is defined as the central

core of an atom that is

positively charged and
contains protons and
neutrons.

UNIT 17: NUCLEAR PHYSICS

SF027 1
 17.1 Nucleus

A nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons that known as nucleons
(is defined as the particles found inside the nucleus)
nucleus as shown in figure 17a.

Proton and neutron are characterized by the

Proton following properties in table 15.1a.

Proton (p) Neutron (n)

Neutron
+e 0
−19
Charge (C)
(1.60 × 10 ) (uncharged)
Electron Mass (kg) 1.672 × 10 −27 1.675 × 10 −27
Table 17a

For a neutral atom :
 The number of protons = the number of electrons orbiting nucleus
the inside the nucleus
 This is because the magnitude of an electron charge equals to the magnitude of a
proton charge but opposite sign.

SF027 2

Nuclei are characterized by the number and type of nucleons they contain as shown in
table 15.1b.

Number Symbol Definition

Atomic number/ Z The number of protons in a nucleus
Proton number
Neutron number N The number of neutrons in a nucleus

Mass number/ A The number of nucleons in a nucleus

Nucleon number
Table 17b

Relationship :

Any nucleus of elements in the periodic table called a nuclide is characterized by its
atomic number Z and its mass number A.

The nuclide of an element is represented as

Mass number

Element X

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Atomic number

The number of protons Z is not necessary equal to the number of neutrons N.
e.g. :
23 32 195
11 Na ; 16 S ; 78 Pt

Z = 11
N = A − Z = 12

Example 1 :
Based on the periodic table of element, Write down the symbol of nuclide for following
cases:
a. Z=20 ; A=40
b. Z=17 ; A=35 (exercise)
c. 50 nucleons ; 24 electrons
d. 106 nucleons ; 48 protons (exercise)
e. 214 nucleons ; 131 protons (exercise)

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 Solution:
a. Given Z=20 ; A=40
A 40
Z X 20 Ca
c. Given A=50 and Z=number of protons = number of electrons =24

A 50
Z X 24 Cr

Example 2 :
What is meant by the symbols below :

1
0 n ; 11 p ; −10 e
State the mass number and sign of the charge for each entity above.
Solution:
1
0 n Neutron ; A=1
Charge : neutral (uncharged)
1
1 p Proton ; A=1
Charge : positively charged
0 A=0
−1 e Electron ;
SF027 5
Charge : negatively charged

Example 3 : (exercise)
Complete the table below :
Element Number of Number of Total charge in Number of
nuclide protons neutrons nucleus electrons
1
1H
9
4Be
14
7N
16
8O
23 11 12 11e 11
11 Na
59
27 Co
31
16 S
133
55 Cs
238
92 U

SF027 6
Isotope

Definition – the nuclides/elements/atoms that have the same atomic number Z
but different in mass number A.

From the definition of isotope, thus the number of protons or electrons are equal but
different in the number of neutrons N for two isotopes from the same element.
For example :
 Hydrogen isotopes :
1
1 H : Z=1, A=1, N=0 proton (11p)
2
1 H : Z=1, A=2, N=1 deuterium (12D)
3
H : Z=1, A=3, N=2
1
tritium ( 31T )
 Oxygen isotopes : equal not equal
16
8 O : Z=8, A=16, N=8
17
8 O : Z=8, A=17, N=9
18
O : Z=8, A=18, N=10
8
equal not equal
SF027 7
 the spontaneous
disintegration of certain
atomic nuclei accompanied by
the emission of alpha
particles, beta particles or
gamma radiation.

17.2: Radioactivity

SF027 8
 17.2.1 Radioactive Decay

The phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus disintegrates to acquire a more
stable nucleus without absorb an external energy.energy

The radioactive decay is a spontaneous reaction that is unplanned,
unplanned cannot be
predicted and independent of physical conditions (such as pressure, temperature)
and chemical changes.
changes

This reaction is random reaction because the probability of a nucleus decaying at a
given instant is the same for all the nuclei in the sample.

Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable nucleus decays. The radiations
are alpha particles, beta particles and gamma-rays.
a) Alpha particle (α)

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.

It is identical to a helium nucleus and its symbol is 4 He or 4 α

2 2

It is positively charged particle and its value is +2e with mass of 4.001502 u.

SF027 9

When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses four nucleons, two of which are
protons, thus the reaction can be represented by general equation below :

A
Z X → A− 4
Z −2 Y + 2
4
He + Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (α particle)

Examples of α decay :
218
84 Po→214
82 Pb + 2 He + Q
4

230
90 Th→226
88 Ra + 2 He + Q
4

226
88 Ra→222
86 Rn + 2 He + Q
4

238
92 U →234
90Th + 2 He + Q
4

b) Beta particle (β)

Beta particles are electrons or positrons (sometimes is called beta-minus and
beta-plus particles).

The symbols represent the beta-minus and beta-plus (positron) are shown
below:
Beta-minus 0 − Beta-plus 0 +
SF027
(electron) : −1 e or β (positron) : 1 e or β 10

Beta-minus particle is negatively charged of -1e and its mass equals to the mass
of an electron.

Beta-plus (positron) is positively charged of +1e (antiparticle of electron) and it
has the same mass as the electron.

In beta-minus decay, an electron is emitted, thus the mass number does not
charge but the charge of the parent nucleus increases by one as shown below :
A
Z X → Y A
Z +1 +
0
−1e + Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (β particle)

Examples of β minus decay :
234
Th→234
90 91 Pa + −1 e + Q
0

Pa→234
234
91 92 U + −1 e + Q
0

214
Bi→214
83 84 Po + −1 e + Q
0

In beta-plus decay, a positron is emitted, this time the charge of the parent
nucleus decreases by one as shown below :

A
Z X → A
Z −1 Y + 1
0
e + Q
SF027 11
(Parent) (Daughter) (Positron)

For example of β plus decay is Neutrino is uncharged particle
with negligible mass.
1
1 p→01n+10 e + v + Q
c) Gamma ray(γ)

Gamma rays are high energy photons (electromagnetic radiation).

Emission of gamma ray does not change the parent nucleus into a different
nuclide, since neither the charge nor the nucleon number is changed.

A gamma ray photon is emitted when a nucleus in an excited state makes a
transition to a ground state.

Examples of γ decay are :
218
84 Po∗ →214
82 Pb + 2 He + γ
4

Gamma ray
234
91 Pa∗ →234
92 U + −1 e + γ
0

Ti ∗ →208
208
81 81Ti + γ

It is uncharged (neutral) ray and zero mass.

The differ between gamma-rays and x-rays of the same wavelength only in the
manner in which they are produced; gamma-rays are a result of nuclear
processes, whereas x-rays originate outside the nucleus.

SF027 12
 17.2.2 Comparison of the properties of the alpha particle, beta particle and
gamma ray.

Table 17c shows the comparison between the radioactive radiations.

Alpha Beta Gamma

Charge +2e -1e or +1e 0 (uncharged)

Deflection by electric and Yes Yes No

magnetic fields

Ionization power Strong Moderate Weak

Penetration power Weak Moderate Strong

Ability to affect a
photographic plate Yes Yes Yes
Ability to produce
fluorescence Yes Yes Yes

Table 17c
SF027 13

Figures 17b and 17c show a deflection of α, β and γ in electric and magnetic field.

r
− B
+
− +
− +
− +
− +
− +
− r +
− E +

Fig. 17b Fig. 17c

SF027 14
17.2.3 Decay constant and Half-life
a) Decay constant

Law of radioactive decay states:
 dN 
“For a radioactive source, the decay rate  −  is directly proportional to the
 dt 
number of radioactive nuclei N present in the source.
i.e.

 dN 
− ∝ N Negative sign means the number of nuclei
present decreases with time
 dt 

Rearranging eq. (17.2a) : (17.2a)
Decay constant

Hence the decay constant is defined as the probability that a radioactive nucleus will
second Its unit is s-1.
decay in one second.
dN
rate of decay
λ = − dt λ=
SF027
N number of radioactive nuclei present 15

The decay constant is a characteristic of the radioactive nuclei.

Rearrange eq. (17.2a), we get
dN
= −λdt (17.2b)
N
At time t=0, N=N0 (initial number of radioactive nuclei in the sample) and after a time t,
the number of radioactive nuclei present is N. Integration of eq. (17.2b) from t=0 to time t
:
N dN t
∫N 0 N = − λ ∫0 dt
[ln N ]N 0 = − λ [t ]0
N t

N
ln = − λt
N0

From the eq. (17.2c), thus the graph of N, the number of radioactive nuclei present in a
sample, against the time t is shown in figure 17.2a.

Exponential law of
(17.2c)
radioactive decay
SF027 16
 N

N0

− λt
N = N 0e
N0
2

N0 T 1 : half − life
4 2
N0
8 N0
16 time , t
0 T1 2T 1 3T 1 4 T 1 5T 1
2 2 2 2 2 Simulation
Fig. 17b

From the graph above, the life of any radioactive nuclide is infinite, therefore to
talk about the life of radioactive nuclide, we refer to its half-life.
SF027 17
 b) Half-life

Definition –the time taken for a sample of radioactive nuclides disintegrate to half of
the initial number of nuclei.

From the eq. (17.2c) : N = N0 e − λt and the definition of half-life, when
N0
t = T1 ; N =
2 2

thus
− λT 1
N0
= N0 e 2
2 − λT 1
1
=e 2
2 λT 1
2 = e 2 λT
1

ln 2 = ln e 2
Taking ln,
Half-life (17.2d)

SF027

The half-life of any given radioactive nuclide is constant, it does not depend on the18
number of nuclei present.

The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min), hour (hr), day and year (y). Its unit
depend on the unit of decay constant.

Table 17.2a shows the value of half-life for several isotopes.
Isotope Half-life
238
92 U 4.5 x 109 years
234
90 Th 24 days
222
86 Rn 3.8 days
214
83 Bi 20 minutes
Table 17.2a

Example 1:
Initially, a radioactive sample contains of 1.0 x 106 nuclei. The half-life of the sample is
T1/2. Calculate the number of nuclei present after 0.5T1/2.
Solution: N0=1.0 x 106 nuclei, t=0.5T1/2
By rearranging the equation of half-life, we get

(1)
SF027 19
 From the exponential law: (2)
By substituting eq. (1) and t =0.5T1/2 into eq. (2), hence

Example 2:
A radioactive source contains 1.0 x 10-6 g of Pu-239. If the source emits 2300 alpha
particles per second, calculate
a. the decay constant.
b. the half-life.
(Given Avogadro constant, NA=6.02 x 1023 mol-1)
Solution: dN = −2300 s -1
dt
a. 239 g of Pu-239 contains 6.02 x 1023 nuclei
1.0 x 10-6 g of Pu-239 contains

SF027 20
 Hence N0 = 2.52 x 1015 nuclei
By applying the equation for law of radioactive decay, thus

b. The half-life of Pu-239 is

c) Activity of radioactive sample (A)

Definition –

Its unit is number of decays per second.

Other units for activity are curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq) – S.I. unit.
SF027 21

Unit conversion :
1 Ci = 3.7 × 10 10 decays per second
1 Bq = 1 decay per second

Relation between activity (A) of radioactive sample and time t :
dN
 From the law of radioactive decay : = −λN
dN dt
and definition of activity : A=
thus, dt
A = −λN and N = N 0 e − λt
(
A = −λ N 0 e − λt ) and A0 = −λN 0
(17.2e)

SF027 22

Example 3:
Thorium-234 has a half-life of 24 days. The initial activity of this isotope is
10 µCi. Calculate
a. the activity of the isotope after 72 days.
b. the time taken for the activity to fall to 2.5 µCi.
Solution: T1/2= 24 days, A0= 10 µCi
a. Given t=72 days
The decay constant of the thorium-234 is

The activity of the isotope after 72 days is

SF027 23
 b. Given A=2.5 µCi
By using the equation of activity for radioactive sample, thus

taking ln,

Example 4:
A uranium-238 isotope which has a half-life of 4.47 x 109 years decays by
emitting alpha particle into thorium-234 nucleus. Calculate
a. the decay constant.
234
(
90Th )
b. the mass of uranium-238 required to decay with activity of
6.00 µCi.
c. the number of alpha particles per second for the decay of
30.0 g uranium-238.
(Given Avogadro constant, NA=6.02 x 1023 mol-1)

SF027 24
 Solution: T1/2= 4.47x109 years
a. The decay constant of the uranium-238 is

b. Using unit conversion ( Ci⇒ decay/second )

1 Ci = 3 .7 × 10 10 decays per second

SF027 25
 If 6.02 x 1023 nuclei of mass of 238 g uranium-238

4.52 x 1022 nuclei of mass of

Therefore the mass of the uranium-238 is given by

c. 238 g of uranium-238 contains 6.02 x 1023 nuclei

30 g of uranium-239 contains

SF027 26

Example 5:
(
The half-life of radium-226 nuclide 226 )
88 Ra
is 1600 years. Assuming that only
one decay per atom, calculate
a. the percentage of atoms remaining after 100 years.
b. the number of decays per second for 1 mg of radium-226.
(Given Avogadro constant, NA=6.02 x 1023 mol-1)
Solution: T1/2= 1600 years
a. Given t =100 years, Initially, N0=100%=1
The decay constant of radium-226 is

By applying the exponential law :

Therefore the percentage of atoms remaining after 100 years

SF027 27
 b. 226 g of radium-226 contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms
1.0 x 10-3 g of radium-226 contains

SF027 28

Example 6:
Radioactive can be used for radioactive dating, i.e. a method to determine the age of an
artifact based on decay rate and half-life of carbon-14. The half-life of carbon-14 is known
to be 5600 years. If a 10 gram of carbon sample from a live tree gives the decay rate of
500 per hour and a 10 gram sample from an artifact gives decay rate of 100 per hour,
calculate the age of the artifact.
Solution: T1/2= 5600 years;A0=500 decays/hour;
A=100 decays/hour
The decay constant of carbon-14 is

SF027 29
 Radioisotope as tracers

Since radioisotope has the same chemical properties as the stable isotopes then
they can be used to trace the path made by the stable isotopes.

Its method :
 A small amount of suitable radioisotope is either swallowed by the patient or
injected into the body of the patient.
 After a while certain part of the body will have absorbed either a normal
amount, or an amount which is larger than normal or less than normal of the
radioisotope. A detector (such as Geiger counter ,gamma camera, etc..)
then measures the count rate at the part of the body concerned.

It is used to investigate organs in human body such as kidney, thyroid gland,
heart, brain, and etc..
Other uses of Radioisotope

In medicine:
 To destroy cancer cells by gamma-ray from a high-activity source of Co-60.
 To treat deep-lying tumors by planting radium-226 or caesium-137 inside the
body close to the tumors.

SF027 30

In agriculture:
 To enable scientists to formulate fertilizers that will increase the production
of food.
 To develop new strains of food crops that are resistant to diseases, give high
yield and are of high quality.

In industry :
 To measure the wear and tear of machine part and the effectiveness of
lubricants.
 To detect flaws in underground pipes e.g. pipes use to carry natural
petroleum gas.
 To monitor the thickness of metal sheet during manufacture by passing it
between gamma-ray and a suitable detector.

In archaeology and geology:
 To estimate the age of an archaeological object found by referring to carbon-
14 dating. (carbon dating)
 To estimate the geological age of a rock by referring to potassium-40 dating.

SF027 31