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BrainBuzz Cramsession
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Contents
Contents .............................. 1 Cisco Device Operation........... 2 General Networking Theory .... 5 Bridging & LAN Switching ....... 8 IP Routing Protocols..............17 Desktop Protocols.................26 Performance Management .....28 WAN ...................................29 LAN ....................................33 Security ..............................35 TACACS (Terminal Access Controller Access Control System) ..............................35 Multiservice .........................36
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Mode Prompts
Monitor mode User mode Privileged mode Global configuration mode Interface configuration mode Sub-interface configuration mode Line configuration mode Router configuration mode IPX router configuration mode rommon 1 > router> router# router(config)# router(config-if)# router(config-subif)# router(config-line)# router(config-router)# router(config-ipx-router)#
Types of passwords:
Exec used to restrict access to the EXEC mode, the basic console on the router. Enable used to restrict access to the privileged EXEC mode where changes to the router configuration can be made. Enable Secret Similar to the Enable password, but they are encrypted so they cannot be read.
Register Values
0x2102 Default mode 0x2142 - The value used to recover passwords
Debug
By default, all debug information goes to the console port on a Cisco router only. To view debug messages from a VTY session, you must issue the terminal monitor command. Router# debug serial interface - monitors keepalives on an interface. To reduce the impact of a debug command on the CPU of the router, use the scheduler-interval command and be sure to use the debug command as specifically as possible.
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert No message sequencing No delivery guarantee Higher layer is responsible for error recovery, flow control, and reliability
Routing / Switching
Routing is defined as a Layer-3 activity. Bridging is defined as a Layer-2 activity. Switching is defined as a Layer-2 activity. Switching is often called microsegmentation, in that each switched port is basically its own bridged domain.
Reliability of Protocols
TCP and LLC Type 2 are reliable protocols because they are layer four protocols IP, UDP, and Frame Relay are NOT reliable protocols because they are layer three protocols
802.x Protocols
802.2 802.3 802.4 802.5 802.6 802.7 802.8 802.9 802.10 802.11 802.12 Link Layer Control (LLC) CSMA/CD Access Method (Ethernet) Token Ring Bus Token Ring MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Broadband Fiber-optic LANs Integrated Voice & Data LAN/MAN Security Wireless VGAnyLAN
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Passive Interface
When enabled on an interface this command allows the interface to hear routing updates, but not repeat them. This helps to control routing updates. Example: Router(config-router)# passive-interface s0
Connectivity
(Diagram A-1)
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert For example, if in the devices in diagram A-1 were routers: Packet from Host A to Host D will have source MAC address of Host A and destination MAC address of Router Bs local Ethernet port on Segment 1. Packet from Host A to Host D will have source MAC address of Router Bs Serial port and destination MAC address of Router Cs local Serial port on Segment 2. Packet from Host A to Host D will have source MAC address of Router Cs Ethernet port and a destination MAC address of Host D on Segment 3.
If a packet sent from Host A to Host D were to be lost: On segment 1, Host A would rebroadcast On segment 2, Router B would rebroadcast On segment 3, Router C would rebroadcast
Bridging techniques Transparent Bridging (TB) As the name implies, this type of bridging is transparent to the end devices. The end devices are unaware that when they communicate they are not local to one another. This functionality is not enabled by default on Cisco routers, but can be turned on when needed.
When a device wishes to communicate, it will send out a broadcast to search for the requested destination address. When a Transparent Bridge sees the first broadcast from a device, it extracts the MAC address from the packet and enters it into its forwarding table, the list of devices on each interface. This process of determining what devices exist on each of the bridges ports is called learning.
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If the bridge receives a broadcast with a destination address that is in its forwarding table it forwards the broadcast only to that one interface. If it is not in the table, it repeats the broadcast out of all of its interfaces (except the one on which it was received). This process is called flooding.
Source-Route Bridging (SRB) Source routing is called that because instead of an intermediate device determining a path, the originating device creates its own.
Routing Information Fields (RIF) are used to define paths for SRB frames to traverse a network. They are easy to read if you understand their function. For the current discussion its important that you understand how to understand how a RIF works. Later well come back to how to rip um up and read um. When an SNA device needs to access a remote unit, it sends out a test frame that attempts to find the destination. You can think of this as a broadcast in the IP world; it isnt, but that will help you to conceptualize. If the destination is not found, the source device sends out a single-route or allroutes explorer frame. Any bridges that the frame comes across in its travels add their local bridge and ring numbers to the RIF. Eventually the frame either finds its target or dies on the vine. IBM bridges support 8 rings and 7 bridges; IEEE 802.5 bridges support 14 bridges and 13 rings. Once one of the explorer frames finds the destination, it returns to its creator to announce its success. If multiple frames return, the source device takes the route of the first frame to return, assuming this is the best path. Think of it as a race in a maze; the first one to grab the cheese and get home first, wins.
Ripping up a RIF
This will seem complicated, but once you understand how RIFs are defined, simple practice will drive home the necessary techniques The first bit of the first byte of the source address is the Routing Information Indicator (RII), which is exactly what it sounds like; it indicates that what follows is a RIF. If this bit is a 1, the frame is a RIF; if the bit is a 0, it is not. Here are the component parts of the first 2 bytes of a RIF, called the RCF (Routing Control Field): 1. The first 3 bits define what kind of RIF is being examined: 0xx single route frame 10x all-routes explorer frame 11x spanning explorer frame
2. The next 5 bits show the length of the RIF. This indicates how many bytes of bridge/ring numbers follow. 3. The next single bit shows direction: 0 read from left-to-right 1 read from right-to-left
BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 up to 512 bytes up to 1,500 bytes up to 2,052 bytes up to 4,472 bytes up to 8,144 bytes up to 11,407 bytes up to 17,800 bytes broadcast frame
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5. The last four bits are not relevant. They are reserved for future use. Heres an example of a RIF: 0810.0011.0023.0040 Translating the first two bytes (0810) to binary gives us: 0000.1000.0001.0000 Rip it up to define: Type 000 RIF Length 01000 Direction 0 Frame Length 000 Not used 0000
From this we know: The RIF type is: single route frame The RIF Length: 8 bytes (01000 binary = 8 decimal) Direction to read the RIF: right-to-left The maximum frame length: up to 512 bytes
The rest of the RIF is called the RDF (Route Descriptor Field) and reading it is easy. The first three digits of each two-byte grouping are the ring number (in hexadecimal). The last digit is the bridge number (again, in hex). A zero in the bridge number designation indicates that the destination ring has been reached. Notice that since only four bits are used for the ring number, and zero is already taken, the only bridge numbers available are hex 1 through F (1 to 15 in decimal). Looking at our example again (0810.0011.0023.0040), (remember that the 0x indicates that the number that follows is in Hex) we find that the path is: Ring 0x1 to bridge 0x1 Ring 0x2 to bridge 0x3 Ring 0x4 to the destination
Taking another example: 0A10.0021.00B1.0101.0020 Translating the first two bytes (0A10) to binary gives us: 0000.1010.0001.0000
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert Rip it up to define: Type 000 RIF Length 01010 Direction 0 Frame Length 001 Not used 0000
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From this we know: The RIF type is: single-route The RIF Length: 10 bytes (01010 binary = 10 decimal) Direction to read the RIF: right-to-left The maximum frame length: up to 512 bytes
Following the rest of the RIF Ring 0x2 to bridge 0x1 Ring 0xB to bridge 0x1 Ring 0x10 to bridge 0x1 Ring 0x2 to the destination
Tricky RIF (Common errors when reviewing RIFs) The Apples-to-Oranges rule: If you see 0x before a number, remember that what follows is a hexadecimal. For example, whats the difference between ring 0x14 and ring 14? Since decimal 14 is 0xE, theyre obviously not the same ring designation. The Nice-try rule: SRB only runs on Token Ring networks, so Ethernet devices do not use RIFs. If you are looking at a network diagram and see that one of the hosts is on an Ethernet segment, remember that RIFs are irrelevant. The Roadblock rule: In a DLSw environment the RIF is terminated at the DLSw router (the definition of DLSw occurs later in this document). Source-Route Transparent Bridging (SRT)
Since you now have an understanding of both TB and SRB, this next technique will come easy. An SRT bridge looks at each frame to see if it finds a RIF (looking for the RII). If theres an RII, the frame is processed like SRB; if not, like TB. Some devices, such as Windows 95 workstations do not support RIFs. SRT allows them to communicate through bridges between LAN segments. This all takes place on Token Ring devices. The next technique will address Ethernet translations.
BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert conversion from Ethernet frames to Token Ring frames (bit ordering); adjusts the MTU sizes (default for Token Ring is 4,464 bytes, Ethernet 1.500 bytes); and adds and removes RIFs, as necessary. To the Token Ring devices the Ethernet segment looks like an SRB domain using a pseudo ring.
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The IP network being traversed is considered one hop, using the concept of a virtual ring. Though RIFs pass through the network, they are calculated as if the entire IP network is one hop using this concept, and all acknowledgements are local, conserving valuable WAN bandwidth. Ethernet networks can be traversed as long as the local router is running SR/TLB.
RIFs are generally terminated at the DLSw router. DLSw+ can support Ethernet without SR/TLB being loaded.
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert Additional tools available with DLSw+ include: Dynamic peers, peers on demand, backup peers and the ability to load balance connections.
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Encapsulated Bridging
Used to bridge over an IP Backbone or FDDI Backbone.
LAN Switching
All nodes on an Ethernet network can transmit at the same time, so the more nodes you have the greater the possibility of collisions happening, which can slow the network down. LAN Segmentation: breaking up the collision domains by decreasing the number of workstations per segment. Switching examines MAC address. Works like a massive multiport bridge. Switching types: Store-and-Forward copies entire frame into buffer, checks for CRC errors. Higher latency. Used by Catalyst 5000 switches Cut-Through reads only the destination address into buffer, and forwards immediately. Low latency
BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert ISL Used with Ethernet, and is Cisco Proprietary 802.1Q Used with Ethernet and is IEEE standard
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VTP (VLAN Transport Protocol) VLANs definitions can span switches. VTP is the method for communicating these definitions. Switches can be defined as: Server Listens to, stores and broadcasts VLAN configurations. Can create and delete VLANs. Client Listens to configurations. Can assign ports to participating VLANs. Transparent Forwards VTP traffic, but doesnt participate in the VLANs.
IP Routing Protocols
Static Routes OSPF ISIS EIGRP RIP IGRP
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Common IP Ports
20/21 23 25 37 49 53 68 67 69 161 FTP Telnet SMTP Time Service TACACs DNS BootP Client BootP Server TFTP SNMP
Addressing issues CIDR - Classless Inter-domain Routing, CIDR used by BGP ver4. Route Summarization
Reducing the number of networks being advertised between routers simplifies the routing table, reduces memory and CPU requirements, and makes the network more logical. This results in enhancing network performance and reclaiming bandwidth that would otherwise be used to pass routes back and forth.
Access Lists
Used to permit or deny traffic based on the source network/subnet/host address. Things to know:
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The wildcard mask, which looks like a reversed subnet mask, defines which bits of the address are used for the access list decision-making process. Lists are processed top-down. In other words, the first matching rule preempts further processing. Only one access list is allowed per port/per direction/per protocol. Remember that there is an implicit deny at the end of all access lists. The last configured line should always be a permit statement. Standard lists will most likely be placed close to the destination. Extended lists will most likely be placed close to the source. If the access-group command is configured on an interface and there is no corresponding access-list created, the command will be executed and permit all traffic in and out. An Access Class limits VTY (telnet) access. A Distribution List filters incoming or outgoing routing updates.
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IP Routing Protocols
Methods for avoiding routing loops Holddowns Learned routes are held incommunicado for a period of time to
prevent updates advertising networks that are misbehaving.
Triggered updates Configuring routing updates to occur after a triggering event, such as a topology change. This allows quicker convergence. Split horizon If a router has received a route advertisement from another router, it will not re-advertise it back to the sending router. Think of this as a sphincter - things are not sent back to where they came from (gross, but you wont forget it, and thats the point). Poison reverse Similar to split horizon, but instead of ignoring the update, the route is advertised back to the originating interface as a poisoned reverse update. The originating router gets its own route back, but with the time-to-live field exceeded, so the route is removed from the table. When the routers re-converge, the holddown timers have expired. This helps to more quickly clear bad routes from the list being passed back and forth between the routers. Administrative Distance
Determines the level of trust each routing protocol will be given when a route is advertised from more than one. The primary ADs are: Directly Connected Static EBGP EIGRP (Internal) IGRP OSPF ISIS RIP EGP EIGRP (External) IBGP BGP Local Unknown 0 1 20 90 100 110 115 120 140 170 200 200 255
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RIP
There are two versions of RIP - version 1 and 2. RIPv2 is classless and supports a variable subnet mask. Both use hop count as the only metric and have a time to live of 15 hops. A hop is basically one pass through a router. Updates include the entire routing table, and are sent out every 30 seconds. RIP requires neither an AS or Process ID number. Example: Router(config)# router rip Configuring a default route in RIP: Example: Router(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.10.10.1
Peer Relationships:
OSPF hello packet information must be the same on all routers in an area for peering relationships to be formed. This information includes: Hello/Dead Interval Area ID Authentication Password Stub Area Flag
Router Types:
Internal Router (LSA Type 1 or 2) Routers that have all their interfaces in the same area. They have identical link-state databases and run single copies of the routing algorithm. Backbone Routers (LSA Type 1 or 2) Routers that have at least one interface connected to area 0. Area Border Router (LSA Type 3 or 4) Routers that have interfaces attached to multiple areas. They maintain separate link-state databases for each area.
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert Autonomous System Boundary Router (LSA Type 5) Routers that have at least one interface into an external internetwork, such as a non-OSPF network. These routers can redistribute non-OSPF network information to and from an OSPF network.
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Connection to area 0 - The main dictate in OSPF is that multiple areas all connect directly to the backbone area. The connection to the backbone area is via an ABR, which is resident in both areas and holds a full topological database for each area. A remote network can connect to area 0 via a virtual link, essentially a tunnel through the ABR in the intermediate area. From the viewpoint of OSPF, it has a direct connection.
Packets designated to a different AS (Autonomous System) are forwarded to an ABR, which sends the packet through the backbone area (area 0) to the destination network ABR, which forwards it to the appropriate host. All packets that pass between ASs must pass through the backbone area when being forwarded from one area to another. The ABRs have the responsibility for maintaining the routing information between areas. To set a designated router in an OSPF network, you can set the priority or use the router with the highest loopback address. Setting the priority to 0 makes the router ineligible to become the DR. To make an OSPF router the designated router, set the priority with the highest value: Example: Router(config)# ip ospf priority 100
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LSA Types:
Router link entry - This is a Type 1 LSA. Broadcast only in a specific area. Contains all the default link state information. Generated by each router for each area to which it belongs. It describes the states of the routers link to the area. These are only flooded within a particular area. The link status and cost are two of the descriptors provided. Network entry - This is a Type 2 LSA. Multicast to all area routers in a multiaccess network by the DR (Designated Router). Contains network specific information. They describe the set of routers attached to a particular network and are flooded only within the area that contains the network. Summary entry - Type 3 LSAs have route information for the internal networks and are sent to the backbone routers. Type 4 LSAs have information about the ASBRs. This information is broadcast by the ABR, and it will reach all the backbone routers. Autonomous system entry - This is a Type 5 LSA. It come from the ASBR and has information relating to the external networks.
No special commands are required to turn a router into an ABR or ASBR. The router takes on this role by virtue of the areas to which it is connected. As a reminder, the basic OSPF configuration steps are as follows and you would simply add another network statement for the ABR or ASBR to cover another area.
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Remember that OSPF has a process ID (BGP, EIGRP and IGRP have AS numbers; RIP requires neither) Example: Router (config)# router ospf 1
Identify which IP networks on the router are part of the OSPF network
Router(config-router)# network address wildcard-mask area area-id
Configuring Stub and Totally Stubby Areas (remember that an ASBR cannot be internal to a stub area)
Configure a stub network Router(config-router)# area area-id stub
Attributes of BGP
Routers are considered to be peers or neighbors whenever they open up a TCP session to exchange routing information. When routers communicate for the first time, they exchange their entire routing table. From then on, they send only incremental updates. Uses TCP as its transport protocol, via port 179.
Configuring BGP
Enable BGP using a local BGP AS number assigned by InterNIC: Router(config)# router bgp <AS-number> Remember that BGP, EIGRP and IGRP have AS numbers (OSPF has a process ID, RIP requires neither). Example: Router (config)# router bgp 1 All networks you want to advertise: Router(config)# network <network-number>
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert Specify BGP neighbors and peers (peers use the local BGP AS-number): Router(config)# neighbor <address> remote-as <AS-number>
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Clear the BGP information when you make a BGP configuration change:
Router# clear ip bgp *.
Path Selection:
BGP will select one path as the best path. This path is put into the BGP routing table and then propagated to its neighbors. The criteria for selecting the path for a destination is: If the path specifies a next hop that is not accessible the update is dropped. The path with the largest weight is preferred. If the weights are the same, the path with larger local preference is preferred. If the local preference is the same, then prefer the path that originated on this router. If no route originated on this router, then prefer the one with shortest AS-path. If they have the same AS_path, then prefer the path with the lowest origin path. If the origin codes are the same, then prefer the path with the lowest MED. If the MED is the same, then prefer an external path to an internal path. If these are the same, then prefer a path through the closest IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) neighbor. Lastly, prefer path with the lowest IP address, as specified by the BGP router ID.
IBGP
Exchanges information within the same AS between routers.
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert Is more flexible, scalable, and more efficient for controlling the exchange of information within an AS. Shows a consistent view of the AS to external neighbors.
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EBGP
Used when routers belong to different ASs and exchange BGP updates. BGP Synchronization rule: If an AS provides transit service to another AS, then BGP should not advertise the route until all of the routers within this AS have learned the route through the IGP. When to disable synchronization: o Your AS does not transfer traffic from one AS to another. o All the transit routers on your AS are running BGP.
BGP synchronization
BGP must be synchronized with the IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol, such as OSPF or EIGRP). To do this it waits until the IGP has propagated routing information across the autonomous system before advertising transit routes to other ASs.
Confederations
Confederations eliminate the need to fully mesh BGP communications by splitting a single AS into what amount to sub-ASs and using EBGP between them; although to external ASs the entire confederation grouping looks like a single AS.
Route Reflectors
Defined central points of distribution for routers within an AS. In other words, it receives data and distributes it to other routers. This eliminates the need for a fully meshed BGP environment.
Policy Routing
Policy routing is a means of controlling routes. It relies on the source, or source and destination, of traffic rather than destination alone. Policy routing can be used to control traffic inside an AS as well as between ASs. Policy routing is a glorified form of static routing, and has many of the same types of problems.
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Types of Successors
Successor - A route selected as the primary route to use to reach a destination. Successors are the entries kept in the routing table. Feasible Successor - A backup route. Multiple feasible successors for a destination can be retained, kept in topology table.
Features of EIGRP
Neighbor Discovery/Recovery: Routers dynamically learn of other routers on their directly attached networks by sending a 'Hello Packet'. As long as the neighbor receives these packets the router is assumed to be 'alive'. Reliable Transport: Ordered delivery of EIGRP packets to neighbors is guaranteed. For better efficiency, reliable transport is provided only when it is needed. DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm): Tracks all the routes advertised by all neighbors. DUAL will use the metric to select an efficient path. It selects routes to be inserted into the routing table based on feasible successors. Protocol Dependent Modules: These are responsible for the network layer. The IPX EIGRP module is responsible for sending and receiving EIGRP packets that are encapsulated in IPX.
Tables
Neighbor table The current state of all the routers immediately adjacent neighbors. Topology table - This table is maintained by the protocol dependent modules and is used by DUAL. It has all the destinations advertised by the neighbor routers. Routing table - EIGRP chooses the best (successor) routes to a destination from the topology table and places these routes in the routing table. The routing table contains: How the route was found
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert Destination network address and the subnet mask in prefix format Administrative Distance: This is the metric or cost from the neighbor advertising that particular route Metric Distance: This is the cost or the metric from the router The address of the next hop How old the route is Outbound interface designation
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Choosing routes
DUAL selects primary and backup routes based on the composite metric and ensures that the selected routes are loop free. The primary routes are then moved to a routing table. The rest (up to 6) are stored in the topology table. EIGRP uses the same composite metric as IGRP to determine the best path. The default criteria used are: Bandwidth - the smallest bandwidth cost between source and destination Delay - cumulative interface delay along the path Reliability - worst reliability between source and destination based on keepalives Load - load on a link between source and destination based on bits per second on its worst link MTU - the smallest Maximum Transition Unit
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Desktop Protocols
IPX (Internet Packet Exchange)
IPX is Novells network layer protocol. An IPX address consists of two parts, the network ID followed by a host ID taken from the MAC address of the device. The default Cisco encapsulation type are: Ethernet - Novell-Ether, the Novell-specific version of IEEE 802.2 standard Token Ring SAP FDDI SNAP
Things to know:
The Cisco router does not forward SAP broadcasts, but constructs its own SAP table and broadcasts that every 60 seconds (by default). Only one encapsulation type is allowed per network. You can have several networks running on the same wire, but they must have different network addresses. The IPX address is 80 bits long; 32 for network bits, 48 for host bits. To load balance you must use the ipx maximum-paths {number} command and all parallel paths must have the same tick count and the same hop counts as the tick and hop counts are used by IPX as a metric.
To configure IPX routing you must: 1. Enable IPX routing 2. Assign IPX network numbers to interfaces Example: Router(config)# ipx routing Router(config)# interface E0 Router(config-if)#ipx network badbed (network name in hexadecimal)
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Routing IPX
IPX can use these routing protocols: Static Routes IPX RIP Similar to IP RIP IPX EIGRP The IPX version of Ciscos proprietary routing protocols (see later in this document) IPX NLSP An IPX link-state routing protocol IPXWAN - A protocol that negotiates end-to-end options for new links before IPX traffic can traverse the WAN link
IPX Split Horizon is not supported in any of the IPX feature sets IPX supports load balancing; though not default, it must be configured
AppleTalk
The proprietary protocol stack developed by Apple Computer. Designed to be easy to use for the end-user, it has often been seen as the bane of the Network Engineer. Besides being complicated to configure, it is very chatty (a bandwidth hog). AppleTalk can run over most physical media: EtherTalk = running over Ethernet TokenTalk = running over Token Ring FDDITalk = running over, you guessed it, FDDI
There are two versions of AppleTalk: Phase 1 a limit of 254 nodes on a network and non-extended networks. Phase 2 created in 1989, overcomes the 254-node limit and runs over extended networks. Cable ranges were added with a numbering scheme that allows sequential network numbers acting as a single network.
AppleTalk Protocols
DDP (Datagram Delivery Protocol) Layer 3 protocol. AppleTalk equivalent to IP or IPX. AARP (AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol) Equivalent to DHCP in the IP world. RTMP (Routing Table Maintenance Protocol) A distance vector routing protocol in which routes are exchanged only with immediate neighboring routers. Sends routing table information every 10 seconds.
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert AURP (AppleTalk Update-based Routing Protocol) An extension of RTMP that enables tunneling of AppleTalk traffic through IP networks using external routers that counts as one hop. Sends routing table information every 30 seconds. AppleTalk EIGRP A version of the Cisco proprietary routing protocol for AppleTalk.
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Addressing
AppleTalk addresses are made up of 16-bit network numbers, 8-bit node numbers, and 8-bit socket numbers. Zone A logical grouping of AppleTalk nodes.
Multicasting
PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast) Used to forward multicast packets through a network.
Performance Management
Queuing Methods Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ) Most basic queuing option that gives highvolume traffic a lower priority than lower-volume traffic. For example, a time sensitive SNA conversation would have a higher priority then a file transfer where latencies will probably not be noticed. WFQ is enabled by default on all Cisco routers with link speeds of less than E1 (2.048MB). Priority Queuing Provides the software tools to define a hierarchy of need between different types of traffic. There are four types of queues; high, medium, normal and low. You can configure up to four of each type on a router, for a total of 16 queues. Unless otherwise defined, all traffic is normal. The person who configures that queue can determine higher or lower levels of priority for different types of traffic based on protocol or port number and data passing through the router. Medium queue traffic will not be passed until high queue has been cleared; the normal queue traffic will not be passed until medium queue traffic has been cleared; etc. This can create a situation where a higher-level queue can monopolize a link to the exclusion of lower level data and packets will be dropped.
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WAN
Serial line conditions:
Serial 0 line is down, line protocol is down - No cable or modem is connected. Serial 0 line is up, line protocol is up - The WAN service is working fine and keepalives from the remote site are being sent and received. Serial 0 line is up, line protocol is down - A cable is plugged into the router, but no keepalives are being received from the remote router. Serial 0 is administratively down, line protocol is down - The interface has to have been enabled by the administrator.
ISDN
Provides digital service that runs over existing telephone networks. Normally used to support applications requiring high-speed voice, video, and data communications for home users, remote offices, etc.
Protocols standards
E specifies ISDN on existing telephone technology. I specify concepts, terminology and services. Q specifies switching and signaling.
Equipment
TA Terminal adapter converts from RS-232, V.35, and other signals into BRI. TE1|2 - Terminal equipment 1 (integrated TA, understands ISDN) or 2 (needs TA, predates ISDN). NT1 - Network termination type 1 equipment that connects the subscription 4 wires to the 2 wire local loop.
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert NT2 Network termination type 1 equipment that performs protocol functions of the data link and network layers. LT Local Termination portion of the local exchange that terminates the local loop.
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ET Exchange Termination portion of the exchange that communicates with the ISDN components.
Reference Points
R reference points define the hand-off from non-ISDN equipment and the TA. S reference points define hand-off from user terminals to an NT2. T reference points define hand-off between NT1 and NT2. U reference points define hand-off between NT1 and line-termination equipment in a carrier network. (Only US/Japan, where NT1 not provided by carrier).
Channels
B(earer) channel: Used for data transfer (voice or data). D(ata) channel: Used for control/signaling information using LAPD.
Types of Equipment
CPE Customer Premise Equipment (on-site). DCE Data Communications Equipment. The devices and connections that make up the network end of the user-to-network interface. DTE Data Terminal Equipment. The devices and connections that make up the user end of the user-to-network interface. Terminals, PCs, and routers would be examples.
Flavors of ISDN
BRI 2B /1D (D = 16kb) PRI (T1) 23B / 1D (D = 64kb) E1 (Europe) 30B / 1D (D = 64kb)
Things to Know
Encapsulation can be PPP, HDLC or LAPD, with the default encapsulation method being HDLC. CHAP authentication is associated with PPP. A SPID is similar to a telephone number and is provided by Telco.
BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert basic-Itr6 German ITR6 ISDN switches basic-nwnet3 Norwegian Net3 switches basic-nznet3 New Zealand Net3 switches basic-ts013 - Australian TS013 switches basic-net3 Switch type for Net3 in UK and Europe ntt NTT ISDN switch (Japan) vn3 French VN3 ISDN switches none No specific switch specified
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Frame-Relay
Frame-relay is a simple and streamlined layer2, connection-oriented access protocol, meaning it only defines signaling and data formats between the DTE and the Frame Relay Switch. It is closely related to X.25, but without the error correction and retransmission overhead.
Things to Remember:
LMI - Local Management Interface - control protocol for PVC setup and management. Frame-relay LMI types used in Cisco routers are ansi, cisco and q933a (default is cisco). The encapsulation types for frame-relay are cisco and Ietf (default is cisco). Data-Link Connection Identifiers (DLCIs), are assigned by the carrier. Wide range of speeds from 56K over T1 (1.5Kbps) to DS3 (45Mbps) FCS - Frame Check Sequence, similar to CRC. Appended to every frame for simple error checking. Frame Relay can use ISDN/LAPD, HDLC, and PPP.
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There are two types of interfaces: NNI (Network-to-Network) connections within the network cloud between two ATM devices. UNI (User-to-Network) connects a workstation to an ATM switch.
There are four major layers in the ATM reference model (equivalent to the OSI Model) Higher layers ATM signaling, addressing and routing. AAL (ATM Adoption Layer) Converts from higher level to ATM cells. ATM Defines ATM cell relaying and multiplexing. Physical Defines the physical network media and framing.
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LAN
Token Ring
Token Ring is an older technology that is still prevalent in modern day networking, and should be reviewed carefully when preparing for the CCIE certification track, both written and lab. TR is defined in both the original IBM specification and IEEE 802.5 and comes in two speeds, the original 4 Mbps and later 16 Mbps versions. Token Ring is installed as a physical star configuration in that all stations are attached to a MAU (Multi-station Access Unit, similar to a hub in Ethernet); but a logical ring in that the token which provides permission to speak travels from node to node.
When the token returns, these bits will tell the sender that the destination received the token and copied the data from the token. For example, if the A bit is set (1) and the C bit is not (0), that would mean that the destination or receiving station is recognized, but cannot copy the data from the frame. Collisions are impossible in a Token Ring network that is functioning normally. The only time you might see them is when an error condition exists. Early token release can be enabled in the TR configuration. This allows the token to be available as soon as the data has been delivered.
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Ethernet
Ethernet is the most common LAN technology currently available, and provides for CSMA/CD, which will be explained later in this document. There are two flavors of Ethernet: 802.3 and Ethernet version II. Both standards support multiple physical media types. The primary differences are:
Ethernet II
Specifies a type field, which contains a two-byte field to indicate protocol type of the contents of the data (IP, IPX, DEC, etc.). Supports both layer 1 and 2 of the OSI model. Supports only 10Mb.
802.3
Specifies a length field. Does not contain any information about protocol type. Has this information in the DSAP and SSAP (Destination Service Access Protocol and Source Service Access Protocol) fields. Supports all of the OSI layer 1 functionality, and parts of layer 2. Supports 10Mb, 100Mb, and 1,000Mb (Gigabit Ethernet).
CSMA/CD
Since only one device can talk on an individual Ethernet segment, CSMA/CD is used anytime two or more stations share the same segment and, by extension, available bandwidth. CSMA/CD listens before transmitting. If a collision occurs it backs off the clear line, waits a random period of time, and attempts to transmit again.
EtherChannel
EtherChannel is a Cisco proprietary method for aggregating the bandwidth of up to four Fast Ethernet channels on a switch and having them appear to be one logical connection. The requirements are that all the ports be in the same VLAN, have the same speed and duplex settings, and if the switch is not a Cat6000, that contiguous ports be used. Besides increasing the bandwidth available between devices, this also adds a level of protection, because if one of the links within the EtherChannel were to go down, the traffic would continue to pass at the reduced rate without interruption.
BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert networks, and is still relevant in both real-life situations and in preparation for the CCIE track.
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It is based on a token-passing scheme similar to Token Ring, but with dual counterrotating rings that provide redundancy in the event of a fiber (or copper in the case of CDDI) cut. The primary ring carries traffic; the secondary is the backup link. The rings have a speed of 100Mbps, which was perfectly acceptable in the backbone until the introduction of inexpensive Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. There are two types of devices on the network: DAS (Dual-Attached Station) which would be attached directly to both rings. SAS (Single-Attached Station) - which would be connected to a concentrator.
Security
AAA (Authentication, Authorization and Accounting)
A standard feature set of software security tools that identify when users are logged into a router; control each users authority level; and monitor user activity to provide accounting information.
BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert User names and passwords are encrypted.
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Multiservice
Voice/Video Protocols Erlang B A traffic model used by telephone system designers to estimate
the number of lines required for trunks.
SS7 (Signaling System 7) International standard for common channel signaling between PSTN (Public Switch Telephone Network) switches. This standard provides for out-of-band signaling and is responsible for routing, link status, and connection control. 1-800 calls, local phone number portability, in-network phone mail and portable phone roaming all are defined by SS7. RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) Provides support for applications with real-time properties such as video or voice over IP. Compression
The compress {predictor | stac} command can be used to enhance service on slow point-to-point links using HDLC, PPP, and LAPB. This will cause an increase in CPU utilization on the router.
Special Thanks to Dennis Laganiere for contributing this Cramsession. Make sure to visit his site at: http://www.routedpacket.com
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