Motivational processes in the construction sector

Summary Motivation is essential in any industrial sector to achieve constructive work effort and ensure that colleagues are satisfied with their own work. This may be more of an issue in the construction sector because of the project-based, fixed-term nature of much employment. This article seeks to introduce a range of motivational processes, covering how staff are managed and motivated, as well as factors that may affect motivation at the sector level. It also briefly considers how the problem of a lack of readily available motivational material could be rectified. Keywords: motivation, performance, expectancy, valence, instrumentality, growth, hierarchical needs, lower/higher level needs. Level: beginner Time equivalence: 30 minutes (article only); 40 minutes (article and self-test questions); 2 hours (article, self-test questions and exercises).

Learning objectives 1. To understand what is meant by motivation and the relevance of different definitions. 1. Acknowledge the limitations of research into motivational techniques in the construction sector. 1. Understand a variety of motivation theories (motivational process models). 2. Be able to apply various motivational models in a project situation. 4. Acknowledge and understand that motivation can be affected by external factors such as the situation and other colleagues. 5. Acknowledge the importance of the managers role in contributing to the conditions leading to the successful performance of a colleague. 3. Recognise that motivational techniques in construction are constantly developing for future use and need to be multi-disciplinary.

Introduction Motivation can be thought of as a driving force that exists within individuals, which they can use to achieve a goal in order to fulfil a need or expectation. Another way of putting this would be as a set of forces that leads people to behave in a particular way. Both descriptions aptly convey the essence of motivation. The first is more

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positive as a work attitude because it is leading to the completion of an objective and thus puts across the notion that it requires direction and is not just a set of forces without purpose. Motivation needs to be directed by the management team otherwise a failure to motivate can lead to frustration, exemplified in fixation, aggression and withdrawal. On the other hand, if handled successfully, constructive behaviour results. In order to achieve this state, problem-solving and restructuring may have to take place. This article seeks to contrast the range of process theories of motivation, understand the relationship between motivation and work performance, as well as describe strategies for motivating staff. It is important to address the issue of motivation since relatively little published work exists specifically in relation to motivation in the construction sector. Even so, leading practitioners and their teams are likely to have developed their own motivation theories, albeit tacitly, and may have devised successful policies and means for raising and maintaining motivation. In the 1970s, construction management emerged and was seen as a way of making the sector more efficient by considering the motivational potential of certain ingredients that make up the work environment (money, job satisfaction, a sense of belonging and a future).

Motivation and its relation to performance The following formula highlights the dependency of motivation on other factors in order to achieve high performance: P = f (M + C + S) where P = performance, M = motivation, C = capability and S = situation (f means function of). Motivation, or the desire to partake in construction work, the ability to do the job (capability) and to have the resources within the environment (situation) are all necessary ingredients if an individual strives for promotion that requires a high level of performance. It is managements ultimate responsibility to ensure that these three criteria are met. Motivation is a complex phenomenon and there is no single answer to what can make a person more productive, because we are all individuals. For managers, it is important for them to understand the different theories available and be able to evaluate their use both for themselves and their employees. There are generally two schools of thought in motivation management the school of scientific management (F.W. Taylor) and the school of human relations (Elton Mayo). Within the human relations theory there are two sub-schools, hard HRM and soft HRM. The former emphasises that employees are primarily a commodity, whereas the latter theory defines the unique, human aspect of labour compared with other commodities. The scientific school, on the other hand, highlights the carrot and stick method a penalty for bad behaviour and a reward for good work. The human theory paradoxically relies on making work enjoyable so that employees take pride in their work; they may also feel cared for by management and should, according to the unwritten rulebook, work harder. Some theorists might suggest that good pay is a

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motivator. According to Herzberg, it is actually only a dissatisfier, not a motivator and may not lead to an employee working harder to drive home results. The scientific approach considers goals, giving individuals a certain set of tasks, a clear set of objectives and increasing economic rewards to improve performance. The barriers would be the limitations imposed by the processes and the resources available, as well as the capability of the worker. Taylor provided the foundation for the theory that money did not sufficiently improve performance, although some sort of reward structure could be successful.

Motivation theories Maslows Hierarchy of Needs This works on the basis that employees have a hierarchy of needs: 1st level: Physiological Hunger Sleep Thirst Sex 2nd level: Safety and security Stability Occupational pension scheme 3rd level: Social Friendship Friends in a work team 4th level: Esteem Status Job title 5th level: Self-actualisation Achievement A challenging role The need to fulfil ones personal potential

Whilst employment for manual workers in the construction sector is insecure, the lower-level needs of shelter and food, for example, are not necessarily the only important factors. It has been underestimated that job satisfaction is important to construction workers. It can be upsetting to a craft worker to be working on a poorly managed construction job, where there are delays in the delivery of materials or the materials/processes are poorly designed. These events may affect deadlines and thus the potential for bonus payments, but there is also loss in pride for those who like to see a job completed in the scheduled time and to expected quality levels. Those who are extrovert employees may wish to fulfil the final level, self-actualisation, if they

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feel confident enough, whereas the more introverted may concentrate on safety. The different levels may be perceived differently by different employees. For some, esteem may be reflected in money whilst others visualise the importance of how many subordinates are responsible to them.

Bare necessities McClelland came up with a theory similar to Maslows, with emphasis on selfactualisation (n-Ach: achievement), esteem (n-Pow: power) and belonging (n-Aff: affiliation). He found that power levels were relative; some individuals have a high need for power whilst others are content with a small amount. Similar to Taylor and Herzberg, money for successful managers came second to being presented with the right kind of challenge.

McGregors theory X and theory Y McGregor took Maslows Hierarchy of Needs and split it into lower-order needs (theory X) and higher-order needs (theory Y). As mentioned, the lower needs were the initial levels and the higher levels were factors such as self-actualisation on the fifth level of Maslows theory. He felt that those governed by theory X would present characteristics such as laziness, dislike of work and the need to be controlled and directed. On the other hand, employees abiding by theory Y would be more facilitative, self-directed, committed to objectives and seek responsibility. McGregor therefore adapted Maslows theory. Another theorist, Alderfer, also disagreed with Maslow and attempted to make it more precise in its categorisation.

EneRGy Alderfers ERG theory This theory, originating in the 1970s, was supported by research and consisted of three main categories of need: Existence the need for survival and reproduction (physiological and safety needs) Relatedness social needs and the need to be respected (social and esteem needs) Growth the need for personal growth including the learning of new skills (self-actualisation). It is a more dynamic theory than Maslows hierarchy and adds to that theory by identifying a frustration-regression process. This suggests that frustration is felt by someone who cannot achieve their growth needs and, to compensate, they regress backwards to fulfilling relatedness needs. A manager who sees a colleague on the path to promotion struggling to fulfil growth needs by, for example, not being able to successfully delegate on a project, should try and help the colleague achieve

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relatedness needs. This can be accomplished by helping him/her to connect more fully with those he/she is trying to involve in delegation.

Liberty, equality, fraternity A highly regarded measure of motivation has been the equity theory, conceived by Adams in the 1960s. It works on the simple notion that colleagues wish to be treated equally in relation to other co-workers. Paradoxically, it also works on the notion that an individual does not want to be treated unfairly and unequally in comparison to other colleagues. The process moves through four stages as follows. 1. They evaluate how they are being treated by the organisation. 2. They evaluate how another person (e.g. someone in the same project team) is being treated by the organisation. 3. They compare the results of 1. and 2. above. 4. They experience either equity or inequity. The above is worked out by comparing the ratio of the outcome (what someone receives for work put in) over the input (what someone puts into work) with that of the chosen comparison (the other person):
Outcome (self) ____________ Input (self) compared with Outcome (other) _____________ Input (other)

Equity will have been achieved if both sides are balanced and status quo has been maintained. The ratios must be equal in order for equity to be active. For example, someone earns more than another. This person has put in a lot of work. It is therefore justified that they should get a higher salary compared to someone who has not worked as hard. In equity terms, a higher outcome-input ratio is acceptable. On the other hand, if the persons inputs were to be disproportionate with their outcomes, a sense of inequality would be felt. What would someone do if he/she felt a sense of inequality? The effects could impact on work levels, on perceptions of others or, at the extreme end of the spectrum, make that person consider leaving the team or the organisation altogether. Table 1 shows the possible actions that could result from a sense of inequality.

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Table 1. Possible actions resulting from a sense of inequity. Impact on work levels Alter input e.g. reducing effort = alteration of ratio (e.g. if the person feels he/she is not being rewarded enough, effort will decrease). Alter outcomes e.g. the person may request more money because of altering the perception of current value. The extreme of this would be to resort to theft and fraud. Impact on perception of others Alter self-perceptions quite a complex response. The person may decrease input, but receive more outcome. Alter perceptions of others e.g. if the person feels unrewarded for his/her own hard work and efforts, he/she may feel the comparison is achieving more and gaining more rewards. Compare with others the person may feel that he/she has been making a comparison with the wrong person (e.g. an unsubstantial match for skills etc.) and so should select a more valid person for comparison. Exit the situation The last resort if the person feels the inequity cannot be resolved, it will be a situation of flight as opposed to fight. The person may leave the team or the organisation altogether.

Expectancy theory/VIE theory In construction, expectancy theory is especially valuable because it is multidimensional, like the sector itself, and can be applied to nearly any level of employee within a construction firm. The basic theory that Vroom propounded in the 1960s was the belief that the more effort an individual put in, the more performance would improve and therefore the higher the rewards that might be expected. With expectancy was added the values valence and instrumentality. The former concerns the importance the worker places on the reward anticipated for the efforts put into a project. For example, some may desire more money than a higher degree of social standing. The latter is the calculation of how far performance leads to the rewards that first motivated the task. Valence is dependent on instrumentality and will be low if a person knows that he/she will not achieve the desired outcomes that are expected to come from good performance.

Alienation motivations alter-ego We all have a variety of commitments, whether they are to the family, to an affiliation, another job or something else. Sometimes other commitments can affect motivation and cause alienation from job progress. There may only be a limited sense of commitment coming from an individual within the organisation. The person may

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only wish to fulfil the basic physiological and safety needs identified in the hierarchical models discussed earlier. This may conflict with the organisations needs which may be subject to change or the desire for it to seek greater involvement from workers in order to improve project performance. This problem is most prevalent with workers who have undemanding and routine jobs and who have little cause to fulfil needs on a higher level. This perception has to be overcome and a range of work motivation techniques should be established, particularly amongst workers who may be involved in routine manual labour positions. This may be achieved by promoting autonomy within work practices and opportunities for job progression, as well as enjoying a variety of different work situations on the project that they are working. This is known as job rotation, a method to minimise monotony and boredom. Although this method has been found to be ineffective and can decrease efficiency by sacrificing expertise, it can be a useful method when training workers to become equipped with different skills. This will allow them to do a variety of jobs and thus, in turn, reduce the possibility of remaining in a monotonous job.

Considering future research into motivation in construction The future of motivational research in the construction sector and the application of research techniques in the construction workplace rests in putting a variety of techniques together which requires a multi-disciplinary approach. On the other hand, it may be possible for construction researchers with a sufficient background in the social sciences to be able to explain motivation to those in the sector. The following factors are useful in considering the construction workplace and how motivation may be affected.

Economic factors Levels of competition high levels of competition may result in the need to deliver high performance and a sense of achievement in doing so will indicate good motivation levels. Levels of productivity growth if the growth rates are high, motivation should be at a high because there are good results and the potential for good outcomes. Degree of manufactured content this may affect the proportion of jobs involving manual work, which could become monotonous because of deskilling, requiring job variety to be introduced.

Social/cultural factors Age composition of workforce different people have different motivations. For example, young and single career starters may be looking to excel and

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seeking promotion, whereas those having a family may look for lower hierarchical needs such as stability as opposed to growth. Level of education those who have a university education should have learnt to work independently and are therefore more likely to be self-motivated. Career expectations those who wish to succeed career-wise are more likely to put in the hard work and effort needed to reach their objectives.

Legal factors Employment legislation Employment practices

Legislation will define the boundaries in which construction workers operate, discouraging them from engaging in illegal or discriminating activity themselves or by their employers.

Technological factors Information systems and information management Computer-aided design (CAD) and modelling Degree of craft and/or knowledge-based work

There is more scope for ideas and advanced projects if there are technological capabilities in the organisation. Those who are skilled in technology will have these skills reflected in their salary and/or status.

Conclusions Motivation is a complex, yet worthwhile issue to discuss with workers in the construction sector, because it can contribute to efficiency and assist those who feel seriously about a career in construction. Unfortunately, little literature exists on up-todate methods on motivation applied to the sector. Even so, by using a variety of different motivational models, it is possible to construct a way forward. In this regard, it is important to accept that different colleagues will have different values and will, therefore, be motivated by different forces. It is important for management to take into account these differences and reflect them in a reward policy that is flexible if at all possible. Similarly, the jobs performed by construction workers must be as diverse as practicalities permit in order to bring about variety. Workers can learn different skills and build on existing ones, enabling them to climb the promotional ladder.

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Exercises 1. Give an example project situation that suffered because there was a low level of motivation amongst team members. What caused the problem? How could you improve the situation on future projects? 2. Have you used one of the motivational processes discussed in the article? If so, was it successful? What would you change if it were to be applied to a projects plan in future? 3. How would you go about promoting good motivational practice amongst your colleagues and other organisations? 4. Choose one of the motivational processes discussed and explain how you would apply it to a future design and build project. 5. How would you choose to motivate (a) individuals and (b) the team on a project?

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Self-test questions Q1. It is important for construction workers to understand motivational techniques because: a) There are very few professionals able to deal with motivating those in the construction sector. b) It will contribute to more efficient practices in the sector. c) It will lead to a lighter workload for highly-pressured construction managers. Q2. P = f(M + C + S) refers to: a) Performance = function of (Motivation + Capability + Situation) b) Performance = function of (Motivation + Concentration + Stability) c) Perception = function of (Match (of skills) + Cooperation + Social factors) Q3. When directing staff on motivational skills, it is essential that a manager: a) Makes more use of the reward system than the punishment system. b) Understands the different theories and how they can work for the manager and for colleagues. c) Makes sure that the three performance criteria are met motivation, capability and situation. Q4. The key factors of the VIE theory are as follows: a) Valence, instrumentality and expectancy. b) Value, incidence and expectancy. c) Value, inclusion and education. Q5. Future method and practice in motivation should focus on: a) Multi-tasking taking part in a variety of work duties to ensure monotony and rigidity are overcome in the construction workplace. a) Multi-disciplinary approaches putting together a variety of motivational models to perfect the best to apply to ones specific construction needs. c) Multiple models for motivation in construction.

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Answers to self-test questions Q1. a) Incorrect this does not explain why it is important for construction workers to understand the need for motivation. b) Correct Trench suggested that motivating construction colleagues using monetary, status and other rewards would boost productivity levels for the sector. c) Incorrect it would have the adverse effect on managers because they would be responsible for instructing their colleagues in motivational skills. Q2. a) Correct all these conditions must be achieved by the manager in order for the individual to have a fighting chance of aiming for promotion! a) Incorrect stability is one of the lower order factors of Maslows Hierarchy of Needs and concentration does not feature in any known motivation models. b) Incorrect the equation is for performance, not perception. Q3. a) Incorrect this is not essential and it is sometimes necessary to punish a colleague as much as it is to reward one who has performed well. b) Incorrect this is important but not the single most important factor for managers to do for their staff. a) Correct this is the most important consideration; without it, colleagues run the risk of not having the correct stimuli to perform to the best of their abilities. Q4. a) Correct all these factors are important to understanding a workers performance expectation level and how they work towards achieving an objective. b) Incorrect the first two factors are incorrect and do not exist in a recognised formula. c) Incorrect there is no formula involving this combination of factors. Q5. a) Incorrect this is a consideration but it has not been specifically suggested as an issue to focus on in future research. a) Correct by doing this, it will be advantageous to the structure of the construction sector which is more ad-hoc and multi-layered compared with other industrial sectors which tend to be less changeable. c) Incorrect this is only partly explaining what should happen; multiple means many, but the emphasis should be placed on combining a number of models, not merely suggesting many separate models.

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References and bibliography Druker J. and White G. (1996) Managing people in construction. London: Institute of Personnel and Development. Emmitt S. and Gorse C. (2003) Construction Communication. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Harris F. and McCaffer R. (2001) Modern Construction Management. 5th edition. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Heap A. (1987) Improving Site Productivity in the Construction Industry. Geneva: International Labour Organisation. Langford D., Hancock M.R., Fellows R. and Gale A.W. (1995) Human Resources Management in Construction. Ascot: Longman. Maund L. (1999) Understanding People and Organisations an introduction to organisational behaviour, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes Publishers.

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