WEST BENGAL STATE ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION COMPANY LIMITED (WBSETCL)

VOCATIONAL TRAINING REPORT

2012

KALYANI TRANSMISSION (O&M) SUB-DIVISION, 132 KV SUB-STATION

WEST BENGAL STATE ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION COMPANY LIMITED KALYANI 132/33/11 KV SUB-STATION KALYANI TR. (O & M) SUB-DIVISION KALYANI, NADIA A REPORT ON KALYANI 132KV SUB-STATION & ITS INSTRUMENTS FOR MR. SIBASISH GHOSH ASSISTANT ENGINEER KALYANI TRANSMISSION (O & M) SUB-DIVISION WBSETCL BY STUDENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING JIS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CONTENTS
SL. NO.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

TOPICS
PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT INTRODUCTION ELECTRIC SUBSTATION TRANSMISSION TOWER ELECTRICAL BUS SYSTEM CONDUCTORS INSULATORS CAPACITOR BANK BUS COUPLER CIRCUIT BREAKERS ARC IN CIRCUIT BREAKER LIGHTNING ARRESTORS TRANSFORMER INTRODUCTION OF INSULATING OIL BUCHHOLZ RELAY EARTHING TRANSFORMER CONTROL ROOM PLCC ELECTRICAL SWITCHGEAR ELECTRICAL PROTECTION RELAY BATTERY CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY

PAGE NO.
4 5 6 7-8 9-11 12-14 15 16-22 23 24 25-31 32-33 34 35-40 41-44 45-46 47-48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

PREFACE
I have experienced vocational training in W.B.S.E.T.C.L. Kalyani sub-station from 25th June to 7th July, 2012. I am very grateful to all of the officers who gave warm reception & the valuable time for me. I have learnt many more things while doing training in sub-station which has helped me to enlarge my practical knowledge. By undergoing this training program I am able to relate my bookish knowledge with its practical application.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Before going into the report, I would like to thank to the H.R.D. department of the W.B.S.E.T.C.L., Bidhyut Bhawan, Saltlake & Kalyani sub-station for providing me the opportunity to do the vocational training at their sub-station. I am highly thankful to Sri. Sibasish Ghosh (A.E.), Sri. Sadhan Ghosh (LNSS), Sri. Ashit Ghosh (A.E.) for their kind attention. I am also thankful to the other officers for sharing their valuable experiences & time with me during this training. In this training, I also got the opportunity to understand the status of export-import of in W.B.S.E.T.CL. & the overall view of the grid system. For this constant inspiration & active supervision from the very beginning of the training, I gratefully acknowledge their significant contribution to the successful completion of my training.

INTRODUCTION

Substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, & distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in several steps. Substations may be owned and operated by a transmission or generation electrical utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are un-attended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision and control. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. As central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants were converted to distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using their own generators. The first substations were connected to only one power station, where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

ELECTRIC SUB-STATION
An Electric sub-station is an assembly of equipment in an electric power system through which electrical energy is passed for transmission, distribution, interconnection, transformation, conversion or switching.

TYPES OF SUB-STATION:
A. Transmission sub-station, B. Distribution sub-station, C. Collector sub-station,

A. Transmission sub-station:

A transmission substation connects two or more

transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two transmission voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAr compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.

B. Distribution sub-station: A distribution substation transfers power from the

transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution. The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub

transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.

C. Collector sub-station: In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm,

a collector substation may be required. It resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC static inverter plant. Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for such substations are Brauweiler in Germany and Hradec in the Czech Republic, where power is collected from nearby lignitefired power plants. If no transformers are required for increase of voltage to transmission level, the substation is a switching station.

TRANSMISSION TOWER
The main supporting unit of overhead transmission line is transmission tower. Transmission towers have to carry the heavy transmission conductor at a sufficient safe height from ground. In addition to that all towers have to sustain all kinds of natural calamities. So transmission tower designing is an important engineering job where all three basic engineering concepts, civil, mechanical and electrical engineering concepts are equally applicable. Main parts of a transmission tower. A power transmission tower consists of the following parts, 1) Peak of transmission tower 2) Cross Arm of transmission tower 3) Boom of transmission tower 4) Cage of transmission tower 5) Transmission Tower Body 6) Leg of transmission tower 7) Stub/Anchor Bolt and Base plate assembly of transmission tower.

THE MAIN PARTS AMONG THESE ARE SHOWN IN THE PICTURES:

10 Peak of transmission tower:

The portion above the top cross arm is called peak of transmission tower. Generally earth shield wire connected to the tip of this peak. Cross Arm of transmission tower: Cross arms of transmission tower hold the transmission conductor. The dimension of cross arm depends on the level of transmission voltage, configuration and minimum forming angle for stress distribution. Cage of transmission tower: The portion between tower body and peak is known as cage of transmission tower. This portion of the tower holds the cross arms. Transmission Tower Body: The portion from bottom cross arms up to the ground level is called transmission tower body. This portion of the tower plays a vital role for maintaining required ground clearance of the bottom conductor of the transmission line.

DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION TOWER:

To determine the actual transmission tower height by considering the above points, we have divided the total height of tower in four parts -

i. ii. iii. iv.

Minimum permissible ground clearance(H1), Maximum sag of the conductors (H2), Vertical spacing between top & bottom conductors (H3), Vertical clearance between ground wire and top conductors (H4),

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TYPES OF TRANSMISSION TOWER:

According to different considerations, there are different types of transmission towers. The transmission line goes as per available corridors. Due to unavailability of shortest distance straight corridor transmission line has to deviate from its straight way when obstruction comes. In total length of a long transmission line there may be several deviation points. According to the angle of deviation there are four types of transmission tower A type tower angle of deviation 0o to 2o. B type tower angle of deviation 2o to 15o. C type tower angle of deviation 15o to 30o. D type tower angle of deviation 30o to 60o.

As per the force applied by the conductor on the cross arms, the transmission towers can be categorized in another way. Tangent Suspension tower and it is generally A - type tower. Angle tower or tension tower or sometime it is called section tower. All B, C and D types of transmission towers come under this category. Apart from the above customized type of tower, the tower is designed to meet special usages listed below, These are called special type tower River Crossing Tower Railway/ Highway Crossing tower Transposition tower Based on numbers of circuits carried by a transmission tower, transportation can be classified as Single Circuit tower Double Circuit tower Multi Circuit tower.

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ELECTRICAL BUS SYSTEM & SUBSTATION LAYOUT

There are many different electrical bus system schemes available but selection of a particular scheme depends upon the system voltage, position of substation in electrical power system, flexibility needed in system and cost to be expensed. The main criterias to be considered during selection of one particular Bus Bar Arrangement Scheme among others Simplicity of system. Easy maintenance of different equipments. Minimizing the outage during maintenance. Future provision of extension with growth of demand. Optimizing the selection of bus bar arrangement scheme so that it gives maximum return from the system.

Some very commonly used bus bar arrangement are discussed below

SINGLE BUS SYSTEM:

Single Bus System is simplest and cheapest one. In this scheme all the feeders and transformer bay are connected to only one single bus as shown. Advantages of single bus system: This is very simple in design This is very cost effective scheme This is very convenient to operate Disadvantages of single bus system: One but major difficulty of these type of arrangement is that, maintenance of equipment of any bay cannot be possible without interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that bay. The indoor 11KV switchboards have quite often single bus bar arrangement.

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Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer: Some advantages are realized if a single bus bar is sectionalized with circuit breaker. If there are more than one incoming and the incoming sources and outgoing feeders are evenly distributed on the sections as shown in the figure, interruption of system can be reduced to a good extent.

DOUBLE BUS SYSTEM:

In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any outgoing or incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus. Actually every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel through individual isolator as shown in the figure. By closing any of the isolators one can put the feeder to associated bus. Both of the buses are energized and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from one bus and other from other bus. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to other. There is one bus coupler breaker which should be kept close during bus transfer operation. For transfer operation, one should first close the bus coupler circuit breaker then close the isolator associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred and then open the isolator associated with the bus from where feeder is transferred. Lastly after this transfer operation he or she should open the bus coupler breaker. Advantages of Double Bus System: Double Bus Bar Arrangement increases the flexibility of system. Disadvantages of Double Bus System: The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance without interruption.

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ONE AND A HALF BREAKER BUS SYSTEM:

This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the number of circuit breakers. For every two circuits only one spare breaker is provided. The protection is however complicated since it must associate the central breaker with the feeder whose own breaker is taken out for maintenance. For the reasons given under double breaker scheme and because of the prohibitory costs of equipment even this scheme is not much popular. As shown in the figure that it is a simple design, two feeders are fed from two different buses through their associated breakers and these two feeders are coupled by a third breaker which is called tie breaker. Normally all the three breakers are closed and power is fed to both the circuits from two buses which are operated in parallel. The tie breaker acts as coupler for the two feeder circuits.

MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS SYSTEM:

This is an alternative of double bus system. The main conception of Main and Transfer Bus System is, here every feeder line is directly connected through an isolator to a second bus called transfer bus. The said isolator in between transfer bus and feeder line is generally called bypass isolator. The main bus is as usual connected to each feeder through a bay consists of circuit breaker and associated isolators at both side of the breaker. There is one bus coupler bay which couples transfer bus and main bus through a circuit breaker and associated isolators at both sides of the breaker. If necessary the transfer bus can be energized by main bus power by closing the transfer bus coupler isolators and then breaker. Then the power in transfer bus can directly be fed to the feeder line by closing the bypass isolator.

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CONDUCTORS

TYPES OF CONDUCTORS:
For 400 kV transmission line MOOSE wire is used. For 132 kV transmission line PANTHER wire is used. The diameter is 3mm. For 220 kV transmission line DEER wire is used. The diameter is 3.45mm. For 220kV transmission line ZEBRA wire is used. The diameter is 3.15mm. For 66 kV transmission line DOG wire is used.

TABLE OF CONDUCTORS: NAME

Moose

DIAMETER VOLTAGE WIRE IN WEIGHT OF SINGLE LEVEL CONDUCTOR WIRE

400kV 7/54 2.00kg/m N/A

Deer Zebra Panther Dog

220kV 220kV 132kV 66kV

7/30 7/54 7/30 N/A

1.977kg/m 1.6kg/m 0.976kg/m N/A

3.54mm 3.15mm N/A N/A

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ELECTRICAL INSULATOR
Electrical Insulator must be used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of electric current to the earth from its supporting points. Example: Porcelain insulator, glass insulator, polymer insulator.

Properties of insulating material:

a. It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors. b. It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High Voltage system. c. It must possess high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the earth. d. The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.

PORCELAIN INSULATOR:
Porcelain in most commonly used material for over head insulator in present days. The porcelain is aluminium silicate. The aluminium silicate is mixed with plastic kaolin, feldspar and quartz to obtain final hard and glazed porcelain insulator material. The surface of the insulator should be glazed enough so that water should not be traced on it. Porcelain also should be free from porosity since porosity is the main cause of deterioration of its dielectric property. It must also be free from any impurity and air bubble inside the material which may affect the insulator properties.

PROPERTY Dielectric strength Compressive strength Tensile strength

VALUE 60kV/cm 70,000kg/cm2 500kg/cm2

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GLASS INSULATOR:
Nowadays glass insulator has become popular in transmission and distribution system. Annealed tough glass is used for insulating purpose. Glass insulator has numbers of advantages over conventional porcelain insulator. Advantages of glass insulator: It has very high dielectric strength compared to porcelain. Its resistivity is also very high. It has low coefficient of thermal expansion. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator. As it is transparent in nature it is not heated up in sunlight as porcelain. The impurities and air bubble can be easily detected inside the glass insulator body because of its transparency.

PROPERTY Dielectric strength Compressive strength Tensile strength

VALUE 140kV/cm 10,000kg/cm2 35,000kg/cm2

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POLYMER INSULATOR:
In a polymer insulator has two parts, one is glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin rod shaped core and other is silicone rubber or EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) made weather sheds. Rod shaped core is covered by weather sheds. Weather sheds protect the insulator core from outside environment. As it is made of two parts, core and weather sheds, polymer insulator is also called composite insulator. The rod shaped core is fixed with Hop dip galvanized cast steel made end fittings in both sides. Advantages of polymer insulator: It is very light weight compared to porcelain and glass insulator. As the composite insulator is flexible the chance of breakage becomes minimum. Because of lighter in weight and smaller in size, this insulator has lower installation cost. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator. Disadvantages of polymer insulator: Moisture may enter in the core if there is any unwanted gap between core and weather sheds. This may cause electrical failure of the insulator. Over crimping in end fittings may result to cracks in the core which leads to mechanical failure of polymer insulator.

Types of Insulator:
There are mainly three types of insulator used as overhead insulator likewise

Pin Insulator Suspension Insulator Stray Insulator

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PIN INSULATOR:
Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in power network up to 33KV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two parts or three parts type, depending upon application voltage. In 11KV system we generally use one part type insulator where whole pin insulator is one piece of properly shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical length of the insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path. In order to obtain lengthy leakage path, one, two or more rain sheds or petticoats are provided on the insulator body. In addition to that rain shed or petticoats on an insulator serve another purpose. These rain sheds or petticoats are so designed, that during raining the outer surface of the rain shed becomes wet but the inner surface remains dry and non-conductive. So there will be discontinuations of conducting path through the wet pin insulator surface.

Designing consideration of Electrical Insulator:

The live conductor attached to the top of the pin insulator is at a potential and bottom of the insulator fixed to supporting structure of earth potential. The insulator has to withstand the potential stresses between conductor and earth. The shortest distance between conductor and earth, surrounding the insulator body, along which electrical discharge may take place through air, is known as flash over distance. 1. When insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost conducting. Hence the flash over distance of insulator is decreased. The design of an electrical insulator should be such that the decrease of flash over distance is minimum when the insulator is wet. That is why the upper most petticoat of a pin insulator has umbrella type designed so that it can protect, the rest lower part of the insulator from rain. The upper surface of top most petticoat is inclined as less as possible to maintain maximum flash over voltage during raining.

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2. To keep the inner side of the insulator dry, the rain sheds are made in order that these rain sheds should not disturb the voltage distribution they are so designed that their subsurface at right angle to the electromagnetic lines of force.

POST INSULATOR:
Post insulator is more or less similar to Pin insulator but former is suitable for higher voltage application. Post insulator has higher numbers of petticoats and has greater height. This type of insulator can be mounted on supporting structure horizontally as well as vertically. The insulator is made of one piece of porcelain but has fixing clamp arrangement are in both top and bottom end. The main differences between pin insulator and post insulator are: SL. NO. 1 2 3 PIN INSULATOR It is generally used up to 33KV system. It is single stag. Two insulators cannot be fixed together for higher voltage application. Metallic fixing arrangement provided only on bottom end of the insulator. POST INSULATOR It is suitable for lower voltage and also for higher voltage. It can be single stag as well as multiple stags. Two or more insulators can be fixed together one above other for higher voltage application. Metallic fixing arrangement provided on both top and bottom ends of the insulator.

SUSPENSION INSULATOR:
In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator because size, weight of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger size single unit insulator are quite difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed. In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a string and the line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator of a suspension string is called disc insulator because of their disc like shape

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Advantages of Suspension Insulator:

1. Each suspension disc is designed for normal voltage rating 11KV(Higher voltage rating 15KV), so by using different numbers of discs, a suspension string can be made suitable for any voltage level. 2. If any one of the disc insulators in a suspension string is damaged, it can be replaced much easily. 3. Mechanical stresses on the suspension insulator is less since the line hanged on a flexible suspension string. 4. As the current carrying conductors are suspended from supporting structure by suspension string, the height of the conductor position is always less than the total height of the supporting structure. Therefore, the conductors may be safe from lightening.

Disadvantages of Suspension Insulator:

Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type insulator. Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure than that for pin or post insulator to maintain same ground clearance of current conductor. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in suspension insulator system, hence, more spacing between conductors should be provided.

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STRAIN INSULATOR:
When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor it is referred as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in transmission line, the line has to sustain a great tensile load of conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have considerable mechanical strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties.
Rated System Voltage 33KV Number of disc insulator used in strain type tension insulator string Number of disc insulator used in suspension insulator string 3

3 5 9 15

66KV 132KV 220KV

4 8 14

There are other two types of insulator for low voltage application. Those are i.Stay Insulator ii. Shackle Insulator.

STAY INSULATOR:
For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used in the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of porcelain and is so designed that in case of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire will not fall to the ground.

SHACKLE INSULATOR:
The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution network. It can be used both in horizontal and vertical position.

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CAPACITOR BANK
A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical capacitors interconnected in parallel or in series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct or counteract undesirable characteristics, such as power factor lag or phase shifts inherent in alternating current (AC) electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks may also be used in direct current (DC) power supplies to increase stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power supply. Single capacitors are electrical or electronic components which store electrical energy. Capacitors consist of two conductors that are separated by an insulating material or dielectric. When an electrical current is passed through the conductor pair, a static electric field develops in the dielectric which represents the stored energy. Unlike batteries, this stored energy is not maintained indefinitely, as the dielectric allows for a certain amount of current leakage which results in the gradual dissipation of the stored energy. The energy storing characteristic of capacitors is known as capacitance and is expressed or measured by the unit farads. These characteristics also allow capacitors to be used in a group or capacitor bank to absorb and correct AC power supply faults. The use of a capacitor bank to correct AC power supply anomalies is typically found in heavy industrial environments that feature working loads made up of electric motors and transformers. This type of working load is problematic from a power supply perspective as electric motors and transformers represent inductive loads, which cause a phenomenon known as phase shift or power factor lag in the power supply. The use of a capacitor bank in the power supply system effectively cancels out or counteracts these phase shift issues, making the power supply far more efficient and cost effective. The installation of a capacitor bank is also one of the cheapest methods of correcting power lag problems and maintaining a power factor capacitor bank is simple and cost effective. One thing that should always be kept in mind when working with any capacitor or capacitor bank is the fact that the stored energy, if incorrectly discharged, can cause serious burns or electric shocks.

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BUS COUPLER
Bus coupler is a device which is used to switch from one bus to the other without any interruption in power supply and without creating hazardous arcs. It is achieved with the help of circuit breaker and isolators. Bus coupler configurations are available as non-terminated or internally terminated. If two or more non-terminated couplers are used on a bus, then the couplers at each end of the bus must be terminated externally with 78 ohm terminators on the unused bus connections of the end couplers. Alternately, internally single terminated couplers (with or without the non-functional bus connectors) can be supplied. Even if only one non-terminated coupler acts as the bus because all devices (bus controller, remote terminals, etc.) are connected to the couplers stubs, the external bus connections of the coupler must be terminated. A dual-terminated coupler (with or without nonfunctional bus connectors) can be employed where the coupler acts as the bus without other couplers. COMPONENTS OF BUS COUPLER: Main bus isolator Current transformer Circuit breaker Line isolator Supporting insulator Potential transformer

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CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Electrical Circuit Breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually as well as automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER: According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker. According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER

SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER: A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in Sulphur Hexafluoride or SF6 gas is known as an SF6 Circuit Breaker. SF6 has excellent insulating property. SF6 has high electro-negativity. That means it has high affinity of absorbing free electron. Whenever a free electron collides with the SF6 gas molecule, it is absorbed by that gas molecule and forms a negative ion. The attachment of electron with SF6 gas molecules may occur in tow different ways, 1) SF6 +e=SF6 2) SF6 + e = SF5 - + F

These negative ions obviously much heavier than a free electron and therefore over all mobility of the charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less as compared other common gases. We know that mobility of charged particle is majorly responsible for conducting current through a gas. WORKING OF SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER: The working of SF6 circuit Breaker of first generation was quite simple it is some extent similar to air blast circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a high pressure reservoir. During operation of SF6 circuit breaker this highly compressed gas is released through the arc and collected to relatively low pressure reservoir and then it pumped back to the high pressure reservoir for reutilize.

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The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in modern time. Innovation of puffer type design makes operation of SF6 circuit breaker much easier. In buffer type design, the arc energy is utilized to develop pressure in the arcing chamber for arc quenching.

Here the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure. There are two fixed contact fitted with a specific contact gap. A sliding cylinder bridges these to fixed contacts. The cylinder can axially slide upward and downward along the contacts. There is one stationary piston inside the cylinder which is fixed with other stationary parts of the breaker, in such a way that it can not change its position during the movement of the cylinder. As the piston is fixed and cylinder is movable or sliding, the internal volume of the cylinder changes when the cylinder slides. During opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against position of the fixed piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced which produces compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder. The cylinder has numbers of side vents which were blocked by upper fixed contact body during closed position. As the cylinder move further downwards, these vent openings cross the upper fixed contact, and become unblocked and then compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder will come out through this vents in high speed towards the arc and passes through the axial hole of the both fixed contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of SF6 gas. During closing of the breaker, the sliding cylinder moves upwards and as the position of piston remains at fixed height, the volume of the cylinder increases which introduces low pressure inside the cylinder compared to the surrounding. Due to this pressure difference SF6 gas from surrounding will try to enter in the cylinder. The higher pressure gas will come through the axial hole of both fixed contact and enters into cylinder via vent and during this flow; the gas will quench the arc.

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VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER:

A vacuum circuit breaker is such kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in vacuum. The technology is suitable for mainly medium voltage application. For higher voltage Vacuum technology has been developed but not commercially viable. The operation of opening and closing of current carrying contacts and associated arc interruption take place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The vacuum interrupter consists of a steel arc chamber in the centre symmetrically arranged ceramic insulators. The vacuum pressure inside a vacuum interrupter is normally maintained at 10 - 6 bar. The material used for current carrying contacts plays an important role in the performance of the vacuum circuit breaker. CuCr is the most ideal material to make VCB contacts. Vacuum interrupter technology was first introduced in the year of 1960. But still it is a developing technology. As time goes on, the size of the vacuum interrupter is being reducing from its early 1960s size due to different technical developments in this field of engineering. The contact geometry is also improving with time, from butt contact of early days it gradually changes to spiral shape, cup shape and axial magnetic field contact. The vacuum circuit breaker is today recognized as most reliable current interruption technology for medium voltage system. It requires minimum maintenance compared to other circuit breaker technologies.

Advantages of vacuum circuit breaker:

Service life of Vacuum Circuit Breaker is much longer than other types of circuit breakers. There is no chance of fire hazard as oil circuit breaker. It is much environment friendly than SF6 Circuit breaker. Beside of that contraction of VCB is much user friendly. Replacement of Vacuum Interrupter (VI) is much convenient.

Operation of Vacuum Circuit Breaker:

The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero crossing, by establishing high dielectric strength in between the contacts so that reestablishment of arc after current zero becomes impossible. The dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than that of air and four times greater than that of SF6 gas. This high dielectric strength makes it possible to quench a vacuum arc within very small contact gap. For short contact gap, low contact mass and no compression of medium the drive energy required in vacuum circuit breaker is minimum. When two face to face contact areas are just being separated to each other, they do not be separated instantly, contact area on the contact face is being reduced and ultimately comes to a point and then they are finally de-touched. Although this happens in a fraction of micro second but it is the fact. At thid instant of de-touching of contacts in a vacuum, the current through the contacts concentrated on that last contact point on the contact surface and makes a hot spot. As it is vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily vaporized due to that hot spot and create a conducting media for arc path. Then the arc will be initiated and continued until the next current zero. At current zero this vacuum arc is extinguished and the conducting metal vapour is re-condensed on the contact surface. At this point, the contacts are already

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separated hence there is no question of re-vaporization of contact surface, for next cycle of current. That means, the arc cannot be reestablished again. In this way vacuum circuit breaker prevents the reestablishment of arc by producing high dielectric strength in the contact gap after current zero.

There are two types of arc shapes. For interrupting current up to 10kA, the arc remains diffused and the form of vapour discharge and cover the entire contact surface. Above 10kA the diffused arc is constricted considerably by its own magnetic field and it contracts. The phenomenon gives rise over heating of contact at its center. In order to prevent this, the design of the contacts should be such that the arc does not remain stationary but keeps travelling by its own magnetic field. Specially designed contact shape of vacuum circuit breaker make the constricted stationary arc travel along the surface of the contacts, thereby causing minimum and uniform contact erosion.

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Mineral oil has better insulating property than air. In oil circuit breaker the fixed contact and moving contact are immerged inside the insulating oil. Whenever there is a separation of current carrying contacts in the oil, the arc is initialized at the moment of separation of contacts, and due to this arc the oil is vaporized and decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc. This highly compressed gas bubble around the arc prevents re-striking of the arc after current reaches zero crossing of the cycle. The Oil Circuit Breaker is the one of the oldest type of circuit breakers.

Operation of Oil Circuit Breaker:

The operation of oil circuit breaker is quite simple lets have a discussion. When the current carrying contacts in the oil are separated an arc is established in between the separated contacts. Actually, when separation of contacts has just started, distance between the current contacts is small as a result the voltage gradient between contacts becomes high. This high voltage gradient between the contacts ionized the oil and consequently initiates arcing between the contacts. This arc will produce a large amount of heat in surrounding oil and vaporizes the oil and decomposes the oil in mostly hydrogen and a small amount of methane, ethylene and acetylene. The hydrogen gas can not remain in molecular form and its is broken into its atomic form releasing lot of heat. The arc temperature may reach up to 50000K. Due to this high temperature the gas is liberated surround the arc very rapidly and

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forms an excessively fast growing gas bubble around the arc. It is found that the mixture of gases occupies a volume about one thousand times that of the oil decomposed. From this figure we can assume how fast the gas bubble around the arc will grow in size. If this growing gas bubble around the arc is compressed by any means then rate of de ionization process of ionized gaseous media in between the contacts will accelerate which rapidly increase the dielectric strength between the contacts and consequently the arc will be quenched at zero crossing of the current cycle. This is the basic operation of oil circuit breaker. In addition to that cooling effect of hydrogen gas surround the arc path also helps, the quick arc quenching in oil circuit breaker.

Types of oil circuit breakers:

There are mainly two types of oil circuit breaker.
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker:

Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker is such types of circuit breakers where oil is used as arc quenching media as well as insulating media between current carrying contacts and earthed parts of the breaker. The oil used here is same as transformer insulating oil.
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker:

These types of circuit breakers utilize oil as the interrupting media. However, unlike bulk oil circuit breaker, a minimum oil circuit breaker places the interrupting unit in insulating chamber at live potential. The insulating oil is available only in interrupting chamber. The features of designing MOCB are to reduce requirement of oil, and hence these breaker are called minimum oil circuit breaker.

AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER:

An air circuit breaker is that kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at atmospheric pressure. After development of oil breaker, the medium voltage air circuit breaker is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in different countries. But in countries like France and Italy, air circuit breakers are still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV. It is also good choice to avoid the risk of oil fire, in case of oil circuit breaker. In America air circuit breakers were exclusively used for the system up to 15 KV until the development of new vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.

Working principle of Air Circuit Breaker:

The working principle of air circuit breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the

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reestablishment of arcing after current zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different ways. It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced; hence more voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc. It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc current more voltage is required to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased. Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

Types of air circuit breaker:

There are mainly two types of air circuit breaker are available. 1) 2) Plain air circuit breaker Air blast Circuit Breaker

Operation of Air Circuit Breaker:

The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large an area as possible of insulating material. All the air circuit breakers are fitted with a chamber surrounding the contact. This chamber is called 'arc chute'. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is suitably shaped, and if the arc can be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be made from some kind of refractory material. High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and ceramics are preferable materials for making arc chute. The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved concurrently with fist objective. If the inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only forced into close proximity with it but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall. The lengthening of the arc path increases the arc resistance. The third technique is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc chute. The main arc chute is divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic separation plates. These metallic separation plates are actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments behaves as individual mini arc chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a number of series arcs, each of which will have its won mini arc chute. So each of the split arcs has its won cooling and lengthening effect due to its won mini arc chute and hence individual split arc voltage becomes high. These collectively, make the over all arc voltage, much higher than the system voltage.

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This was working principle of air circuit breaker now we will discuss in details the operation of air circuit breaker in practice. The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1KV, does not require any arc control device. Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages (low voltage level above 1 KV) air circuit breakers with appropriate arc control device, are good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper. The additional pair is the arcing contact and is made of carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts open first and during opening of main contacts the arcing contacts are still in touch with each other. As the current gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact during opening of main contacts, there will not be any arcing in the main contact. The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is fitted with an arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters in the arc chute, consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes much larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is quenched finally during the current zero.

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ARC IN CIRCUIT BREAKER

Before going through details arc quenching or arc extinction technologies employed in circuit breaker we should know first what is arc actually.

Definition of arc:
During opening of current carrying contacts in a circuit breaker the medium in between opening contacts become highly ionized through which the interrupting current gets low resistive path and continues to flow through this path even the contacts are physically separated. During the flowing of current from one contact to other the path becomes so heated that it glows. This is called arc.

Arc in Circuit Breaker:

Whenever, on load current contacts of circuit breaker open there is an arc in circuit breaker, established between the separating contacts. As long as this arc is sustained in between the contacts the current through the circuit breaker will not be interrupted finally as because arc is itself a conductive path of electricity. For total interruption of current the circuit breaker it is essential to quench the arc as quick as possible. The main designing criteria of a circuit breaker is to provide appropriate technology of arc quenching in circuit breaker to fulfill quick and safe current interruption. So before going through different arc quenching techniques employed in circuit breaker, we should try to understand "what is arc" and basic theory of arc in circuit breaker, lets discuss.

Thermal Ionization of gas:

There are numbers of free electrons and ions present in a gas at room temperature due to ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radioactivity of the earth. These free electrons and ions are so few in number that they are insufficient to sustain conduction of electricity. The gas molecules move randomly at room temperature. It is found an air molecule at a temperature of 300oK (Room temperature) moves randomly with an approximate average velocity of 500 meters/second and collides other molecules at a rate of 1010times/second. These randomly moving molecules collide each other in very frequent manner but the kinetic energy of the molecules is not sufficient to extract an electron from atoms of the molecules. If the temperature is increased the air will be heated up and consequently the velocity on the molecules increased. Higher velocity means higher impact during intermolecular collision. During this situation some of the molecules are disassociated in to atoms. If temperature of the air is further increased many atoms are deprived of valence electrons and make the gas ionized. Then this ionized gas can conduct electricity because of sufficient free electrons. This condition of any gas or air is called plasma. This phenomenon is called thermal ionization of gas.

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Ionization due to electron collision:

As we discussed that there are always some free electrons and ions presents in the air or gas but they are insufficient to conduct electricity. Whenever these free electrons come across a strong electric field, these are directed towards higher potential points in the field and acquire sufficiently high velocity. In other words, the electrons are accelerated along the direction of the electric field due to high potential gradient. During their travel these electrons collide with other atoms and molecules of the air or gas and extract valance electrons from their orbits. After extracted from parent atoms, the electrons will also run along the direction of the same electric field due to potential gradient. These electrons will similarly collide with other atoms and create more free electrons which will also be directed along the electric field. Due to this conjugative action the numbers of free electrons in the gas will become so high that the gas stars conducting electricity. This phenomenon is known as ionization of gas due to electron collision.

Deionization of gas:
If all the cause of ionization of gas are removed from an ionized gas it rapidly come back to its neutral state by recombination of the positive and negative charges. The process of recombination of positive and negative charges is known as deionization process. In deionization by diffusion, the negative ions or electrons and positive ions move to the walls under the influence of concentration gradients and thus completing the process of recombination.

Role of arc in Circuit Breaker:

When two current contacts just open, an arc bridges the contact gap through which the current gets a low resistive path to flow so there will not be any sudden interruption of current. As there is no sudden and abrupt change in current during opening of the contacts, there will not be any abnormal switching over voltage in the system. If i is the current flows through the contacts just before they open, L is the system inductance, switching over voltage during opening of contacts, may be expressed as V = L.(di/dt) where (di/dt) rate of change of current with respect to time during opening of the contacts. In the case of alternating current arc is monetarily extinguished at every current zero. After crossing every current zero the media between separated contacts gets ionized again during next cycle of current and the arc in circuit breaker is reestablished. To make the interruption complete and successful, this re-ionization in between separated contacts to be prevented after a current zero. If arc in circuit breaker is absence during opening of current carrying contacts, there would be sudden and abrupt interruption of current which will cause a huge switching over voltage sufficient to severely stress the insulation of the system. On the other hand, the arc provides a gradual but quick, transition from the current carrying to the current breaking states of the contacts.

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LIGHTNING ARRESTORS (L.A)

A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems & telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth. In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure, preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike. If protection fails or is absent, lightening that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightningproduced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.

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TRANSFORMER
Electrical Power Transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between to windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but may be in different voltage level.

Working Principle of transformer:

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's laws of Electromagnetic Induction. Actually mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

Faraday's laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".

Basic Theory of Transformer:

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil. According to Faraday's laws of Electromagnetic Induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the latter winding is closed, there must be current flows through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this is most basic of working principle of transformer. The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally known as Primary Winding of transformer. Here it is first winding. The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly known as Secondary Winding of Transformer. Here it is second winding.

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The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically possible but not practically, because in open air very tiny portion of the flux of the first winding will link with second so the current flows through the closed circuit of latter, will be so small that it may be difficult to measure. The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux, with the second winding. So it desired to be linked almost all flux of primary winding, to the secondary winding. This is effectively and efficiently done by placing one low reluctance path common to both the winding. This low reluctance path is core of transformer, through which maximum number of flux produced by the primary is passed through and linked with the secondary winding. This is most basic theory of transformer.

Main constructional parts of transformer:

So three main parts of a transformer are, 1. Primary Winding of transformer - which produces magnetic flux when it is connected to electrical source. 2. Magnetic Core of transformer - the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding, will pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and creates a closed magnetic circuit. 3. Secondary Winding of transformer - the flux, produced by primary winding, passes through the core, will link with the secondary winding. This winding is also wound on the same core and gives the desired output of the transformer.

Definition of Instrument Transformer:

Instrument transformers means current transformer & voltage transformer are used in electrical power system for stepping down currents and voltages of the system for metering and protection purpose. Actually relays and meters used for protection and metering, are not designed for high currents and voltages. High currents or voltages of electrical power system cannot be directly fed to relays and meters. Current transformer steps down rated system current to 1 Amp or 5 Amp similarly voltage transformer steps down system voltages to 110V. The relays and meters are generally designed for 1 Amp, 5 Amp and 110V.

Definition of current transformer (CT):

A current transformer (CT) is an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially proportional to primary current and differs in phase from it by ideally zero degree.

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Theory of Current Transformer or CT:

A current transformer functions with the same basic working principle of electrical power transformer, as we discussed earlier, but here is some difference. If a electrical power transformer or other general purpose transformer, primary current varies with load or secondary current. In case of current transformer, primary current is the system current and this primary current or system current transforms to the CT secondary, hence secondary current or burden current depends upon primary current of the current transformer. In a power transformer, if load is disconnected, there will be only magnetizing current flows in the primary. The primary of the power transformer takes current from the source proportional to the load connected with secondary. But in case of Current transformer, the primary is connected in series with power line. So current through its primary is nothing but the current flows through that power line. The primary current of the CT, hence does not depend upon whether the load or burden is connected to the secondary or not or what is the impedance value of burden. Generally current transformer has very few turns in primary where as secondary turn is large in number. Say Np is number of turns in CT primary and Ip is the current through primary. Hence the primary AT is equal to NpIp AT. If number of turns in secondary and secondary current in that CT are Ns and Is respectively then Secondary AT is equal to NsIs AT. In an ideal CT the primary AT is exactly is equal in magnitude to secondary AT. So from the above statement it is clear that if a CT has one turn in primary and 400 turns in secondary winding, if it has 400 A current in primary then it will have 1A in secondary burden. Thus the turn ratio of the CT is 400/1A.

Error in Current Transformer:

But in an actual current transformer, errors with which we are connected can best be considered through a study of phasor diagram for a CT, Is - Secondary Current Es - Secondary induced emf Ip - primary Current Ep - primary induced emf KT - turns ratio = numbers of secondary turns/number of primary turns Io - Excitation Current Im - magnetizing component of Io Iw - core loss component of Io m - main flux.

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Let us take flux as reference. EMF Es and Ep lags behind the flux by 90o. The magnitude of the passers Es and Ep are proportional to secondary and primary turns. The excitation current Io which is made up of two components Im and Iw. The secondary current Io lags behind the secondary induced emf Es by an angle s. The secondary current is now transferred to the primary side by reversing Is and multiplied by the turns ratio KT. The total current flows through the primary Ip is then vector sum of KT Is and Io.

The Ratio Error in Current Transformer:

From above passer diagram it is clear that primary current Ip is not exactly equal to the secondary current multiplied by turns ratio, i.e. KTIs. This difference is due to the primary current is contributed by the core excitation current. The error in current transformer introduced due to this difference is called current error of CT or Current error of current transformer or some times Ratio Error in Current Transformer. Hence, the percentage current error = {(|Ip| |KT.Is|)/Ip} X 100 %

Phase Angle Error in Current Transformer:

For a ideal current transformer the angle between the primary and reversed secondary current vector is zero. But for an actual current transformer there is always a difference in phase between two due to the fact that primary current has to supply the component of the exiting current. The angle between the above two phases in termed as Phase Angle Error in Current Transformer or CT. Here in the pharos diagram it is the phase angle error is usually expressed in minutes.

Cause of error in current transformer:

The total primary current is not actually transformed in CT. One part of the primary current is consumed for core excitation and remaining is actually transformers with turns ratio of CT so there is error in current transformer means there are both Ratio Error in Current Transformer as well as a Phase Angle Error in Current Transformer.

How to reduce error in current transformer:

It is desirable to reduce these errors, for better performance. For achieving minimum error in current transformer, one can follow the following, 1) Using a core of high permeability and low hysteresis loss magnetic materials. 2) Keeping the rated burden to the nearer value of the actual burden. 3) Ensuring minimum length of flux path and increasing cross sectional area of the core, minimizing joint of the core. 4) Lowering the secondary internal impedance. Potential Transformer or Voltage Transformer are used in electrical power system for stepping down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays. Commercially available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form of Potential Transformer Definition.

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Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer Theory:

A Voltage Transformer theory or Potential Transformer theory is just like theory of general purpose step down transformer. Primary of this transformer is connected across the phases or and ground depending upon the requirement. Just like the transformer, used for stepping down purpose, potential transformer i.e. PT has lowers turns winding at its secondary. The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that transformer, and then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the secondary terminals of the PT. The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110V. In an ideal Potential Transformer or Voltage Transformer when rated burden connected across the secondary the ratio of primary and secondary voltages of transformer is equal to the turns ratio and furthermore the two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in actual transformer there must be an error in the voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages. The errors in Potential Transformer or Voltage Transformer can best be explained by phesor diagram, and this is the main part of Potential Transformer theory

Error in Potential Transformer:

Is - Secondary Current Es - Secondary induced emf Vs - Secondary terminal voltage Rs - Secondary winding resistance Xs - Secondary winding reactance Ip - Primary current Ep - primary induced emf Vp - Primary terminal voltage Rp - Primary winding resistance Xp - Primary winding reactance KT - turns ratio = numbers of primary turns/number of seconadary turns Io - Excitation Current Im - magnetizing component of Io Iw - core loss component of Io m - main flux - phase angle error As in the case of Current Transformer and other purpose Electrical Power Transformer, total primary current Ip is the vector sum of excitation current and the current equal to reversal of secondary current multiplied by the ratio 1/KT Hence, Ip = Io + Is/KT If Vp is the system voltage applied to the primary of the PT then voltage drops due to resistance and reactance of primary winding due to primary current Ip will comes into picture. After subtracting this voltage drop from Vp, Ep will appear across the primary

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terminals. this Ep is equal to primary induced emf. This primary emf will transform to the secondary winding by mutual induction and transformed emf is Es. Again this Es will be dropped by secondary winding resistance and reactance, and resultant will actually appear across the burden terminals and it is denoted as Vs So if system voltage is Vp, ideally Vp/KT should be the secondary voltage of PT, but in reality actual secondary voltage of PT is Vs.

Voltage error in Potential Transformer (PT):

The difference between the ideal value Vp/KT and actual value Vs is the voltage error or ratio error in a potential transformer, it can be expressed as , Percentage voltage error = {(Vp KT.Vs)/Vp} X 100 %

Phase angle error in potential transformer:

The angle between the primary system voltage Vp and the reversed secondary voltage vectors KT.Vs is the phase error

Cause of error in Potential Transformer:

The voltage applied to the primary of the potential transformer first drops due to internal impedance of primary. Then it appears across the primary winding and then transformed proportionally to its turns ratio, to secondary winding. This transformed voltage across secondary winding will again drops due to internal impedance of secondary, before appearing across burden terminals. This is the reason of errors in potential transformer.

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INTRODUCTION OF INSULATING OIL

Insulating oil in an electrical power transformer is commonly known as Transformer Oil. It is normally obtained by fractional distillation and subsequent treatment of crude petroleum. That is why this oil is also known as Mineral Insulating Oil. Transformer Oil serves mainly tow purposes one it is liquid insulation in electrical power transformer and two it dissipates heat of the transformer e.i. acts as coolant. In addition to these, this oil serves other two purposes, it helps to preserve the core and winding as these are fully immersed inside oil and another important purpose of this oil is, it prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen with cellulose made paper insulation of windings, which is susceptible to oxidation.

Types of Transformer Oil:

Generally there are two types of Transformer Oil used in transformer, 1. Paraffin based Transformer Oil 2. Naphtha based Transformer Oil Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than Paraffin oil. But oxidation product i.e. sludge in the naphtha oil is more soluble than Paraffin oil. Thus sludge of naphtha based oil is not precipitated in bottom of the transformer. Hence it does not obstruct convection circulation of the oil, means it does not disturb the transformer cooling system. But in the case of Paraffin oil although oxidation rate is lower than that of Naphtha oil but the oxidation product or sludge is insoluble and precipitated at bottom of the tank and obstruct the transformer cooling system. Although Paraffin based oil has above mentioned disadvantage but still in our country it is generally used because of its easy availability. Another problem with paraffin based oil is its high pour point due to the wax content, but this does not effect its use due to warm climate condition of India.

Properties of Transformer Insulating Oil:

Some specific parameters of insulating oil should be considered to determine the serviceability of that oil.

Parameters of Transformer Oil:

The parameters of Transformer Oil are categorized as,

1. Electrical Parameters Dielectric Strength, Specific Resistance, Dielectric Dissipation

Factor.

2. Chemical Parameter - Water Content, Acidity, Sludge Content. 3. Physical Parameters - Inter Facial Tension, Viscosity, Flash Point, Pour Point.

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Dielectric Strength of Transformer Oil:

Dielectric Strength of Transformer Oil is also knlown as Breakdown Voltage of transformer oil orBDV of transformer oil. Break down voltage is measured by observing at what voltage, sparking strants between two electrods immerged in the oil, separated by specific gap. low value of BDV indicates presence of moisture content and conducting substances in the oil. For measuring BDV of transformer oil, portable BDV measuring kit is generally available at site. In this kit, oil is kept in a pot in which one pair of electrodes are fixed with a gap of 2.5 mm (in some kit it 4mm) between them. Now slowly rising voltage is applied between the electrodes. Rate of rise of voltage is generally controlled at 2KV/s and observe the voltage at which sparking starts between the electrodes. That means at which voltage Dielectric Strength of transformer oil between the electrodes has been broken down. Generally this measurement is taken 3 to 6 times in same sample of oil and the average value of these reading is taken. BDV is important and popular test of transformer oil, as it is primary indication of health of oil and it can be easily carried out at site. Dry and clean oil gives BDV results, better than the oil with moisture content and other conducting impurities. Minimum Breakdown Voltage of transformer oil or Dielectric Strength of transformer oil at which this oil can safely be used in transformer, is considered as 30 KV.

Specific Resistance of Transformer Oil:

This is another important property of transformer oil. This is measure of DC resistance between two opposite sides of one cm3 block of oil. Its unit is taken as ohm-cm at specific temperature. With increase in temperature the resistivity of oil decreases rapidly. Just after charging a transformer after long shut down, the temperature of the oil will be at ambient temperature and during full load the temperature will be very high and may go upto 90 oC at over load condition. So resistivity of the insulating oil must be high at room temperature and also it should have good value at high temperature as well. That is why specific resistance or resistivity of transformer oil should be measured at 27oC as well as 90oC. Minimum standard Specific Resistance of Transformer oil at 90 oC is 35X 1012 ohm cm and at 27oC it is 1500X1012 ohm cm.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor of Transformer oil:

Dielectric Dissipation Factor is also known as loss factor or tan delta of transformer oil. When a insulating materials is placed between live part and grounded part of an electrical equipment, leakage current will flow. As insulating material is dielectric in nature the current through the insulation ideally leads the voltage by 90 o. Here voltage means the instantaneous voltage between live part and ground of the equipment. But in reality no insulating materials are perfect dielectric in nature. Hence current through the insulator will lead the voltage with an angle little bit shorter than 90 o. Tangent of the angle by which it is short of 90o is called Dielectric Dissipation Factor or simply tan delta of transformer oil.

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More clearly, the leakage current through an insulation does have two component one is capacitive or reactive and other one is resistive or active. Again it is clear from above diagram, value of which is also known as loss angle, is smaller, means resistive component of the current IR is smaller which indicates high resistive property of the insulating material. High resistive insulation is good insulator. Hence it is desirable to have loss angle as small as possible. So we should try to keep the value of tan as small as possible. High value of this tan is an indication of presence of contaminants in transformer oil. Hence there is a clear relationship between tan and resistivity of insulating oil. If resistivity of the insulating oil is decreased, the value of tandelta increases and vice versa. So both resistivity test and tan delta test of transformer oil are not normally required for same piece of insulator or insulating oil. In one sentence it can be said that, tan is measure of imperfection of dielectric nature of insulation materials like oil.

Water Content in Transformer Oil:

Moisture or Water Content in Transformer Oil is highly undesirable as it affects adversely the dielectric properties of oil. The water content in oil also affects the paper insulation of the core and winding of transformer. Paper is highly hygroscopic in nature. Paper absorbs maximum amount of water from oil which affects paper insulation property as well as reduced its life. But in loaded transformer, oil becomes hotter, hence the solubility of water in oil increases as a result the paper releases water and increase the water content in transformer oil. Thus the temperature of the oil at the time of taking sample for test is very important. During oxidation acid are formed in the oil the acids give rise the solubility of water in the oil. Acid coupled with water further decompose the oil forming more acid and water. This rate of degradation of oil increases. The water content in oil is measured as pm(parts per million unit). Water content in oil is allowed up to 50 ppm as recommended by IS 335(1993). The accurate measurement of water content at such low levels requires very sophisticated instrument like Coulometric Karl Fisher Titrator.

Acidity of Transformer Oil:

Acidity of transformer oil, is harmful property. If oil becomes acidic, water content in the oil becomes more soluble to the the oil. Acidity of oil detoriates the insulation property of paper insulation of winding. Acidity accelerates thee oxidation process in the oil. Acid also includes rusting of iron in presence of moisture. The acidity of transformer oil is measure of its acidic constituents of contaminants. Acidity of oil is express in mg of KOH required to neutralize the acid present in a gram of oil. This is also known as neutralization number.

Inter Facial Tension of Transformer Oil:

Inter Facial Tension between the water and oil interface is the way to measure molecular attractive force between water and oil. It is measured in Dynes/cm or miliNeuton/meter. Inter facial Tension is exactly useful for determining the presence of polar contaminants and oil decay products. Good new oil generally exhibits high inter facial tension. Oil oxidation contaminants lower the IFT.

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Flash Point of Transformer Oil:

Flash point of transformer oil is the temperature at which oil gives enough vapors to produce a flammable mixture with air. This mixture gives momentary flash on application of flame under standard condition. Flash point is important because it specifies the chances of fire hazard in the transformer. So it is desirable to have very high flash point of transformer oil. In general it is more than 140o(>10o).

Pour Point of Transformer Oil:

It is the minimum temperature at which oil just start to flow under standard test condition. Pour Point of Transformer Oil is an important property mainly at the places where climate is extremely cold. If the oil temperature falls bellow the pour point, transformer oil stops convection flowing and obstruct cooling in transformer. Paraffin based oil has higher value of pour point, compared to Naphtha based oil, but in India like country, it does not effect the use of Paraffin oil due tits warm climate condition. Pour Point of transformer oil mainly depends upon wax content in the oil. As Paraffin based oil has more wax content, it has higher pour point.

Viscosity of Transformer Oil:

In few wards, Viscosity of Transformer Oil can be said that Viscosity is the resistance of flow, at normal condition. Obviously resistance to flow of transformer oil means obstruction of convection circulation of oil inside the transformer. A good oil should have low viscosity so that it offers less resistance to the convectional flow of oil thereby not affecting the cooling of transformer. Low viscosity of transformer oil is essential, but it is equally important that, the viscosity of oil should increase as less as possible with decrease in temperature. Every liquid becomes more viscous if temperature decreases.

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BUCHHOLZ RELAY
Construction of Buchholz Relay:
Buchholz Relay in transformer is an oil container housed the connecting pipe from main tank to conservator tank. It has mainly two elements. The upper element consists of a float. The float is attached to a hinge in such a way that it can move up and down depending upon the oil level in the Buchholz Relay Container. One mercury switch is fixed on the float. The alignment of mercury switch hence depends upon the position of the float. The lower element consists of a baffle plate and mercury switch. This plate is fitted on a hinge just in front of the inlet (main tank side) of Buchholz Relay in transformer in such a way that when oil enters in the relay from that inlet in high pressure the alignment of the baffle plate along with the mercury switch attached to it, will change. In addition to these main elements a Buchholz Relay has gas release pockets on top. The electrical leads from both mercury switches are taken out through a molded terminal block.

Buchholz Relay principle:

The Buchholz Relay working principle of is very simple. Buchholz Relay function is based on very simple mechanical phenomenon. It is mechanically actuated. Whenever there will be a minor internal fault in the transformer such as an insulation faults between turns, break down of core of transformer, core heating, the transformer insulating oil will be decomposed in different hydrocarbon gases, CO2 and CO. The gases produced due to decomposition of transformer insulating oil will accumulate in the upper part the Buchholz Container which causes fall of oil level in it. Fall of oil level means lowering the position of float and thereby tilting the mercury switch. The contacts of this mercury switch are closed and an alarm circuit energized. Sometime due to oil leakage on the main tank air bubbles may be accumulated in the upper part the Buchholz Container which may also cause fall of oil level in it and alarm circuit will be energized. By collecting the accumulated gases from the gas release pockets on the top of the relay and by analyzing them one can predict the type of fault in the transformer. More severe types of faults, such as short circuit between phases or to earth and faults in the tap changing equipment, are accompanied by a surge of oil which strikes the baffle plate and causes the mercury switch of the lower element to close. This switch energized the trip circuit of the Circuit Breakers associated with the transformer and immediately isolate the faulty transformer from the rest of the electrical power system by inter tripping the Circuit Breakers associated with both LV and HV sides of the transformer. This is how Buchholz Relay functions.

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Buchholz Relay Operation Certain Precaution:

The Buchholz Relay operation may be actuated without any fault in the transformer. For instance, when oil is added to a transformer, air may get in together with oil, accumulated under the relay cover and thus cause a false Buchholz Relay operation. That is why mechanical lock is provided in that relay so that one can lock the movement of mercury switches when oil is topping up in the transformer. This mechanical locking also helps to prevent unnecessary movement of breakable glass bulb of mercury switches during transportation of the Buchholz Relays. The lower float may also falsely operate if the oil velocity in the connection pipe through, not due to internal fault, is sufficient to trip over the float. This can occurs in the event of external short circuit when over currents flowing through the winding cause overheated the copper and the oil and cause the oil to expand.

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EARTHING TRANSFORMER
If the earthing transformer on the Delta Side is outsides the Zone of protection the Earth Fault(E/F)in the delta system outside Current Transformer(CT) locations would produce current distributions as shown which circulate within the differential CT secondaries and is kept out of operating coils. Zig-Zag or inter connected star grounding transformer has normal magnetising impedance of high value but for E/F, currents flow in windings of the same - core in such a manner that the ampere turn cancel and hence offer lower impedance. In cases where the neutral point of three phase system is not accessible like the system connected to the delta connected side of a electrical power transformer, an artificial neutral point may be created with help of a zigzag connected earthing transformer. This is a core type transformer with three limbs. Every phase winding in zigzag connection is divided into two equal halves. One half of which is wound on one limb and other half is wound on another limb of the core of transformer. 1st half of Red phase winding is wound on the 1st limb of the core and 2nd half of same Red phase is wound on 3rd limb. 1st half of Yellow phase winding is wound on the 2nd limb of the core and 2nd half of same Yellow phase is wound on 1st limb. 1st half of Blue phase winding is wound on the 3rd limb of the core and 2nd half of same Blue phase is wound on 2nd limb. End point of all three windings ultimately connected together and forms a common neutral point. Now if any fault occurs at any of the phases in delta connected system, the zero sequence fault current has close path of circulating through earth as shown in the figure. In normal condition of the system, the voltage across the winding of the earthing transformer is 1/3 times of rated per phase voltage of the system. But when single line to ground fault occurs on any phase of the system, as shown in the figure, zero sequence component of the earth fault current flows in the earth and returns to the electrical power system by way of earth star point of the earthing transformer. It gets divided equally in all the three phases. Hence, as shown in the figure, the currents in the two different halves of two windings in the same limb of the core flow in opposite directions. And therefore the magnetic flux set up by these two currents will oppose and neutralize each other. As there is no increase in flux due to fault current, there is no extra d/dt means no extra voltage induced across the winding and

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no choking effect occurs to impede the flow of fault current. So it can be concluded like that, the zigzag type earthing or grounding transformer maintains the rated supply voltage at normal current as well as when a solid single line to ground fault current flows through it. The rated voltage of an erthing or grounding transformer is the line to line voltage on which it is intended to be used. Current rating of this transformer is the maximum neutral current in Amperes that the transformer is designed to carry in fault condition for a specific time. Generally the time interval, for which transformer designed to carry the maximum fault current through it safely, is taken as 30 second.

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CONTROL ROOM
Control room is the controlling unit of the whole substation.

CONTROL PANEL:
In the facial of the control panel there are few meters attached for measuring power, voltage, current etc.

COMMUNICATION ROOM:
The work of PLCC is controlled and manipulated in communication room. As human voice frequency is low so it is amplified to high level by amplifier, also there are various types of filters, capacitors and rectifiers to get crystal communication.

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POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION (PLCC)

Power line carrier communication (plcc) is also called "Wave trap". It is connected in series with the power (transmission) line. It blocks the high frequency carrier waves (24 kHz to 500 kHz ) and let power waves (50 Hz - 60 Hz) to pass through. It is basically an inductor of rating in millihenry. We have audible frequency between 20 Hz20,000 Hz. In a PLCC system the communication is established through the power line. The audio frequency is carried by a carrier frequency and the range of carrier frequency is from 50 kHz to500 kHz. The modulation generally used in this system is amplitude modulation. The carrier frequency range is allocated to include the audio signal, protection and the pilot frequency. The pilot frequency is asignal in the audio range that is transmitted continuouslyfor failure detection. The voice signal is converted /compressed into the 300 Hz to 4000Hz range, and this audio frequency is mixed with the carrier frequency. The carrier frequency is again filtered, amplified and transmitted. The transmission of these HF carrier frequencies will be the range of 0 to + 32db. This range is set according to the distance between substations.

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ELECTRICAL SWITCHGEAR
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with mainly power system protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of electrical power system. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner forms a switchgear. This is very basic definition of switchgear. We all familiar with low voltage switches and re-wirable fuses in our home. The switch is used to manually open and close the electrical circuit in our home and electrical fuse is used to protect our household electrical circuit from over current and short circuit faults. In same way every electrical circuit including high voltage electrical power system needs switching and protective devices. But in high voltage and extra high voltage system, this switching and protective scheme becomes complicated one for high fault current interruption in safe and secure way. In addition to that from commercial point of view every electrical power system needs measuring, control and regulating arrangement. Collectively the whole system is called Switchgear and Protection of power system. The electrical switchgear has been developing in various forms. Switchgear protection plays a vital role in modern power system network, right from generation through transmission to distribution end. The current interruption device or switching device is called circuit breaker in Switchgear protection system. The circuit breaker can be operated manually as when required and it is also operated during over current and short circuit or any other faults in the system by sensing the abnormality of system. The circuit breaker senses the faulty condition of system through protection relay and this relay is again actuated by faulty signal normally comes from current transformer or voltage transformer. A switchgear has to perform the function of carrying, making and breaking the normal load current like a switch and it has to perform the function of clearing the fault in addition to that it also has provision of metering and regulating the various parameters of electrical power system. Thus the circuit breaker includes circuit breaker, current transformer, voltage transformer, protection relay, measuring instrument, electrical switch, electrical fuse, miniature circuit breaker, lightening arrestor or surge arrestor, isolator and other associated equipment.

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ELECTRICAL PROTECTION RELAYS

Definition of protective relay:
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.

Types of Relays:
Types of protection relays are mainly based on their characteristic, logic, on actuating parameter and operation mechanism. Based on operation mechanism protection relay can be categorized as Electro Magnetic relay, Static relay and Mechanical relay. Actually relay is nothing but a combination of one or more open or closed contacts. These all or some specific contacts the relay change their state when actuating parameters are applied to the relay. That means open contacts become closed and closed contacts become open. In electromagnetic relay these closing and opening of relay contacts are done by electromagnetic action of a solenoid. In mechanical relay these closing and opening of relay contacts are done by mechanical displacement of different gear level system. In static relay it is mainly done by semiconductor switches like thyristor. In digital relay on and off state can be referred as 1 and 0 state. Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be categorized as

Current Relays Voltage Relays Frequency Relays Power Relays etc.

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BATTERY
Function of battery in sub-station:
It is an arrangement of number of cells to supply dc voltage to the control panel. There are three sets of batteries in this substation 2V 15 batteries for 11kV control panel. YKP-7 supply 10 Amp-hr. 2.3V 108 batteries for 33 kV & 132 kV control panel. YKP-17 supply 200 Amphr. These are all electrolytic type batteries connected in series. 48V battery for PLCC panel. These are all dry cell type battery.

Battery charger:
It is used for charging the batteries. Specifications: Model = BC Rating = 229V, 24+24 A Ac Input = 415V, 30 Amp, 50 Hz, 3 Phase DC Output = 24.7V, 24A

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CONCLUSION
This training report has primarily been prepared on the basis of the vocational training session underwent at the West Bengal State Electricity Transmission Company Limited. The training underwent at the West Bengal State Electricity Company Transmission Limited (WBSETCL) was an eye opener for us. It provided us with the opportunity to observe various important aspects of the functioning of a substation. We became acquainted with the duties of the Assistant Engineer in-charge of a transmission substation as well as that of the Station Manager, or the Assistant Engineer in charge of a Group Electric Supply Office. I wished if I had the scope and opportunity to work in the above designation. Ill be able to dispense off with the duties efficiently Working with Electrical department enhanced my major understanding In addition, I gained a good experience in term of self confidence, real life working situation, interactions among people in the same field and working with others with different professional background. I had an interest in understanding basic engineering work and practicing what has been learnt in the class. Also, the training was an opportunity for me to increase my human relation both socially and professionally.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
The books & websites which served as a source of information for us are listed below:BOOKS: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Electrical Power Systems Ashfaq Hussain Switchgear & Protection U.V.Bakeshi Principles Of Power System Mr. V.K. Mehta A Course in Electrical and Electronics Measurements & InstrumentationA.K.Sawhney Basic electrical Thereja Electrical power system Subir Roy Electrical and Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation P. Purkait & B. Biswash.

WEBSITES: 1) www.google.co.in 2) www.wikipedia.com