for success. (#66, pp. 84-87) Experiences and Trends in Automating Transmission Substations in Abu Dhabi. Oleg Matic. PB has contributed to the introduction of and improvements to transmission substation control systems in Abu Dhabi since the late 1990s. (#66, pp. 88-89) In Issue 65 on the Middle East, June 2007 http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/Issue_65/65_index.asp 400 KV Interconnection of Abu Dhabi Island. Walter Bullock. Undertaken to augment the supply of electricity to Abu Dhabi Island and prevent blackouts, this project incorporated some of the latest
Powerlines News and industry comment from the power group of PB. Published 2-3 times a year. Editor Maria Laffey, Newcastle, UK. Under Publications in PB Ltds web site at http://www.pbworld.co.uk/index.php?doc =530. NOTES Each issue highlights a PB market or service. Published 3 times a year. Editors Tom Malcolm and Muriel Adams, New York. Under News & Events in PBs web site at http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/ publications/notes/default.asp. Network A technical journal by PB employees and colleagues. Published 3 times a year. Editors John Chow and Lorraine Anderson, New York. Under Research Library in PBs web site at http:// www.pbworld.com/news_events/ publications/network/.
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developments in circuit breaker and cable technologies. (#65, pp. 79-80) Design and Construction Considerations for Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations. Sanjeev Malhotra, New York. Larger wind turbines are being developed for off-shore wind farms, and their loads are creating new design and construction challenges for foundations. (#66, pp. 92-95) In Issue 59 on Sustainable Development, Nov 2004 http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_ 59/59_index1.asp The First Trigeneration System in a Beijing Commercial Building, Vincent Tse and Colin Chung, Hong Kong. A trigeneration system produces energy for electricity, heating and cooling very efficiently, becoming an attractive option for sustainable development projects encouraged by the Chinese Government. (#59, pp. 78-80) Independent Water and Power Projects: PB Invention to Improve Desalination. Paul Willson, Manchester. PB served on a technical team that demonstrated an independent water and power project plant that was much more efficient and sustainable and offered the lowest life cost. (#59, pp. 54-56) Using Minewater as a Heat Source. James Dickson and Dominic Bowers, London. For a new community to be built at a former coal-mining site, our analyses proved that the most sustainable option included the use of minewater as a heat source. (#59, pp. 61, 62) Sustainable Energy in the English Dales, Ian Burdon and Daniel Dufton, Newcastle. PBs strategy for the regeneration of a dale taps into geothermal heat; brings power, heat, and economic strength to the region; and maximises benefits to the client, developers, and the community. (#59, pp. 63-65) In Issue 57 on Segmental Bridges, Feb 2004 http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_ 57/57_index.asp Advantages and Disadvantages of Long-Term Service Agreements for Independent Power Projects. Richard Whyte. Several considerations need to be evaluated if a long term service agreement for an IPP will meet the owners objectives. (#57, pp. 78-80) In Issue 56 on Australia/New Zealand, July 2003 http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/ issue_56/56_Index.asp Criteria for Identifying Viable Wind Power Market Sites. Achim Hoehne. Selection of appropriate sites for wind farms is a key factor to the growth of wind power use. PB uses four criteria in helping clients identify sites that will be feasible, productive, practical and acceptable to the public. (#56, pp. 24-26) The Permitting of Toora Wind Farm. David Spink, Melbourne. The climatic conditions of certain Australian coastlines are ideal for wind farm development. PB had a role in the permitting of one of Victorias first wind farms. (#56, pp. 27-28)
Steamfield Manager: Software for Resource Consent Reporting and Long-Term Steamfield Management. Errol Anderson and Aaron Hochwimmer, Auckland. PB Power designed Steamfield Manager software to manage the unique data environment of a geo-thermal power plant. (#56, pp. 29-31) Electrical Requirements of Geothermal Power Projects. Ivan Hunt. PB helped develop electrical design and engineering solutions to meet the unique requirements of new geothermal power stations. (#56, pp. 32-34) Tokelau Power Project. Christopher Lynch, Christchurch. Unique challenges, including non-technical ones, arise when designing a new power supply system in a remote area. (#56, pp. 35-36) Re-using Effluent to Supply the Millmerran Power Station. David Kent, Brisbane. We included unusual devices and protocols when designing a main to transport effluent from a sewage treatment plant to a new power station in order to prevent effluent from discharging accidentally. (#56, pp. 37-40) The Upgrading of an Existing Coal-fired Power Station. Mal Cotter (Brisbane), David Lesneski, Peter Reimann. In 2003, Australia derived 85 percent of its energy from coal. With increasing limitations on development of new coal facilities, however, refurbishing existing plants is becoming more important. (#56, pp. 41-43) Victorias Ageing Low-Pressure Gas Mains: Urgent Replacement or Not? Lane Crockett. Cast iron and unprotected steel gas mains are considered to be the main contributors to maintenance costs, leak rates and public safety risks. (#56, pp. 44-45) PB Takes Lead Role in Electricity Competition Reform. Anthony Seipolt. PB has taken an unusual role for a consultancy and is working with Australian regulatory bodies to enable the smooth implementation of competition amongst utility providers, which is a growing trend. (#56, p 46) Expenditure and Reliability Modelling. Brian Nuttall and Jacqui Bridge, Melbourne. In contrast to Seipolts article about the policy level, this article describes how we help utility companies adhere to regulations. Our models forecast network expenditure and reliability for the electricity, gas and water markets, and are applicable to pipeline, road, rail, and other networks. (#56, pp. 47-49) Lenders Engineer on Power Projects... Tales from the Vault. David Maslin. Based on experience working for financial institutions, Maslin discusses features of being a lenders engineer on power projects. (#56, pp. 50-51)
John Chow has been the Executive Editor of PB Network since 1986. He has managed the Practice Area Networks since 1994. As part of the knowledge management team, John is the global content manager for Hub (PBs SharePoint intranet), and has always fostered the sharing of knowledge at PB.
DEPARTMENTS
PB Redesigns a Composting Machine for Improved Operations*
PBs power specialists provided R&D for the redesign of the main components of a dynamic composting system. This was a new area of work that resulted in lower energy consumption for our client and an expected longer life for its composting equipment.
By Oriol Alts, Barcelona, Spain, 34 93 5088520, altesO@pbworld.com
Manufacturing organic compost is an effective way to recycle urban solid waste (USW) and other raw materials, such as sewage sludge and vegetable and forest residues. This can be done by using a dynamic composting system in either open trenches or closed tunnels. Open trench dynamic composting requires the construction of specific machinery. We are seeing many new developments and continuous improvements in such machinery. In fact, PB has worked closely with a client in Spain on the redesign of its operational units. Our research and development of new solutions and improvements have led to a revised design of the main systems of the composting machinery, including the mechanical, electromotor, hydraulic, control, and safety systems, and the redesign of civil works for the implementation of the machinery.
Dynamic Composting Machinery

Dynamic composting is based primarily on mixing USW or sewage sludge with other vegetable substances to obtain the correct initial properties for density, viscosity and humidity. The fermentation and maturing processes of this primary material take place in a group of trenches (Figure 1), which are corridors limited by concrete walls and a lower soleplate/ventilation system. The soleplate is a false floor made of perforated tiles that provide adequate ventilation to the material in the composting process. The trenches can be in a closed industrial warehouse or in an open one with a roof only, depending on the surrounding environmental needs, such as odor control and other considerations. The composting machine moves along the concrete walls on a rail system turning over the material with a cylindrical rotating drum with blades as it moves (Figure 2). It is propelled with electric motors for the translation movement and hydraulic power for the rotating drum. Composting operations are fully automated. The machines can be programmed to turn over material in all the trenches at the plant. An auxiliary transfer rack guides the machine into position over each trench. The turn over accelerates fermentation and the maturing process by contributing to the dissipation of excessive heat/temperature and restoring oxygen to the material. In addition, the ventilation system helps to maintain adequate levels of temperature and oxygen. The machine could also incorporate an on-board irrigation system. Gases emitted in the fermentation process are captured and sent to a treatment system (washing and filtration). 1 Leaching generated is reused to wet the organic material at the beginning of the process.
Figure 1: Corridors in an opentrench composting facility.
Figure 2: Composting machine.
*La edicin en lengua espaola del presente artculo est disponible en la direccin Web de PB Network.
1 The topic of treating gases is covered in more detail in a preceding article, Converting Landfill Gas to High-Btu Fuel by Roger
Lemos. This is also on the web at http://www.pbworld.com/ news_events/publications/network/
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Approach to the Development of New Machinery

PBs power specialists in the Barcelona office were contracted to develop a new generation of dynamic composting machines together with our client, ROS ROCA IMA, a well known firm in the Spanish environmental sector, and significantly improve the existing operational units. Our reengineering works were directed to the accomplishment of two main objectives: Update the technology of the existing machinery to solve the problems associated with operations reliability and difficulty of maintenance, and to bring it up to state-ofthe-art standards using the best technical quality affordable Design new machines that would be of reasonable cost for the manufacturer, buyer, and plant operator. A complete study of the reengineering works was developed from the technical information provided by the client, the clients previous experiences, information learned during field trips to different composting plants, and a full analysis of the existing units. At this stage of the project, the scope of the reengineering works included the following systems: Mechanical Electrical and traction/propulsion Hydraulics Control and security Civil works and the trenches.
Mechanical System. Our goals were to reduce energy consumption and to extend the life of the critical parts of the system by three to four times. For this effort, we worked together with Centre de Disseny dEquips Industrials (CDEI) at Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya (UPC), an external design center that we hired. CDEI has extensive experience in machines and industrial mechanical equipment and had first order references from important firms in the Spanish market. Under our supervision, the following probFigure 3: Stresses on various areas of a composting machine component.
lems were studied in depth: Wear and abrasion Alternative designs of mechanical parts and the use of different materials with more mechanical strength Fatigue of some parts that had a short life expectancy. For this task, specific software and the finite element method were used for our analysis. (Figure 3). General redesign to provide for less wear and lower weight for the main parts involved in the rolling and coming in direct contact with the compost materials
Electrical Propulsion System. We studied the static (i.e., forces and moments diagrams, centers of gravity) and the dynamics of the machine (i.e., torque/traction motor, speeds, phases of movement) to find solutions to the main problems with the machines, which were primarily slipping and sliding. Our work included: Studying available alternatives in terms of electric traction motors and drives: conventional electric motors with frequency converters compared to vector or servo motors driven by servo-frequency converters. Calculating real power demand to move the machine and the distribution of torque for optimal traction of the driving wheels, depending on the work phases and different loads caused by the turning of organic compost.
The solutions we proposed to the client also involved using a different nominal power for the front and rear axles and changing the gearboxes.
Hydraulic System. The hydraulic system provides the power to the main burrowing drum that turns over the compost material, and also to the various hydraulic cylinders that move major parts of it. The most important problems in this hydraulic system were caused by the harsh environmental conditions of the work, such as high temperature, dirty environment and oxidation. These conditions affect all other systems of the machine as well, but were particularly harsh on the hydraulic system.
The proper redesign made by the supplier and the clients experience in operating and maintaining the machines will solve the dysfunctions observed in the system, such as excessive temperature of the hydraulic oil caused by the blocking of the cooling system or pollution to the environment.
Control and Security System. As mentioned, the composting operations in the field were fully automated and controlled by computers in the central control room. We conducted an extensive review of the existing system to determine: What sensors and transmitters were needed for the correct operation of the machines and the trenches system in the field
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What CPUs and PLCs were needed in the control panels at the central control room in the plant and local control panels in the machines How to reconfigure the programs loops and basic software control of the machines to solve the problems of traction/sliding, strikes and setbacks of the machinery in operation, incorrect travel and operation speeds, etc. What signals were needed for operation, control, warning and personal safety, and machine and installation security How to provide a centralized control system for maximum automation modes at a reasonable cost. We also investigated the use of state-of-the-art industry standards for bus communications under Industrial Ethernet (called PROFINET) with both wired and wireless connections between devices in the field at field and in the control. It was important that the new system be more reliable and faster than the current system, which communicates via radio. Other future enhancements we considered included: Decentralized equipment for local control in manual or maintenance mode operations Expanded control system to allow more than one machine to operate in the trenches at the same time. With regards to security, our client was interested in improving the personal safety of those working in the field. After conducting a thorough review of the issues concerning the safety and protection of personnel, including mechanical safeguards, light and acoustic signals, emergency stops at field, and danger warning posters, we made the following recommendations: Integrate the security functions of the machines in the control system using Profisafe standard developed under Profinet standard.
Add an ADJUSTMENT mode to the control system for safe local maintenance operations. Prepare documentation to guarantee and maintain the machine and installation safety, including instruction manuals, periodic safety inspections, training, etc. All the investigations and developed works that resulted represented several new ideas/concepts/solutions for the new equipment, or new ways of operating the composting machines.
Civil Works and Trenches. For this system, we worked on two major tasks. We drafted protocols about dimensional control for trenches and the rail system to ensure that they were constructed properly. This was important because the composting machines require well-executed civil works with the planned and precise tolerances for proper operation.
We also recalculated the reinforced concrete walls and their foundations to have a standard for manufacturing. The external dimensions were not modified because they are in accordance with our clients standards. The changes that were needed were in the composition of the concrete walls and foundations and in their reinforcement.
Conclusions
This R&D project introduced our power specialists in Spain to a new areaconsulting on detailed project engineering. The working method has been the result of a very close collaboration of our team with all parties involved: our client, supply companies and external collaborators. This collaboration was essential for the projects success. Our client plans to introduce PBs redesign solutions progressively, and we fully expect that the composting operations will run much more smoothly.
Oriol Alts is project engineer with PBs power group in Spain. He holds a Bachelor of Industrial Engineering degree, Energetic Techniques Intensification. Oriol specializes in the fields of energy, process engineering and cogeneration. He has a good knowledge of the industry and some major components due to his professional experience in the field of industrial steam boilers.
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Water Factory Will Help to Address Water Shortage Concerns

By Andrew Hodgkinson, Melbourne, Victoria, 61(3) 9861 1171, hodgkinsonA@pbworld.com
Gippsland Water Factory is a leading example of integrated urban water cycle management. The author provides an overview of the facility and the key three steps in its wastewater treatment process, and tells of the alliance delivery model that has had outstanding results in Australia.
The Latrobe Valley region in the State of Victoria, Australia, is pioneering a solution that will help to address water shortage concerns, provide lasting community benefits and set the standard in Victoria for industrial water reuse. The Gippsland Water Factory, an A$174 million facility, will be an innovative wastewater treatment and water recycling facility. An alliance of PB, Gippsland Water, Transfield Services Limited and CH2M HILL will deliver the facility. When PB first began working with Gippsland Water on the project in 2001, the focus was to develop a management strategy to solve some immediate environmental issues (especially odour) associated with Gippsland Waters Regional Outfall Sewer. Over several successive stages, the projects focus widened to the long-term sustainability of the entire regions water supply, and the variety of benefits the facility could deliver. The current Gippsland Water Factory (Stage 1) works are establishing an initial recycled water supply of 8 ML (2 million gallons)/day to service a local paper mill. Major civil works began in early 2007. Major concrete works for the membrane bioreactor, the key structure of the facility, are now complete (Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4). The membrane bioreactor is a membrane filtration system that will use ground-breaking technology to provide an impor tant step in the treatment of the regions domestic and industrial wastewater. Successful hydro testing of this structure was completed in March 2008, a major milestone for the project. The facility was designed to minimise greenhouse gas emissions, with carbon efficiency being a key design objective throughout the project. Electricity to help power the facilitys operation will be generated onsite from biogas produced in the initial biological treatment and from a nearby micro-hydro facility.1 Such generation methods will help to minimise environmental impacts on the site and help keep the carbon footprint of the project as small as possible. Also planned as part of the water factory is the Vortex Centre, which would showcase the wastewater treatment technology and serve as an education resource for the community.
Figure 1: Membrane bioreactor construction as of September, 2007.
How the Technology Works

The water factory includes three key treatment processes: biological treatment, membrane filtration and reverse osmosis.
1 Two other articles in this issue are
about related topics. See Converting Landfill Gas to High BTU Fuel by Roger Lemos, pp.54-55; and Planning for Mini Hydro in Distributed Generation by Tony Mulholland, pp.25-26 and 37.
2 To learn more about commercial com-
Biological Treatment. During biological treatment, bacteria feed on organic substances in the water. At this stage, the organic matter present in the water is converted to carbon dioxide, water and sludge. This sludge concentrates in the bioreactor and over time is removed from the reactor tank as biosolids, which will be further processed offsite into compost.2 The remaining water moves on to the next stage of the process, membrane filtration. Membrane Filtration. During membrane filtration, the biologically treated water is separated from the sludge through a series of ultrafiltration membranes. Each membrane is like a straw dotted with thousands of tiny holes (pores) that are less than one-tenthousandth of a millimetre in diameter.
posting, see the preceding article, PB Redesigns a Composting Machine for Improved Operations by Oriol Alts, pp.91-93.
Figure 2: Post-tensioned walls under construction in October 2007.
Figure 3: Walkway around membrane bioreactor, February 2008.
Each membrane is periodically cleaned to remove the sludge from its surface so the filtration process can continue. The filtered and biologically treated domestic wastewater is then suitable to progress to the third stage of the water treatment process, reverse osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis. Reverse osmosis is most commonly used to remove salt from water. It can remove more than 90 percent of the salts contained in wastewater. This process uses a semi-permeable membrane that has pores around one-ten-millionth of a millimetre in diameter. The salty water is placed on one side of the membrane filter and pressure is applied to drive the water through the semi-permeable membrane. The result is a high-quality, low-salt water product.
Alliance Delivery Model

Alliance contracting is a form of relationship contracting that has delivered outstanding results on many Australian projects supported by PB and is continuing to be developed, increasing its ability to inspire innovation, drive high performance, and reward all participants. The Gippsland Water Factory Alliance has a contractual framework that aligns the commercial goals of all participants to the pursuit of one common goal or vision. This means that each alliance partner: Assumes collective responsibility for delivering the project Takes collective ownership of all risks associated with delivery of the project Shares in the pain or gain, depending on how actual project outcomes compare to pre-agreed targets.
Andrew Hodgkinson, an environmental scientist, is serving as technical director on the Gippsland Water Project. He joined PB in 1996. Note: See Gippsland Water Factory: A Milestone in Water Cycle Management, by Andrew Hodgkinson, PB Network 64, December 2006, p 64, http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/Issue_64/64_21_Hodgkinson_Gippsland.asp.
Figure 4: Aerial view of Gippsland Water Factory as of April, 2008.
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Swim Lanes Part 2: Laying Out a Swim Lane Diagram Using Microsoft PowerPoint or Visio
By Kurt Sloan, Denver, Colorado, 1-303-390-5920, sloan@pbworld.com
Swim lane diagrams are great tools for identifying the flow of a business process, responsibilities of its associated players, and areas for possible improvement. Read on to learn how to use standard software that most of us already have to make your swim lane diagrams.
In our previous article, Streamline Your Business Processes by Using a Swim Lane Diagram (PB Network Issue 671), we discussed what a swim lane diagram is, how it could be used to map out a business process, and how it can help to identify candidate areas for improvement and process efficiency. In this article we build on these topics and show how either PowerPoint or Visio can be used to create basic swim lane diagrams. Beyond that, all you need is: A process that needs mapping A person with a good understanding of the process, its players, and their associated activities.
PowerPoint
Once you have started PowerPoint and have a process in mind that you want to map out, you are ready to make your swim lane diagram. First you build your diagram template (or use the pre-made template discussed below), and then map out your business process.
Activate the Drawing Toolbar. Make sure that you have the Drawing toolbar activated (Figure 1). If not, then: 1. Click on View at the top of the screen 2. Click on Toolbars to see a list of all currently active toolbars within your PowerPoint session. 3. If there is not a checkmark to the left of Drawing, click on the word to activate the toolbar.
The Drawing tool bar should now be active, and most likely appear at the bottom of the screen.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 1: The PowerPoint Drawing Toolbar. Numbers coordinate with descriptions below.
1 This article is also on the Web at
http:www.pbworld.com/news_events/ publications/network/Issue_67/67_ind ex.asp
Create Your Diagram Using the Drawing Toolbar. All the tools that you need to create a basic swim lane diagram are located on the Drawing toolbar. Those you will use in the order they appear on the toolbar are the following: 1. AutoShapes. These are the symbols you can use to populate your diagram. Find the ones you like and drag them to your template. You can then add text and copy them as needed for reuse. 2. Line. You can use the line tool to section off areas within the diagram, such as phases or departments. 3. Arrow. Use the Arrow tool for showing the physical flow of information as it moves through the diagram. 4. Rectangle. This feature allows you to create rectangles of varying shapes and sizes. It is a great tool for creating the layout (template) of the diagram prior to populating it with symbols, lines and text. 5. Text Box. This feature allows you to add text to any of the shapes you place in the diagram. 6. Fill Color. The Fill Color feature allows you to fill in the background of a selected shape to make it stand out from the rest of the objects on the page. 7. Line Style. PowerPoint allows you to create lines of varying thicknesses, but experience shows that using the same width for your process arrows will make your charts easier to read.
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8. Dash Style. You can use the Dash Style button to change the type of line that you are using in the diagram. This is useful when you are differentiating between process steps and electronic data transfers. 9. Arrow Style. The Arrow Style feature allows you to set the arrow head location on your lines to help your readers understand the direction the process is flowing. Now that you have a good grasp on the tools available to you, you can begin using them to create your swim lane diagram.
Template Available for PB Staff. For the benefit of readers, I have created a pre-made PowerPoint swim lane diagram template (Figure 2) that can be downloaded from PB WorldNet at the following address:
Creating Your Diagram. With your specific process in mind that you want to map and Visio started, your next steps are: 1. When you are asked to Choose a Drawing Type, select Business Process to see the set of templates available to you. 2. Select the Cross Functional Flowchart template by clicking on the appropriate icon for your geographic region (Figure 3):
http://www.pbworldnet.com/launcher.asp?action=5&v=3&w= 3765526&x=-1&y=563&z=3765526
Figure 2: Sample Swim Lane Diagram Template. Figure 3: The Cross Functional Flowchart Icons.
3. This will bring up the Cross-functional flowchart wizard screen (Figure 4):
This template can be modified easily using PowerPoint to meet the needs of your actual process.
Pros and Cons of Using PowerPoint . Using PowerPoint to create a swim lane diagram provides the following benefits over Visio : It comes with most versions of Microsoft Office, so other team members can readily modify and enhance the diagram. It provides a greater freedom for customizing the layout and design.
Figure 4: The Crossfunctional flowchart Wizard Screen.
PowerPoint does have a few drawbacks though: There is no automated method for diagram creation. It takes a greater effort to configure the diagram as needed.
Visio
If you have Visio available, you may prefer to create your swim lane diagram using its Cross Functional Flowchart template, which is another name for the swim lane type of diagram. You will still need to add your actual process steps, however, and to modify the drawing to identify your process needs.
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4. From here, you can tell Visio whether you want to create a Horizontal or Vertical flow. I prefer vertical for most situations, but choose the one that best fits your need. 5. You can select the number of bands (swim lanes) that you want to create. I usually use one swim lane for each person (actor) involved in the process. Note: The Visio template allows no more than five Function bands in a single diagram. I believe that this is a drawback to using Visio because even though it is rare to need more than five, it is not unheard of. 6. If you wish to add an area for a title bar at the top of the chart, be sure to select the Include title bar option: 7. Once you are happy with your selections, click the OK button and Visio will provide you with a pre-made layout for your Swim Lane Diagram (Figure 5 on the following page)
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And, like PowerPoint, Visio has its limitations: You are limited to between one to five swim lanes. Connection lines that cross each other will change shapes to reflect the process fly over. This feature is one of my least favorites, particularly because Visio does not give you a choice about using it. There is an extra-cost involved for most users because Visio is not part of the standard PowerPoint suite of products.
Which Application Is Right for You?

This is a question that only you can answer. If you have access to both applications, then your answer will probably depend on how much freedom you want and how much help you think you will need when creating your swim lane diagram. I suggest you make a few sample diagrams in each program to see which one is more comfortable to you.
Conclusion
As we mentioned in the first article, using swim lane diagrams to analyze and improve your business process is not rocket science. Figure out which tool and symbols work best for your purposes and dont feel tied down to one set way of creating these diagrams. What is impor tant here is to make sure you properly capture the process and deliver the message within the diagram in a way that all readers can understand. If your team can look at it and understand what youre trying to say, then you are on the right path and well on your way to making your process more efficient.
Figure 5: Visios pre-made diagram layout.
8. From the left side of this screen, select the Basic Flowchart Shapes menu bar to see a list of premade shapes you can use to create your diagram. You simply drag and drop these symbols onto the working area and then use the tools included with Visio to insert or modify lines, line types, line ends, shading, etc., as needed until your diagram looks the way you want.
Pros and Cons of Using Visio . Using Visio to create your swim lane diagram provides you with the following benefits over using PowerPoint : It comes with a template for faster creation and less need to eyeball the layout. It provides more pre-made shapes and templates to choose from. The line tool adjusts automatically to make it easier for the reader to follow the flow.
Next Time
In Part 3 of this series, we will demonstrate how to take an existing process and capture it into a swim lane diagram, using what we have learned to this point.
Kurt Sloan is the client services manager for the PB Project Information Management Technical Excellence Center in Denver, Colorado. 2008 represents Kurts 20th year providing information technology support and guidance to companies such as PB, Accenture / Andersen Consulting and Bank of America.
Working with Text in Adobe Acrobat Pro:

COPY TEXT TO OTHER SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS, USE BUILT-IN OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION, MAKE CORRECTIONS WITH THE TOUCHUP TEXT TOOL
By Jim Hinshaw, Austin, Texas, 1-512-347-3504, hinshaw@pbworld.com
Figure 1: Text selection.
Most PB computers have a copy of Adobe Acrobat Professional installed thanks to a corporate license. Many users are not aware, however, that editable text can be copied from unsecured Acrobat files and pasted into Microsoft Word or other files. Acrobat even has a built-in optical character recognition function that lets users create editable text from scanned documents. These techniques will not work with Acrobat Reader software.
Selecting and Copying Text

Copying and pasting an image, text, and tables from a .PDF document to an MS Word document is easy. Click the Text Selection Tool (Figure 1), and click and drag over the text you wish to copy. Copy the text to the clip board (click on Copy under the Edit menu), and then paste it into your text document. This technique should work with any software that handles text and has a paste command. If you want to select all the text on a page, click your right mouse button and choose Select All from the contextual pop-up menu. Let your mouse hover over the selected text for a moment and you will see an Acrobat button appear. Move your mouse over the button, and more buttons appear giving you several options for copying or marking up the text (Figure 2.). Or, right click your mouse and this list will appear. If you want to copy all the text in a .PDF file and retain the formatting, choose Save As under the File menu and select Rich Text Format from the Save as type pop-up menu. Then save the document as a Rich Text Format (*.rtf) file. Microsoft Word will open the Rich Text file as if it were a native Word document. Be aware that text spanning several pages may contain header and footer text that you may not want to keep.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) for Copying Text

If you have a document that you want to copy text from but cant select the text, it is likely that the document was scanned. You are seeing a picture of the text that is not editable. Acrobat comes to the rescue with its built-in OCR function. OCR is a process whereby the software recognizes letter forms and converts their images into editable text. Click on the Document menu at the top of your window and select the Recognize Text Using OCR command (Figure 3 on the following page). For most scanned documents, you can use the Start sub-command to conver t all letter forms to editable text. A dialog box will appear asking you to specify the pages that you want converted. After Acrobat has finished OCR, use the copy and paste steps outlined above. It is a really good idea to proof-read the text after copying it, however, because OCR can make mistakes with a poor quality original.
Figure 2: Options for copying or marking text.
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Computer Tutor
You must have the document font on your computer system in order to add or replace text. Other properties are editable as long as the font is embedded in the PDF. Certain PDF security measures prevent documents from being edited.
PDF Security
If the techniques described above do not work, it could be that the author of the document has saved the file with security measures that prevent the copying of text. In this case, it is best to contact the author and ask permission to copy the file. This might be accomplished with a password or an unsecured version of the file. Not many people bother to or know how to secure a .PDF file, however, so if a document has been secured, the author is likely to have strong feelings about protecting the content. If you would like to secure your .PDF documents, the command to do so is found just above the OCR command in the Document Menu. There are several options available in the Security dialog box, and to cover them all would be an article in itself. In fact, that article will be in the next installment of Computer Tutor. Until then, use the Acrobat help file to learn more about both OCR and document security.
Figure 3: The Documents menu showing how to start optical character recognition (OCR) function.
The TouchUp Text Tool

You can do quick, minor corrections to text inside a PDF with the TouchUp Text tool. The TouchUp tool is located under the Tools menu and Advanced Editing submenu. You can edit text and a variety of proper ties including font, size, horizontal scale, character spacing, baseline offset, character fill and stroke, and font embedding and sub setting (Figure 4). Once you access the TouchUp tool, simply highlight the text you want to replace and type in the corrections. To change properties, have the cursor over the selected text, then right click, and select Properties.
Related Web Sites:

http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/
Figure 4: The dialog box that appears when you select text with the TouchUp tool and then right click and select Properties.
http://www.acrobatusers.com/ http://www.planetpdf.com/
Jim Hinshaw, a senior graphic designer and business development associate, is located in Austin, Texas. Jim (aka graphics monkey) is a former PAN 9 coordinator and currently coordinates the Computer Tutor section of PB Network. He has worked for PB on and off since 1983 and is currently part of the U.S. Central District marketing team.
Going Green: Walking the Walk!!

By Kim Sammut, Adelaide, South Australia, 61 8 9489 9782, sammutK@pbworld.com
PB offices around the world have established Green Teams dedicated to implementing initiatives that are reducing our impact on the environment. Members and staff are banding together with management support and changing the way we do business.
For several years, many PB offices around the world have planned, implemented and monitored environmental management systems (EMS) to a standard wor thy of ISO 14001 cer tification, and many more are well on their way to achieving such cer tification. ISO 14001, the international specification for environmental management systems, is considered a base-level requirement by many of our clients and joint venture par tners, who are increasingly recognising the need for duly diligent environmental management. In many instances, however, there have been gaps between what is prescribed in our EMSs and the daily practises demonstrated by our staff. We may have been seen to talk the talk, but not to walk the walk. Enter the Green Teams ...
Green Teams
Green Teams within PB offices are comprised of volunteers who share a passion for sustainability and for encouraging sustainable practises amongst their colleagues. Their members help to raise the profile of environmental issues while encouraging positive interaction between colleagues. This home-grown approach develops a sense of ownership among office staff of the steps laid out to save energy and reduce waste, and responsibility to follow these steps. Within the New York office, a mission statement has been developed that captures the essence of the Green Team philosophy: To promote the continuous adoption of sustainable practices by PB in its New York offices and to create a sustained and growing awareness of the benefits of environmental responsibility among PB employees. Ideally, within each office there will be active participation from a range of disciplines and levels of seniority. To maintain momentum, local Green Teams should share ideas regularly and make the time to implement initiatives. Whilst all of the above may sound good to the converted, there are others who may want to know what this all amounts to. Well, read on...
Green Initiatives in PBs Offices around the World

Many of our offices appear to be on the same page with respect to the green initiatives that have been implemented locally. In one respect, this is remarkable due to the relative lack of Green Team collaboration throughout the regions; but it makes perfect sense considering the similarity of our office environments. Some of the more popular initiatives implemented around the world include: Using only 100 percent recycled paper and printing double-sided (if at all) Having automatic power shut-down on electrical equipment, including motion-sensor light switches in meeting rooms Recycling paper, plastic, glass, batteries and mobile phones Participating in events such as Earth Day, Earth Hour, Ride to Work Day and local neighbourhood clean-up days Auctioning unwanted office equipment to staff or donating to local schools or charities Drinking Fair Trade organically-grown coffee in mugs (not throw-away cups). Green Teams have also helped to implement other sustainable measures in several offices. For example: The Melbourne Office has recently installed LED lights, which consume up to 90 percent less energy than standard incandescent globes.
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Planetwise
The Portland Office has created vendor guidelines to encourage the use of local produce and minimal packaging. In the Perth Office, waterless urinals have been installed, saving upwards of 500,000 litres (132,000 gallons) of water each year. A number of Australian offices have worm farms that convert unwanted food scraps into a take-home fertiliser for staff gardens.1 Green Team members train staff about the initiatives in place and provide ongoing encouragement and monitoring of participation.
Issue 69. Managed Lanes, Bus Rapid Transit, and Other Congestion Management Solutions.
Managed lanes, high occupancy toll lanes, and bus rapid transit (BRT) technologies and strategies help manage growing metropolitan traffic congestion in cities around the world. Other related topics are congestion pricing, tools for mobility, bus rapid vehicles, and streetcars. Our intent is to showcase the advances in technology and management strategies that PB is spearheading with our clients. Contact guest editors Cliff Henke (Arcadia California, henkeC@pbworld.com) and/or Darren Henderson (Houston, hendersonD@pbworld.com).
What Does the Future Hold?

In an ideal world, PB Green Teams the world over would participate in greater knowledge sharing to enable us all to reduce, re-use and recycle as much as practicable. Maybe we could even have an annual award for the greenest PB office? In parallel with us getting our own house in order, the new challenge for PB is to become a leader in advising our clients on sustainable solutions that could be incorporated into their projects. The awareness that our Green Teams promote in house coupled with a more external application of our environmental management systems will assist PB in fulfilling its vision of improving our communities. Lets all walk the walk!! For more information on Green Teams or for advice on getting one started in your office, contact me at ksammut@pb.com.au or put the word out on PAN 63.
Issue 70. Simulation and Modeling.

This PB Network will focus on PB's strength in application of high-tech computer analysis techniques for environmental, power, transportation, buildings, and economics simulations. Many of PB's engineering services use complex computer analysis tools to aid design and construction of infrastructure, making it more efficient and cost effective. Key examples are computational fluid dynamics (CFD), virtual design and construction (VDC), 3D visualization, and animation. Sometimes, physical modeling (such as scaled-down wind tunnel testing) is also conducted, often to demonstrate how engineers' designs will function in the real world, providing calibration/verification of the computational model. Interfacing between computational models, providing a multi-physics capability is another area for innovation at PB.
Deadline October 2008. Send articles to guest editors Simon Drake (Croydon, UK, drakeS@pbworld.com) and/or Glen Loyd (Denver, loydG@pbworld.com).
Related Web Sites:

ISO: http://www.iso.org/iso/management_standards.htm Earth Day: http://www.earthday.net/ Earth Hour: http://www.earthhour.org/ Ride to Work: http://www.earthride.com.au/
Issue 71. Let the Games Begin.

We will cover sports and entertainment facilities, Olympic venues, arenas, theaters, gambling and gaming sites, and casinos. This will include PB's achievements and lessons learned from Olympics in Beijing, Salt Lake City, Sydney, Atlanta, and others major events.
To read more about PBs worm farms, see Worms Are One Way to Go Green by Andrea Averkiou, PB Network, Issue 60, p.98; or on line at http://www. pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_60/60_39_averkiou.asp
Acknowledgement to Simon Liddiard (UK) for his assistance in compiling this article.
Other Future Topics

Kim Sammut, who holds a BSc and a post graduate Diploma in Environmental Management, was appointed recently as the Australia-Pacific Environmental Management Steward. He is a geologist, environmental scientist, project manager and safety, environment and quality manager. Kim is a founding member of the Perth Green Team and is currently playing a direct role in implementing green systems and promoting a culture of sustainability in PBs Adelaide and New Zealand offices.
Please contact John Chow or any editor to discuss new topics. Other proposed themes are: Security; CADD; geotechnical instrumentation; the new Cincinnati Reds Ballpark; program management; scheduling; bridge management, bridge inspection and rehabilitation, and automated inspection services. What are your ideas?
Call for Articles
We invite all PB employees to participate in technology transfer and submit articles to PB Network on any technical subject, especially our featured topics. (See In Future Issues.) We look forward to hearing from you. Our Goal
Conclusion: What lessons did you learn? What was the impact of PBs solution on your project? What does your new technology or technique mean to PB and the state-of-the-art of the industry? What is the current status of your project, technique, or technology? Biographical Information: Tell us about your work experience, noteworthy professional achievements and contributions to particular projects in 2-3 sentences at the end of your article. Related Web Sites: Provide any Web addresses that readers can go to for related information.
The goal of PB Network is to promote technology transfer by featuring articles that: Tell readers about innovative developments. Appeal to a broad range of readers. Include only essential information in a readable format. Encourage readers to contact authors for more information.
Guidelines for Articles

Articles should conform to PB Network format (defined below). Keep your article as short as you caninclude only relevant details and descriptions. Papers written for other publications will not be accepted unless they are modified to conform to PB Network format.
File Formats
Provide electronic files Text: must be an MS Word file without graphics embedded. Graphics: Format must be either bitmap, tiff, eps, jpeg or psd Resolution must be at least 300 dpi Printed size must measure at least 165 mm (7 inches) wide Screen captures are only 72 dpi and not acceptable. Screening: If any artwork contains a screen (percentage of color) or some intricate grid, please also submit a copy of the art without these and we will add them.
PB Network Format
Length: Articles should be 1,400 words or less. Byline: Include the name, location, phone number and e-mail address of each author. Introduction/Overview: Provide a brief paragraph stating your topic and how it is significant Body of text: Clearly describe the challenge PB faced and how you or the PB team solved it. Provide exact name of client and state PBs role and responsibilities. Tell what innovative technologies or approaches PB developed or used. Provide all units of measures in metrics followed by U.S. Customary in parentheses. For assistance in converting measures, see http://www.onlineconversion.com/
This issue was produced on a Power Macintosh G4 using QuarkXPress 6.5, Illustrator CS3, and Photoshop CS3 publishing software. It was output on a Linotronic L330. Copies were printed via offset lithography. August 2008 Volume XXIII; Number 2 Macintosh File: Graphics Database T894; 14,000 copies printed by Howard Press, Roselle, NJ 07203 File: PB Network 68
To Submit Your Article

E-mail article and graphics files to the contact person named on the In Future Issues page, which appears in every issue of PB Network, or to: John Chow, New York, chow@pbworld.com, 1-212-465-5249. All graphics files and a clear hard copy at least 165 mm (7 inches) wide must also go to Laurie Ludwin, PB Graphics Services, One Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10019, 1-212-465-5725, ludwin@pbworld.com.
PB Network 2008
Parsons Brinckerhoff Inc., One Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10119, 1-212-465-5000. All rights reserved. Articles may be reprinted only with permission from the Executive Editor. This journal is intended to foster the free flow of ideas and information among PB staff. The opinions expressed by the writers are their own and are not necessarily those of Parsons Brinckerhoff. Past issues of PB Network starting from 1995 are available electronically on PB's Web site http://www.pbworld.com, under the button Research Library > PB Publications > PB Network," or go directly to http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/ publications/network/. All recent issues are available in .pdf format. All others are available in reader-friendly html format. Past issues are also available to PB employees via the PB Intranet, http://www.pbworldnet.com. Go to PB News > PB Publications > PB Network > View All Issues Here. PB employees can have additional printed copies to use for conferences, seminars and proposals. Send your request to pbnetwork@pbworld.com. Executive Editor: John Chow, Office of Professional Practice, New York, New York, chow@pbworld.com Editor: Lorraine Anderson, Office of Professional Practice, New York, New York Associate Editors: Gordon Clark, Seattle, Washington; Willa Garnick, Office of Professional Practice, New York, New York Column Editor: Tracey Nixon, Dublin, Ohio Graphic Designer: Laurie Ludwin, Graphic Services Group, New York, New York; Amy Geller, Graphic Services Group, New York, New York Production Manager: Michael Babin, New York, New York Web Team: Rick Goldsmith, New York, New York; Erik Dennis, New York, New York; Feng Lu, New York, New York Column Coordinators: Gordon Clark, Seattle, Washington, The Net View; Jim Hinshaw, Denver, Colorado, Computer Tutor; Tracy Abbott, New York, New York, R&I; Kathy Leotta, Seattle, Washington, Globetrotters and Planetwise Guest Technical Editors and Reviewers for this Issue: Guest Editors: Katherine Jackson, Manchester, UK; Arthur Ekwue, Godalming, UK. Guest Reviewers: John Douglas, Newcastle, UK; Ferrel Ensign, Sacramento, CA; Steve Loyd, Newcastle, UK; Chris Meadows, Bristol, UK; Brian Van Weele, San Francisco, CA; and John Wichall, Godalming, UK. Advisors: Judy Cooper, New York, New York; Paul Gilbert, Seattle, Washington; Amer Khan, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Alan Knott, Manchester, U.K.; Steven Lai, China; Andrew Lawrence, Singapore; Faye Purbrick, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; and Catherine Singleton, Brisbane, Australia.
Printed on recycled paper.
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Fishing Power
By Gordon Clark, Seattle, Washington 1-206-382-5246, clark@pbworld.com
ts springtime in the Pacific Northwest of the USA. Im looking out over Port Madison Bay on the Puget Sound, wondering what the forecast is for offshore weather. Its probably for moderate swells out of the west and stiff northwesterly gusts, fresh and cold off the Bearing Sea. Its always the same this time of year. By now Im usually in the middle of planning and outfitting for several deep sea fishing trips off the Oregon coast. Waiting out there at depths between 100 and 200 meters are halibut fish weighing over 60 kilos. The big one that got away last year is still out there. The sea gods are daring me again to challenge the wind and waves in a bid to put one of those huge-ugly-delicious-wonderful fish on my barbeque. For ten consecutive years, since moving to the Seattle area, I have come off victorious. This year will be different. This year I cannot accept the challenge. There will be no moonlight crossings of the bar at 5:00 AM, no moments awestruck by the spectacular sunrises over Yaquina Head, and no pounding 50-kilometer journeys offshore to where the halibut wait. There will be no probing the darkness for stray crab pot floats as we clear the jetty, no navigation by GPS to the spot where the big fish are. There will be no chatter on the marine band radio with the Halibut PAN, no tug of war with a barn-door-size brute, and no bragging when I get back to the dock about the monster that got away again. This year I will be staying home. I still cant believe I am saying this. I cant believe this is happening. As I stare out past the fir and alder trees and focus on the boats and water Im suddenly sad and depressed, and I can feel the ghost pains of a missing arm or leg, like a piece of me has been removed. In an effort to console myself, I let the logical, rational engineer in me review the facts that are prompting me to deny myself this ritual event. I keep telling myself that it is really quite simple. The cost of the trip has more than doubled in the last two years. While I love to extol the adventurous independence of fishing and the romantic lure of the sea, that is only half of it. The financial benefit of eliminating the middleman in getting fish on the barbeque has been a major plank in discussions with my wife to gain a weekend off fishing with the boys. A few years ago I could put fresher halibut on the grill than I could buy at the local fish market and end up paying half their asking price. That was back when oil was $50 a barrel and gas around $2 for 4 liters. Today the cost of gas to drive 600 miles round trip to Depoe Bay plus the cost to put 300 liters of gas in my brothers boat is no longer palatable. Even if I were able to catch a really, really big fish, the cost would work out to be about the sameexcept that if I buy it at the fish market I dont have to bob like a bottle cap in a lake for ten hours risking life and limb. Not that the prospect of drowning has ever discouraged me from pushing out into the deep, but the thought always lingered faintly in the back of my mind. Dog-paddling in circles while waiting to slowly freeze to death or get eaten by a shark is a horrible way to leave this world. Now, just the thought of what the fish would actually cost has spoiled my appetite. If this keeps up, I may have to question my keen taste for salmon and ling codalthough these can still be found much closer to shore. I have thought about ways to cut costs so I could still make the trip. One idea was wind power. I could sail right out of Port Madison in my new sailboat, across Puget Sound and out through the Strait of Juan de Fuca into the Pacific Ocean. I have even gone so far as to plot the course from Bainbridge Island, where I live. The round trip would be roughly 400 nautical miles. If I had great winds, I could make a speed of 6 knots and complete the trip in about 72 hours of continuous sailing. I love to sail, but three days of nonstop sailing changes a fishing trip into a sailing marathon. Besides, I would much rather get fish blood and guts all over my brothers fishing boat than on my sailboat. What I really need is a cheap source of reliable energy. The boat is too small for a steam plant and it will be a few years before portable nuclear reactors or cold fusion are available at the local chandlery. The sailboat does harness the wind but, like many small-scale energy collection devices, it is hard to gather enough energy to power things at the desired level. It takes a lot of power to drive a boat at 25 knots over swells and against ocean currents. Maybe a hydrogen powered boat using something to extract the fuel directly from seawater or the atmosphere? After much brainstorming, I am forced to surrender to the sad fate that I am not going fishing this year. At the same time, Ive realized this problem is way bigger than just my annual fishing trips. The increasing demand for energy and its increasing price affects all aspects of our lives. It is all the more impor tant to make the most of what we have while we search for new sources of energy. This is where the energy professionals at PB can help design state-of-the-ar t power generation plants and transmission systems. If any of you can figure out a way to power my boat for less, we could discuss it over a fish barbeque.
Gordon Clark is a senior professional associate, senior project manager, and coordinator of the Tunnel and Underground Engineering Practice Area Network (PAN 37) He currently serves as chief engineer and technical lead for the Alaskan Way Viaduct and Seawall Replacement Project in Seattle, Washington.

Innovation in Global Power

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Innovation in Global Power

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A technical journal by Parsons Brinckerhoff employees and colleagues

Issue No. 68 August 2008

Heat Map of Hot Rocks

NuGas Steam Cycles