Forging History and Key Developments in the Metals Forging Industry Topics Covered Origins of the Forging Process

s Forging Through the 19th Century Steel Making Developments That Aided the Forging Industry Invention of the Forging Press Modern Computer Controlled Forging Machines Origins of the Forging Process

The art of forging dates to at least 4000BC and probably earlier. Metals such as bronze and wrought iron were forged by early man to produce hand toots and weapons of war. Forging of wrought iron and crucible steel continued until near the end of the 19th century for similar purposes and it is unfortunate that weapons of war are still produced by the forging process using more contemporary metals.
Forging Through the 19th Century

The forgesmiths of the 19th century were particularly skilled at hand and open die forging of wrought iron. As wrought iron was only produced in heats of 50 kilograms, the smiths became skillful in hammer welding and many large shaft forgings weighing 10 tonnes and more were gradually built up by a process of forging and hammer welding. The invention of the Bessemer steel making process in 1856 was a major breakthrough for the ferrous forging industry. The forgers now had a plentiful supply of low cost steel for production of volume quantities of forgings. It has been accepted that the first cavity steel forgings using a closed die process commenced in the United States in 1862 for production of components for the Colt revolver.
Steel Making Developments That Aided the Forging Industry

The further development of the Bessemer process with the invention of the basic steel making technique meant that cheaper supplies of iron ore containing high phosphorus and sulphur levels could be smelted to produce good quality steel. The simultaneous development of the open hearth steel making process toward the end of the 19th century meant that the forging industry now had a reliable, low cost, high volume raw material.
Invention of the Forging Press

With the introduction of motor vehicles and in particular Henry Fords T Model a considerable demand for forgings developed in the early years of the 20th century. Up until 1930, when National Machinery Company of the USA introduced the first forging press (Maxipress), all forgings were produced on hammers. The advantage of the forging press was exemplified by higher production rates and a lesser degree of skill in producing forgings as compared to hammer forging. The introduction of the forging press did not obsolete the forging hammer but rather challenged the manufacturers to improve their product and of course, there are many

forgings which are best made on hammers.

Modern Computer Controlled Forging Machines

Today we have computer controlled hammers and presses capable of making a wide range of components in a variety of materials for many applications including aerospace, automobile, mining and agriculture, to mention a few.

What are the types of forging processes?

There are basically three methods (or processes) to make a forged part.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Impression Die Forging Cold Forging Open Die Forging Seamless Rolled Ring Forging

Impression Die Forging Impression die forging pounds or presses metal between two dies (called tooling) that contain a precut profile of the desired part. Parts from a few ounces to 60,000 lbs. can be made using this process. Some of the smaller parts are actually forged cold. PROCESS OPERATIONS Graphical depiction of process steps

Impression Die Forging Process Operations

In the simplest example of impression die forging, two dies are brought together and the workpiece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides touch the side walls of the die. Then, a small amount of material begins to flow outside the die impression forming flash that is gradually thinned. The flash cools rapidly and presents increased resistance to deformation and helps build up pressure increased resistance to deformation and helps build up pressure inside the bulk of the workpiece that aids material flow into unfilled impressions.

Upsetting

Fundamentally, impression die forgings produced on horizontal forging machines (upsetters) are similar to those produced by hammers or presses. Each is the result of forcing metal into cavities in dies which separate at parting lines.

Trastornando Fundamentalmente, las forjas por impresin producidas sobre mquinas de forja (prensas) horizontales son similares a aquellos producidos por martillos o prensas. Cada uno es el resultado de forzar el metal en cavidades en muere que se separan en lneas que se separan.

The impression in the ram-operated "heading tool" is the equivalent of a hammer or press top die. The "grip dies" contain the impressions corresponding to the hammer or press bottom die. Grip dies consist of a stationary die and a moving die which, when closed, act to grip the stock and hold it in position for forging. After each workstroke of the machine, these dies permit the transfer of stock from one cavity to another in the multiple-impression dies.

La impresin en el manejado por carnero " el instrumento de ttulo " es el equivalente de un martillo o la cima de prensa muere. " El apretn muere " contienen las impresiones correspondiente al martillo o la prensa inferior muere. El apretn muere consisten en un inmvil mueren y un movimiento muere que, cuando cerrado, el acto para agarrar la accin(reserva) y lo sostiene en la posicin para la forja(falsificacin). Despus de cada workstroke de la mquina, estos mueren el permiso la transferencia de accin(reserva) de una cavidad al otro en la impresin mltiple muere.
Process Capabilities Commonly referred to as closed-die forging, impression-die forging of steel, aluminum, titanium and other alloys can produce an almost limitless variety of 3-D shapes that range in weight from mere ounces up to more than 25 tons. Impression-die forgings are routinely produced on hydraulic presses, mechanical presses and hammers, with capacities up to 50,000 tons, 20,000 tons and 50,000 lbs. respectively. As the name implies, two or more dies containing impressions of the part shape are brought together as forging stock undergoes plastic deformation. Because metal flow is restricted by the die contours, this process can yield more complex shapes and closer tolerances than open-die forging processes. Additional flexibility in forming both symmetrical and non- symmetrical shapes comes from various preforming operations (sometimes bending) prior to forging in finisher dies. Part geometry's range from some of the easiest to forge simple spherical shapes, block-like rectangular solids, and disc-like configurations to the most intricate components with thin and long sections that incorporate thin webs and relatively high vertical projections like ribs and

bosses. Although many parts are generally symmetrical, others incorporate all sorts of design elements (flanges, protrusions, holes, cavities, pockets, etc.) that combine to make the forging very non-symmetrical. In addition, parts can be bent or curved in one or several planes, whether they are basically longitudinal, equidimensional or flat. Most engineering metals and alloys can be forged via conventional impression-die processes, among them: carbon and alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless, aluminum and copper alloys, and certain titanium alloys. Strain-rate and temperature-sensitive materials (magnesium, highly alloyed nickel-based superalloys, refractory alloys and some titanium alloys) may require more sophisticated forging processes and/or special equipment for forging in impression dies.

Cold Forging Most forging is done as hot work, at temperatures up to 2300 degrees F, however, a variation of impression die forging is cold forging. Cold forging encompasses many processes -- bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining, extrusions and more, to yield a diverse range of part shapes. The temperature of metals being cold forged may range from room temperature to several hundred degrees.

Cold Forging Process Operations

1. Forward extrusion reduces slug diameter and increases its length to produce parts such as stepped shafts and cylinders.

2. In backward extrusion, the steel flows back and around the descending punch to form cup-shaped pieces.

3. Upsetting, or heading, a common technique for making fasteners, gathers steel in the head and other sections along the length of the part. El trastornar, o el dirigir, una tcnica comn para hacer los sujetadores, frunces de acero en la cabeza y otras secciones a lo largo de la longitud de la pieza

Process Capabilities Cold forging encompasses many processes bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining, extrusion, punching, thread rolling and more to yield a diverse range of part shapes. These include various shaft-like components, cup-shaped geometry's, hollow parts with stems and shafts, all kinds of upset (headed) and bent configurations, as well as combinations. Most recently, parts with radial flow like round configurations with center flanges, rectangular parts, and non-axisymmetric parts with 3- and 6-fold symmetry have been produced by warm extrusion. With cold forging of steel rod, wire, or bar, shaft-like parts with 3-plane bends and headed design features are not uncommon.
Mas recientemente, las partes con flujo radial como configuraciones redondas con rebordes de centro, partes rectangulares, y partes de non-axisymmetric con 3-y la simetra de 6 pliegues han sido producidas por extrusion en caliente. Con la forja(falsificacin) de fro de barra de acero, el cable, o la barra, partes parecidas a un eje con curvas de 3 planos y rasgos de diseo encabezados no son raras.

Typical parts are most cost-effective in the range of 10 lbs. or less; symmetrical parts up to 7 lbs. readily lend themselves to automated processing. Material options range form lower-alloy and carbon steels to 300 and 400 series stainless, selected aluminum alloys, brass and bronze. There are times when warm forging practices are selected over cold forging especially for higher carbon grades of steel or where in-process anneals can be eliminated. Often chosen for integral design features such as built-in flanges and bosses, cold forgings are frequently used in automotive steering and suspension parts, antilock-braking systems, hardware, defense components, and other applications where high strength, close tolerances and volume production make them an economical choice. In the process, a chemically lubricated bar slug is forced into a closed die under extreme pressure. The unheated metal thus flows into the desired shape. As shown, forward extrusion involves steel flow in the direction of the ram force. It is used when the diameter of the bar is to be decreased and the length increased. Backward extrusion, where the metal flows opposite to

the ram force, generates hollow parts. In upsetting, the metal flows at right angles to the ram force, increasing diameter and reducing length. Open Die Forging Open die forging is performed between flat dies with no precut profiles is the dies. Movement of the work piece is the key to this method. Larger parts over 200,000 lbs. and 80 feet in length can be hammered or pressed into shape this way. PROCESS OPERATIONS Graphical depiction of process steps.

SHAFTS

1. Starting stock, held by manipulator.

2. Open-die forging.

3. Progressive forging. 4. Lathe turning to near net-shape.

DISCS

1. Starting stock.

2. Preliminary upsetting.

3. Progressive upsetting/ forging to disc dimensions.

4. Pierced for saddle/mandrel ring hollow "sleeve type" preform.

SADDLE/MANDREL RINGS

1. Preform 2. Metal mounted on displacementsaddle/mandrel. reduce preform wall thickness to increase diameter.

3. Progressive 4. Matching to reduction of wall near net shape. thickness to produce ring dimensions.

HOLLOW "SLEEVE TYPE" FORGING

1. Punched or trepanned disc on tapered draw bar.

2. Progressive reduction of outside diameter (inside diameter remains constant) increases overall length of sleeve.

Process Capabilities Open-die forging can produce forgings from a few pounds up to more than 150 tons. Called open-die because the metal is not confined laterally by impression dies during forging, this process progressively works the starting stock into the desired shape, most commonly between

flat-faced dies. In practice, open-die forging comprises many process variations, permitting an extremely broad range of shapes and sizes to be produced. In fact, when design criteria dictate optimum structural integrity for a huge metal component, the sheer size capability of open-die forging makes it the clear process choice over non-forging alternatives. At the high end of the size range, open-die forgings are limited only by the size of the starting stock, namely, the largest ingot that can be cast. Practically all forgeable ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be open-die forged, including some exotic materials like age-hardening superalloys and corrosion-resistant refractory alloys. Open-die shape capability is indeed wide in latitude. In addition to round, square, rectangular, hexagonal bars and other basic shapes, open-die processes can produce: Step shafts solid shafts (spindles or rotors) whose diameter increases or decreases (steps down) at multiple locations along the longitudinal axis. Hollows cylindrical in shape, usually with length much greater than the diameter of the part. Length, wall thickness, ID and OD can be varied as needed. Ring-like parts can resemble washers or approach hollow cylinders in shape, depending on the height/wall thickness ratio. Contour-formed metal shells like pressure vessels, which may incorporate extruded nozzles and other design features.

Not unlike successive forging operations in a sequence of dies, multiple open-die forging operations can be combined to produce the required shape. At the same time, these forging methods can be tailored to attain the proper amount of total deformation and optimum grain-flow structure, thereby maximizing property enhancement and ultimate performance for a particular application. Forging an integral gear blank and hub, for example, may entail multiple drawing or solid forging operations, then upsetting. Similarly, blanks for rings may be prepared by upsetting an ingot, then piercing the center, prior to forging the ring.

Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Seamless rolled ring forging is typically performed by punching a hole in a thick, round piece of metal (creating a donut shape), and then rolling and squeezing (or in some cases, pounding) the donut into a thin ring. Ring diameters can be anywhere from a few inches to 30 feet. PROCESS OPERATIONS Graphical depiction of process steps.

Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Process Operations

1. The ring rolling process typically begins with upsetting of the starting stock on flat dies at its plastic deformation temperature - in the case of grade 1020 steel, approximately 2200 degrees Fahrenheit.

2. Piercing involves forcing a punch into the hot upset stock causing metal to be displaced radially, as shown by the illustration.

3. A subsequent operation, shearing, serves to remove the small punchout ...

4. ...producing a completed hole through the stock, which is now ready for the ring rolling operation itself. At this point the stock is called a preform.

5. The doughnut-shaped preform is slipped over the ID roll shown here from an "above" view.

6. A side view of the ring mill and preform workpiece, which squeezes it against the OD roll which imparts rotary action...

7. ...resulting in a thinning of the section and correspondence increase in the diameter of the ring. Once off the ring mill, the ring is then ready for secondary operations such as close tolerance sizing, parting, heat treatment and test/inspection Process Capabilities Rings forged by the seamless ring rolling process can weigh < 1 lb up to 350,000 lbs., while O.D.s range from just a few inches up to 30-ft. in diameter. Performance-wise, there is no equal for forged, circular-cross-section rings used in energy generation, mining, aerospace, offhighway equipment and other critical applications. Seamless ring configurations can be flat (like a washer), or feature higher vertical walls (approximating a hollow cylindrical section). Heights of rolled rings range from less than an inch up to more than 9 ft. Depending on the equipment utilized, wall-thickness/height ratios of rings typically range from 1:16 up to 16:1, although greater proportions have been achieved with special processing. In fact, seamless tubes up to 48-in. diameter and over 20-ft long are extruded on 20 to 30,000-ton forging presses. Even though basic shapes with rectangular cross-sections are the norm, rings featuring complex, functional cross- sections can be forged to meet virtually any design requirements.

Aptly named, these contoured rolled rings can be produced in thousands of different shapes with contours on the inside and/or outside diameters. A key advantage to contoured rings is a significant reduction in machining operations. Not surprisingly, custom-contoured rings can result in cost-saving part consolidations. Compared to flat-faced seamless rolled rings, maximum dimensions (face heights and O.D.s) of contoured rolled rings are somewhat lower, but are still very impressive in size. High tangential strength and ductility make forged rings well-suited for torque- and pressureresistant components, such as gears, engine bearings for aircraft, wheel bearings, couplings, rotor spacers, sealed discs and cases, flanges, pressure vessels and valve bodies. Materials include not only carbon and alloy steels, but also non-ferrous alloys of aluminum, copper and titanium, as well as nickel-base alloys.

WHERE can you find forgings?

Automotive and Truck In automotive and truck applications, forged components are commonly found at points of shock and stress. Cars and trucks may contain more than 250 forgings, most of which are produced from carbon or alloy steel. Forged engine and powertrain components include connecting rods, crankshafts, transmission shafts and gears, differential gears, drive shafts, clutch hubs, and universal joint yokes and crosses. Forged camshafts, pinions, gears, and rocker arms offer ease of selective hardening as well as strength. Wheel spindles, kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms, pitman arms, steering arms, and linkages for passenger cars, buses, and trucks typify applications requiring extra strength and toughness. Aerospace High strength-to-weight ratio and structural reliability improve performance, range, and payload capabilities of aircraft. That's why ferrous and nonferrous forgings are used in helicopters, piston-engine planes, commercial jets, and supersonic military aircraft. Many aircraft are "designed around" forgings, and contain more than 450 structural forgings as well as hundreds of forged engine parts. Forged parts include bulkheads, wing roots and spars, hinges, engine mounts, brackets, beams, shafts, bellcranks, landing-gear cylinders and struts, wheels, brake carriers and discs, and arresting hooks. In jet turbine engines, iron-based, nickel-base, and cobalt-base superalloys are forged into buckets, blades, couplings, discs, manifolds, rings, chambers, wheels, and shafts--all requiring uniformly high-yield tensile and creep rupture strengths, plus good ductility at temperatures ranging between 1,000 and 2,000F. Forgings of stainless steels, maraging steels, titanium, and aluminum find similar applications at lower temperatures. Forged missile components of titanium, columbium, super alloys, and refractory materials provide unduplicated mechanical and physical properties under severe service conditions. Aluminum structural beams for boosters, titanium motor cases, and nuclear-engine reactor shields and inflatable satellite launch canisters of magnesium are used in the space shuttle program. Off-Highway and Agricultural Strength, toughness, machinability, and economy account for the use of ferrous forgings in off-highway and heavy construction equipment, and in mining machinery. In addition to engine and transmission parts, forgings are used for gears, sprockets, levers, shafts, spindles, ball joints, wheel hubs, rollers, yokes, axle beams, bearing holders, and links. Farm implements, in addition to engine and transmission components, utilize key forgings ranging from gears, shafts, levers, and spindles to tie-rod ends, spike harrow teeth, and cultivator shanks.

Ordnance Forged components are found in virtually every implement of defense, from rifle triggers to nuclear submarine drive shafts. Heavy tanks contain more than 550 separate forgings; armored personnel carriers employ more than 250. The majority of 155-mm, 75-mm, and 3-in. shells as well as mortar projectiles contain at least two forged components. Valves and Fittings For valves and fittings, the mechanical properties of forgings and their freedom from porosity are especially suited to high-pressure applications. Corrosion and heat-resistant materials are used for flanges, valve bodies and stems, tees, elbows, reducers, saddles, and other fittings. Oilfield applications include rock cutter bits, drilling hardware, and high-pressure valves and fittings. Industrial, Hardware and Tools Stationary and shipboard internal combustion engines include forged crankshafts, connecting rods, rod caps, camshafts, rocker arms, valves, gears, shafts, levers, and linkages. Outboard motors, motorcycles, and power saws offer examples of the intensive use of forgings in smaller engines. Industrial equipment industries use forgings in materials handling systems, conveyors, chain-hoist assemblies, and lift trucks. "Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools and hardware. Pliers, hammers, sledges, wrenches, and garden implements, as well as wire-rope clips and sockets, hooks, turnbuckles, and eye bolts are common examples. Strength, resistance to impact and fatigue, and excellent appearance are reasons why forgings have been the standard of quality since the earliest of times. The same is true of surgical instruments. Special hardware for electrical transmission and distribution lines is subject to high stresses and corrosion. For strength and dependability, forgings are used for parts such as pedestal caps, suspension clamps, sockets, and brackets.

WHY are forgings so prevalent?

The degree of structural reliability achieved in a forging is unexcelled by any other metalworking process. There are no internal gas pockets or voids that could cause unexpected failure under stress or impact. Often, the forging process assists in improving chemical segregation of the forging stock by moving centerline material to various locations throughout the forging. El esfuerzo Direccional es Clave

Directional Strength is Key Directional strength is a direct result of the forging process. In the forging process, controlled deformation (usually at elevated temperatures) results in greater metallurgical soundness and improved mechanical properties of the material. In most cases, forging stock has been pre-worked to remove porosity resulting from the solidification process. This produces directional alignment (or "grain flow") for important directional properties in strength, ductility, and resistance to impact and fatigue.These properties are deliberately oriented in directions requiring maximum strength. Working the material achieves recrystallization and grain refinement that yields the maximum strength potential of the material with the minimum property variation, piece-to-peace.

Properly developed grain flow in forgings closely follows the outline of the component. In contrast, bar stock and plate have unidirectional grain flow; any changes in contour will cut flow lines, exposing grain ends, and render the material more liable to fatigue and more sensitive to stress corrosion. Designers and materials engineers are recognizing the increasing importance of resistance to impact and fatigue as a portion of total component reliability. With the use of proper materials and heat treatments, if required, improved impact strength of forged components is achievable. The resulting higher strength-to-weight ratio can be used to reduce section thickness in part designs without jeopardizing performance characteristics of safety. Weight reduction, even in parts produced from less expensive materials, can amount to a considerable cost savings over the life of a product run. The consistency of material from one forging to the next, and between separate quantities of forgings is extremely high. Forged parts are made through a controlled sequence of production steps rather than random flow of material into the desired shape. Uniformity of composition and structure piece-to-piece, lot-to-lot, assure reproducible response to heat treatment, minimum variation in machinability, and consistent property levels of finished parts. Dimensional characteristics are remarkably stable. Successive forgings are produced from the same die impression, and because die impressions exert control over all contours of the forged part, the possibility of transfer distortion is eliminated. For cryogenic applications, forgings have the necessary toughness, high strength-to-weight ratios, and freedom from ductile-brittle transition problems. Forgings are produced economically in an extremely broad range of sizes. With the increased use of special punching, piercing, shearing, trimming, and coining operations, there have been substantial increases in the range of economical forging shapes and the feasibility of improved precision. However, parts with small holes, internal passages, re-entrant pockets, and severe draft limitations usually require more elaborate forging tooling and more complex processing, and are therefore usually more economical in larger sizes. Sizing Up the Competition Forging versus Casting Forging Advantages When Using A Similar Alloy Stronger Preworking refines defects More reliable, lower cost over component life Better response to heat treatment Adaptable to demand Welding/Fabricating Material savings, production economies Stronger Cost-effective design/inspection More consistent and better metallurgical properties Simplified production Machining Broader size range of desired material grades Grain flow provides higher strength More economical use of material Yields lower scrap Requires fewer secondary operations Powder metal Stronger Higher integrity Requires fewer secondary operations Greater design flexibility

Composites/Plastics

Less costly materials Less costly materials Greater productivity Established documentation Broader service-temperature range More reliable service performance

Forgings are superior to metal parts produced by other methods in their compatibility with other manufacturing processes. The characteristically uniform refinement of crystalline structure in forged components assures superior response to all forms of heat treatment, maximum possible development of desired properties, and unequaled uniformity. Because forged components of weldable materials have a near absence of structural defects, material at welding surfaces offers the best possible opportunity for strong, efficient welds by any welding technique. Again, the near absence of internal discontinuities or surface inclusions in forgings provides a dependable machining base for metal-cutting processes such as turning, milling, drilling, boring, broaching, and shear spinning; and shaping processes such as electrochemical machining, chemical milling, electrical-discharge machining, and plasma jet techniques. Forged parts are readily fabricated by assembling processes such as welding, bolting, or riveting. More importantly, single-piece forgings can often be designed to eliminate the need for assemblies. In many applications, forgings are ready for use without surface conditioning or machining. Forged surfaces are suited to plating, polishing, painting, or treatment with decorative or protective coatings.

Forging Spans the Metallurgical Spectrum Metal Aluminum Characteristic Readily forged Combines low density with good strengthto-weight ratio Application Primarily for structural and engine applications in the aircraft and transportation industries where temperatures do not exceed 400F.

Magnesium

Offer the lowest density of any commercial Usually employed at service metal temperatures lower than 500F but certain alloys provide short-time service to 700F. Well-suited to forging Electrical and thermal conductivity Low material cost Easily processed Good mechanical properties Varied response to heat treatment gives designers a choice of properties in the finished forging Important for applications requiring corrosion resistance. Comprise the greatest volume of forgings produced for service applications up to 900F.

Copper, Brass, Bronze Low-Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels

Microalloy/ Low material cost HSLA Cost benefit derived from simplified Steels thermomechanical treatment Equivalent mechanical properties to many

Various automotive and truck applications including crankshafts, connecting rods, yokes, pistons, suspension and steering components,

carbon and low-alloy steels SpecialAlloy Steels Stainless Steel

spindles, hubs, and trunio

Permit forgings with more than 300,000 psi Used in transportation, mining, yield strength at room temperature industrial and agricultural equipment, as well as high-stress applications in missiles and aircraft. Corrosion-resistant Used in pressure vessels, steam turbines, and many other applications in the chemical, food processing, petroleum, and hospital services industries. Used for high-stress service at temperatures up to 1,250F and lowstress service to 1,800F and higher. Nickel-Base Service in the 1,200-1,800F range. Structural shapes, turbine components, and fittings and valves.

Nickel-Base Creep-rupture strength Superalloy Oxidation resistance Titanium

High strength Used primarily in the temperature Low density services to 1,000F. Configurations Excellent corrosion resistance nearly identical to steel parts are Alloys offer yield strengths in the 120,000 to forgeable and 40% lighter in weight. 180,000 psi range at room temperatures Aircraft-engine components and structurals, ship components, and valves and fittings in transportation and chemical industries. Include columbium, molybdenum, tantalum, High-temperature applications and tungsten and their alloys involving advanced chemical, Enhanced resistance to creep in highelectrical, and nuclear propulsion thermal environments systems and flight vehicles. Light, hard, and brittle Increasingly used as an alloying material High melting point Special forging techniques have been developed to process beryllium in sintered, ingot, or powdered form Corrosion-resistant Used primarily in nuclear, structural, and heat-sink applications.

Refractory Metal

Beryllium

Zirconium

Produced in relatively limited quantities and used almost exclusively in nuclear applications.

HOW Are Forgings Produced?

Forging--metal shaping by plastic deformation--spans a myriad of equipment and techniques.

Knowing the various forging operations and the characteristic metal flow each produces is key to understanding forging design. Hammer and Press Forging Generally, forged components are shaped either by a hammer or press. Forging on the hammer is carried out in a succession of die impressions using repeated blows. The quality of the forging, and the economy and productivity of the hammer process depend upon the tooling and the skill of the operator. The advent of programmable hammers has resulted on less operator dependency and improved process consistency. In a press, the Fig. 1. Compression between narrow dies.

stock is usually hit only once in each die impression, and the design of each impression becomes more important while operator skill i

The Processes
Open Die Forging Open die forging with hammers and presses is a modern-day extension of the pre-industrial metalsmith working with a hammer at his anvil. In open die forging, the workpiece is not completely confined as it is being shaped by the dies. The open die process is commonly associated with large parts such as shafts, sleeves and disks, but part weights can range from 5 to 500,000 lb. Fig. 2. Roll forging. Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. Round swaging dies and V dies also are used in pairs or with a flat die. Operations performed on open die presses include: 1. Drawing out or reducing the cross-section of an ingot or billet to lengthen it. 2. Upsetting or reducing the length of an ingot or billet to a larger diameter. 3. Upsetting, drawing out, and piercing--processes sometimes combined with forging over a mandrel for forging rough-contoured rings. As the forging workpiece is hammered or pressed, it is repeatedly manipulated between the dies until it reaches final forged dimensions. Because the process is inexact and requires considerable skill of the forging master, substantial workpiece stock allowances are retained to accommodate forging irregularities. The forged part is Fig. 3. Roll forging using speciality rough machined and then finish machined to final shaped rolls. dimensions. The increasing use of press and hammer controls is making open die forging, and all forging processes for that matter, more automated. In open die forging, metals are worked above their recrystallization temperatures. Because the process requires repeated changes in workpiece positioning, the workpiece cools during open die forging below its hot-working or recrystallization temperature. It then must be reheated before forging can continue. For example, a steel shaft 2 ft in diameter and 24 ft long may require four to six heats before final forged dimensions are reached. In open die forging of steel, a rule of thumb says that 50 lb of falling weight is required for each square inch of stock cross-section. Compression between flat dies, or upsetting, is an open die forging process whereby an oblong workpiece is placed on end on a lower die and its height reduced by the downward movement of the top die. Friction between end faces of the workpiece and dies prevents the free lateral spread of the metal, resulting in a typical barrel shape. Contact with the cool die surface chills the end faces of the metal, increasing its resistance to deformation and enhancing barreling. Upsetting between parallel flat dies is limited to deformation symmetrical around a vertical axis. If preferential elongation is desired, compression between narrow dies (Fig. 1) is ideal.

Frictional forces in the ax ial direction of the bar are smaller than in the perpendicular direction, and material flow is mostly axial. A narrower die elongates better, but a too-narrow die will cut metal instead of elongate. The direction of material flow can also be influenced by using dies with specially shaped surfaces. Compression between narrow dies is discontinuous since many strokes must be executed while the workpiece is moved in an axial direction. This task can be made continuous by roll forging (Fig. 2). Note the resemblance between Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The width of the die is now represented by the length of the arc of contact. The elongation achieved depends on the length of this contact arc. Larger rolls cause greater lateral spread and less elongation because of the greater frictional difference in the arc of contact, whereas smaller rolls elongate more. Lateral spread can be reduced and elongation promoted by using specially shaped rolls (Fig. 3). The properties of roll-forged components are very satisfactory. In most cases, there is no flash and the fiber structure is very favorable and continuous in all sections. The rolls perform a certain amount of descaling, making the surface of the product smooth and free of scale pockets. Impression Die Forging In the most basic example of impression die forging, which accounts for the majority of forging production, two dies are brought together and the workpiece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides touch the die side walls (Fig. 4). Then, some material begins to flow outside the die impression, forming flash. The flash cools rapidly and presents increased resistance to deformation, effectively becoming a part of the tool. This builds pressure inside the bulk of the workpiece, aiding material flow into unfilled impressions. Fig. 4. Impression die forging Impression die forgings may be produced on a horizontal forging machine (upsetter) in a process referred to as upsetting. In upsetting, stock is held between a fixed and moving die while a horizontal ram provides the pressure to forge the stock (Fig. 5). After each ramstroke, the multiple-impression dies can open to permit transfer of stock from one cavity to another. A form of impression die forging, closed die forging does not depend on flash formation to achieve complete filling of the die. Material is deformed in a cavity that allows little or no escape of excess material, thus placing greater demands on die design. For impression die forging, forging dies become more important, and operator skill level is less critical in press forging operations. The press forging sequence is usually block and finish, sometimes with a preform, Fig. 5. Upsetting. pierce, or trim operation. The piece is usually hit only once in each die cavity.

The Precision Forging Advantage Precision forging normally means close-to-final form or close-

tolerance forging. It is not a special technology, but a refinement of existing techniques to a point where the forged part can be used with little or no subsequent machining. Improvements cover not only the forging method itself but also preheating, descaling, Stages in the Ring Rolling Process lubrication, and temperature control practices. The decision to apply precision forging techniques depends on the relative economics of additional operations and tooling vs. elimination of machining. Because of higher tooling and . development costs, precision forging is usually limited to extremely 2 3 high-quality applications.

Ring Rolling Ring rolling has evolved from an art into a strictly controlled engineering process. Seamless rolled rings are produced on a variety of equipment. All give the same product--a seamless section with circumferential grain orientation. These rings generally have tangential strength and ductility, and often are less expensive to manufacture than similar closed die forgings. In sum, the ring rolling process offers homogeneous circumferential grain flow, ease of manufacture, and versatility in material, size, mass, and geometry.

In the ring rolling process, a preform is heated to forging temperature and placed over the idler (internal) roll of the rolling machine. Pressure is applied to the wall by the main (external) roll as the ring rotates. The cross-sectional area is reduced as the inner and outer diameters are expanded. Equipment can be fully automated from billet heating through post-forge handling. Advanced ring rolling equipment can roll contours in both the inner and outer diameter of the ring, allowing for excellent weight reductions, material savings, and reduced machining cost. There is an infinite variety of sizes into which rings can be rolled, ranging from rollerbearing sleeves to rings of 25 ft in diameter with face heights of more than 80 in. Various profiles may be rolled by suitably shaping the drive and idling rolls. Extrusion In extrusion (Fig. 6), the workpiece is placed in a container and compressed until pressure inside the metal reaches flowstress levels. The workpiece completely fills the container and additional pressure causes it to travel through an orifice and form the extruded product. Extrusion can be forward (direct) or backward (reverse), depending on the direction of motion between ram and extruded product. Extruded Fig. 6. a-Foward extrusion; b-backward product can be solid or hollow. Tube extrusion is extrusion; c-tube extrusion; d-container typical of forward extrusion of hollow shapes, extrusion. and backward extrusion is used for mass production of containers. Piercing is closely related to reverse extrusion but distinguished by greater movement of the punch relative to movement of the workpiece material.

Secondary Processes Besides the primary forging processes, secondary operations often are employed. Drawing through a die is a convenient way to eliminate forged draft (Fig. 7a). The mode of deformation is tangential compression. The diameter of the drawing ring can be slightly smaller than the outer diameter of the preforged shell to control or reduce wall thickness and increase the height of the shell in a drawing or ironing operation (Fig. 7b). Bending can be performed on the finished forging or at any stage during its production. Because forging stock may assume complex shapes, it is rare that only a single die impression is needed. Preforming the forging stock--by bending or rolling it, or by working it in a preliminary die--may be more desirable. Fig. 7.a-drawing; Gains in productivity, die life, and forging quality often outweigh the fact that b-ironing preforming adds an operation and attendant costs. Forging in one final die impression may be practical for extremely small part runs. Since bending of larger parts requires a machine of long stroke, special mechanical or hydraulic presses are often necessary. Simple shapes can be bent in one operation, but more complex contours take successive steps. If complex shapes are to be formed in a single operation, the tool must contain moving elements.

Special Techniques After deformation, forged parts may undergo further metalworking. Flash is removed, punched holes may be needed, and improved surface finish or closer dimensional accuracy may be desired. Trimming--Flash is trimmed before the forging is ready for shipping. Occasionally, especially with crack-sensitive alloys, this may be done by grinding, milling, sawing, or flame cutting. Coining--Coining and ironing are essentially sizing operations with pressure applied to critical surfaces to improve tolerances, smoothen surfaces, or eliminate draft. Coining is usually done on surfaces parallel to the parting line, while ironing is typified by the forcing of a cup-shaped component through a ring to size on outer diameter. Little metal flow is involved in either operation and flash is not formed. Swaging--This operation is related to the open die forging process whereby the stock is drawn out between flat, narrow dies. But instead of the stock, the hammer is rotated to produce multiple blows, sometimes as high as 2,000 per minute. It is a useful method of primary working, although in industrial production its role is normally that of finishing. Swaging can be stopped at any point in the length of stock and is often used for pointing tube and bar ends and for producing stepped columns and shafts of declining diameter. Hot Extrusion--Extrusion is most suitable for forming parts of drastically changing cross section and is, therefore, a direct competitor to continuous upsetting and the horizontal forging machine. In Fig. 8, a bar section of car efully controlled volume is heated, descaled, and placed into the die. Under pressure of the closely fitting punch (Fig. 8a), the material first fills the cavity, then part of it is extruded into a long stem. At the end of the stroke (Fig. Fig. 8. Hot extrusion of a valve body. 8b), a valve body is obtained that needs only grinding of the seating surfaces. There are a number of variants of the extrusion process, many of them patented. The slug may be hollow (machined), pierced in a separate operation or in the extrusion process itself. In all instances, the quality of heating, the efficiency of scale removal or prevention, and the effectiveness of lubrications are matters of greatest importance. The variety of shapes produced

are numerous. Dimensional accuracy, surface quality, and productivity are high, and a greater degree of deformation can be achieved in a single operation than in any other forging method. Cold, Warm, and Hot Forging--What's the Difference? Cold Cold forging involves either impression die forging or true closed die forging with lubricant and circular dies at or near room temperature. Carbon and standard alloy steels are most commonly cold-forged. Parts are generally symmetrical and rarely exceed 25 lb. The primary advantage is the material savings achieved through precision shapes that require little finishing. Completely contained impressions and extrusion-type metal flow yield draftless, close-tolerance components. Production rates are very high with exceptional die life. While cold forging usually improves mechanical properties, the improvement is not useful in many common applications and economic advantages remain the primary interest. Tool design and manufacture are critical. Warm Warm forging has a number of cost-saving advantages which underscore its increasing use as a manufacturing method. The temperature range for the warm forging of steel runs from above room temperature to below the recrystallization temperature, or from about 800 to 1,800F. However, the narrower range of from 1,000 to 1,330F is emerging as the range of perhaps the greatest commercial potential for warm forging. Compared with cold forging, warm forging has the potential advantages of: Reduced tooling loads, reduced press loads, increased steel ductility, elimination of need to anneal prior to forging, and favorable as-forged properties that can eliminate heat treatment. Hot Hot forging is the plastic deformation of metal at a temperature and strain rate such that recrystallization occurs simultaneously with deformation, thus avoiding strain hardening. For this to occur, high workpiece temperature (matching the metal's recrystallization temperature) must be attained throughout the process. A form of hot forging is isothermal forging, where materials and dies are heated to the same temperature. In nearly all cases, isothermal forging is conducted on superalloys in a vacuum or highly controlled atmosphere to prevent oxidation.

Introduction Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably applying compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press. Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.

Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing operations such as machining do not expose voids, because there aren't any. Also coating operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good surface, which needs very little preparation. Forgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are often used in the design of aircraft frame members. A Forged metal can result in the following Increase length, decrease cross-section, called drawing out the metal. Decrease length, increase cross-section, called upsetting the metal. Change length, change cross-section, by squeezing in closed impression dies. This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts

Top of Page

Common Forging Processes The metal can be forged hot (above recrystallization temperatures) or cold.

Open Die Forgings / Hand Forgings: Open die forgings or hand forgings are made with repeated blows in an open die, where the operator manipulates the workpiece in the die. The finished product is a rough approximation of the die. This is what a traditional blacksmith does, and is an old manufacturing process. Impression Die Forgings / Precision Forgings: Impression die forgings and precision forgings are further refinements of the blocker forgings. The finished part more closely resembles the die impression. Design Consideration:

 Parting surface should be along a single plane if possible, else follow the contour of the part. The parting surface should be through the center of the part, not near the upper or lower edges. If the parting line cannot be on a single plane, then it is good practice to use symmetry of the design to minimize the side thrust forces. Any point on the parting surface should be less than 75 from the principal parting plane. As in most forming processes, use of undercuts should be avoided, as these will make the removal of the part difficult, if not impossible. Recommended draft angles are described in the following table. Material Aluminum Copper Alloys (Brass) Steel Stainless Steel Draft Angle () 0-2 0-3 5-7 5-8

Generous fillets and radius should be provided to aid in material flow during the forging process. Sharp corners are stress-risers in the forgings, as well as make the dies weak in service. Recommended minimum radiuses are described in the following table. Height of Protrusion mm (in) 12.5 (0.5) 25 (1.0) 50 (2.0) 100 (4.0) 400 (16) Min. Corner Radius mm (in) 1.5 (0.06) 3 (0.12) 5 (0.2) 6.25 (0.25) 22 (0.875) Min. Fillet Radius mm (in) 5 (0.2) 6.25 (0.25) 10 (0.4) 10 (0.4) 50 (2.0)

Ribs should be not be high or narrow, this makes it difficult for the material to flow. Tolerances:

 Dimension tolerances are usually positive and are approximately 0.3 % of the dimension, rounded off to the next higher 0.5 mm (0.020 in). Die wear tolerances are lateral tolerances (parallel to the parting plane) and are roughly +0.2 % for Copper alloys to +0.5 % for Aluminum and Steel. Die closure tolerances are in the direction of opening and closing, and range from 1 mm (0.040 inch) for small forgings, die projection area < 150 cm2 (23 in2), to 6.25 mm (0.25 inch) for large forgings, die projection area > 6500 cm2 (100 in2). Die match tolerances are to allow for shift in the upper die with respect to the lower die. This is weight based and is shown in the the following table. Finished Forging Weight Trimmed kg (lb) Material < 10 (< 22) < 50 (< 110) > 500 (> 1100)

Die Match Tolerance mm (in) Aluminum, Copper Alloys, Steel Stainless Steel, Titanium 0.75 (0.030) 1.25 (0.050) 1.75 (0.070) 2.5 (0.100) 5 (0.200) 6.5 (0.260)

Flash tolerance is the amount of acceptable flash after the trimming operation. This is weight based and is shown in the following table. Finished Forging Weight Trimmed kg (lb) Material < 10 (< 22) < 50 (< 110) Flash Tolerance mm (in) Aluminum, Copper Alloys, Steel Stainless Steel, Titanium 0.8 (0.032) 1.6 (0.064) 3.25 (0.125) 5 (0.2) 10 (0.4) 12.5 (0.5) > 500 (> 1100)

A proper lubricant is necessary for making good forgings. The lubricant is useful in preventing sticking of the workpiece to the die, and also acts as a thermal insulator to help reduce die wear. Press Forgings: Press forging use a slow squeezing action of a press, to

transfer a great amount of compressive force to the workpiece. Unlike an open-die forging where multiple blows transfer the compressive energy to the outside of the product, press forging transfers the force uniformly to the bulk of the material. This results in uniform material properties and is necessary for large weight forgings. Parts made with this process can be quite large as much as 125 kg (260 lb) and 3m (10 feet) long. Upset Forgings: Upset forging increases cross-section by compressing the length, this is used in making heads on bolts and fasteners, valves and other similar parts.

Roll Forgings: In roll forging, a bar stock, round or flat is placed between die rollers which reduces the cross-section and increases the length to form parts such as axles, leaf springs etc. This is essentially a form of draw forging. Swaging: Swaging - a tube or rod is forced inside a die and the diameter is reduced as the cylindrical object is fed. The die hammers the diameter and causes the metal to flow inward causing the outer diameter of the tube or the rod to take the shape of the die. Net Shape / Near-Net Shape Forging: In net shape or near-net shape forging, forging results in wastage of material in the form of material flash and subsequent machining operations. This wastage can be as high as 70 % for gear blanks, and even 90+ % in the case of aircraft structural parts. Netshape and near-net-shape processes minimize the waste by making precision dies, producing parts with very little draft angle (less than 1). These types of processes often eliminate or reduce machining. The processes are quite expensive in terms of tooling and the capital expenditure required. Thus, these processes can be only justified for current processes that are very wasteful where the material savings will pay for the significant increase in tooling costs. Facts About Forging
When buyers must select a process and supplier for the production of an important metal part, they face an enormous array of possible alternatives. A great many metalworking processes are now available, each offering a unique set of capabilities, costs and advantages. The forging process is ideally suited to many part applications, however some buyers may be unaware of the exclusive benefits available only from this ancient form of metal forming. In fact, forging is often the optimum process, in terms of both part quality and cost-efficiency-especially for applications that require maximum part strength, special sizes or critical performance specifications. There are several forging processes available, including impression or closed die, cold forging, and extrusion. However,here we will discuss in detail the methods, application and comparative

benefits of the open die and seamless rolled ring forging processes. We invite you to consider this information when selecting the optimum process for the production of your metal parts. A Historical Perspective Perhaps the oldest mechanical method of metalworking known to man, forging traces its origins from ancient Egypt through the blacksmith shops of the pre-industrial period, and directly to the high-technology forging plants of today. To meet the changing needs of industry, forging has evolved to incorporate the tremendous advances in equipment, computers and electronic controls that have occurred in recent years. These sophisticated tools complement the creative human skills which, even today, are essential to the success of every forging made. Modern forging plants are capable of producing superior quality metal parts in a virtually limitless array of sizes, shapes, materials and finishes. Forging Defined At its most basic level, forging is the process of forming and shaping metals through the use of hammering, pressing or rolling. The process begins with starting stock, usually a cast ingot (or a "cogged" billet which has already been forged from a cast ingot), which is heated to its plastic deformation temperature, then upset or "kneaded" between dies to the desired shape and size. During this hot forging process, the cast, coarse grain structure is broken up and replaced by finer grains. Low-density areas, microshrinkage and gas porosity inherent in the cast metal are consolidated through the reduction of the ingot, achieving sound centers and structural integrity. Mechanical properties are therefore improved through the elimination of the cast structure, How the open die forging process enhanced density, and improved homogeneity. affects the crystal structure. Forging also provides means for aligning the grain flow to best obtain desired directional strengths. Secondary processing, such as heat treating, can also be used to further refine the part. No other metalworking process can equal forging in its ability to develop the optimum combination of properties.

Open Die Forging

Open die forging involves the shaping of heated metal parts between a top die attached to a ram and a bottom die attached to a hammer anvil or press bed. Metal parts are worked above their recrystallization temperatures-ranging from 1900F to 2400F for steel-and gradually shaped into the desired configuration through the skillful hammering or pressing of the work piece. While impression or closed die forging confines the metal in dies, open die forging is distinguished by the fact that the metal is never completely confined or restrained in the dies. Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. However, round swaging dies, V-dies, mandrels, pins and loose tools are also used depending on the desired part configuration and its size. Although the open die forging process is often associated with larger, simpler-shaped parts such as bars, blanks, rings, hollows or spindles, in fact it can be considered the ultimate option in "customdesigned" metal components. High-strength, long-life parts optimized in terms of both mechanical properties and structural integrity are today produced in sizes that range from a few pounds to hundreds of tons in weight. In addition, advanced forge shops now offer shapes that were never before thought capable of being produced by the open die forging process. The Open Die Forging Process Steps to produce a typical spindle-shaped part:

1.

Rough forging a heated billet between flat dies to the maximum diameter dimension.

2.

A "fuller" tool marks the starting "step" locations on the fully rounded workpiece.

3.

Forging or "drawing" down the first step to size.

4.

The second step is drawn down to size. Note how the part elongates with each process step as the material is being displaced.

5.

"Planishing" the rough forging for a smoother surface finish and to keep stock allowance to a minimum.

Rolled Ring Forging

The production of seamless forged rings is often performed by a process called ring rolling on rolling mills. These mills vary in size to produce rings with outside diameters of just a few inches to over 300" and in weights from a single pound up to over 300,000 pounds. The process starts with a circular preform of metal that has been previously upset and pierced (using the open die forging process) to form a hollow "donut". This donut is heated above the recrystallization temperature and placed over the idler or mandrel roll. This idler roll then moves under pressure toward a drive roll that continuously rotates to reduce the wall thickness, thereby increasing the diameters (I.D. and O.D.) of the resulting ring. Seamless rings can be produced in configurations ranging from flat, washer-like parts to tall, cylindrical shapes, with heights ranging from less than an inch to more than 9 feet. Wall thickness to height ratios of rings typically range from 1:16 up to 16:1, although greater proportions can be achieved with special processing. The simplest, and most commonly used shape is a rectangular cross-section ring, but shaped tooling can be used to produce seamless rolled rings in complex, custom shapes with contours on the inside and/or outside diameters. The Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Process Producing a ring "preform" by the open die forging process:

1.

Starting stock cut to size by weight is first rounded, then upset to achieve structural integrity and directional grain flow.

2.

Work piece is punched, then pierced to achieve starting "donut" shape needed for ring rolling process.

3.

Completed preform ready for placement on ring mill for rolling.

Rolled ring forging process:

4.

Ring rolling process begins with the idler roll applying pressure to the preform against the drive roll.

5.

Ring diameters are increased as the continuous pressure reduces the wall thickness. The axial rolls control the height of the ring as it is being rolled.

6.

The process continues until the desired size is achieved.

Part Integrity

1. Directional Strength
By mechanically deforming the heated metal under tightly controlled conditions, forging produces predictable and uniform grain size and flow characteristics. Forging stock is also typically preworked to refine the dendritic structure of the ingot and remove defects or porosity. These

qualities translate into superior metallurgical and mechanical qualities, and deliver increased directional strength in the final part.

2. Structural Strength
Forging also provides a degree of structural integrity that is unmatched by other metalworking processes. Forging eliminates internal voids and gas pockets that can weaken metal parts. By dispersing segregation of alloys or nonmetallics, forging provides superior chemical uniformity. Predictable structural integrity reduces part inspection requirements, simplifies heat Cross section of continuous grain flow treating and machining, and ensures optimum part performance under field-load conditions. of custom forged contoured ring.

3. Impact Strength
Parts can also be forged to meet virtually any stress, load or impact requirement. Proper orientation of grain flow assures maximum impact strength and fatigue resistance. The highstrength properties of the forging process can be used to reduce sectional thickness and overall weight without compromising final part integrity. Grain Flow Comparison Forged Bar: Directional alignment through the forging process has been deliberately oriented in a direction requiring maximum strength. This also yields ductility and resistance to impact and fatigue. Machined Bar: Unidirectional grain flow has been cut when changing contour, exposing grain ends. This renders the material more liable to fatigue and more sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. Cast Bar: No grain flow or directional strength is achieved through the casting process. Part Flexibility

1. Variety of Sizes
Limited only to the largest ingot that can be cast, open die forged part weights can run from a single pound to over 400,000 pounds. In addition to commonly purchased open die parts, forgings are often specified for their soundness in place of rolled bars or castings, or for those parts that are too large to produce by any other metalworking method.

2. Variety of Shapes
Shape design is just as versatile, ranging from simple bar, shaft and ring configurations to specialized shapes. These include multiple O.D./I.D. hollows, single and double hubs that approach closed die configurations, and unique, custom shapes produced by combining forging with secondary processes such as torch cutting, sawing and machining. Shape designs are often limited only by the creative skills and imagination of the forging supplier.

3. Metallurgical Spectrum
Forgings can be produced from literally all ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The forging process itself can be adjusted-through the selection of alloys, temperatures, working methods and postforming techniques-to yield virtually any desired metallurgical property.

4. Quantity and Prototype Options

Virtually all open die and rolled ring forgings are custom made one at a time, providing the option to purchase one, a dozen or hundreds of parts as needed. An added benefit is the ability to offer open die prototypes in single piece or low volume quantities. No better way exists to test initial closed die forging designs, because open die forging imparts similar grain flow orientation, deformation, and other beneficial characteristics. In addition, the high costs and long lead times associated with closed die tooling and set-ups are eliminated.

What is Forging? Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings. The process is normally (but not always) performed hot by preheating the metal to a desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the forging process is entirely different from the casting (or foundry) process, as metal used to make forged parts is never melted and poured (as in the casting process). Why use Forgings and where are they used? The forging process can create parts that are stronger than those manufactured by any other metalworking process. This is why forgings are almost always used where reliability and human safety are critical. But you'll rarely see forgings, as they are normally component parts contained inside assembled items such a airplanes, automobiles, tractors, ships, oil drilling equipment, engines, missiles and all kinds of capital equipment - to name a few. How FORGINGS compare to Castings Forgings are stronger. Casting cannot obtain the strengthening effects of hot and cold working. Forging surpasses casting in predictable strength properties producing superior strength that is assured, part to part. Forging refines defects from cast ingots or continuous cast bar. A casting has neither grain flow nor directional strength and the process cannot prevent formation of certain metallurgical defects. Pre-working forge stock produces a grain flow oriented in directions requiring maximum strength. Dendritic structures, alloy segregation's and like imperfections are refined in forging. Forgings are more reliable, less costly. Casting defects occur in a variety of forms. Because hot working refines grain pattern and imparts high strength, ductility and resistance properties, forged products are more reliable. And they are manufactured without the added costs for tighter process controls and inspection that are required for casting. Forgings offer better response to heat treatment. Castings require close control of melting and cooling processes because alloy segregation may occur. This results in non-uniform heat treatment response that can affect straightness of finished parts. Forgings respond more predictably to heat treatment and offer better dimensional stability. Forgings' flexible, cost-effective production adapts to demand. Some castings, such as special performance castings, require expensive materials and process controls, and longer lead times. Open-die and ring rolling are examples of forging processes that adapt to various production run lengths and enable shortened lead times.

The History of Forgings

Durante la edad del oscurantismo(Alta Edad Media) la produccin de armas prosper. La cultura europea y la industria fueron seriamente retrasadas debido a guerras constantes. An la Industria siderrgica permaneci intacta debido a la necesidad de armas. Uno de los acontecimientos ms significativos vino de la combinacin del descubrimiento romano de energa hidrulica y la forja de metales. La energa hidrulica fue usada para manejar el fuelle y martillos mecnicos. Este descubrimiento significativo entr en el empleo entre los siglos X y XII D. de C. Forja(Falsificacin) como una forma de arte comenzada con el deseo de producir objetos decorativos de metales preciosos. Hoy, la forja(falsificacin) es una industria principal mundial que considerablemente ha contribuido al desarrollo de hombre

The 19th century invention of the steam engine brought us to the doorstep of modern forging as we know it. Of course, to follow was the harnessing of electrical power and the development of explosive forming, which truly brought forging out of the dark ages. Forging as an art form started with the desire to produce decorative objects from precious metals. Today, forging is a major world-wide industry that has significantly contributed to the development of man.

5.2.4.2 Cold Forging Processes There is a variety of cold forging processes currently in -use, either alone or in combination. Following is an overview of those used most often. Forward Extrusion In the most common forward extrusion process, a billet is pushed through a container or die by means of a punch. The material flows in the same direction as the punch to provide various types of exit sections. The process is also used on hollow slugs to reduce wall thickness, and to manufacture cans with either cylindrical cavities or cavities with varying cross sections. It is used to produce solid shapes such as rounds, thread blanks, squares, rectangles, triangles, polygons and splines. Hollow shapes, including rounds, polygons and splines are also forward extruded. Figure 5-18 shows three types of forward extrusion. Backward Extrusion In this process, the material flows in the opposite direction to the upper punch. The workpiece is formed either in the cavity formed between the punch and die, or in the cavity of the punch. Backward extrusion is used to produce circular inside and outside diameters, squares with rounded corners, multiple outside diameters and multiple inside diameters. Figure 5-19 shows three types of backward extrusion. Side Extrusion In this process, the material flows lateral to the direction of the punch, generally in one direction. Two types of lateral extrusion are shown in Figure 5-20. Upsetting In this process, material flows lateral to the direction of the punch in all directions, increasing the cross section of the stock. The term "heading" is often used interchangeably with upsetting. Sometimes a distinction is drawn, and "heading" (or "flanging") is used to describe upsetting at the end of the workpiece, and "gathering" to describe upsetting at locations other than the end. Headed shapes include T- and L-heads, ball heads, square heads and socket heads. Three types of upsetting operations are shown in Figure 5-21. Ironing In this process, the wall thickness of hollow cans or tubes is reduced, as shown in Figure 5-22. The force is applied to the bottom of the preform by a relatively long punch. The process differs from forward extrusion in that the workpiece is in tension, whereas forward extrusion places the workpiece in compression.

Nosing Nosing is used to reduce the end of a backward extrusion, or its radius. The process is shown in Figure 5-23. Radial Forging In this process, tools moving radially forge the workpiece to the desired shape, as shown in Figure 5-24. Radial forging can also be used to make solid parts, such as axles. Hollow parts, such as gun barrels, can be axially forged using a mandrel. Bending Bending operations are often used to generate non-symmetrical shapes. The process is used to produce rod and bar shapes with and without heads, including J-, S, U-, W-, and Zbends. Combined Processes Many of the above processes can be combined to advantage in a single operation. For example, forward and backward extrusion are combined to produce shaft gears with either solid or cup heads, splined shafts and threaded shafts. Seven common process combinations are shown in Figure 5-25. Process Sequence In almost all cases, cold forgings are made in several forming strokes. The number of strokes is determined by the formability of the alloy, die loading, press loading, press characteristics, and the opportunity to combine processes. If the formability limit is reached, the workpiece must be annealed in an intermediate stage before proceeding with the next operation. The application of surface coatings between processes may be necessary for some materials. The design of process sequence is therefore based on many years of experience by the process design engineer. Process sequences for two cold forgings are shown in Figures 5-26 and 5-27. The process sequence for the bevel gear in the figure shows the progress in cold forming technology in recent years to produce very intricate shapes

El taller de forjado est dotado de dos prensas mecnicas para el forjado en matrices -una de 4000 y otra de 2500 toneladas-, donde se elaboran bridas de dimensiones limitadas adems de engranajes y ejes para la industria productora de maquinaria agrcola. Este departamento cuenta tambin con un grupo de martillos -el mayor de 16.000 Kgm.- que son utilizados para realizar forja libre con la ayuda de manipuladores de 3000, 1500 y 750 Kg. A modo de ejemplos de fabricacin podemos mencionar:

Cabezas de pozo Cuerpos de vlvulas Bielas Repuestos ferroviarios Ruedas de puente gra Discos Placas tubulares

Welcome to TW Stamping

Forging
Components can be forged into an infinite variety of shapes which would be difficult to produce by conventional machining or fabrication techniques. The result is a product with a superior surface finish, lack of porosity and enhanced strength since it does not suffer from internal stresses and it's grain structure has been improved. The result is a cost effective product fit for most applications. Tooling is relatively cheap and setting times short, this allows for economic production down to as little as a couple of hundred piece parts per order. As well as forging in brass we also work in aluminium, copper, aluminium bronze, etc.

Machining
After forging, many customers find it economical for the subsequent machining operations to be carried out by the supplier of the brass stampings. The photograph gives a few examples of the vast range of items which we machine after they have been forged. This is in fact due to the very efficient re-cycling of machining waste. This also includes work in aluminium, copper, etc. By virtue of the fact that we are sub contractors, our products have to comply with many British and foreign standards, a few of which are,

BS5433 Underground stop valves for water services BS3288 Electrical fittings BS 746 Gas Meter Unions And Adapters BS2767 Valves and unions for hot water radiators

BS1010 Draw off taps and stop valves BS5154 Globe, check and gate valves

Electrical Components
Our range of products include:

Parts for lighting fittings Immersion and kettle element heads and other domestic appliance components.

Distribution line fittings including pole mounted fuse holders, line taps, etc.

Cable Sockets Components for generators, transformers and switchgear Parts for telephone, radio, radar and scientific equipment Components for industrial use such as railway traction engines, welding sets and traffic control equipment

Gas Fittings

Our range includes parts for the gas supply industry such as unions, connectors, meter couplers, etc.

We manufacture a multitude of parts for the domestic gas appliance industry such as elbows, tees, gas cocks and manifolds.

In addition we supply decorative and other fittings for use on domestic gas fires and cookers.

Hydraulic / Pneumatic Applications

We manufacture many parts for hydraulic/ pneumatic applications, these being used in a variety of situations from mining equipment through industrial applications for use on aircraft. In particular we manufacture items which are subject to high pressure with CO2 and other bottled gases. In this case these items are fully tested well above the required specification.

Security
It is commonplace for lock and bolt parts to be made from brass components since these do not suffer from failure through corrosion attack in the event of adverse weather conditions. Such fittings are ideally made using the hot forging process.

Many other applications are now to be found in the home security market which use hot brass forging in production.

Decorative Hardware
It has always been traditional to use hot brass forgings in the manufacture of door handles, window stays and other types of architectural fittings. In recent years there has been a vast increase in the use of highly decorative components for other items of door furniture such as letter boxes, finger plates, door pulls, etc.

Sport and Leisure

A popular use for aluminium components is found in the world of mountaineering in which it is commonplace to use such items as 'karabineer' hooks or parts for ice axes. Similarly hot brass forging are incorporated into the design of many popular types of golf club putters.

Transport: Road, Rail, Ship, Aircraft

There are many applications for hot brass forgings in the transport industry. These range from parts for road vehicles such as elbows or tees in the fuel line, flanges for petrol tanks, radiator filler caps, etc. to discrete items such as battery terminals, light weight wheel nuts and hinges and fittings for heavy goods vehicles, supplied to component manufacturers. Hot brass, aluminium, aluminium bronze forgings are used extensively in the marine industry. Typically such items would include shackles and turnbuckles on yachts, parts for pumps, guard-wire terminals, etc. On aircraft there is a greater tendency to use items forged in aluminium.

Assembly Work
As well as forging and machining we have a considerable capacity for work which requires sub-assembly before use. It is usual for the resulting assembly to consist predominantly of hot brass forged and machined components. However, we are obviously willing to discuss any other type of assembly work. The problems of resourcing the parts, and as necessary holding them against scheduled call-off devolve onto TW Stamping Limited.