CHAPTER 2

Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials ( )

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-1

Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

(b)

Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-2

Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 2.2 A typical stressstrain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

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Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature

TABLE 2.1 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature
Metals (Wrought)
Aluminum and its alloys Copper and its alloys Lead and its alloys Magnesium and its alloys Molybdenum and its alloys Nickel and its alloys Steels Titanium and its alloys Tungsten and its alloys

E (GPa)
6979 105150 14 4145 330360 180214 190200 80130 350400

Y (MPa)
35550 761100 14 130305 802070 1051200 2051725 3441380 550690

UTS (MPa)
90600 1401310 2055 240380 902340 3451450 4151750 4151450 620760

Elongation in 50 mm (%)
454 653 509 215 4030 605 652 257 0

Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics 701000 1402600 0 Diamond 8201050 Glass and porcelain 70-80 140 Rubbers 0.010.1 Thermoplastics 1.43.4 780 10005 Thermoplastics, reinforced 250 20120 101 Thermosets 3.517 35170 0 Boron fibers 380 3500 0 Carbon fibers 275415 20003000 0 Glass fibers 7385 35004600 0 Kevlar fibers 62117 2800 0 Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals. Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-4

Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen

Figure 2.3 Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a tensile- test specimen. Note that, during unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-5

Elongation versus % Area Reduction

Figure 2.4 Approximate relationship between elongation and tensile reduction of area for various groups of metals.

Area Reduction = Ao A f 100 Ao

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-6

Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve

Figure 2.7 (a) Load-elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen. (b) Engineering stress-engineering strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress-true strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve has a positive slope, indicating that the material is becoming stronger as it is strained. (d) True stress-true strain curve plotted on log-log paper and based on the corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c. The correction is due to the triaxial state of stress that exists in the necked region of a specimen.

=
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

P l , = ln( ) A lo
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1997 Addison Wesley

Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature

TABLE 2.3
K (M Pa)
A lum inum 1100O 2024T4 6061O 6061T6 7075O B rass 7030, annealed 8515, cold-rolled C obalt-base alloy, heat-treated C opper, annealed Steel Low-C annealed 4135 annealed 4135 cold-rolled 4340 annealed 304 stainless, annealed 410 stainless, annealed 180 690 205 410 400 900 580 2070 315 530 1015 1100 640 1275 960

n
0.20 0.16 0.20 0.05 0.17 0.49 0.34 0.50 0.54 0.26 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.45 0.10

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-8

True Stress-True Strain Curves

Figure 2.6 True stresstrue strain curves in tension at room temperature for various metals. The curves start at a finite level of stress: The elastic regions have too steep a slope to be shown in this figure, and so each curve starts at the yield stress, Y, of the material.

= K

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-9

Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves

Figure 2.10 Typical effects of temperature on stress-strain curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness (area under the curve) of materials.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-10

Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing Processes

TABLE 2.4
Process
Cold working Forging, rolling Wire and tube drawing Explosive forming Hot working and warm working Forging, rolling Extrusion Machining Sheet-metal forming Superplastic forming

True strain
0.10.5 0.050.5 0.050.2 0.10.5 25 110 0.10.5 0.23

Deformation rate (m/s)

0.1100 0.1100 10100 0.130 0.11 0.1100 0.052 -4 -2 10 -10

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-11

Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Tensile Strength

Figure 2.11 The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases. Source: J. H. Hollomon.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-12

Disk and Torsion-Test Specimens

Figure 2.19 Disk test on a brittle material, showing the direction of loading and the fracture path.

Figure 2.20 Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-13

Bending

Figure 2.23 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) four-point bending. The areas on the beams represent the bendingmoment diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-14

Hardness Tests
Figure 2.24 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for calculating hardness. The quantity P is the load applied. Source: H. W. Hayden, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III (John Wiley & Sons, 1965).

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-15

Brinell Testing
Figure 2.27 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the material. Source: M. C. Shaw and C. T. Yang.

(c)

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-16

Hardness Conversion Chart

Figure 2.14 Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note the limited range of most scales. Because of the many factors involved, these conversions are approximate.
1997 Addison Wesley Page 2-17

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

S-N Curves

Figure 2.28 Typical S-N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have an endurance limit.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-18

Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength versus Tensile Strength

Figure 2.29 Ratio of endurance limit to tensile strength for various metals, as a function of tensile strength. Because aluminum does not have an endurance limit, the correlation for aluminum are based on a specific number of cycles, as is seen in Fig. 2.15.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-19

Creep Curve
Figure 2.30 Schematic illustration of a typical creep curve. The linear segment of the curve (secondary) is used in designing components for a specific creep life.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-20

Impact Test Specimens

Figure 2.31 Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy; (b) Izod.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-21

Residual Stresses
Figure 2.32 Residual stresses developed in bending a beam having a rectangular cross-section. Note that the horizontal forces and moments caused by residual stresses in the beam must be balanced internally. Because of nonuniform deformation during metalworking operations, most parts develop residual stresses.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-22

Distortion of Parts with Residual Stresses

Figure 2.33 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing or pipe.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 2-23

Tri-axial stress state and Yielding

Maximum-shear criterion:

max = k

Distortion-energy criterion:

( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) = 2Y
2 2 2

Plane stress and plane strain:

z , xz, yz =0 or z , xz, yz = 0
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 2-24

Equivalent stress and strain

Equivalent stress:

1 2 2 2 1/ 2 [( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) ] = 2
Equivalent strain:

2 2 2 [( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) ] = 3
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 2-25

1 2 2

Plastic work
Specific energy ( Energy per unit volume) : u = d = d
0 0

utotal = uideal + u friction + uredundant uideal = 30 ~ 60 % (extrusion), 75 ~ 95 % (rolling ) utotal utotal T = c

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 2-26