GAS TURBINE ENGINES

1) GENERAL PRINCIPLES:-

a)

Simple turbo jet engine: - operating principle of the turbo jet engine is an

application of Newtons third law of motion. Which states that the For Every Action there is an Equal and Opposite Reaction. In the jet engine the reaction (thrust) results from the continuous flow of gas rearwards.
2) BASIC GAS TURBINE CYCLE:Combustion Compression expansion Exhaust

Air is first compressed, heated by the addition of burning fuel, then expanded through a turbine and propelling nozzle. The turbine extracts sufficient energy to drive the compressor. Propelling nozzle increases the velocity of gas stream to produce thrust. 2.1) Turbo propeller engine:The thrust is produced by a propeller accelerating large mass of air to a relatively low velocity. Gas turbine driven propeller is a means of obtaining high propulsive and thermal efficiencies at relative Jet engine or propeller engines produce force by causing a quantity of gas or air to be accelerated rearwards. Jet engine: - hot Jet stream. Propeller engine: - cold jet stream. The air craft propeller urges air rearwards, accelerating its flow from front to rear of the disc of rotation and the propeller feels the forward reaction thrust. From the force applied to create the increase in jet momentum in the turbojet. The engine feels internally, the reaction thrust equal in strength and opposite in direction.

The reaction forces are a function of the momentum increase imported to the air and are calculated from the product of Mass and Velocity. WxV/g=P Where W - Mass flow (lb/sec) V - Velocity increase (Ft/sec) (Y= u + v u initial velocity, v final velocity.) g Gravitational constant. (32 Ft/Sq. Sec) P Thrust force (lbs)
Case. 1: Figure LARGER MASS FLOW TO A RELATIVELY LOW VELOCITY Mass of air entering propeller: 800 lbs/sec 800 lbs/sec. Velocity : 0 feet/sec velocity : 160 feet/sec (W2 x V2 / g) : : : (W2 x V2) / g (W1xV1) / g (800x160) / 32 - 800x0 / 32 4000 lbs. (W1 x V1 / g) Momentum increase Thrust of propulsive force Mass of air accelerated by propeller: Propeller

Case 2: Jet Engine.

SMALLER MASS FLOW TO A RELATIVELY HIGH VELOCITY. Mass of air: 80 lbs/sec Velocity : 0 ft/sec mass of air: 80 lbs/sec Velocity : 1600 ft/sec

Thrust or propulsive force: (80x1600)/32 - (80x0)/32 : 4000 lbs.

Propulsive efficiency and thrusts for the above cases

Propeller Propulsive Efficiency Jet

200

400

600

800

Air craft speed (mph)

Fig - 1 Propeller T H R U S T lbs Jet

200

400 Fig 2

600

800

Air Craft Speed (mph)

Propulsion Efficiency =

Energy observed by the A/C Energy in accelerated jet

Fig 1: At lower A/C speeds, the propulsive efficiency of the propeller is approximately twice that of jet engine. Fig 2:- At lower A/C speeds, there are advantages in using the propeller engine

Major components 1) Air intake :It is a duct designed to admit air and to guide it in the best possible conditions to the compressor. Its shape is studied in order to obtained the minimum Drag and an over flow of air in all operating conditions. Types: 1) 2) 3) 4) Convergent type Divergent type Variable passage type Scoop type

Pressure ratio and air flow varies with atmospheric conditions. Compressor Pressure Ratio = Inlet pressure Outlet pressure 2) Compressor :Combustion (to achieve high combustion efficiency) requires supply of air under pressure. Compressor ensures supply of air under pressure. a) Centrifugal Compressor. It mainly consist of : a rotor with vane a stator or diffuser.

b) Axial compressor . It is made up of several stages; each stage consists of : Moving blades (rotor) Stator vanes (stator) a rotor which induces movement to a mass of air and subjects it to compressor. A stator which transforms the velocity of air into pressure. 2) Axial compressor : (Orpheus, Avon, Adour, Gnome engines) 3) Centrifugal and Axial Compressor : ( Artouste engine) 3) Combustion chamber:Purpose: - To burn a mixture of fuel and air and release resulting gases to the turbine in the best possible condition. For efficient combustion the air fuel ratio is 1/15.

Compressor consist of

Types: 1) Centrifugal compressor: (Dart engine, Garrett engine)

This ideal ratio cannot be admitted because of resultant temperature being too high for turbines. Therefore, combustion chamber admits a ratio of about 1 to 50, but only 1/15 is used for combustion and remaining air for dilution of burnt gases. Efficiency is about 95% Combustion chamber must ensure, Types: - 1) 2) Stability of flame. Operation over a wide range of fuel flow and speed. Ignition during starting. Relighting in flight. Operation in altitudes. Multiple combustion chamber (Cannular) Annular. 2) By Centrifugal spraying. 4) TURBINE:Purpose to transform kinetic energy (velocity) of gases resulting from combustion into mechanical energy in order to drive the compressor, accessories and also in some engines to provide shaft power. Stationary guide vanes (nozzles) and rotating blades constitute one stage of turbine efficiency of turbine = 92%. In a turbo shaft engine, about 2/3 of total power extracted by turbine is used to drive the compressor. Types of Turbines :1) Impulse Turbine 2) Reaction Turbine 3) Combination type. 5) Exhaust system:Ensure expansion of gases in order to obtain optimum output. In the jet pipe due to the divergent passage expansion takes place.

Injection of fuel :- 1) By Burners (vaporisation)

Materials The types of load or stress induced in a few major components are indicated below.

Compressor blades:These are subjected mainly to bending loads (gas loads) in addition to centrifugal loads at fritter due to its own weight. The blades are also subjected to vibration. Compressor discs:Compressor discs are subjected to mainly hoop stress due to rotation and the fir tree root is subjected to vibration of blades and centrifugal load. Main Shaft:These are normally subjected to torsional shear, hoop stress and axial load. Combustor:The alloys used for combustors and their liners and for the transition ducts connecting the combustors to the turbine inlet nozzles, must be formable, weldable sheet alloys capable of 8000 to 10000 hrs of operation in an oxidising environment at average metal temperature of about 1650 degree F. or more. These sheet alloys must be stable for this, long time high temperature service and have optimum erosion-corrosion, thermal fatigue (cracking) and distortion resistance. Most of manufacturers now use annular combustors, which give more even temperature distribution at the turbine nozzle, liners are always air film cooled and are often coated for additional protection, coatings improves the resistance to erosion-corrosion damage and may assist in distributing the heat flux more evenly. Turbine:The turbine section of the gas turbine engine is probably more demanding of the materials engineer than any other part of the engine. Here the highest temperatures and stresses are encountered. Turbine inlet temperatures (gas temperatures) in advanced engines will approach 3000 degree F. Turbine blades are subjected to a sevior combination of high stress, current materials have sufficient creep rupture resistance to minimise failure by creep for extended time periods at rated speeds and temperature. Blades are inspected and measured during engine overhaul and those that have increased in length or changed

shape because of creep are replaced. Thermal fatigue cracking appears to be the predominant blade failure process today. Engine stops and starts and even heating and cooling during engine acceleration and deacceleration contribute to the non-uniform stresses. That cause thermal fatigue cracking of the leading or trailing edges. Hot corrosion (sulfidation) has been a problem for some military and commercial aircraft operating in Marine atmospheres, particularly susceptible are low-chromium (less than 12%) nickel base alloy blades operating at higher than average temperature. Protective coatings have given relief, and the trend now appears to be towards the use of coatings wherever they can increase service life. Whether the problem is sulfidation, corrosion, oxidation or erosion. The various materials used for major components of Adour, Dart, Orpheus and Garrett engines are shown in Appendix.

Materials used on some of the major components.

* * * Name of the engine: ADOUR * * * Component 1. Air Intake Firing 2. L.P. Compressor Casing 3. L.P. Compressor Stator Vanes 4. L.P.Compressor Rotor Blades 5. L.P.Compressor Rotor Shaft 6. H.P. Compressor Casing 7. H.P. Compressor Stator Vanes 8. H.P. Compressor Rotor Blades 9. H.P. Compressor Rotor Drum 10. H.P. Compressor Stub Shaft 11. H.P. Turbine Disc 12. H.P. Turbine Blades 13. H.P Turbine Shaft 14. L.P. Turbine Disc 15. L.P. Turbine Blades Steel. Aluminium Alloy Aluminium Alloy. Ti/Aluminium alloy Steel Steel Steel Titanium Titanium Steel Ni, Cr, Co, Steel Nimonic 108 Cr, Mo, Va, Steel. Ni, Cr, Steel. Nimonic 115. Material.

16. H.P. & L.P. NGVs 17. By-Pass Ducts 18. Gearbox casing 19. Combustion outer casing 20. A/B Diffuser Case Casing 21. Exhaust Cone 22. Oil Tank Simple turbo jet:-

Cr., Ni, Steel. Titanium. Mg. Alloy. Steel. Steel. Nimonic 75 Al. Alloy

In this type of turbo-jet all the air gas flow goes through the generator and there is only one compressor turbine assembly. The thrust produced by the gas turbine components depends upon the mass of air entering the engine and the acceleration given to this mass. The operating point is mainly characterized by the rotation speed, turbine inlet temperature and thrust delivered. Configuration: The configuration of the main components varies according to the type of engine. We shall only mention two types of configuration: Multi stage axial compressor turbo-jet Centrifugal compressor turbo-jet.

BY-PASS TURBO-JET Introduction:It is a turbo-jet engine into which is admitted more air than necessary for the gas generator, the additional flow by-passing the gas generator. This configuration permits reducing the fuel flow and consumption and increasing the propulsive efficiency.

Configuration:A by-pass engine may have various configurations for instance. single shaft by-pass turbo-jet Single shaft by-pass turbo-jet with reduction gearbox to drive the L.P. compressor. single shaft by-pass turbo-jet with variable pitch on the L.P compressor blades (constant speeds) Note: - the L.P. compressor (or fan) can also be located at the rear of the engine. Advantages And Operating Range:The by-pass jet engine is somewhere between the simple jet engine and the turboprop. The operating range is thus between that of the turbo-prop limited in speed, and that of the simple jet which has an interesting efficiency at high speed only. Moreover, the specific consumption is lower and the operation less noisy, besides. Post combustion is possible with a better efficiency. TWIN SPOOL TURBO- ENGINE:Introduction:In this type of engine, the gas generator incorporates two independent rotating assemblies. one low pressure compressor turbine assembly (L.P) one High pressure compressor turbine assembly (H.P)

The transmission shaft of the L.P assembly is located co-axially inside the H.P. assembly. OPERATION: From the operating point of view, we may note the following points: The rotation speeds of the two assemblies are approximately proportional. Each compressor has its own diagram on which adaptation lines may be drawn. The diagram shows less risk of showing at high altitude but more risk of surging of the L.P. compressor at low rotation speeds.

Compressor ratios identical to those obtained in single-shaft engines may be reached with less compressor stages; the L.P. compressor is driven at the required speed without reduction gearbox.

- The margin before surge is greater and higher expansion ratios are possible (i.e. increase of the efficiency or decrease of the number of stages). Configuration:The twin-spool design can be used for by-pass turbo-jets as well as for simple turbo-jets. It is also possible in turbo-propeller or turbo-shaft engines. When the turbo shaft is a free-turbine type. The out put drive can be brought back to the front of the engine by a co-axial shaft. NOTE:More than two assemblies can be associated: e.g: - Three-spool by-pass turbo-jet engine. Advantages:For all these reasons, a noticeable decrease of weight and dimension is obtained. Moreover, the power necessary for starting is much lower (H.P. assembly only to be driven). On the other hand, the engine technology is much more complex. Single Shaft Turbo-Shaft Engine:Introduction:Let us repeat that a turbo-shaft engine is a gas turbine supplying mechanical energy on a shaft for various purposes (Helicopter rotor, ground vehicle alternator, pumps.). In the case of the single shaft engine, the compressor-turbine shaft is directly connected to the receiver. The turbine extracts the maximum of energy to drive the compressor and the receiver. Considering the high rotation speed of the turbine, a reduction gearbox is placed between generator and receiver.

Operation: - In most cases, the assembly operates at a constant rotation speed (this is compressor-turbine adaptation requirement and frequently a receiver requirement also) The operating parameters may be represented in the diagram <<compressor characteristics >>. A stabilized operating point is characterized <on an iso-rotation speed> by: the air flow, the compressor ratio and the margin before surge. The diagram may also show iso-t3 temperature and iso- consumption (CH) curves. The rotation speed is kept constant whatever the variation of torque by action on the fuel flow injected in the combustion chamber (adaptation of the engine torque to the resisting torque). In transient condition, the working line moves temporarily away from the iso-speed but the fuel control system restores the nominal speed very quickly by adapting the engine to the new load condition.
FREE TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE

Introduction:The engine incorporates two rotating assemblies. The first one is a gas generator operating in a similar way as a jet engine. The second one (free turbine or power turbine) drive the output connected to the receiver. The two assemblies rotate at different speeds and the operation of the generator is almost independent from the free turbine and depends on the fuel flow. The operation of the free turbine is defined by the balance between the energy received and the energy taken by the receiver. TURBO PROPELLER ENGINE Introduction:A turbo-prop power plant consists in a gas turbine engine supplying mechanical energy on a shaft to a drive a propeller. The turbo-prop may be of single-shaft or free turbine type. In the case of the free turbine, the front output requires a co-axial internal shaft (or less frequently) an outer transmission shaft. Characteristics:-As the turbine supplies energy on a shaft, what has been said for a turbo-shaft is true for a turbo-prop.

Operation:The variations of power come from the variations of rotation speed and variation of torque. Usually the speed range is very small (or even one speed only) and so the variations are due to the torque variations.

Indigenisation
Important substitution and establishing indigenous capacity for production of aero-engine components is an important function of an industry. Indigenisation will save the foreign exchange, establish self-reliance and facilitate exploitation of resources available within the country. Indigenisation is attempted in two ways one is in-house fabrication and the other one is sub-contract. Following are the salient steps followed for the indigenous development of a particular item. a) Selection of equipment /item depending on its requirement and tecno- economic point of view. b) Feasibility study. c) Preparation of specifications and drawings (in the case of non-availability) d) Selection of firm. e) Technical seriating of quotations. f) Prototype approval. g) Bulk production. h) Repeat order and established production. Thus, it can be seen that the methodology for Indigenisation is so evolved that there is a continuous intraction between the user and the industry. Major Constraints in Indigenisation:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Non-availability of raw materials/ components of airborne standard. Lack of knowledge of the part of the industry on quality, reliability and test Requirements for aeronautical standards. Non-availability of technical literature or sample Requirement (qty) is sometimes too low for economical batch production.