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The Year's Work in Stylistics: 2002

Geoff Hall Language and Literature 2003 12: 353 DOI: 10.1177/09639470030124004 The online version of this article can be found at: http://lal.sagepub.com/content/12/4/353

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R E V I E W A RT I C L E
The years work in stylistics: 2002
Geoff Hall, University of Wales, Swansea, UK

Cognitive Poetics 2002 may turn out to be the year in which cognitive poetics/ stylistics/ rhetoric established its hegemony or at least critical mass as regards the study of language and literature. Then again my own sense of Jourdainian wonder that I have always been speaking cognitive poetics but didnt realize it may also be more widely shared and may point to a less radical impact than some writings claimed. Publications such as Stockwell (2002a), Semino and Culpeper, and special journal issues notably including Poetics Today 23(1), Literature and the Cognitive Revolution and Style 36(3) Cognitive Approaches to Figurative Language (as well as Language and Literature 11[1] Metaphor Identification), seem to articulate much that is widely consensual, but in stimulating original and profound research still tend to disappoint despite some valuable contributions discussed below. And while any worthwhile paradigm change has always seemed to necessitate over-inflated claims to originality and importance (revolution etc.) along with deprecation of previously existing models, it is difficult not to suspect that some red faces may yet appear out of the settling cognitive dust in years to come. Cognitive poetics, for those returning from long sabbaticals or other planets, sees itself as poetics rather than hermeneutics (Hamilton, 2002: 13); less scientistically, what might be called a broad notion of literary comprehension, how it works, rather than more damned interpretations. Though some may not wish to be reminded of Cullers formulation in Structuralist Poetics (1975), the search for literary competence was arguably a real predecessor to cognitive linguistics. (Spolsky argues this too, in Poetics Today though she is unrepresentatively receptive to earlier writings.) An account of developments in this field in 2002 can reasonably begin with Stockwells Introduction for undergraduates on stylistics and literary-linguistics courses. The guide explicitly argues and offers to illustrate cognitive poetics as new ways (and better) of looking at established topics in literary studies. An important claim, here as in others of these cognitive authors, is that the cognitive approach will reconnect ordinary everyday experience of language and cognition with literary phenomena. An accessible and readable tour, well exemplified with a good range of historical and less canonical texts, is then conducted through 10 chapters covering in turn: Figures and Grounds; Prototypes; Deixis; Cognitive Grammar; Scripts and Schemas; Discourse Worlds [possible worlds]; Metaphor; Literature as Parable; and Text Worlds; concluding with the Comprehension of Literature, including the modelling of affect (experience). The style is patient

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and pedagogically interactive with plenty of questions for discussion and useful suggestions for extension and further reading. Students are encouraged to foster a healthy scepticism or at least suspicion toward some of the historical shibboleths of the school such as defamiliarization or schema theory (p. 20; pp. 812). Overall, Stockwell offers an impressive Introduction from which many of us will learn even as we gratefully turn to it in our teaching. The questions raised by even this impressive book are nevertheless how new these new angles are. What is the claim exactly to subsume the current literary field? To complement it? To offer an alternative? I wasnt always clear, and perhaps Stockwell isnt either. To the extent that his intellectual honesty and integrity impel him to honour contexts and reader variation in his interpretations, the novelty of the endeavour seems ever more tenuous. This feature of what is claimed as cognitive linguistics is obvious in the journal articles too. The more party line cognitive, the less illuminating and interesting readings seem to become. As readings become more sophisticated and engaging, their claim to cognitive specificity or pedigree seems ever more tenuous. The Monsieur Jourdain syndrome again, or perhaps like many other traditionalists, I just find hermeneutics more interesting than poetics. Texts interest me more than some monolithic idea of the human mind. You pays yer money. But even so, where interpretations convince, how necessary is all the cognitive terminology? What perspective does much talk about deixis (e.g. Stockwell, Ch. 4) give that older narratology didnt? A second reservation with regard to this whole field is that the stress on poetics rather than hermeneutics, how it means rather than what it means, and the ordinariness of literary language and comprehension, seems to lead to an unnecessary devaluation, even intense hostility toward, much previously existing literary study (seen, surely reductively, as deliberately wilful misreading), as well as a defensive privileging of notions held in much suspicion by more mainstream literary criticism, such as realism and characters (e.g. Stockwell, Ch. 7). I return to this problem in the years work and beyond in my conclusion. Another problem Stockwell shares with cognitive compeers is the universal we syndrome or what I came this year to think of as the hegemonic we. Turners we all (Turner, 2002: 10; or Fauconnier and Turner 2002) reminds too uncomfortably of advertisings We all want soft skin/ flat stomachs/ bigger breasts (dont we?). Where literary studies have traditionally sought out difference and difficulty, cognitive stylistics/ poetics/ criticism values the consensual and the everyday, what some of these writers denominate as the human, usually consistent with a conscious refusal of poststructuralist positions, including, of course, the critique of humanism. (Spolsky, is the key exception.) Semino and Culpeper is undoubtedly a significant collection of essays through which cognitive stylistics (in this case) sets out its claims to fame to date, and aspirations for the future, and on which many not yet of the cognitivscenti may legitimately judge the movement. A particularly impressive contribution is Popovas essay on Jamess The Figure in the Carpet, which offers a subtle reading of the story and of the critical debate around it. Its originality is to suggest

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that ambiguity will consist of a finite set of possible readings, whatever perspective critics have set out from, and not the potentially infinite plurality of readings a poststructuralist would want to argue for. Another strong chapter in Semino and Culpeper is Margaret Freeman on Dickinson, despite that hectoring pronoun again (we). Once more, though, note that much of this close textual work would be absolutely familiar and congenial to editors and bibliographers who would never have heard of cognitive anything much. The most impressive chapter in the collection, and perhaps the most appropriate in tone and attitude for this stage of development of a new paradigm, is Emmotts measured evaluation of the strengths and limitations of cognitivism to date tested against her life story data. Cognitive science is here shown to offer insights (p. 155), but also to need much more subtle elaboration if it is to move from the polemic invented sentence to worthwhile analysis of full-length naturalistic literary texts. Emmott notes too (compare Jackson, 2000; Adler and Gross, 2002) that while narrative is claimed by Turner (1996) and others to be central to human cognition, narratology and work in literary studies on narrative seem to be largely unknown or disvalued by the cognitivist revolutionists, to their disadvantage. (An important exception now is Herman in Story Logic: see below.) Emmotts is a subtle account of reference in discursive context (here to the self), showing how the literary text can and typically does perform beyond the simplicities of Fauconniers blending or similar ideas, though Genette and others have long been aware of the paradoxes thrown up by studying long complex narratives, highly culturally valued (novels, literature). (Similar points are made by Gross, 1997, a lengthy review of Turners work.) In fact I note a trend in Semino and Culpeper and elsewhere for more critical references to be directed toward Lakoff, who seems to be increasingly dethroned by Fauconnier and Turner, so that Fauconnier and Turner should also be noticed as a primer many of us should turn to for a better understanding of blending and mental spaces. Other notable pieces in the collection include Stockwell (2002b) on Milton, and Semino (2002b) on Fowless The Collector. We should nevertheless pause to ask why these pieces are unlikely to recommend themselves beyond an undergraduate market to more advanced literary scholarship. Is it that we are learning more about the workings of the mind than about the specific literary text? If cognitive poetics tells us about how we all read, perhaps we already know? In any case, the endeavour can at best offer retrospective accounts of how readings arose, it seems, which will not be quite enough for some. (The essays are not helped, incidentally, by the haphazard proofreading by editors or publisher.) Literature and the Cognitive Revolution, a special issue (23 [1]) of Poetics Today, sets out to respond to one important criticism of earlier cognitive work on literature, its lack of historicity (Stockwell [2002a] is strong in this respect too). The editors suggest the intention is more to supplement than to supplant (p. 2) in this case, and the volume falls into a more theoretical first part, with larger claims concerning the cognition of literary works, followed by applied readings of specific historical texts. Jackson (2000) again offers penetrating criticisms of the

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endeavour which I need not repeat, though his key point that an interdisciplinary research endeavour should be more two-way than it seems here, is well taken. (What could literature have to offer cognitive science? What of cognitive science might a literary practitioner be interested in?) Richardson in Poetics Today (2002a) on head injury in Austens Persuasion seems a particularly recherch instance of what cognitive science might have to offer literary critics, even if, to be fair, an effort to show the range of potential was what was promised! In fact in some ways I return to where I started this discussion in noticing that once again it is the exception that proves the rule, with Richardsons fine and penetrating essay on Apostrophe in Life and in Romantic Art in Style (2002b) contesting poststructuralist claims about the uncanniness of literary discourse, and specifically Cullers (1981) celebrated essay on the topic, to claim instead that the use of apostrophe in the canonical English Romantic poets was ordinary and everyday, as indeed we all do regularly address pets, vacuum cleaners and the like. My only difference from Richardson is that I am left with a sense of wonder at the strangeness and complexity of the everyday, where Turner or Richardson would seem to want us rather to contemplate ordinariness. A case of life being even stranger than fiction. The essay is particularly to be valued in its concluding plea for a conversation among literary scholars and cognitive scientists (p. 379): [T]he analysis of figures like metaphor and apostrophe does [sic] have a long and rich history. . . . [L]iterary scholars can vastly enrich notions of extraverbal context and common ground by specifying the cultural and historical differences that may affect both the production and reception of rhetorical figures over time. As more literary theorists, critics, and historians begin speaking to notions of cognitive rhetoric and figurative thought, cognitive scientists would do well to reply or at least to overhear. (p. 380) The cutting edge for stimulating and innovative cognitive poetic research is possibly represented by Miall and Kuiken, who attempt to accommodate a central role for the affective feelings in processes of literary comprehension, helping to account, in this argument, for the high valorisation of literature reading in many societies. The ambitious attempt here is to understand the book that changed my life phenomenon as part of the larger project of understanding the specificities of literary reading experience. More generally, Discourse Processes is a journal which continues to offer thought-provoking empirical cognitivist research findings. Articles likely to interest readers of Language and Literature from 2002 include Tapiero et al. investigating necessity and proximity as salient or determining features in reader detection of causal relations in sentences from narrative texts. Linderholm in the same issue looks at variation in readers predictive inferences related to working memory capacity. Kaakinen et al. in vol. 34(2) demonstrate and investigate reading effects consequent upon perspective priming. The work on variation and the importance of perspective contrasts interestingly with more universalist claims in Halsz et al., discussed below. Other notable psycholinguistic work in

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Discourse Processes for Language and Literature readers could be Schmalhofer et al., attempting to build on McKoon and Ratcliffe (1992) and Kintsch (1998) (multilevel representations rather than an independent strength value of an individual unit are held to be more significant in the generation and persistence of both types of inferences). Masuda in vol. 34(1) marshals evidence for narrative as an innate and autonomous rule-governed linguistic module in the human mind of possible interest to Nair (2002) or Herman (again), later. A disappointing psychological article, in many ways exemplifying Emmotts points earlier about understanding decontextualized short extracts as opposed to more ecologically valid discourse comprehension tasks, is Halsz et al. The article attempts to address questions of variation or homogeneity in reader response and the question of text type and reception, whether readers of what they perceive to be a literary text bring to bear particular reading strategies. It is odd that an experiment centrally addressing the foundational empirical research of Zwaan (1991, 1993) only refers to his work in passing (p. 213). Despite the limited nature of the experiment the influence of national schooling systems on reading habits is in any case clear. There is no natural or decontextualized universal reading experience even in the psycholinguists laboratory. I will notice finally in my cognitive section Mackenzies Paradigms of Reading as the years most sustained attempt to apply and extend relevance theory to literature. Thus literary communication is explored as a kind of cognition, perhaps particularly active and elaborative, but not different in substance from other everyday cognitions. There is much of interest here, although too much space for Mackenzies intended purposes is probably devoted to a polemic against de Man and deconstruction. I must say the polemic mainly served to remind me of how subtle and important de Mans writings could be! (I return to this theme in my conclusion): Listen to what the text actually says rather than what it wishes to say. If you want to talk about men you are in the wrong field. We can only talk about letters. [to Greenblatt] (de Man, quoted Ch.6; 160)

Metaphor Metaphor has of course historically been central to the cognitive effort in linguistics and literature (as to deconstruction), and 2002 saw a continuing strength of publications in this area. Language and Literature 11(1) turned to questions of Metaphor Identification, including contributions from Steen, Crisp, Heywood, Semino and Short. Kovecses, Gibbs and Low and Cameron close the issue with their responses to the effort. A notable synthesis by an established central member of cognitive figurative studies which both allows outsiders to update their understanding as well as undoubtedly prompting further thought and research is Kvecses Metaphor (2002a). Dirven and Porings edit a collection which takes ongoing discussion of metaphor and metonymy (especially the claims

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of metonymy) to new levels of sophistication, though Blakeman in Critical Survey represents (dare I utter!) a more poststructuralist take on the subject. Swan and Hogan provide particularly stimulating but also cautionary examples of such work in the Style Figurative Language issue. The theoretical point of Swans paper is familiar by now, but well made and worth reiterating: It would appear that a cognitive approach to metaphor, in order to be true to its disciplinary commitments, must abstract itself from the particular, situated subject of discourse and from its formal and rhetorical motives, even if that leads to a theory that cannot address what is distinctive about a particular instance of metaphoric usage. (Swan, 2002: 451) The argument is for discursive specificities the specialism of literature hitherto to be respected. In a similar vein, like Emmott too, Hogan argues, and demonstrates the need for, a fuller respect for context in discussing metaphor: universals in this area are quite limited (Hogan, 2002: 485), utterances are not in themselves metaphorical or literal (493), we need instead to study the metaphoricity of a particular processing of an utterance (494) in its context. Nnning responds to this call in his attempt to explore metaphors of the British Empire the empire as tree, fleet, body politic, and family, primarily and traces uses of these metaphors in writings of the imperial project (Tennyson, Kipling and others). Such an essay could set important precedents for useful cognitivist work in future. Fussells consists of a stimulating if uneven collection of papers on The Verbal Communication of Emotions, including of course much figurative language (see Gibbs et al., and Kvecses in the same volume). Corts and Meyers pursue further earlier important psycholinguistic work on metaphor production, as opposed to the more dominant fashion of investigating metaphor comprehension (Journal of Psycholinguistic Research). It has already been shown in studies of therapy and of college lectures that metaphors tend to be produced in bursts, where coherence of the discourse is a key function, drawing on a central root metaphor in which the concept has been metaphorically thought. Metaphorical bursts also serve to heighten or colour language, to draw attention to important, emotional or abstract points. The earlier studies are now extended to Christian Baptist sermons, and a broadly significantly similar pattern emerges. Changes in the rate of metaphor production [are] not random but instead var[y] along with the nature and purpose of the discourse (p. 391). Another unusual paper in this general area, and which feeds obviously into debates around universalism as opposed to cultural difference, is Charteris-Black in Applied Linguistics, a contrastive study of Malay and English figurative proficiency defined along linguistic as well as conceptual parameters used to predict second-language learning difficulties of Malay speakers. Applied Linguistics has published a number of interesting studies of the role of figurative language, idioms and the like in second-language acquisition in recent years. Such studies should stimulate students of comparative literature and of literary

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translation as well. The Journal of Pragmatics (34 [4]: 345506) literal language issue generally comes to the conclusion that the notion of literal meaning is at least problematic (contributors include Gibbs and Gior). Derrida and de Man would no doubt approve, but as some have asked, if we accept that metaphor is not just pervasive, but is in fact primary, if not all we have, is not the notion somewhat emptied of significance?

Narrative If cognitive approaches to language and literature are booming in some of the various ways I have documented, narrative of course continues to be another major area of research. Fluderniks (1996) Natural Narratology, for example, is probed and found useful in reading Becketts late writing Lessness, though Alber in Style also questions its predisposition to naturalize the postmodern into a more modernist version. Another examination of what might be termed limit case narrativity, occurs in Fitzpatrick in Narrative though his subjunctive narratives are to be understood more metaphorically than linguistically: uncertain narrative, marked by an inherent unknowability (p. 244). Fitzpatrick, like Alber, notes the reader urge to recuperate such narratives into more tractable or orthodox versions. The value claimed for such narratives is in forcing a reader to consider the point of the story. Indeed, Fitzpatrick argues, after Chambers (1984), for a triad of story-discourse and point in narrative analysis, where the third term has been neglected by more structuralist approaches. Interestingly, Shen in the same issue of Narrative can be found defending the validity of the storydiscourse distinction contra deconstructionist critiques of the binary, but also argues for problems with the distinction in the areas of speech representation (narrated speech) and character focalization. Deconstructionists, having retired a pace, may well be moving back in! Certainly the paradoxical idea of fictional reality (p. 235) must raise many readers eyebrows, though Shen would want to hold on to the distinction. Ireland (2002) builds on his sophisticated narratological work mentioned in last years review (Ireland 2001), in a study of the rendering and use of simultaneity in pre- and proto-modernist texts, showcasing Conrads Typhoon. Also in Language and Literature, Chapman demonstrates the advantage of stylistic perspectives on point of view (Leech and Short, Bakhtin) over established but more impressionistic literary reception. Ideological differences perceived by readers between voice and point of view Hardys Tess (1891) and Moores Esther Waters (1894) are traced to the respective writers linguistic choices. In the same issue, Short, Semino and Wynne publish a piece already established as a benchmark for the field on faithfulness in discourse representation, key parameters determining degrees of faithfulness in particular contexts plotted with the help of a corpus of instances, focusing particularly on fiction (popular and serious), the press and biographies. This is a careful study which future work will be obliged to take account of. The notion of faithfulness,

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for Short et al. is problematic, certainly, but a more or less salient variable according to context. A related contribution is Bray (in the Journal of Literary Semantics), investigating the workings of embedded quotations in early eighteenth-century fictional and journalistic texts. One of the years more stimulating narratives on narrative was Rimmon-Kenan (2002a), on her own illness as illuminated by a study of others stories of theirs. I referred earlier to Emmotts split-selves narratives as another of the years more memorable and thought-provoking studies. In fact, these two essays can be profitably read together, though with barely a reference in common. Narrative identity for Rimmon-Kenan, as for her selected narratives, is identified as importantly bound up with writing which seeks to inscribe coherence, continuity or sometimes transformation stories as a means of responding to critical [sic] illnesses, which split the self (in Emmotts terms), disrupt traumatically writers sense of identity. The essay is compellingly readable, but repays further re-reading, with its depth derived from reflection, study and now direct personal experience of its subject. One important strand to note is a sense almost of guilt or betrayal at the common narrative imposition of order, sequence and coherence on fragmentation, dispersal and disintegration, which are also real experiences of serious illness which the writings Rimmon-Kenan examines do not seem to be as well equipped or inclined to deal with. This is only one of the things we learn about narrative from this account. Like all good stories, the article prompts us to consider what it means to be human (all too human). Reflexivity and the personal nature of contemporary narrative studies, as well as the broadening beyond postulated prototypical narrativity in many ways all consequences of the impact of poststructuralism are features highlighted by Rimmon-Kenan in her review of the current state of the field for the second edition of her celebrated Narrative Fiction 20 years on, although more traditional and conservative if undoubtedly valuable narratological guides continue to be produced for undergraduates, for example, Hughes Reading Novels. Where Hughes restricts himself to canonical literature likely to be found on an English course, a more ambitious but still patiently introductory book length study of the genre (supergenre?) is Abbott whose Cambridge Introduction to Narrative includes everyday narratives as well as film and drama in his survey. Chapter 9 covers questions of form and meaning and Adaptations from one medium to another in a way likely to stimulate student readers and beyond. Chapter 11 on narratives in legal discourse and practice is unusual and challenging at this level. In the obviously currently live and expanding area of life stories, Page in Discourse Studies scrutinizes her collection of childbirth narratives for gender differences and in a careful, well-documented study of evaluation clusters argues for a more nuanced and contextualized account of variables and variation. A significant contribution to this area in its own right, as well as a very useful overview of conversational and life story narratives, is Ochs in Living Narrative. Nairs Narrative Gravity is a particularly ambitious yet impressive attempt to integrate life, the universe and everything else under a narrative umbrella: the title

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is from Dennett. Other gurus invoked and reworked in a roll-call of chapters lead Nairs own narrative through sociolinguistics, developmental psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science, speech act theory and deconstruction on through ethnomethodology to postcolonialism and feminism. It would be easy to snipe at details but there is an infectious excitement in this rather breathless book that some of the more established writers sometimes lack for all their undoubted scholarship. Herman in his Story Logic also attempts an interdisciplinary story, again offering synthesis but also original critique and model-building across disciplines, especially the cognitive, literary and linguistic study of the structuring and comprehending of human experience. A hierarchy is proposed in which narrative theory and linguistic theory are subsumed under cognitive science. Informing tropes of this narrative are storyworlds and mental models. Finally, Poetics Today 23(4) focuses on Narrative Study, including Martinez (see later, Textuality). Thomas in Poetics Today on multiparty talk identifies the relative neglect in linguistic studies of speech representation in the novel of unequal power relations between interactants (and consequent comic effects in Waugh).

Discourse analysis Discourse obviously lies at the base of much of the work cited in earlier pages of this review. A valuable survey of the idea and its scope (with most immediate reference to US composition studies) is to be found in Barton in Style. Johnstone produced a particularly useful undergraduate textbook guide to the area this year. A more literature-oriented publication is Alonso et al. Part II of their three-part collection is entitled Analyzing Complex Narrative Discourse. It includes three engaging analyses of literary discourse in 20th-century English and North American texts (recurrence and the discursive construction of narrative coherence (Alonso), irony (Pealba) and modality (Somacarrera), as well as Marcoss original study of two Spanish nuns 17th-century spiritual autobiographies, particularly interesting for its questioning of modern notions of authentic unique individual identities against the demonstrable intertextualities of these early Christian writings. Elsewhere in the volume newspaper editorials and advertising are addressed with a regard for systematic and principled discourse analytic principles. An enjoyable illustration of an emergent idea of culture, and a performative view of identity is Reyes in Discourse Studies. In an examination of Asian Americans in a school panel discussion, Reyes notes the conflict between a more typically parental idea of culture as historical transmission as opposed to a more adolescent culture as emblem of ethnic differentiation (p. 183). The poetics of the performative aspects of these exchanges are likely to interest readers of this piece. Amossy in Poetics Today heads a fascinating set of essays on Francophone studies of discourse with a valuable review in its own right of doxa, glossed as common knowledge, shared opinions or commonplaces realized through

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language. The circulation of doxa is seen as another way into the study of discourse, and Amossy and her co-contributors study examples of doxa in both literary and non-literary discourses, pointing again to the key role of intertextuality in the study of discourse and culture. Doxa are seen to contribute to verisimilitude effects, and indeed the construction of rationality in a given society. A rich French tradition is postulated in the study of these areas, from at least Flauberts ides reues to Barthess myths, to Amossy and her colleagues. Readers attracted to these ideas should note too the inclusion of a substantial annotated bibliography of this French work appended to the same issue. Critical discourse analysis more precisely conceived perhaps had less to offer this year, though I note nevertheless that Discourse & Society moved from four to six issues a year from 2001. Readers should also be aware of Toolans substantial edited four-volume collection Critical Discourse Analysis. More anecdotal and less systematically linguistic, though containing valuable data and insights, are Volume 44, issues 3 and 4, of Critical Quarterly, themed as The Rise and Rise of Management Discourse. In any case, Wodak is surely right in her case-study of Austrian anti-semitism in Language & Communication to insist on the necessarily interdisciplinary and intertextual nature of discourse analysis. Faircloughs editorial to the themed issue in Discourse & Society on Language in New Capitalism is suggestive, pointing to pressing questions for contemporary discourse analysis including globalization and the local (Bentahila and Davies in Language & Communication respond to this call); and the need for a broadened semiotic or multimodal basis to our work. Silberstein was one of the quickest to pursue discourse analytical enquiries into September 11 and the possibly new new world order, though the analysis again sometimes lacks convincing depth, perhaps in attempting to woo a wider than academic audience (Language, Politics and 9/11). Another view of media texts is Vroomans investigation of flaming in internet communications. The database is limited but nevertheless the suggestion that gender, age and other identity characteristics have more to do with the creative language produced than the medium should be investigated by others, as should the commonality of features with better documented oral genres such as the dozens. Advertising is compared to poetry by Christidis in a relevance theory perspective. Elsewhere Martin (in two articles in World Englishes and English Today) gives examples of the use of English in French advertising in magazines and TV respectively, suggesting too that the usual modernity technologyscience connotations of English are being exceeded; and moreover that the proportion of English language used in an advert is a relevant variable in analysis. Friedrich in a contribution to an ongoing discussion of shop-sign English in English Today argues for internal/ national motivations as well as external/ global pressures motivating the use of English. Schlick in the same journal initiates the discussion with her piece on English in shop signs and shop windows in three mainland European cities. Bilingual and multilingual code switching, and contact linguistics generally,

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are represented by a handful of stimulating publications. At the more literary end Jacobs uses sociolinguistics almost incidentally as part of a more wide-ranging consideration of gender and colonialism in Southern African writings in English. Zhang in World Englishes uses Kachrus (1982) nativization model to convincing effect in describing the writing of US-resident Ha Jin, though with little apparent awareness of more recent linguistics (linguistic features of nativization illustrated and analysed are: address terms, curse words, metaphors, proverbs, political expressions, Chinese English lexicon). Talib is a full-length book on The Language of Post-colonial Literatures, and as such has much welcome information and examples, but is perhaps over-ambitious or unsure of its aims and audience, and seems unlikely to interest an audience beyond the undergraduate, or possibly a curious newcomer to the field. More sophisticated and better linguistically informed work was published in Language and Communication by Bentahila and Davies on Maghrebi-French (mainly) rai music, and Callahan on Spanish/English code switching in fiction. Bentahila and Davies argue for the symbolic and communicative value of the switching found in their corpus of 150 rai songs, by which is meant both in-group identity marking and also a gesture toward a cultural identity beyond the boundaries of the traditional and purely national-Arabic. An interesting contrast with Callahan is that Bentahila and Davies (pp. 1923) insist that, though many commonalities are found, codeswitching in song, which is stylized and premeditated, for artistic purposes, is not to be confused with everyday conversational code switching as described in the linguistics literature. Callahan, by contrast, tests and essentially vindicates MyersScottons (1993) Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model (one language embedded in a second dominant matrix language) against a corpus of 30 recent novels and short stories. Callahan argues that the implications for further research are that a model developed to describe and account for naturally occurring speech seems to work well for represented speech in writing too. Mehrotra in English Today briefly looks at nativized features in personal letters written in India. CortsConde and Boxer (Language and Literature), in a study of Chicana writer Cisneros, argue that bilingualism offers avenues of linguistic creativity, integral and valuable to the bilinguals identity, not available to the monolingual speaker or writer. More substantially, Wright in Language Sciences continues to publish research on systematic code-switching (or something very like it) in medieval business letters written in England. In a historical vein too, Halmari and Adams look at language mixing in Piers Plowman from a more principled linguistic position (Myers-Scotton again) than the usual macaronic style of literary critical comments on this phenomenon (Neuphilologische Mitteilungen). A good introduction to the internationally prestigious work of the Helsinki Variation and Change in English (VARIENG) research group is provided by the Festschrift for Terttu Nevalainen, Variation Past and Present, edited by Raumolin-Brunberg et al. Elsewhere, Norman Blake continues his pioneering work on non-standard English in literature, now with a forthcoming dictionary of Shakespeares

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informal English, introduced in Journal of Historical Pragmatics. Hagans careful descriptions and documentation of Urban Scots Dialect Writing (up to Kelmans [1994] How Late It Was, How Late) should also be mentioned here. Watts and Trudgill (2002) argue the need for a better historical knowledge of non-standard Englishes, with contributors demonstrating the value of attention to discourse and pragmatics and sociolinguistic aspects as opposed to more traditional word, grammar or phonology level approaches. In this journal (11:2), Weber and Widdowson fell out over stylistics investigating literature as social practice (Weber-CDA); while Widdowson wishes to insist on the literariness of literature and the value of the private unique imaginative experience of literature as an at least equally suitable object for stylistic attention.

Textuality, poetry and poetics Nigel Fabb in his Language and Literary Structure has produced another sophisticated linguistic contribution to our understanding of the language and structure of literature, probably of most interest to, scholars of verse forms with a useful case study of the sonnet (chapter 3) to illustrate the theory: [G]enerative metrics will explain the invariant aspects of form and linguistic pragmatics [Sperber and Wilson principally] will explain the variable aspects of form (p. 1). Chapter 7 (in particular) argues for the importance of complexity in literary form: the multiplicity of literary form is experienced as aesthetic (p. 215). The conclusion is that verbal art [sic] is experienced as aesthetic because it exploits to the full every option for making verbal behaviour difficult (p. 217). A Poetics (meaning here the language of poetry) special number of the Journal of English Linguistics opened the year with a set of valuable essays, including Semino on heteroglossia in a poem by Carol Ann Duffy; Cureton pursuing his interests in the central role of rhythm in poetic meaning; and an interesting piece from Berry on the poetics of visual form. Tseng (2002a; see also 2002b) provided a penetrating account of Eliots Four Quartets as a case study for mystical writing, which he argues, should be extended to further texts which might be included in this genre. His account of constitutive features as negation; parallelism and paradox; the matrix of a journey (with nary a whiff of Lakoff and Johnson!); metaphors of depersonalization and generic sentences, could perhaps apply more widely to canonical modernist texts such as Conrads Heart of Darkness (though it certainly accounts for the difficulties of first-time readers with such texts); but is certainly stimulating in detail as well as in its outlines. Hu in Word published an eclectic but often engaging reading of four canonical Plath poems using Lakoff and Langacker, but also Widdowson and Halliday, and appeals to intertextuality. Some of the same poems occur in Gerbig and Mller-Wood in Style, which argues a strong position on the differences between poetic and ordinary language, and a kind of modernist prison house of language reading of Plath. The key role of intertextuality in language and literature was argued and

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illustrated by Amossy and others, as already indicated, but also by Murphy in Modern Language Review on Barojas rewritings of later 19th- and earlier 20thcentury English novels as part of his representation of London in La Ciudd de la Niebla. Jensen in The Open Book provides a very literary reading of the issue, less interesting for its theory or modelling than for the historical study of complex interrelations between Leslie Stephen, Thomas Hardy, Woolf, Mansfield and Middleton Murry. Two essays I particularly enjoyed in the area this year appeared, respectively, in Language & Communication and Journal of Pragmatics. Bakers survey of Wittgensteins use of quotation marks in Philosophical Investigations is revealing both of citationality and of Wittgensteins thought, and certainly proves the need for careful reading of texts diacritics. (Wittgensteins single quotation marks, in fact, often signal Amossys doxa, which Wittgenstein wished to interrogate.) Harvey extends his earlier publications on camp talk to a rich consideration of citation as typically ironic in the contextualized negotiations of gay conversationalists, including literary data, as well as cultural citations in non-literary homosexual talk. Distinguished bibliographical and textual contributions appeared also this year from D.F. McKenzie (a posthumous collection of earlier publications), Barnard and McKenzie, and Loizeaux and Fraistat. Writers like these, as well as Freeman (The Body in the Word), well illustrate the importance of material textual questions too often neglected by most earlier literary studies researchers, now becoming more perceptible mainstream concerns of students of the literary. Steens (2002: 184) characterization of literary studies as text-orientated behaviour is stimulating and applies well to such work, even if this was not quite what he had in mind. Another interesting textual study this year (Martinez in Poetics Today), cognitive too in its own way, looks at Pynchons linguistic revisions of an early short story into Chapter 3 of V, and the consequences for readers perspective particularly toward characters, including changes in transitivity relations. A textbook of likely interest to readers who are also teachers of literature undergraduates is Davis and Womack, a brave attempt to engage and illustrate key ideas in historical formalisms and key reader reception theories. Bredella collects an important set of mainly earlier publications in the field of second language education. Finally, if play is central to understanding what literature is and how it works and appeals, we should all ponder evidence reported in Brown and Fasulo et al. on the importance, respectively, of lying and of word play in language acquisition (in S. Blum-Kulka and C.E. Snow (eds) Talking To Adults).

Conclusion What are we doing when we do English? (Eaglestones Doing English has some good possible answers). Two events prompted me to recognize the change and excitement which are intrinsic to the study of language and literature in all and

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any languages (the more the better). The first of these was my ongoing attempt to recognize the value of attempts from cognitive linguistics to build accounts of reader activities and perspectives into the study of literature, while needing to address shortcomings for a wider literary, hermeneutically oriented constituency. The second event was the publication of a set of second editions of those classic Routledge (well, actually Methuen!) New Accent books which I first absorbed as a knowledge-hungry new postgraduate which did all the damage, some would no doubt say! They convinced me, as no doubt cognitive linguistics does some today, or Eliot or Leavis for an earlier generation still, that a lot was happening, and that English (as it is still known in many parts) was centrally where it was happening. It is as exciting and invigorating, as well as daunting and ultimately frustrating, to study English as it is to write this article each year. Finnegan in her Communicating book convinces me that we still need a much better job of integrating anthropological linguistics into the lang. and lit. field, for example. But I rehearse all this because I continue to be worried by the drift though welcomed, even celebrated, in some quarters between what might be termed mainstream literary studies and stylistics. We are used to neglect, misunderstandings and patronization from more purely literary colleagues. The answer to ignorance is, however, not to respond by turning our backs on a substantial body of work, however often uninformed, admittedly, with regard to the workings of language. If this history of literary studies is not useful or relevant to stylistics, stylistics is so much the poorer in my view. An intelligent critically aware discourse stylistics is poised to take up a central role in literary studies and beyond for the 21st century. It would be a grievous pity to commit ourselves instead to a further long period in the wilderness, privileging this time (reversal) the individual and the psychological over the social and cultural or even simply a sterile opposition.

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Address
Geoff Hall, Centre for Applied Language Studies, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK [email: g.m.hall@swansea.ac.uk]

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