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Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.
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Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 2.2 A typical stressstrain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features.
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E (GPa)
6979 105150 14 4145 330360 180214 190200 80130 350400
Y (MPa)
35550 761100 14 130305 802070 1051200 2051725 3441380 550690
UTS (MPa)
90600 1401310 2055 240380 902340 3451450 4151750 4151450 620760
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
454 653 509 215 4030 605 652 257 0
Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics 701000 1402600 0 Diamond 8201050 Glass and porcelain 70-80 140 Rubbers 0.010.1 Thermoplastics 1.43.4 780 10005 Thermoplastics, reinforced 250 20120 101 Thermosets 3.517 35170 0 Boron fibers 380 3500 0 Carbon fibers 275415 20003000 0 Glass fibers 7385 35004600 0 Kevlar fibers 62117 2800 0 Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals. Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.
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=
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials
P l , = ln( ) A lo
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n
0.20 0.16 0.20 0.05 0.17 0.49 0.34 0.50 0.54 0.26 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.45 0.10
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= K
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True strain
0.10.5 0.050.5 0.050.2 0.10.5 25 110 0.10.5 0.23
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Figure 2.20 Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials
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Bending
Figure 2.23 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) four-point bending. The areas on the beams represent the bendingmoment diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).
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Hardness Tests
Figure 2.24 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for calculating hardness. The quantity P is the load applied. Source: H. W. Hayden, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III (John Wiley & Sons, 1965).
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Brinell Testing
Figure 2.27 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the material. Source: M. C. Shaw and C. T. Yang.
(c)
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S-N Curves
Figure 2.28 Typical S-N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have an endurance limit.
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Creep Curve
Figure 2.30 Schematic illustration of a typical creep curve. The linear segment of the curve (secondary) is used in designing components for a specific creep life.
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Residual Stresses
Figure 2.32 Residual stresses developed in bending a beam having a rectangular cross-section. Note that the horizontal forces and moments caused by residual stresses in the beam must be balanced internally. Because of nonuniform deformation during metalworking operations, most parts develop residual stresses.
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Figure 2.33 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing or pipe.
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max = k
Distortion-energy criterion:
( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) = 2Y
2 2 2
z , xz, yz =0 or z , xz, yz = 0
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 2-24
1 2 2 2 1/ 2 [( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) ] = 2
Equivalent strain:
2 2 2 [( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) ] = 3
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 2-25
1 2 2
Plastic work
Specific energy ( Energy per unit volume) : u = d = d
0 0