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We will briefly review a few radiometric concepts, and some terminology and
definitions required to perform radiometric calculations for imaging systems.
Electrical engineers are even less familiar with radiometric concepts and
quantities. It may thus be somewhat of a revelation that diffracted radiance (not irradiance or intensity) is the fundamental quantity predicted by scalar diffraction theory.*
For a more thorough discussion of the subject, I refer the reader to SPIE
Tutorial Text Volume TT29 entitled Introduction to Radiometry by W. L. Wolfe. Other excellent references are texts by Boyd, and by Dereniak and Boreman.
J. E. Harvey, et. al., Diffracted Radiance: A Fundamental Quantity in Non-paraxial Scalar Diffraction Theory, Appl. Opt. 38 (1 Nov 1999).
4.2
Outline
Radiometric and Photometric Definitions and Terminology The Lagrange Invariant The Solid Angle, Projected Area The Inverse Square Law The Fundamental Theorem of Radiometry Lamberts Cosine Law The Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF, BSDF) Radiometry of Imaging Systems The Brightness Theorem (Conservation of radiance) Cosine-fourth Illumination Fall-off Radiometer and Detector Optics
4.3
Radiometry
Irradiance E = P Ac
(watts/are a) (watts/are a)
(1)
There is an analogous set of quantities based upon the number of photons/sec rather than radiant power. This alternate set of units is useful when considering a detector that responds directly to photon events, rather than to thermal energy. Conversion between the two sets of units is easily done using the following relationship for the amount of energy per photon, = hc/ (Joule/photon). Note that the conversion factor depends upon the wavelength!
4.4
James M. Palmer, Getting Intense about Intensity, Optics & Photonics News, (Feb 1995).
4.5
Photometry
Photometry is a special case of radiometry concerned with measurement of the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, whereas radiometry considers the whole spectrum. In the case of photometry, the wavelength sensitivity of the human eye is taken into account as a weighting factor. The official name for this sensitivity function is spectral luminous efficiency, and is shown here for normal daylight conditions. The inverse of this curve gives the number of watts of radiant power at any given wavelength that is required to produce a constant sensation of brightness. In photometry the unit of luminous power is the lumen. The lumen (watt) is the only fundamental unit in photometry (radiometry), in the sense that all other units are are defined in terms of lumens (watts), areas, and solid angles: Luminous (Radiant) Intensity Luminous (Radiant) Exitance Illuminance (Irradiance) Luminance or Brightness (Radiance)
4.6
u y y
Margin al Ray
The marginal ray height (y ) and angle (u) in any arbitrary plane will be distinguished from the chief ray height (y )and angle (u) by placing a bar over the chief ray parameters. The Lagrange Invariant
H = y(nu ) y(nu)
(2)
is an invariant quantity throughout the entire system, not just at conjugate planes. In the special case of conjugate planes, the Lagrange invariant reduces to the Helmholtz Invariant. 4.7
4.8
Projected Area
The solid angle, , subtended by an arbitrary surface area, A (not on the surface of a sphere) as seen by a point P, is defined as the ratio of the projected area, A, upon a sphere divided by the square of the radius of that sphere.
= A r2
If the area, A, is tilted at an angle (measured from the surface normal to the line of sight), its solid angular subtense is reduced by a factor of cos from what it would be if it were not tilted. For the special case of a small plane area A (such as a detector element) inclined at an angle from the line-of-sight from a point P, the solid angle subtended by the detector is given by The quantity A cos is referred to as a projected area.
4.9
E= P 2 4 r
Likewise, it is true in general that, Light doth decrease in duplicate proportion to its distance of propagation from the luminous body. Robert Hooke (1635-1703).
E 12
i.e., radiant power density (irradiance) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source to the surface of interest. 4.10
(3)
1
dA1
r
dA2
Assuming small angles, we can group the r 2 with either the source or the receiver projected area and obtain two equivalent expressions
P = L 1 A2 cos2 = L A1 cos1 2
A1
A2
4.11
Either Ap product can be used. This is often a convenient flexibility in making calculations.
The photometrical unit "Lambert" for luminosity density (1 la = 0.3183099 candela / cm2). The Lambert-Beer law for extinction of light in solutions. Lambert's law of illumination density, Lamberts Cosine Law The Bouguer-Lambert law of exponential decrement (e.g. of radiation in opaque media). Lambertian Surface: Ideally white surface which reflects all light in diffuse manner.
Perhaps best known for being the first to prove that is an irrational number.
Lo=Io/dA
Io cos
L=
L = Lo
cos = Lo cos
An important consequence of Lambert's cosine law is that when a Lambertian surface is viewed from any angle, it has the same apparent radiance. This means, for example, that to the human eye it has the same apparent brightness (or luminance). It has the same radiance because, although the emitted power from a given area element is reduced by the cosine of the emission angle, the size of the observed area is decreased by a corresponding amount. Therefore, its radiance (power per unit solid angle per unit projected source area) is the same.
I ( ) = Io cos
(4)
Hence, although the emitted radiation per stradian (intensity) falls off with cosine in accordance with Lamberts Law, the projected area falls off at exactly the same rate. The result is that the radiance of a Lambertian surface is constant with respect to . This is readily observable by noting that the brightness of a Lambertian source (or reflecting surface) is the same regardless of the angle from which it is viewed. It should be noted here that there are many diffusely reflecting (no specular reflection) surfaces. However, a Lambertian surface is an ideal or perfectly diffuse surface that strictly obeys Lamberts Cosine Law. There are also, of course, partially diffuse surfaces whose reflected radiation consists of both a specular component and a diffuse (or scattered) component. The bi-directional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is a very general function used by the radiometric community for describing these situations. 4.12
M = L = I/A,
I = MA/ = LA
L = M/ = I/A
M
R2
M=L
(5)
Note that the relationship between radiance and radiant exitance is L = M / , a consequence of Lamberts cosine law, and not L = M /2 (as we might reason from the fact that there are 2 steradians in a hemisphere). 4.13
(6)
The BRDF is a function of the angles of reflectance, (r , r), and the angles of incidence, (i,i), as well as the wavelength of the incident radiation and the state of polarization of both the incident and reflected waves. The angles used in the above definition are illustrated here for a narrow beam at a fixed angle of incidence, we can drop the differentials and approximate the resulting quantity as
BRDFi ,i =
Lr ( r ,r ;i ,i ) dP( r ,r ) / d A cos( ) = Ei (i ,i ) Po / A
(7)
4.14
From the fundamental theorem of radiometry, the power collected by the entrance pupil is given by
(8)
4.15
L = L = const. n2 n2
(9)
Note that the Lagrange invariant can be readily evaluated in the object plane, the entrance pupil plane, the exit pupil plane, and the image plane
4.16
Image Irradiance
The quantity referred to as the throughput or etendue of the system is also proportional to an Area-solid angle product
2 yo ye2 = Aoe 2 to2 2 2 2 2 = n 2 Aoe = n 2 Aeo = n2 Aeo = n2 Aoe
Object Plane Entrance Pupil Exit Pupil Image Plane
Now, from the brightness theorem we know that the radiance of the exit pupil is the same as the radiance of the source (if n = n ), and from the above expression for the square of the Lagrange invariant in the image plane, we can write the irradiance in the image plane as the radiant power collected by the entrance pupil divided by the area of the image
2L E = Pe Ao =
Ao n2
(10)
E = L e
Therefore, the irradiance in the final image plane is given by the radiance of the source times the solid angle subtended by the exit pupil at the image. 4.17
tan u =
# 2 F front eff
# F front eff =
d Den
Hence, for paraxial angles the solid angle subtended by the entrance pupil at the object is related to the front effective F#
e = u 2 =
4F
front eff
#2
and the solid angle subtended by the exit pupil at the image is related to the rear effective F#
e = u 2 =
4 F #2
rear eff
Hence, we have
n 2 Ao 4 F
#
n 2 Ao 4 F
#
front eff
rear eff
4.18
O
Exit Pupil
Image Plane
The illumination at an image point is proportional to the solid angle subtended by the exit pupil at the image point. We get a factor of cos 2 because the distance OH is greater than the distance OA by a factor of 1/cos . The exit pupil is viewed obliquely from the point H and the projected area is reduced by the factor cos. Thus the illumination at point H is reduced by a factor of cos 3 . This is, however, true for illumination on a plane normal to the line OH (indicated by the dashed line in the figure). We want the illumination on the plane AH, which is reduced by another factor of cos because the illumination on the dashed plane is spread out over a larger area on the AH plane. This results in a cosine-fourth fall-off which can be quite a severe reduction of some wide-angle cameras. 4.19
In order to collect a large quantity of radiant power from the source, the diameter, D, should be as large as possible. In order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio, the size of the detector, s, should be as small as possible. In order to cover a practical field-of-view, the field angle, , should be of reasonable size (and often as large as possible). Since the F # cannot exceed 0.5 and sin u cannot exceed 1.0, the objective diameter, half field angle, and detector size are related by
f
The semi field-of-view is given by
= s , hence D = Ds =
2f 2f NA = N sin u = D s
s 2F #
D < 1.0 s
(11)
This relationship could also be derived from the Lagrange invariant with no assumptions about the system between the object and the detector. 4.20
Objective Lens
Immersion Lens
Index N
4.21
Most detectors vary in sensitivity from point to point over the their surface. When the exit pupil is imaged onto the detector, the same area of the detector is illuminated regardless of where the source is located in the field-of-view.
4.22
Homework Assignment #6
1. Compare the radiance of a one (1) milliwatt laser beam with a cross-sectional area of one (1) square mm and a divergence angle of one (1) milliradian, with that of a 100 watt incandescent lamp with a (spherical) filament one (1) square millimeter of area (i.e., a filament that radiates equally in all directions).
4.23