INDIAN IRANIAN ARMENIAN HELLENIC ALBANIAN ITALIC BALTO-SLAVIC GERMANIC CELTIC HITTIE TOCHRANIAN

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The oldest literary text preserved are the VEDAS or sacred books of India.

a- The earliest THE RIG-VEDA: a collection of books b- The latest THE ATHARVA-VEDA: a body of encantations and magical formulas.
They are written in SANSKRIST or VEDIC-SANKRIST. They form the basis of BRAHMAN philosophy.

VEDIC-SANSKRIST (about 1000 hymns)

a- RIG-VEDA: 1500Bc, the oldest in verse (collection of b- YAGUR-VEDA : In prose c- SAMA-VEDA d- ATHARVA-VEDA: the earliest. Body of encantations

religion. Alongside SANSKRIST there existed a large number of local dialects known as: PRAKRISTS: An important one is PALI, it became the language of BUDDHISM

From the Prakrists descended the present languages of:

INDIA PAKISTAN BANGLADESH

The most important of the Prakrists is HINDU-URDU, official language of PAKISTAN, BENGALI ( Bangladesh), PUNJABI and MARATHI.

HINDUSTANI HINDI: spoken by followers of Hinduism URDU: spoken by followers of Moslems SINDHI BENGALI PUNJABI MARATHI SINGHALESE: spoken in CEYLON (Asia) Variety: TAMIL ROMANY
Words adopted by English from Sanskrist: See notebook for meaning (pag.3): Curry maharani swani bungalow shampoo sahib sepoj sari mahatma swastika maharajah karma mantra yoga khaki guru.

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North West of India and great part of Iran.

Divided into: a- AVESTAN: religious language / Religious texts Avestans- Zoroaster b-OLD PRESIAN: only preserved in cuneiform inscriptions. c- MIDDLE PERSIAN: later from Old Persia d- MODERN PRESIAN: spoken nowadays: VARIETIES: KURDISH in Kurdishtan Afghan Baluchi (in Afghanistan) = stan means country
Words from Iranian: caravan shawl shah sherbet satrap pajamas
ARARAT: mountain where Noahs arch was stuck during the 40 day rain. It gives name to the country.

Armenian (High Lands) No feminine gender They indicate it by placing female or male before the noun.. Spoken in Russia. Patronymic: -IAN = son of... / Karadajian Kalpakian Gastonian Arslanian. The Bible was translated into Armenian in the 5th century AD and the language was kept.
ATTIC: It became KOINE (common Lang.) It was the lang. of the gospels and of Byzantium. Greek adopted the alphabet of Phoenicia, this passed into the Romans and was adopted by the Slavs. It gave rise to our alphabet.

Spoken in Greece. The oldest literary text in Greek are The Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer. Variety: 5 principal dialects.

1- Ionic: The main one from which Attic (lang. Of Athens / lingua franca) is derived. 2- Arcadian-Cyprian: Spoke in Sparta. 3- Doric: Spoken now in Cyprus 4- North Western Greek 5- Aeolic: Spoken in the North Eastern part. Greek lang. is present in English words: aritma: arithmetic / stratuma: strategy

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GREEK PREFIXES

Ana / an = back: analyze / back + verb = to loosen

Again: Anabaptist = twice baptized Up: Anatomy: cut up / through Not / Without: Anemia: no blood Anarchy: without government Anesthesia: no feelings.

Eu / ev: well / good: Eugene: well born Eucalyptus: well covered Evangelium: god
news Euphrates: easy to cross over Euphony: good sound / voice. Euthanasia: good death POLY: many much: polytechnic - polyphonic: many sounds Polynesia: many islands Polytheist: many gods Polygon: many angles Polygamy: many wives PAN: all - Pan-American. Pan theism: God Panorama: all views Pandemic: epidemic in several countries PARA: means beyond Paranormal Parapsychology - Paranoiac: beyond your mind Proper names: Barbara: foreigner, those people who couldnt speak Greek. Irene: peace Andrew: manly Angel: messenger George: farmer Alexander: great man Anthony: flower Sophia : wisdom Stephen: King or crown Catherine: pure From Greek mythology: Atlas: collection of maps Cereal: Goddess of fertility CERES Chronology: Chronos: God of Time Morphine: Morpheus God of sleep. Geo: from Gea:Godess of Earth From Roman mythology: Volcano: Volcanus Protein: Proteus

Anthology : collection of flowers

North west of Greece on the eastern cost of the Adriatic. When it was first met, it was so mixed with Latin Greek Turkish and Slavonic owing to conquests that its difficult to isolate the original Albanian.

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Found in Italy. Main representative: LATIN ( lang. spoken in Rome) Romance: Name given to the languages derived from Latin. Romance Languages: Portuguese: Portugal Brazil Mozambique Angola Spanish: South Aca. Spain Caribbean Puerto Rico Sephardic: Archaic Catalan: Catatonia (Northern Spain). Similar to Provencal Provencal (North: Langue dc South: Langue dil): Southeastern part of France. French: France - Quebec Haiti Algeria Raeto Romanic: small community of Switzerland Rumanian: Rumania (surrounded by Slavic speaking countries) Sardinian: In Sardine (an island) Italian: Italy Galician: North Western Spain (similar to Portuguese) LATIN: 2 varieties : Classical: written, elaborate grammar Vulgar: spoken (vulgus: people) Changes in sound:

VULGAR LATIN

E O Au / u C Pl Fl Cl I Ilia Cul P(not at the beginning) C(K sound) F T(in the middle)

Spanish examples ie: mel Miel / petra - piedra Ue: ovum: huevo / cornu: cuerno O: lupus: lobo / urtica: ortiga Ch: nocte: noche Ll: pluvia: lluvia Clave: llave E: ovicula: oveja / pilu: pelo J: filia: hija Apicula: abeja B: lupus: lobo / apicula:abeja G: dico: digo / ficus: higo H: ficus: higo / filia:hija D: petra: piedra

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 Sometimes the same word passed into 2 different channels:

Urtica: ortiga: common language Urticaria:: learned language / root preserved Filum: hilo common lang. Filo Learned lang.

Capra: cabra caprino

The same word give rise to 2 different words:

Directum: directo Derecho Forma: forma Horma Lucrari: lucrar Lograr Secare: secar Segar Plaga: plaga llaga Petra: piedra petrificado Oculum: ocular ojo Apicula: apicultura abeja Portus puerto portuario Cuniculus conejo cunicultura Filia hija filial

Clamare llamar clamor/ar

It is divided into BALTO & SLAVIC. BALTIC: Old Persian. Subdivided into LETTIC: Spoken in Latvia & LITHUANIAN: the closest to the Indo-European Language .

SLAVIC falls into 1-West Slavic

2-East Slavic 3-South Slavic

Slavic languages look different in the written form but are similar in the oral form.

1-WEST SLAVIC: Polish (the largest), Slovak, Czech, Wendish. All these use the Roman Alphabet. Most are Catholic countries. 2- East Slavic: Represented by a- GREAT RUSSIAN: language of Moscow, spoken in N, E & Central parts of Russia. B- WHITE RUSSIAN (yellow Russian), border between Poland & Russia. C- LITTLE RUSSIAN or Ukrainian, Its a variety spoken in Ukraine.

East Slavic

Great Russian White Russian Little Russian

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3- SOUTH SLAVIC: Its the official language of the Orthodox Church. Old Church Slavonic. In the 9th century 2 missionaries: Cyril & Methodios translated part of the Bible into Slavic, the language used was Old Church Slavonic.

Languages belonging to the SOUTH SLAVIC BRANCH: a- BULGARIAN: corrupted by Greek & Turkish elements. b- SERBO-CROATIAN: c- SLOVEN(IAN): Spoken in Yugoslavia d- MACEDONIAN: Spoken in the N-E part of Greece ( Macedonia) English words borrowed from Russian: Vodka (little water) sputnik Kremlin soviet
Czar troika
(vehicle carried by horses)

Bolshoi (bolsh means big) tundra grad (city) Leningrad

Patronymic: vich / ich = man - evna = woman Ivan Nicholaievich

Nicholais.

son of

Ivan Nicholaievich Kerensky Katya Nicholaievna kerenskraza

last name not used.

Daughter of Nicholas

Russian Endings:
Sky: ending es for Russian & Czech: Czernuvsky Off = ov = Russian Molotov Strogoff Ev eff = Russian / Bulgarian : Gorbachev Enko: Ukrainian: Parpenko.

Teutonic: Ancient German people of North-western Europe. Germanic falls into: EASTERN BRANCH NORTHERN BRANCH or OLD NORSE spoken in Scandinavia and Denmark WESTERN BRANCH

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EASTERN BRANCH: Main representative, GOTHICS dead, they adopted Latin. OLD NORSE: has a : Western Branch represented by ICELANDIC and an Eastern Branch which falls into SWEDISH & DANISH. WESTERN BRANCH falls into: HIGH VARIETY LOW VARIETY HIGH VARIETY OLD HIGH GERMAN MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN MODERN HIGH GERMAN OLD ENGLISH MIDDLE ENGLISH MODERN ENGLISH OLD FRISIAN MIDDLE FRISIAN MODERN FRISIAN OLD DUTCH MIDDLE DUTCH MODERN DUTCH

LOW VARIETY

Patronymics in German: von High German : Von Hinderberg / van Dutch Van Buren. Names of German Origin: Suffix BERT means bright, Albert Robert. Prefix ED means happy, Edith: wealthy - Edward: the one who looks for wealth Edmund: Protector of richness - Edgar: faithful protector.

At midnight on October 3, 1990, East Germany and West Germany officially reunified after 45 years as separate nations. Many thousands of people crowded the streets of Berlin to take part in the festivities. Shown here, the German flag is hoisted in front of the Reichstag building as spectators look on.

History of the English Language

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The Celts covered an important part in Europe, Spain Great Britain Western Germany. They are divided in 2 groups: Gaelic CELTS: 1st to reach England. Isle of Man. Scottish Gaelic in Scotland. Main Representatives: IRISH in Ireland. MANX in the isle of Man Scottish Gaelic. BRITANNIC or CYMRIC (k) CELTS: They were driven westwards by the Anglo-Saxons. It gives rise to : CORNISH in Cornwall WELSH BRETON spoken in France.
Welsh people dont like to be called WELSH but CYMRIC. Welsh means foreigner in Teutonic.

PATRONYMICS: Son of: O Connor: Welsh Mac/Mc Carthy: Scottish Fitz: Fitzgerald, Fitzpatrick: Welsh

Words borrowed: Whisky: water of life. / dolmen: stone as table /bard: a poet Trelew: the town of Lewis. Penguin: flightless bird . Slogan: a battle cry
Stonehenge, the circular arrangement of large stones near Salisbury, England, was probably built in three stages between about 3000 and 1000 BC. The function of the monument remains unknown: once believed to be a temple for Druids or Romans, Stonehenge is now often thought to have been either a temple for sun worshippers or a type of astronomical clock or calendar. As the only natural building stones within 21 km (13 mi), Stonehenge has been decimated through the centuries by builders and by normal climatic forces.

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Set 2 OLD ENGLISH 450 TO 1150 Full Inflections Origin and Position of English:

The English Language of today is the fusion of the dialects spoken by the Germanic tribes who came to England. English belongs to the LOW WEST GERMANIC branch of the Indo European family of languages.

Invasions: CELTS ROMANS ANGLO SAXONS. Periods in the history of English:

OLD ENGLISH: 450 TO 1150, period of FULL INFLECTIONS, coming of the ANGLO SAXONS & NORMANDS. MIDDLE ENGLISH; 1150 TO 1500, period of LEVELLED INFLECTIONS. MODERN ENGLISH: 1500 onwards, period of LOST INFLECTIONS. Old English was a HIGHLY INFLECTED LANGUAGE. OE begins with the coming of the ANGLO SAXONS & the JUTES . There wasnt a single language called Old English but several varieties of languages.

There are 4 main varieties of OE: NORTHUMBRIAN MERCIAN KENTISH WEST SAXON. 1. SOUND SHIFT: shared with German & Dutch: P (piscis) is cognate to F (fish). 2. It possesses a strong and a weak form of the verbs: Strong conjugation: by changing of vowels (sing sang sung), Weak conjugation: regular verbs.

English shares characteristics with the languages belonging to the Low West Germanic Branch:

Stress on the root syllable: father house ma/chine

French origin.

THE STRESS ON THE 1st SYLLABLE IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE LOSS OF DECLENSIONS AT THE END OF WORDS. Features of Old English: PRONUCTIATION SPELLING GRAMMAR VOCABULARY. In Old English the LONG VOWELS have undergone considerable modification:

Stan stone / halig holly / rap rope / gan go / ban bone / bat boat / hlaf loaf.

Other vowels suffered changes in :

Fot foot / fyr fire / hlud loud / cene keen / riht right / hu how / metan mete.

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Some other words were contracted:

Heafod head / fger fair / sawol soul Old English had 2 characters to represent the sound of TH: p / Wip with / a then. The sound of a like : ht hat The sound of sh by sc: sceap sheep / sceotan - shoot The sound of K by C: cym kin / nacod naked. There were NO SILENT CONSONANTS: cnawan knew / writan write

Old English Compounds: World: mans age band dweller Lord: giver of bread Daisy: days eyes Cockney: cocks eggs, malformed egg. God) Gospel: good news good news. Sunday: day of the sun Tuesday: Twe God of war Thursday: Thor God of Lighting Friday: Goddess Frig Goddess of Love

Husband: hus house / Lady: kneader of bread Window: wind + eye Gossip: God sib (relative in Evangelium: messenger of the Monday: day of the moon Wednesday: God of the wood

Saturday: God Saturnum God of the subterranean world. Holidays:Sacred Days Christmas: Christs Mass Hollywood: Holly (a tree) - wood: forest Lollypop: lolly: tongue - pop: to pass your tongue Disease: without ease Dandelion: tooth of a lion Malaria: bad air Melancholy: mela black choly:bile

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OLD ENGLISH: Ham: home Cnyt(tan): knit Cese: cheese Fyr: fire Sd: seed Mon(a): moon Cniht: knight Fisc: fish Scip: ship Ac: oak Sap(e) : soap Spec(an): speak speech Gat: goat Synn: sin Fife: five Lc: lack Sunn(e): sun Lifer: liver Ric(e): rich hus: house Bru: brow Cnif: knife Broc: brook Hal: whole Gren(e): green Cocc: cock Ut: out Folc: folk Scip: ship Pt: that. hu: how fot: foot hlud: loud gan: go heafod: head fger: fair sawol: soul nacod: naked sceotan: shoot cynn: keen riht: right set(tan): set sit(tan): sit min: mine god: good cu: cow lufu: love mys: mice hyll: hill grs: grass etan: eat libban: live heah: high feothan: fight slpan: sleep Cynd: sign Gast: ghost Porn: thorn B: bath Mann: man

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1. CELTIC INFLUENCE: Were driven west by the Romans & then by the Anglo Saxons. They were subdued people, thats why they didnt keep the language.
The 1st syllable of: WINCHESTER SALISBURY EXETER GLOUCESTER WORCESTER LICHFIELD, is traceable to Celtic origins. Names of river are from Celtic origin too: AVON DOVER WYE - THAMES CUMB EXE USK.

2. BORROWED WORDS IN THE LATIN INFLUENCE OF THE ZERO PERIOD: Continental borrowing: Called like that because there are Latin words Anglo Saxons brought from the continent. Strata: street Camp: battle Mint: where coins are made Weal: wall Sign: banner Win: wine
Eced: vinegar

Cytel: kettle mese: table cycene: kitchen Cirice: church Biscop: bishop Must: new wine

3. LATIN INFLUENCE OF THE FIRST PERIOD: Romans in England Roman Empire

Endings of place names: MANCHESTER CHESTERFIELD LANCASTER DONCASTER LEUCASTER GLOUCESTER.

4. LATIN INFLUENCE OF THE SECOND PERIOD: Christianizing England. Gregory the Great Benedictine Reform. Revival of Latin. There were 2 periods: 1st Period: Common words related to religion: abbot, angel, candle, nuns, pope, mass, altar, disciple. 2nd Period: Decay in the way of living, drinking sin. A reform was needed: Benedictine Reform. They made 3 vows: chastity, obedience, poverty. Words introduced: Antichrist, synod, synagogue, cancer, prophet, idol, font, cloister. Words like: God Heaven Easter Hell Gospel Holy Ghost, werent borrowed from Latin because they had them already in English. Meaning of some religious words: Altar: high priest: old man pope: father devil: slanderer angel: messenger Bishop: overseer Amen: certainty Golgothe: place of skulls. History of the English Language 13 Walter Martn

SEE P.17 Ws NOTEBOOK FOR RELIGIOUS WORDS NOW USED IN DIFFERENT FIELDS.

5. The Scandinavian Influence: Started in the 8th century with attacks of Norwegian and Danish pirates in the N of England. They spoke Old Norse. Many places in England have Scandinavian names, especially in the North & Lowlands of Scotland: Ending by: Rugby Derby Whitby. Ending thorpe: Little village, Athorp Bishopsthorpe Linthorpe. Ending -toft: Brimtoft Nortoft Langtoft. Ending thwaite: Isolated piece of land. Applethwaite Braitthwaite Langthwaite. Scandinavian Patronymic son , English equivalent ng: Anderson Johnson Stevenson // Browning Golding

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SET 3 MIDDLE ENGLISH 1150 to 1500 Leveled Inflections 1066, Coming of the Normands. NORMAN CONQUEST. Being Harold King of England is defeated by William The Great in the Battle of Hastings. Important consequence: INTRODUCTION OF A NEW NOBILITY. William was from Normandy (it means men of the North), originally inhabited by Vikings. The Loss of Normandy: John Lackland lost Normandy. Up to him, people had possessions on both sides of the channels, so they had to choose wether to stay or not, and if they favored England or France. This produced the separation of the English and French Nobility. 13th Century: 3 languages spoken in England religion & Law, English: poor classes. French by the nobility, Latin:

Events that promoted the use of English: Loss of Normandy 100 Years war : England & France. Birth of National Feeling Black Death: Demand of manual labor. Low Class people became English Speaking MIDDLE CLASS. Everybody without distinctions knew English, even nobles at court. Writers used English because it was understood. In the 100 YearsWar French was the language of the enemy. Decay of Inflectional Endings:
Grammar was affected to the point that English was transformed from an INFLECTIONAL LANGUANGE to an ANALYTYC LANGUANGE.

a- Loss of declensions: Nouns ending in a e o u lost the vowel because it was too difficult to pronounce: writtane = final e dropped. / smale = small / melodye = melody b- Strong Verbs became Weak: due to the Principle of Analogy help holp holpen c- The only Participles that went on being the same were the Past Participles, used as adjectives: wrought iron drunken well-knit story laden apple tree molten lava. Others: sunken shorn shrunken. The French Influence is felt in: No correspondence in written & read forms Same spelling different pronunciation. THOUGH THROUGH COUGH ENOUGH CAT NATION ABOUT CARE Walter Martn

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GW GUE: were kept as in GUARD. Sometimes in French the G was dropped, so we have: GUERRE WAR. GUEST GUESS but GET GIVE. /ch/ spelling was represented / tS / : merchant chaste chair. Later the t was dropped in French pronunciation so borrowed words at a later time are pronounced with / S / : chauffeur champagne machine. After e- i , letter g was pronounced / dz / : gently giant. In French, the d was dropped so we have only / z / sound: rouge mirage garage prestige. French introduced K and Q: cyn = King cwen = Queen In French the English / u / sound pronounced / ju / : duke use usage Tuesday, in English: full, no diphthong. In other words the u was replaced by o, like in muney = money honey love ( old lufu). LONG VOWELS were shown by doubling them in spelling: see brood too , except vowels a u. Y replaced ii, they didnt say plaii but play, diiing = dying liiing = lying. INTRODUCTION OF FRENCH VOCABULARY. GOVERNMENT: duke, monarch, count(ess), Sir, Mister. Except: King, Queen, Lord, Lady. RELATIVES: cousin, nephew, aunt, uncle, grand/mother. Except: mother, father, brother, sister, son, daughter. French: rose, lamp, brown, diamond, emerald, supper, appetite, restaurant, salmon, sardine, orange, lemon, chauffeur, tailor, carpenter, judge, offence, innocent, court, trial. When two words survived they are used with a slightly different meaning. Usually the Anglo-Saxon ones carry a deeper meaning:
TEUTONIC FRENCH

Pig / swine Ox Calf Deer Sheep Hearty House Might Wish Kingdom Reception Smell perfume History of the English Language 16

pork beef veal venison mutton cordial mansion power desire monarchy dinner odour, aroma,

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Process of Assimilation:
French words were adopted into English pattern and many French words became the basis of derivatives:

FRENCH Gentle Faith

ENGLISH gentleman /woman /less faithless /ful / fully /fulness /ly SYNONYMS AT 3 LEVELS:

The richness of synonyms is due to the mingling and mixing of Latin, French and native elements.

SAXON Rise Ask Time Work End Shelter Sickness Show

FRENCH mount question age toil finish refuge disease display

During Middle English French was the language best understood by the Upper Classes.

LATIN ascend interrogate epoch labor conclude sanctuary morbidity exhibition

HOW CAN YOU TELL IF A WORD WAS INTRODUCED EARLY OR NOT FROM FRENCH TO ENGLISH?.

EARLY BORROWINGS: Middle Ages, pronounced in the Anglo-Saxon way: / tS / strong pronunciation eg: chair chamber, stress on the root judge = / dz / pron. price, nice pronounced with diphthong / ai /. LATE BORROWINGS: Kept the French pronunciation = instead of /tS / they pronounce / S / alone: machine chaperon rouge (not pronounced with / dz /) police (without diphthong) jabot. Stress on the second element, proper from French.
MIDDLE ENGLISH DIALECTS: We find 4 principal dialects: EAST MIDLAND WEST MIDLAND & SOUTHERN.

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The feature mostly recognized is the ending of the 3rd person sing. In Old English it ended in TH. In ME in the Southern Dialect: -ETH. In the Midland District was EN. In the North ES.

NORTH: loves Midlands: loven South: loveth THE RISE OF STANDARD ENGLISH: was the part that contributed most to the formation of this standard. It became the dialect of LONDON for several reasons: It occupied the mid position between the extremes North & South. It was less conservative the Southern dialect and less radical than the Northern. The East Midland District was the largest of them all. The presence of the Universities, Oxford & Cambridge in this region. They developed into important intellectual centers. The influence of Chaucer. He brought about the adoption of a written standard.
EAST MIDLAND DISTRICT

London English was important because it was the capital of England, and because of commercial and political reasons. By the end of the 15th London standard had been already accepted. With the introduction of PRINTING (by Caxton) in 1476 a new important influence took place.

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SET 4 THE RENAISSANCE 1500 1650 REVIVAL OF LEARNING.

MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD from 1450 till 15th or 16th Century known as Renaissance. There were no more invasions. The revival of Greek and Roman cultures. RENAISSANCE = RE BORN. It began in Italy, which didnt exist as a country yet. Renaissance changed the medievals mans minds, learning changed too. There were only 2 books allowed to study: ARISTOTLE & THE BIBLE which people couldnt interpret freely. These ideas were replaced by the so called NEW LEARNING represented by OXFORD. Important events: Introduction of printing by Caxton. Latin spoken by everybody Discovering of America Reestablishing of German Schools. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS: a- Absolute monarchy in England by Henry 8th and Charles in Spain. The power of nobility is reduced. b- The beginning of CAPITALISM c- Movement known as REFORM by Luther. d- Voyages of discovery: Spain to Brazil England & France to Canada Russia in Siberia. e- Geniuses like Galileo Galilei Leonardo Da Vinci - Guttemberg (invention of printing) The invention of the PRINTING PRESS was important because it introduced UNIFORMITY to the language, books were cheaper and available. Interest in reading. Middle Class was rising at this time replacing the nobility. Because of the voyages English spread and there was an increase in the field of vocabulary, e.g.: from India alligator, tomato. SOCIAL CONCIOUSNESS (added by Bough) : people tried to identify themselves with people from higher classes by imitating fashion, ways of living, manners and ways of speaking.

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People of the Renaissance had to face 3 great problems: Uniformity of spelling: no correspondence between written & spoken forms. Recognition of the VERNACULARS: (language spoken in the country of origin) The new languages were poor compared to LATIN & GREEK. Enrichment of English: Plenty of words were introduced through translation. Enrichment has 3 sources: Inkhorn Terms: learned words from Latin & Greek through translations Overseas Languages: from Romance Languages, words brought from abroad: e.g.: Spanish because it was the empire at that time. Chaucerism: Words revived from previous writers because they didnt want to borrow. E.g.: glee gloom merry birthright. The Problem of orthography: Some words were spelt in nearly 20 different forms. There was no constancy and spelling was bad. By the end of the Renaissance this problem improved due to the printing press. RICHARD MULCASTER was a kind of teacher. He proposed consistency in writing, to keep one way of writing, wether right or wrong. He objected the following: where, were, wear, wher. The great English problem was that pronunciation didnt correspond with spelling. He suggested: The writing of a final E to open the sound of the vowel and mark the difference clearly: Mad- made ei / Rip ripe ai / Rob robe ou / Duck- duke ju i before e except after c: field receive conceit Vowel + Y = played payer Consonant + y gives i = multiplied cried said After a long vowel you write only one consonant: seek week cloak After Short vowel you write 2 consonants = ck sick clock - wicked Consonant + vowel + consonant = double the last consonant = begiNNing ruNNing, Double L when we have words of only one syllable: bill pill tall callSingle L when many syllables = general - special

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HOMOPHONES: same pronunciation different meaning. Male mail blue blew road rode bear bare Flower lour cereal serial higher hire fair - fare Allowed aloud days daze sweet suite war wore THE PROBLEM OF ENRICHMENT: Purists of the vocabulary objected the introduction of new words. Others favored borrowing words. This later position succeeded. In this process there are 3 kinds of words: a- INKHORN TERMS b- OVERSEAS LANGUAGES c- CHAUCERISMSN A- Inkhorn Terms: learned words from Latin & Greek. Found in written language. These words suffered a process of adoption. These words were adopting by cutting the end: LATIN Consultare Insultare Exoticus ENGLISH consult insult exotic.

Ending us changed to ous or al in English: Conspicus Notorius Externus conspicuous notorious external

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Antia / entia changed into ance / ancy / ency:: Fragantia Constantia Frequentia fragance constancy frequence Bilis changed to ble: Amabilis Honorabilis amable honorable.

Plural of Latin & Greek words: When adopted into English some of them kept their original plural. Curriculum Cactus Alumna Axis Focus Terminus Crisis Thesis curricula cacti alumnae axe foci termini crises thesis fungus formula datum index appendix analysis phenomenon fungi formulae data indices appendices analyses phenomena

Adjectives ending in able ible: Perceptible / incomprehensible / reasonable / readable / legible / visible /Audible / credible / breakable / teachable / probable / enjoyable / memorable. B- Overseas languages: Words adopted from more than 50 languages.. This is the time of the discoveries. SPANISH: (main source of new words) potato tomato mosquito hurricane canoe moccasin cocoa apricot Negro hammock maize alligator tabacco cannibal. FRENCH: chocolate equipage shock duel mistake ticket . ITALIAN: (architecture & music) violin opera stanza piano cello rhyme soprano algebra design portico. History of the English Language 22 Walter Martn

C- CHAUCERISMS: Words revived belonging to Old English. Chaucer used them in the tales: glance surly don glee gloom belt merry . SHAKESPEARES ENGLISH: Shakespeares words: agile catastrophe demonstrate . What makes Shakespeare a great writer? 1- USAGE OF VOCABULARY: He readopted words from Latin & Spanish. He accepted neologisms (new words) from Latin or Romance Languages. When he used them for the 1st time the meaning was close to the etymological one: betwixt between. In Shakespeares times the following words meant: Intelligent: to be informative. Fond: fool foolish Distract: to be mad Communicative: share Protest: to promise something in public. Convince: defeat, overpower Humorous: wet 2- SHAKESPEARES PRONUNCIATION: Similar to contemporary except: see /sei/ - clean /klein/. Accent also differed : aspect welcome character. The long o of O.E. gave an u food. The a: sound didnt exist, instead they had ae, thats why in Aca. They still have it. 3- SHAKESPEARES GRAMMAR: The noun preserved the old plural form: shoon (shoes) foon (foes) eyen (eyes) . 4- THE POSSESSIVE: The possessive case was not clearly used. He used his instead of the possessive case because it hadnt been developed yet. 5- CONPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES: He used them double: more honester, most unkindest . 6- DOUBLE NEGATIVE: Nor heart cannot conceive nor name. I did 7- VERBAL TENSES : Omission of Auxiliaries: Heard you this Gonzalez? I not fight. The progressive Tenses and the Perfect Tenses werent so common: 8- THE PRONOUN: He made distinctions between: Thee thou thy: (tu) used to address children, old people, servants. Ye you your: (vos) to establish distance, as a mark of respect History of the English Language 23 Walter Martn

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9-OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE : Creeping like snail. 10- USAGE OF PREPOSITIONS: I bought it after threepence. (at) Our fears in banquo (about). THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT: In he 15th century all the long vowels came to be pronounced with a greater elevation of the tongue and closing of the mouth, this produced diphtongs: Middle English I: U: A: Chaucer fi:f du:n na:ma Shakespeare five faif down daun name - neim

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SET 5 PRESENT DAY ENGLISH 19TH CENTURY AND AFTER. All the influences that took place in the language were due to foreign influences. The changes came from the field of SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. Baught included the influence of the 2 World Wars. Car Industry: choke wheel park a car. Cinema: screen close up shoot a movie. Medicine: aspirin insulin morphine penicillin allergy Psychology: introvert extrovert depressed stress. Physic Atomic: ultraviolet rays chain reaction. Computers: hardware software. Wars: air raids gas masks tank camouflage parachute Cold War.

PROCESS OF BUILDING THE VOCABULARY: VOCABULARY:

Ways of introducing new items: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Borrowings Self Explaining Compounds Coinages: a- Acronyms b- Blends c- Trade Marks. Prefixes and Suffixes. Words from Latin or Greek prefixes roots. Words or common nouns from proper nouns. Journalism.

1. BORROWINGS: Old process of the language. Window: Scandinavian. Orange lemon frying: French Banana potato chocolate apricot: American Boss: Dutch Zeppelin: German Bonanza: Spanish Robot: Czech karate kamikaze karakiri karaoke: Japanese Sputnik: Russian 2. SELF-EXPLAINING COMPOUNDS: Old English was poor as regards vocabulary , so they made compounds. Holiday Christmas Skyscraper Loudspeaker Lipstick skyline Call girl Teenager. History of the English Language 26 Walter Martn

3. COINAGES: A word that is directly invented. Divided into: Acronyms Blends Trade Marks. a- ACRONYMS: words formed combining the initial or first few letters of 2 or more words. UNO: united Nations Organization UESCO: United Nations Educational Scientific & Cultural Organization UNICEF: United Nations of Childrens Fund NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization CIA: Central Intelligence Agency FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation. FAO: Food & Agriculture Org. RADAR: Radio Detection & Ranging BBC: British Broadcasting Corp. NASA: National Aeronautics & Space Administration JEEP: from GP General Purpose. AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome IRA: Irish Republican Army UFO: Unidentified Flying Object.

b- BLENDS: Also Portmandieu words. We mix up 2 words into one. MOTEL: motor hotel SMOG: smoke fog WORKAHOLIC: work alcohol SNARK: snake shark CHUNNEL: tunnel channel (England & France) Dont CALIFORNICATE Oregon: California fornicate REAGANOMICS: Reagans economy.

c- TRADE MARKS : Words invented to serve as a trade mark. Yo-yo aspirin Seven Up Vaseline History of the English Language gin Sabora 27 Gillette Birome Thermos Cellophane Dupont Celluloid Walter Martn

4- LATIN & GREEK PREFIXES OR ROOTS: LATIN Uni Bi Tri Quader Dec Cent Semi Omni Multi Others:
Bicicle: 2 wheels Tele: far off television Bilingual: 2 languages Biweekly: every 2 weeks Bigamy: 2 or more marriages. Anti: against Antichrist Arch: chief: Archbishop. Sub: under: submarine

GREEK mono di tri tetra penta hect hemi pan poly

EXAMPLE monologue dialogue trilingual tetralogy pentagon hemisphere omnibus pantheism polygamy - Polynesia

SUFFIXES:
Ery: slavery grocery bootery eatery ER: writer reader plumber lecturer ISM: nazism socialism communism IST: socialist communist AGE: storage breakage wastage LESS: useless painless LISH: girlish - reddish

PROPER NAMES: Words that come from proper names.

SANDWICH: Earl of Sandwich COMMEMBERT: cheese a village in Normandy France REGEAN SLEEVE: Lord Reagen lost an arm in war & invented this kind of sleeve. PORT: from Oporto Portugal CANARY: from Canary Islands HAMBURGER: from Hamburg NYLON: New York London History of BRAILLE French inventor 28 BRAILLE: from the English Language and teacher. NICOTINE: from Nicot, who introduced tabacco in France

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7- JOURNALISM: Sport expressions that have passe to the language. JOURNALISM Neck to neck: in a race To comb the woods for a criminal To show the white feather: to show fear To back a candidate Thug: criminal Tycoon: wealthy industrialist. News in headlines have special grammar & vocabulary: 123456Tendency to use short words: wed: marriage gem: jewel thug: criminal. Use of more dramatic or vivid words: blaze: fire quit: resign doctors: facultative. Omission of articles verb TO BE Perfect tenses: Royal dog ill. Passive Voice: Only the Past Participle without the Auxiliary: Crime still unsolved. To Infinitive Future: Queen to visit Australia. Present Progressive without TO BE: Britain heading for an economic disaster.
Newfield wife to be strangled. Dog in blaze drama ..

Examples: Ursula to wed tomboy. Murder still unsolved. Yard baffled.

LEVELS IN THE LANGUAGE There are 3 levels in the language : a- LITERARY: formal b- COLLOQUIAL: informal c- SLANG: vulgar. There isnt a clear division between them. Alexander suggests a diagram to show this: L= Literary C= Colloquial S= Slang

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A: Purely Literary Words. B: Expressions suitable for literary/colloquial levels C: Informal Level D: Expressions suitable to colloquial / slang levels E: Slang language

abcde-

INSANE MAD CRAZY NUTS LOONY

a- STUD b- HORSE c- MOUNT d- DOBBLIN e- NAGE .

None of the above words are right or wrong. It depends on the situation. SLANG: It may be a wrong past participle of the verb SLING (throw with force) or from the expression thiefs language. Now accepted by linguistics. E.g.: What on Earth?! SLANG shows a tendency to shorten words: Fan(atic) doc(tor) gas(oline) Distorted Gods names: Gosh Gee Darned (damned) (in)flu(enza) vet(erinary)

Creation of a large number of different words for the same thing: Iron man, snaker, buck = dollar Rhyming Slang: Slang
Ocean pearl: girl Oxford scholar: dollar Gates of Rome: home Neptune daughter: water Cat & mouse: house Love & another: mother You & me: tea Lost & found: pound April showers: flowers Rolls Royce: voice Fisherman & daughter: water God forbids: kids

Words related to being drunk sex - prison

NEUTRAL: Underground Tube HistorySubway English of the Metro Money Dough Lolly Brass Food Eats Victuals Language Grub Penniless Destitute Broke Skit Friend Buddy Cobbler 30 Chum Alcohol Liquor Booze Drink Fool Idiot Twit Clot Toilet Loo laboratory Bog Girl Lass Skirt Walter Bud Man Block Chap Guy Prison Jail Clink Martn Jug Stream Creek Beck Burn

SET 6 BRITISH & AMERICAN ENGLISH

American & British have been defined as 2 dialects of the same language. AMERICAN ENGLISH: ENGLISH Preserves all features of the form of language spoken in England in Shakespeares times, ARCHAISMS. //: flat father (Acan). Long a was introduced in England in the 18th Century by a theatre actor. Acan. Has kept either /i:/ & neither /i:/ . The meaning of FALL more adequate to Autumn. As in Shakespeares times MAD meaning furious. Has also kept the phrase I guess... . Acan. Uses rare meat, Bre. Undergone. Past Participle Gotten. UNIFORMITY: UNIFORMITY Great Britain is smaller than USA as regards size and it has more varieties than in the States. There is a general English American that covers the whole country, due to their custom of keeping moving. They took their language with them. Words of Indian origin in American English: English Trees: locust (algarrobo) hickory (nogal) squash (coyote) Animals: opossum (comadreja) racoom (mapache) Skunk (zorrino). Others: wigwam (tienda indigena) maize - toboggan moccasin corn pale face scalp redslun medicine man big chief pipe of peace war punt war path to scalp. American Toponomy: 50 states. 49 in the continent 1 in the Pacific Ocean.

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States with English names: Virginia, after Queen Elizabeth Maryland: wife of Charles II Georgia: in honor of the Georges. States with aborigine names: Tennessee Iowa (sleeping gones) Kentucky (dark & bloody ground) Mississippi ( fathers of waters) American & British differ in 4 fields: a- Spelling: British
Honour Colour Glamour Centre Theater Metre Skilful Diahrroea Cheque Polugh Catalogue Tyre Mould

American
honor color glamor Center Theatre meter skillful Diahrrea Check Plow Catalog Tire Mold

British

American

Connexion Connection Licence License Defence Defense Jeweller Jeweler Traveller Traveler Fulfil Fulfill Medioeveal Medieval Moustache Mustache Grey Gray Programme Program Axe Axe Gaol Pil Post Mail

b- AMERICAN PRONUNCTIATION They have a flat // in all words: cat father. Short o : In British it is short and rounded: pot dog. In American it is closer to that of a long British /a:/ but short and not rounded: pot /a/. In British the final /r/ is never pronounced, In American it is pronounced in all positions. The semivowel /j/ is not pronounced in American: /stu:dent/ - /unive:siti/ . c- STRESS British people tend to pronounce words in very few syllables. Americans introduce secondary stresses and pronounce all vowels. Stress sometimes falls in different places: British: magazine romance laboratory recess Acan: magazine romance laboratory - recess. Stress at the beginning. History of the English Language 32 Walter Martn

GRAMMAR: American English tends to say Monday through Friday. American English uses Simple Past instead of the Present Perfect: He just went to work. Do you have a problem? Have you got a problem? The Subjunctive: Acan.: Its essential that he be informed. In British: that he should. Impersonal form: Acan: One should love his neighbors. Bre.: One should love ones neighbours. Get got gotten / get got got. d- VOCABULARY: British American British Chicory Holiday Crisps Petrol Lift Zed Garden Caravan American Endive Chips Gas

Aubergine Egg plant Biscuit Cookies/crackers Vacation Chips French fries Tap Faucet Headmaster Principal Elevator Underground Subway Autumn Fall Bill Cheque Lorry Truck Downtown Sweet Candy Rubber Flat Apartment Chemist Drugstore Geyser Water heater Naught Zero Break Recess Mackintosh Raincoat Graduate Alumnus Pram Babycarriage Wallet Billfold Maize Corn Mad Sweet Dessert Floor

Zi: Backyard Trailer Center

Contraceptive Cupboard Garden Film Tin Telegram Trousers Motorcar Pub Taxi Crazy Closet Yard Movie Can Wire Pants Automobile Bar Cab First

Ground Floor

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CELTS 1st in England ROMANS ( 5th Century) 1500 years Julius Cesar Claudius Agricola

GERMANIC TRIBES Founders of the English Nation JUTES SAXONS ANGLES

ANGLO SAXON HEPTARCHY

Northumbria Mercia East Anglia Kent Essex Sussex Wessex

BALTO

SLAVIC

Lettic Lithuanian

West East & South Slavic Great White & Little Russian SOUTH: Bulgarian Serbo-Croatian SOUTH Slovenian - Macedonian

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GERMANIC EASTERN NORTHERN or OLD NORSE Icelandic Swedish - Danish High Variety Low Variety High Variety: Old Middle & Modern High German. Low Variety: Old Middle & Modern English. Old - Middle & Modern Dutch. Old Middle & English Modern Frisian. WESTERN

CELTS Gaelic Celts Irish - Manx - Scottish Gaelic Breton Britannic or Cymric Cornish Welsh -

Italic
Latin
Romance Languages
Portuguese Spanish Sephardic Catalan Galician Sardinian French Provencal Raeto Romanic Rumanian Italian

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A brief summary of History:

700 BC: The Celts arrived from Central Europe . Boadicea fought against the Romans. 8th Century: Celts were driven into the Welsh Peninsula. These Celts were called Welsh by the Anglo Saxons, they called themselves CYMRY (fellow countrymen). The PICTS SCOTS and BRITONS shared a common Celtic language and culture. ROMANS:

The word Britain comes from the Greco-Roman word PRETANI. Romans invaded Britain because the Celts of Britain were working with the Celts of Gaul against them. Romans could make use of British food for their army fighting the Gauls. Romans brought reading and writing to the island. Roman emperors in England: Julius Caesar Claudius Agricola.

SAXON INVASION: Angles: settled in the East Jute: settled in the South Saxons: settled in between

Saxons Angles & Jute:

The Celts were pushed westwards by the Saxons. Anglo-Saxon culture seen in the days of the week: Tig: Tuesday Wodin: Wednesday Thor: Thursday Frei: Friday.

Saxon place names: Ending ing means folk or family: Hastings. Ending ham means farm: Nothingham Birmingham Ending tom means settlement: Southampton Kingston.

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Anglo Saxon established kingdoms: ESSEX: East Saxons WESSEX: West Saxons SUSSEX: South Saxons EAST ANGLIA: East Angles.

By the middle of the 7th century there were 3 main kingdoms: NORTHUMBRIA MERCIA WESSEX

King OFFA of Mercia claimed kingship of the English, he was the most powerful king of that time. The Saxons divided the land into shires (Saxon word) counties (Norman one). A shire reeve was in charge of the county, later the words shire reeve became sheriff.

CHRISTIANITY

Christianity reached Britain before Christianity was accepted by the roman emperor CONSTANTINE, early 4th AD. In Britain the different tribes were pagan, under the Romans England became a Christian island. In 597 Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine to establish Christianity in England. He went to Canterbury, the capital of Kent because the kings wife was Christian. As a matter of fact, it was the Celtic Church which brought Christianity to the mass. They went out into every village, Roman Church was more interested in power and the king. Church established monasteries or minsters (Westminster). ALFRED was the king who made most use of the church. He used the literate men of the church to establish a system of law and to educate people. They all used Latin, this encouraged trade with the continent. Around the end of the 8th century new raiders from NORWAY & DENMARK (Vikings) reached the island. King Alfred fought against them and made a treaty (Danelaw Land where the law of Danes ruled) Viking Kings: Ethelred Cnut.

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After Cnut, EDWARD (Ethelreds son) became king of England. Edward the Confessor had spent most of his life in NORMANDY and his mother belonged to the Norman nobility. The Normands were people from the North, children and grandchildren of the Vikings who settled in Northern France. Edward died in 1066 leaving no hair. Edward had brought many Normands to the English court from France. HAROLD was chosen to be the king but it was challenged and defeated by WILLIAM OF NORMANDY, later William the Conqueror.

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