BSNL Summer Training

BSNL
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
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Summer Training Programme
Summer Training Course for B.Tech (Civil) Students
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READING MATERIAL
Handout No. - ALTBSC/Summer Trg.-BTech/01 REV 0.0 Date Feb. 2012
Building Science Civil Faculty
ALT CENTRE
ADVANCED LEVEL TELECOMMUNICATION TRAINING CENTRE 0 GHAZIABAD-201002
DISCLAIMER
Although all efforts have been made to ensure correctness of this handbook, the user is requested to refer to standard references and should satisfy him before using the same. ALTTC will not accept any responsibility for any mistake, errors or misrepresentation etc. in or as a result of usage of this handbook. ALTTC welcome any corrections, suggestions for the improvement of the handbook .
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For Internal Circulation Only
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:Revision Notes:
NIL
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INDEX
S. No.
1. to Handing Over 2. 3. Estimation & Quantity Surveying Structural Design of RCC Building Design Parameters & Codal Provisions 4. Overview of Computer Aided Structural Design Through STAAD PRO 5. 6. 7. Overview of CPWD Specifications Mandatory Tests as per CPWD Building Specifications Building Services (External/Internal) Planning, Design & Execution of Water Supply 8. Building Services (External/Internal) Design & Execution of Sanitary Installation 9. Design of Kitchen, Bathroom & Other facilities of Building 10. Quality Control & Effective Inspection of Building Works 11. Common Problems In Maintenance And Remedial Actions 12. Precautions in Planning & Construction of Buildings for Minimal Maintenance 13. 14. 15. Water Conservation & Rain Water Harvesting Rain Water Harvesting Design Parameters Expansive Soil Problems & Remedial Measures
Name of Topic
Overview of Execution of Building Project Inception
Page 4 10 19 50 62 99 112 139 147 164 175 193 202 221 238
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Chapter-1
OVERVIEW OF EXECUTION OF BUILDING PROJECTSINCEPTION TO HANDING OVER
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OVERVIEW OF EXECUTION OF BUILDING PROJECTSINCEPTION TO HANDING OVER

All the works relating to the government buildings are executed passing through the various stages which are as follows 1.0 Requisition of Work: The requisition is to be given by the client department/ministry to carry out certain work. The requisition should contain the details of work, its location, details of land and requirement of work including Schedule of Accommodation for complete planning of the building/ civil work. 2.0 Surveyed Site Plan & Site Particulars: Surveyed Site Plan & Site Particulars (SSP & SP) and other site data is then prepared by the concerned Executive Engineer on receipt of the requisition. 3.0 Preliminary drawings SSP, SP and other site data are supplied to the Architect for preparing the Preliminary Drawings. Architect should consult to the various disciplines like electrical, A/C and other user departments to incorporate their requirements in the drawings. Architect shall prepare the preliminary drawing and brief particulars according to the requirement of work and obtain the approval of the client/department and will issue the approved preliminary drawings for preparation of preliminary estimate. 4.0 Preliminary Estimate:i) Preliminary estimate is then prepared on the basis of plinth area of buildings worked out on rates per unit area for ready and rough calculation, so as to give an idea of the approximate cost involved in the proposal. ii) The preliminary estimate is prepared on the basis of the preliminary drawings prepared by the Architect and shall appropriately indicate in the history sheet the items that are included in the estimate. iii) The Preliminary Estimate is submitted to the client/department for accord of Administrative Approval and Expenditure Sanction. 5.0 Pre-requisites for execution of works 5.1 There are four main stages as follows in the execution of a work:(i) Administrative approval (ii) Expenditure sanction (iii)Technical sanction (iv) Availability of funds. 5.2 No work should normally be commenced or any liability thereon incurred until an administrative approval has been obtained, a properly prepared detailed estimate has been technically sanctioned and where necessary expenditure sanction has been accorded and allotment of funds made. 5.3 Administrative Approval:Administrative approval is the communication of formal acceptance of the proposals by the Competent Authority of the Administrative Department requiring the work.
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5.4 Expenditure Sanction:Expenditure sanction is to be accorded by the Administrative Department to indicate that funds for the project/work have been provided, and liability can be incurred. 5.5 Accord of A/A & E/S: A/A & E/S based on preliminary Estimate should be accorded by the client/department to carry out the work. 5.6 Technical Sanction:A Technical Sanction amounts to a guarantee that the proposals are technically sound, and that the estimates are accurately prepared and are based on adequate data. 6.0 Detailed Drawings: On receipt of A/A & E/S from client, Architect prepares the detailed drawings based on the client approved preliminary drawings, clients requirement, and municipal bye-laws (like FAR, setbacks of buildings, ground coverage and height of building etc). Detailed drawings include complete details of the building and its various features to enable preparation of exact detailed estimate & execution of the work. Detailed drawings shall be issued to all concerned by the Architect. 7.0 Preparation of the Detailed Estimate:(i) On receipt of the administrative approval and expenditure sanction, and confirmation about the availability of site, competent authority shall take up the preparation of the detailed estimate, and accord of technical sanction. (ii) The detailed estimate should be complete and as comprehensive as possible, and should be supported by detailed architectural drawings, preliminary structural plans, preliminary lay-out drawings of the various services, detailed drawings and/or specifications for the various components of work involved etc. 7.1 Format for Detailed Estimate:i) The detailed estimate shall consist of a report, plans & specifications and a detailed statement of measurements of quantities and rates with an abstract showing the total estimated cost of each item. ii) The Report of the estimate should be prepared in a lucid form, understandable by non-technical officers of the administrative Ministry/Department or the client. It should contain a) History: - Particulars relating to the initiation of the proposal. b) Design: - A description of its design, standards and specifications. c) Scope: - An explicit statement as to what work is and is not covered by the estimate. d) Rates: - Particulars as to how the rates have been arrived at schedule of rates or market rates. e) Cost: - Cost of the work. f) Method: - The method proposed for carrying out the work, whether by contract or daily labour, or any combination of these.
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g) Establishment: - Details of any provision made in the estimate for work-charged establishment, when necessary. h) Construction Plant:- Any special methods of construction and provision of construction plants and machineries etc. i) Land: - Provisions for acquisition of land, when necessary. j) Time: - The estimated time of completion. 7.2 Schedule of Rates:i) To facilitate the preparation of estimates, a Schedule of Rates for each kind of work commonly executed should be maintained up-to-date in the department. ii) For example CPWD issues schedule of rates for the works under its jurisdiction. Like Delhi Schedule of Rates (DSR). 8.0 Approval of Drawings from Municipal & Other Statutory Bodies: Immediately after receipt of A/A & E/S, drawings should be submitted to Municipal Corporation and other statutory bodies like Fire Department, Environmental Deptt. and Urban Planning Commission etc. for approval of Drawings. 9.0 Accord of technical sanction:(a) After receipt of administrative approval and expenditure sanction, detailed estimate is required to be prepared for technical sanction. The technical sanction should be accorded by the competent authority before a work is taken in hand. (b) The authority competent to accord such sanction shall ensure that the design and specification etc., adopted in the detailed estimate are adequate enough for the building to last till its desired life. (c) For various types of buildings, the economic life shall be taken as below:(i) Monumental structures 100 years (ii) RCC framed structures 75 years (iii) Load bearing structures 55 years (iv) Semi permanent structures 30 years (d) Economic life of various internal services/fixtures including electric wiring, water supply distribution system may vary from 15 to 25 years depending upon the geographical location, type of the services and its uses. 10.0 Allotment of Funds: Allotment of Funds should be made by the client department. No work should be commenced till funds are available.
11.0 Preparation of Tender Documents & Call of Tenders 11.1 Preparation of Notice Inviting Tenders :(i) The Notice Inviting Tenders should be carefully prepared. All the terms and conditions of the contract should be drafted very carefully.
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(ii)The NIT papers are very important documents, on which call of tenders and subsequent agreements with the contractors are based. 11.2 Publicity of Tenders :Wide publicity should be given to the Notice Inviting Tenders. Tenders must be invited in the most open and public manner possible, by advertisement in the website/press. 11.3 Time limit for Publicity of Tenders.:The reasonable time limits between the date of publication of tender notice on web site or Press and the date of receipt of the tenders should be given to enable contractor to fill up the tender. 11.4 Sale of tender documents:The tender documents should be prepared and kept ready for sale to the tenderers before the Notice is actually sent to the press or posted on website. The tender documents should be sold to only those contractors who fulfill the eligibility criteria set out in the notice. 11.5 Receipt, opening and acceptance of tenders:All the tenders should be opened in a transparent manner in the presence of intending tenderers or their representatives. 11.6 Justification of tenders:Justification statement is prepared for checking the reasonability of rates quoted by the contractor. The method consists of preparing detailed analysis of rates by taking market rates of labour, materials, cartage etc. The method of analyzing the items is same as given in the standard CPWD analysis of rates. The major items, on the whole costing at least 90% of the estimated cost put to the tender, are analyzed. 11.7 Acceptance of tenders:Lowest, justified and reasonable tender should be accepted. 12.0 Award of Work & Signing of Agreements: After acceptance of tender, work is awarded and contractor is asked to deposit the Performance Guarantee etc. On fulfillment of these formalities an agreement is signed. 13.0 Commencement of Work: 13.1 Preparatory Works (i) Demarcation of site/ land (ii) Clearing of jungle & leveling etc. (iii) Construction of site office, godowns, U/G tank and labour huts etc. (iv) Setting up of Tools & Plants (v) Setting Lay-Out & Start of work
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13.2 Labour Laws & Security Provisions Regulations of various labour laws viz. amenities to the labour in accordance to the Contract Labour Act & Workmen Compensation Act etc. should be enforced. Provision for safety of labour should also be properly enforced. 13.3 Progress of Work Schedule of progress of work should be adhered by using various management tools like Bar Chart, CPM & PERT & MS PROJECT etc. 13.4 Quality Assurance Quality of all building materials and workmanship is to be assured in accordance to approved specifications, codal provisions & drawings/designs. All the Mandatory Tests (Destructive & Non destructive) should be carried out as per specifications to ensure the quality of building works. 13.5 Payment to Contractor Periodical running account payments have to be made to the contractor for the work done by him. Proper measurement of various items has to be done and quantities executed are calculated. The bill is processed and paid to the contractor. All the measurements are recorded in the Measurement Book (MB). 13.5.1 Measurement Books (MBs) (i) The measurement book is the basis of all accounts of quantities whether of works done by contractors or by labourers employed departmentally, or materials received. (ii) These books should be considered as very important accounts records and maintained very carefully and accurately as these may have to be produced as evidence in a Court of law, if and when required. 14.0 Completion After successful completion of work, completion certificate is to be issued by the Competent Authority. Completion/Occupation Certificate should also be obtained from Municipal Corporation after fulfilling their requirements and codal formalities before actual occupation of the building by the client. 15.0 Final Bill to the Contractor Final bill to the contractor is then settled & paid. All liabilities of both contactor & department are checked thoroughly as per the agreement provisions. 15.0 Handing Over to the Client Completed building is to be handed over to the client. All the drawings/completion plans including drawings and details of services is to be handed over to the client.
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Chapter-2
Estimation & Quantity Surveying
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Estimation & Quantity Surveying

PREPARATIONS OF ESTIMATES 1.1 Preliminary Estimate (i) Preliminary estimate is prepared on the basis of plinth area or length of road etc. worked out on the rate per unit area/length/number, so as to give an idea of the approximate cost involved in the proposal. (ii) The preliminary estimate shall be prepared on the basis of the preliminary drawings prepared by the Architect, and shall appropriately indicate in the history sheet the items that are included or excluded in the estimate. (iii) The preliminary estimate shall be prepared on the basis of CPWD Delhi Plinth Area (DPAR) rates. (iv) The estimate shall be prepared in the standard format. (v) Provision for services like sanitary, water supply, drainage and electric installations etc., should be made on the basis of plinth area rates. Provisions for items for which plinth area rates are not available, are made on rough cost estimation basis and included in the estimate. 1.2 Provision for contingencies and its utilization In addition to the provision for all expenditure which can be foreseen for a work, a provision of contingency is kept as follows: a) Estimated cost upto Rs. 1 crore 5% b) Estimated cost more than Rs. 1 crore 3%, subject to minimum of Rs. 5 lakhs The contingencies can be utilized for construction of site office, engagement of watch & ward staff And job works like Surveying, material testing, estimating, structural design, drawings, models and other field requirements etc. 2.0 Detailed Estimate The preparation of detailed estimate and drawings and designs should be taken up only after obtaining an assurance from the Department/Ministry sponsoring the proposal, that the site is available, or likely to be made available within a reasonable time. 2.1 Preparation of the detailed estimate:(i) The detailed estimate should be complete and as comprehensive as possible, and should be supported by detailed architectural drawings, preliminary structural plans, preliminary lay-out drawings of the various services, detailed drawings and/or specifications for the various components of work involved, etc., as applicable.
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(ii) The detailed estimate should give broad details for each item of the work involved. The detailed estimate should be based on the rates given in the Schedule of Rates for those items of work covered by it, and by analyzed market rates for the remaining items. (iii) The plan and design of the external services shall be got vetted from the technical sanctioning authority for the main building work before the detailed estimate for the external services is technically sanctioned by the competent authority at a lower level. (iv) The detailed estimate should invariably contain the following information: (a)Necessary details in support of the lump-sum provisions made in the estimate, if any. (b) Basis on which the rates have been provided, i.e. reference of the schedule of rates or market rates. (c)A brief note on the special construction difficulties, if any, which are likely to be encountered during the construction stage. 2.2 Format for detailed estimate:i) The detailed estimate shall consist of a report, plans & specifications and a detailed statement of measurements of quantities and rates with an abstract showing the total estimated cost of each item. ii) The Report of the estimate should be prepared in a lucid form, understandable by non-technical officers of the administrative Ministry/Department or the client. It should contain a) History: - Particulars relating to the initiation of the proposal. b) Design: - A description of its design, standards and specifications. c) Scope: - An explicit statement as to what work is and is not covered by the estimate. d) Rates: - Particulars as to how the rates have been arrived at schedule of rates or market rates. e) Cost: - Cost of the work. f) Method: - The method proposed for carrying out the work, whether by contract or daily labour, or any combination of these. g) Establishment: - Details of any provision made in the estimate for work-charged establishment, when necessary. h) Construction Plant:- Any special methods of construction and provision of construction plants and machineries etc. i) Land: - Provisions for acquisition of land, when necessary. j) Time: - The estimated time of completion. 2.3 Schedule of Rates:i) To facilitate the preparation of estimates, a Schedule of Rates for each kind of work commonly executed should be maintained up-to-date in the department. ii) For example CPWD issues schedule of rates for the works under its jurisdiction. Like Delhi Schedule of Rates (DSR).
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3.0 Revised Estimate:When an excess beyond permissible variation over the sanctioned estimate is foreseen, a revised estimate is to be prepared based on revised quantity & submitted for approval. 4.0 Estimates for road Works
A) Projects for the construction of new roads must be accompanied by the

following documents: (i) Report, including a brief note on the proposed gradients. (ii) Abstract estimate of cost. (iii) Index map. (iv) A detailed survey and longitudinal section and cross section at suitable intervals, which should show not only the existing ground levels, but also proposed formation levels. (v) Quarry charts showing the various quarries from where road metal is proposed to be obtained. (vi) Drawings of all masonry, concrete, iron or timber works in the order in which they occur in the line of the road. (vii) Detailed estimate sheets. B) Necessary provision should also be made for shifting of pipe line, drainage and electric poles and cables, telephone lines, if any coming in the way of new alignment.
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SAMPLE PRELIMINARY ESTIMATE (Based on PAR 2007) Sn Description of items Qty Rate A) Building Portion 1 Single storeyed FL Ht 3.35mt 68 2 Extra for Every 0.30 m additional height above normal ht 3 Extra for resisting earthquake forces zone V 68 588.00 8250
Unit
Amt
Remark
Sq Mt Sq Mt Sq Mt Total
561000 PAR2007
68
100.00
6800 PAR2007
39984 PAR2007 Bldg 607784 Cost
B)Services
1 Inter water supply & Sanitary Installation 2 External service connection 3 Internal electric connection 4 Extra for power plug 5 Extra for telephone conduit
607784 607784
4% 5%
24311 PAR2007 30389 PAR2007 75973 PAR2007 24311 PAR2007 3039 PAR2007 765807 390562 1156369 34691 1191060 1191100/
607784 12.50% 607784 607784 4% 0.50%
Add 51% being the COST Index as 151 Total Add 3% contengencies GT Say
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SAMPLE DETAILED ESTIMATE (Based on DSR 2012) DETAILED ESTIMATE

ABSTRACT OF COST Qty Rate
S.N.
Description of items EARTH WORK 1 Earth work in excavation by mechanical means (Hydraulic excavator) / manual means in foundation trenches or drains (not exceeding 1.5 m in width or 10 sqm on plan) including dressing of sides and ramming of bottoms, lift upto 1.5 m, including getting out the excavated soil and disposal of surplus excavated soil as directed, within a lead of 50 m. All kind of soil
Unit
Amt
Remark
53
130.80
Cum
6932
DSR2012 2.8.1/86
CEMENT CONCRETE (CAST IN- SITU) Providing and laying in position cement concrete of specified grade excluding the cost of centring and shuttering- All work up to Plinth level 1:5:10( 1cement:5 coarse sand:10 graded stone aggregate 40 mm nominal size) 9 3 Brick work with common burnt clay F.P.S. (non modular) bricks of class designation 7.5 in foundation and plinth in: 3,357.40 cum
DSR2012 30217 4.1.10/98
29
3,316.55
cum Total
Add for Cost Index (151-149/149)100 = 1.34% Add 3% contingencies GT SAY
DSR2012 96180 6.1.2/118 133329 1787 135116 4053 139169 139,200/-
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DETAILS OF MEASUREMENT Sn Description Of Items 1 Earth work in Excavation in Foundation in trenches Long wall Short wall 2 16.22 4 6.74 0.99 0.99 Total Say 2 Cement concrete 1:5:10 Long wall 2 16.22 4 6.74 0.99 0.99 Total Say 3 Brick work with bricks with CM 1:6 in foundation Long wall 1st footing 2nd footing 3rd footing 4th footing Plinth footing Short wall 1st footing 2nd footing 3rd footing 4th footing Plinth footing 4 4 4 4 4 7.04 0.69 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.75 Total Say 2.91 2.47 2.01 1.53 5.18 29.23 29.00CUM 2 15.92 0.69 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.75 3.30 2.73 2.17 1.61 5.33 0.15 0.15 4.82 4.00 8.82 9.00 CUM 0.9 0.9 28.90 24.02 52.93 53.00 CUM No L B/W Ht/Depth Content
2 15.81 0.575 2 15.69 0.46
2 15.58 0.345 2 15.46 0.23
7.16 0.575 7.27 0.46
7.39 0.345 7.5 0.23
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Calculation of Measurement
C/C length
15 Long wall 7.5 Short wall 0.115 0.115 7.73 0.115 0.115 15.23
1. Effective Center to center length for

Earth work in excavation 15.23 Long wall 7.73 Short wall -0.99 6.74 0.99 16.22
2.Effective Center to center length for

Cement concrete 15.23 Long wall 7.73 Short wall -0.99 6.74 0.99 16.22
3.Effective Center to center length for

Brick work in foundation Long wall 15.23 1st footing 15.23 2nd footing 15.23 3rd footing 15.23 4th footing 15.23 Plinth footing Short wall 7.73 1st footing 7.73 2nd footing 7.73 3rd footing 7.73 4th footing 7.73 Plinth footing -0.23 7.5 -0.345 7.39 -0.46 7.27 -0.5750 7.16 -0.69 7.04 0.23 15.46 0.345 15.58 0.46 15.69 0.575 15.81 0.69 15.92
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Chapter-3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RCC BUILDING
DESIGN PARAMETERS & CODAL PROVISIONS
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Structural Design of RCC Building Design Parameters & Codal Provisions

1.0 Introduction The procedure for analysis and design of a given building will depend on the type of building, its complexity, the number of stories etc. First the architectural drawings of the building are studied, structural system is finalized and sizes of structural members are decided & intimated to the concerned architect. There are two type of building systems:a) Load Bearing Masonry Buildings. b) Framed Buildings. (a) Load Bearing Masonry Buildings: Small buildings like houses with small spans of beams, slabs are generally constructed as load bearing brick walls with reinforced concrete slab &beams. This system is suitable for building up to four or less stories. The design of Load Bearing Masonry Buildings are done as per IS: 1905-1980 (Indian Standards Code of Practice for Structural Safety of Buildings: Masonry Walls (Second Revision). In such buildings crushing strength of bricks shall be 100 kg/cm2 minimum. This system is adequate for vertical loads and also resists horizontal loads like wind & earthquake by box action if RCC Bands in horizontal & vertical direction are provided per IS: 4326. Half brick walls (115mm thick) are not capable of supporting vertical loads and act as only partition or filler walls.
Structural system Load bearing Masonry Structure
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(b) RCC Framed Structure Buildings: In these types of buildings, reinforced concrete frames are provided in both principal directions and the loads are transmitted through RCC framing system of columns and beams to Foundations. This type of system is effective in resisting both vertical & horizontal loads. The brick walls are non load bearing filler walls only. This system is suitable for multi-storied building as it is very effective in resisting horizontal loads due to earthquake.
Structural system- Framed Structure 2.0 Structural Design of RCC Building Before starting structural design, the following information is required: (i) Set of architectural drawings;(ii) Soil Investigation report; (iii) Location of the place or city in order to decide on wind and seismic loadings; (iv) Data for lifts, water tank capacities on top, special roof features or loadings, etc. 2.1 Basic Codes for Design . 2.1.1 Purpose of Codes The codes have evolved from the collective wisdom of expert structural engineers, gained over the years. These codes are periodically revised to bring them in line with current research, and often, current trends. The codes serve at least four distinct functions . Firstly, they ensure adequate structural safety, by specifying certain essential minimum requirement for design.
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Secondly, they render the task of the designer relatively simple; often, the result of sophisticate analyses is made available in the form of a simple formula or chart. Thirdly, the codes ensure a measure of consistency among different designers. Finally, they have some legal validity in that they protect the structural designer from any liability due to structural failures that are caused by inadequate supervision and/or faulty material and construction. The design is carried out to conform to the following Indian Standard codes for reinforced concrete design: (i)IS 456 : 2000 Plain and reinforced concrete code of practice (fourth revision) (ii) Loading Standards IS 875 (Part 1 -5) : 1987 Code of practice for design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures (second revision) Part 1 : Dead loads Part 2 : Imposed (live) loads Part 3 : Wind loads Part 4 : Snow loads Part 5 : Special loads and load combinations IS 1893 : 2002 Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structure (fourth revision). IS 13920 : 1993 Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structure subject to seismic forces. Design Handbooks The Bureau of Indian standards has also published the following handbooks, which are based on 1978 version of the codes. Although the handbooks are yet to be updated in line with the latest version of Code, many of the provisions continue to be valid. SP 16 : 1980 Design Aids (for Reinforced Concrete) to IS 456 : 1978 SP 34: 1987 Handbooks on Concrete Reinforced and Detailing .
2.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF IS: 456-2000.

The general design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings shall be governed by the provisions of IS 456 2000. 2.2.1 AIM OF DESIGN The aim of design is achievement of an acceptable probability that structures being designed shall, with an appropriate degree of safety
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Perform satisfactorily during their intended life.

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Sustain all loads and deformations of normal construction & use Have adequate durability Have adequate resistance to the effects of misuse and fire.
2.2.2 METHOD OF DESIGN Structure and structural elements shall normally be designed by Limit State Method. Where the Limit State Method cannot be conveniently adopted, Working Stress Method may be used 2.2.3 GRADES OF CONCRETE Concrete shall be in grades as designated in Table-2 given below Table-2 Group Grade Designation Specified Characteristic Compressive Strength of 150 mm Cube at 28 Days in N/mm 2 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Ordinary Concrete Standard Concrete
M10 M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 M45 M50 M55 M60 M65 M70 M75 M80
High Strength Concrete
2.2.4 MINIMUM GRADE OF CONCRETE The minimum grade of concrete for plain & reinforced concrete shall be as per table below
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2.2.5 Nominal Cover to Reinforcement Nominal Cover Nominal cover is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcements, including links. It is the dimension used in design and indicated in the drawings. It shall be not less than the diameter of the bar. Nominal Covers to Meet Durability Requirement Minimum values for the nominal cover of normal weight aggregate concrete which should be provided to all reinforcement, including links depending on the condition of exposure described in Table-3 shall be as given in Table 16. Table 16 Nominal Cover to Meet Durability Requirements (Clause 26.4.2) Exposure Nominal Concrete Cover in mm not Less Than Mild Moderate Severe Very Severe Extreme NOTES 1. 20 30 45 50 75
For main reinforcement up to 12 mm diameter bar for mild exposure the nominal cover may be reduced by 5 mm.
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2. 3.
Unless specified otherwise, actual concrete cover should not deviate from the required nominal cover by + 10 mm For exposure condition severe and very severe, reduction of 5 mm may be made, where concrete grade is M35 and above.
However for a longitudinal reinforcing bar in a column nominal cover shall in any case not be less than 40 mm, or less than the diameter of such bar. In the case of columns of minimum dimension of 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do not exceed 12 mm, a nominal cover of 25 mm may be used. For footing minimum cover shall be 50 mm.
2.2.6 DESIGN LOAD Design load is the load to be taken for use in appropriate method of design. It is Characteristic load in case of working stress method & Characteristic load with appropriate partial safety factors for limit state design.
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2.2.7 LOAD COMBINATIONS As per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 Clause no. 6.3.1.2, the following load cases have to be considered for analysis: 1.5 (DL + IL) 1.2 (DL + IL EL) 1.5 (DL EL) 0.9 DL 1.5 EL Earthquake load must be considered for +X, -X, +Z and Z directions. Moreover, accidental eccentricity during earthquake can be such that it causes clockwise or anticlockwise moments. So both clockwise & anticlockwise torsion is to be considered. Thus, EL above implies 8 cases, and in all, 25 cases must be considered.
It is possible to reduce the load combinations to 13 instead of 25 by not using negative torsion considering the symmetry of the building. 2.2.8 CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR MOMENT AND SHEAR For monolithic construction, the moments computed at the face of the supports shall be used in the design of the members at those sections. Critical Section for Shear The shears computed at the face of the Support shall be used in the design of the member at that section. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member, sections located at a distance less than d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear as that computed at distance d.
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2.2.9 EFFECTIVE DEPTH Effective depth of a beam is the distance between the centroid of the area of tension reinforcement and the maximum compression fibre, excluding the thickness of finishing material not placed monolithically with the member and the thickness of any concrete provided to allow for wear. This will not apply to deep beams. 2.2.10 CONTROL OF DEFLECTION (e) The deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely affect the appearance or efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions. The deflection shall generally be limited to the following: a) The final deflection due to all loads including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage and measured from the as-cast level of the supports of floors, roofs and all other horizontal members, should not normally exceed span/250. b) The deflection including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring after erection of partitions and the application of finishes should not normally exceed span/350 or 20mm whichever is less. (ii) For beams, the vertical deflection limits may generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the span to depth ratio are not greater than the value obtained as below: a) Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans up to 10m: Cantilever Simply supported Continuous 7 20 26
b) For spans above 10m, the values in (a) may be multiplied by 10/span in metres, except for cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made. c) Depending on the area and the type of steel for tension reinforcement, the value in (a) or (b) shall be modified as per Fig. 4 d) Depending on the area of compression reinforcement, the value of span to depth ratio be further modified as per Fig. 5 e) For flanged beams, the value of (a) or (b) be modified as per Fig. 6 and the reinforcement percentage for use in fig. 4 and 5 should be based on area of section equal to bf d.
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(i) CONTROL OF DEFLECTION SOLID SLABS The provisions given above for beams apply to slabs also. NOTES 1. For slabs spanning in two directions, the shorter of the two spans should be used for calculating the span to effective depth rations. 2. For two-way slabs of shorter spans (up to 3.5 m) with mild steel reinforcement, the span to overall depth rations given below may generally be assumed to satisfy vertical deflection limits for loading class up to 3 kN/m2. Simply supported slab 35 Continuous slabs 40
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For high strength deformed bars of grade Fe 415, the values given above should be multiplied by 0.8. Simply supported slab 28 Continuous slabs 32 Slabs Continuous Over Supports Slabs spanning in one direction and continuous over supports shall be designed according to the provisions applicable to continuous beams. Slabs Monolithic with Supports Bending moments in slabs (except flat slabs) constructed monolithically with the supports shall be calculated by taking such slabs either as continuous over supports and capable of free rotation, or as members of a continuous frame work with the supports, taking into account the stiffness of such support. If such supports are formed due to beams which justify fixity at the support of slabs, then the effects on the supporting beam, such as, the bending of the web in the transverse direction of the beam, wherever applicable, shall also be considered in the design of the beams. 2.2.11 Requirement of Reinforcement for Structural Member
(A) BEAMS
Tension reinforcement (a) Minimum reinforcement:- The minimum area of tension reinforcement shall not be less than that given by the following:As = 0.85 bd fy where As = minimum area of tension reinforcement. b = breadth of beam or the breadth of the web of T-beam. d = effective depth, and fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement in M/mm2 (b) Maximum reinforcement:- the maximum area of tension reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04bD. Compression reinforcement The maximum area of Compression reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04 bd. Side face reinforcement Where the depth of the web in the beam exceeds 750mm, side face reinforcement shall be provided along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 % of the web area and shall be distributed on the equally on the two face at spacing not exceeding 300mm or web thickness whichever is less. Transverse reinforcement in beam for shear torsion The transverse reinforcement in beam shall be taken around the outer most tension & compression bars. In T-beams and I-beams, such reinforcement shall pass around longitudinal bars located close to the outer face of the flange.
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Maximum spacing of shear reinforcement Maximum spacing of shear reinforcement means long by axis of the member shall not exceed 0.75 d for vertical stirrups and d for inclined stirrups at 45 where d is the effective depth on the section under consideration. In no case shall be spacing exceed 300mm. Minimum shear reinforcement Minimum shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups shall be provided such that: Asv 0.4 bsv 0.87 fy Where Asv = total cross-sectional area of stirrups legs effective in shear. Sv = stirrups spacing along the length of the member B = breadth of the beam or breadth of the web of flange beam, and fy = characteristic strength of the stirrups reinforcement in N/mm2 which shall not taken greater than 415 N/mm2 Where the maximum shear stress calculated is less than half the permissible value in member of minor structure importance such as lintels, this provision need not to be complied with. Distribution of torsion reinforcement When a member is designed for torsion, torsion reinforcement shall be provided as below: a) the transverse reinforcement for torsion shall be rectangular closed stirrups placed perpendicular to the axis of the member. The spacing of the stirrups shall not exceed the list of x1, x1+y1/4 and 300 mm, where x1, y1 are respectively the short & long dimensions of the stirrup.
b)
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be place as closed as is practicable to the corner of the cross section & in all cases, there shall be atleast one longitudinal bar in each corner of the ties. When the cross sectional dimension of the member exceed 450 mm additional longitudinal bar shall
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be provided to satisfy the requirement of minimum reinforcement & spacing given in 26.5.1.3. Minimum Distance between Individual Bars (a) The horizontal distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall usually be not-less than the greatest of the following: (i) Dia of larger bar and (ii) 5 mm more than nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate. (b) When needle vibrators are used it may be reduced to 2/3 rd of nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate, Sufficient space must be left between bars to enable vibrator to be immersed. (c) Where there are two or more rows of bars, bars shall be vertically in line and the minimum vertical distance between bars shall be 15 mm, 2/3rd of nominal maximum size of aggregate or the maximum size of bars, whichever is greater.
(B) SLABS
Minimum reinforcement The mild steel reinforcement in either direction in slabs shall not be less than 0.15 percent of the total cross-sectional area. However, this value can be reduced to 0.12 percent when high strength deformed bars or welded wire fabric are used. Maximum diameter The diameter of reinforcing bars shall not exceed one eight of the total thickness of slab. Maximum distance between bars - Slabs 1) The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall not be more than three times the effective depth of solid slab or 300 mm whichever is smaller. 2) The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars provided against shrinkage and temperature shall not be more than five times the effective depth of a solid slab or 300 mm whichever is smaller. Torsion reinforcement - Slab Torsion reinforcement is to be provided at any corner where the slab is simply supported on both edges meeting at that corner. It shall consist of top and bottom reinforcement, each with layers of bars placed parallel to the sides of the slab and extending from the edges a minimum distance of one-fifth of the shorter span. The area of reinforcement in each of these four layers shall be three-quarters of the area required for the maximum mid-span moment in the slab.
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Torsion reinforcement equal to half that described above shall be provided at a corner contained by edges over only one of which the slab is continuous. Torsion reinforcements need not be provided at any comer contained by edges over both of which the slab is continuous.
(C) COLUMNS
Longitudinal Reinforcement a. The cross sectioned area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be not less than 0.8% nor more than 6% of the gross sectional area of the column. Although it is recommended that the maximum area of steel should not exceed 4% to avoid practical difficulties in placing & compacting concrete. b. In any column that has a larger cross sectional area than that required to support the load, the minimum percentage steel must be based on the area of concrete resist the direct stress & not on the actual area. c. The bar should not be less than 12 mm in diameter so that it is sufficiently rigid to stand up straight in the column forms during fixing and concerting. d. The minimum member of longitudinal bars provided in a column shall be four in rectangular columns & six in circular columns. e. A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement must have at least six bars of longitudinal reinforcement with the helical reinforcement. These bars must be in contact with the helical reinforcement & equidistance around its inner circumference. f. Spacing of longitudinal should not exceed 300 mm along periphery of a column. Transverse Reinforcement a. The diameter of lateral ties should not be less than of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar in no case should not be less than 6 mm. b. Spacing of lateral ties should not exceed least of the following: Least lateral dimension of the column. 16 times the smallest diameter of longitudinal bars to be tied. 300mm.
(D) SHEAR
Nominal Shear Stress The nominal shear stress in beams of uniform depth shall be obtained by the following equation: v = Vu/ b.d where Vu = shear force due to design loads; b = breadth of the member, which for flanged section shall be taken as the breadth of the web, bw; and d = effective depth.
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With Shear Reinforcement Under no circumstances, even with shear reinforcement, shall the nominal shear stress in beams should not exceed given in Table 20. For solid slabs, the nominal shear stress shall not exceed half the appropriate values given in Table 20.
Minimum Shear Reinforcement When v, is less than c given in Table 19, minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with 26.5.1.6.
Design of Shear Reinforcement When v, is exceeds c , given in Table 19, shear reinforcement shall be provided in any of the following forms: a) Vertical stirrups, b) Bent-up bars along with stirrups, and where bent-up bars are provided, their contribution towards shear resistance shall not be more than half that of the total shear reinforcement. Shear reinforcement shall be provided to carry a shear equal to Vu c b d. the strength of shear reinforcement Vus shall be calculated as below:
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a) For Vertical Stirrups: Vus = 0.87 fy Asv d ___________ Sv
b) For inclined stirrups or a series of bars bent up at different cross section: 0.87 fy Asv d Vus = ___________ (Sin + Cos ) Sv c) For single bar or single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same cross sections: Vus = 0.87 fy Asv Sin Where Asv = Sv v c b = = = = total cross sectional area of stirrups legs or bent-up bar within a distance Sv, spacing of the stirrups or bent-up bars along the length of the member. nominal shear stress, design shear strength of the concrete, breadth of the member which for flanged beams, shall be taken as the breadth of the web bw. characteristic strength of the stirrup or bentup reinforcement which shall not be taken greater than 415 N/mm2, angle between the inclined stirrup or bent up bar and the axis of the member not less than 45o, and effective depth
fy
(E) DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BARS

(i) Development of Stress in Reinforcement The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or end anchorage or by a combination thereof. Development length Ld is given by Ld = st /4bd = nominal diameter of bar, bd = design bond stress st = stress in bar at the section considered at design load Design bond stress in limit state method for plain bars in tension is given in clause 26.2.1.1 For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786 these values are to be increased by 60 %. For bars in compression, the values of bond stress for bars in tension is to be increased by 25 percent
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(ii) Shear reinforcement (STIRRUPS) Development length and anchorage requirement is satisfied, in case of stirrups and transverse ties, when Bar is bent Through an angle of at least 90 degrees (round a bar of at least its own dia) & is continued beyond for a length of at least 8 , or Through an angle of 135 degrees & is continued beyond for a length of at least 6 or Through an angle of 180 degrees and is continued beyond for a length of at least 4
2.3 DUCTILE DETAILING AS PER IS: 13920

Provisions of IS 13920-1993 shall be adopted in all reinforced concrete structures which are located in seismic zone III, IV or V. The provisions for reinforced concrete construction given in IS 13920-1993 shall apply specifically to monolithic reinforced concrete construction. The definition of seismic zone and importance factor are given in IS 1893-2002. CODAL PROVISIONS OF IS 13920 For all buildings which are more than 3 storeys in height, the minimum grade of concrete shall be M20 (fck = 20 MPa ). Steel reinforcements of grade Fe 415 (see IS 1786 : 1985 ) or less only shall be used. However, high strength deformed steel bars, produced by the thermo-mechanical treatment process, of grades Fe 500 and Fe 550, having elongation more than 14.5 percent and conforming to other requirements of IS 1786 : 1985 may also be used for the reinforcement.
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3.0 Steps for Design of Multi-Storeyed Building:Step-1: Study of architectural Drawings:- All working drawings i.e. each floor plan, elevations, sections, are studied thoroughly & discrepancy if any and problems coming in finalization of structural configuration brought to the notice of concern Architect for rectification/correction. Step-2: Finalization of structural Configuration. Then structural system is finalized. The structural arrangements of a building is so chosen as to make it efficient in resisting vertical as well as horizontal loads due to earthquake. The span of slabs so chosen that thickness of slab is 100-150mm thick. To perform well in an earthquake, a building should possess following main attributes, namely Simple and regular configuration, and Adequate lateral strength, Stiffness and ductility . Buildings having simple & regular geometry and uniformly distributed mass and stiffness in plan as well as in elevation, suffer much less damage than buildings with irregular configurations. Step-3: Load Calculation and analysis. For each floor or roof, the loading intensity of slab is calculated taking into account the dead load of the slab, finish plaster, etc. including partitions and the live load expected on the floor, depending on the usage of the floor or roof. The linear loading of beams, columns, walls, parapets, etc. also calculated.
DEAD LOADS UNIT WEIGHTS OF SOME MATERIALS/BUILDING COMPONENTS
As per IS-875(Part-1)-1987 UNIT WEIGHT MATERIAL PLAIN CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE BRICK MASONRY STONE MASONRY TIMBER CEMENT-PLASTER LIME -PLASTER STEEL AC SHEET -ROOFING GI SHEET -ROOFING MANGLORE TILES STEEL WORK -ROOFING kN/m3 24 25 19-20 21-27 6-10 21 18 78.5 0.16 0.15 0.65 0.16-0.23 kN/m2
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LIVE LOADS ON FLOORS AS PER IS-875(Part-2)-1987

LIVE LOAD (kN/m2) 2.0 2.5 4.0
TYPE OF FLOOR USAGE RESIDENTIAL OFFICIAL WITH SEPARATE STORAGE WITHOUT SEPARATE STORAGE SHOPS,CLASS ROOMS,WAITINGS ROOMS, RESTAURANTS,WORK ROOMS,THEATRES ETC - WITH FIXED SEATING - WITHOUT FIXED SEATING FACTORIES & WAREHOUSES STACK ROOM IN LIBRARIES ,BOOK STORES GARRAGES LIGHT VEHICLES HEAVY VEHICLES STAIRS-NOT LIABLE TO OVER CROWDING - LIABLE TO OVER CROWDING
4.0 5.0 5.0-10 10.0 4.0 7.5 4.0 5.0
Step-3(a): Preliminary Sizes of structural members. For load calculation, preliminary sizes of slabs, beams & columns decided. Slab:- The thickness of the slab decided on the basis of span/depth ratio assuming appropriate modification factor. Beam : The width the beam generally taken as the width of wall i.e 230 or 300 mm. The width of beam is help full in placement of reinforcement in one layer & more width is help full in resisting shear due to torsion. The depth of beam is generally taken as 1/12 th (for Heavy Loads) to 1/15 th (for Lighter Loads) of span. Column:- Size of column depends upon the moments from the both the direction and the axial load. Preliminary Column size may be finalized by approximately calculation of axial load & moments. Step-3(b): PROCEDURE FOR VERTICAL LOAD CALCULATION ON COLUMNS: Step(i): First, the load from slab (including Live load & Dead Load) is transferred on to the adjoining beams using formulas given below|:For computation of shear force on beams & reactions on columns, an equivalent uniformly distributed load per linear meter of beam may be taken as: Equivalent u.d.l. on short beam of slab panel = w B/4.0 Equivalent u.d.l. on long beam of slab panel = w B/4 x [2-(B/L)] Where w is the total load on the slab panel in Kn/Sqm & L & B are long span & short spans of slab panel respectively. Step(ii): Over this load, the weight of wall (if any), self weight of beam etc. are added to get the load on beam (in running metre). Step(iii):The load (in running metre) on each beam is calculated as in Step 1 & Step 2.
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Step(iv):Then the loads from the beams are transferred to the columns. Step(v):Step (i) to Step (v) is repeated for each floor. Step(vi):These loads at various floors on each column are then added to get the total loads on each column, footing and the whole building. Step4: HORIZONTAL (SEISMIC) LOAD CALCULTAION: The Horizontal Load Calculation or the Load Calculations for Seismic case is carried out as per the Indian Standard Code IS:1893-2002. The loads calculated at various floor levels are modified as per the requirement of Para 7.3.1 of IS:18932002. The Seismic Shear at various floor levels is then calculated for the whole Building using the values from IS 1893-2002. Calculation of horizontal loads on buildings (As per is -1893-2002) As per clause 7.5.3 of IS-1893-2002 Design base shear v b V b = Ah W Where A h = Design Horizontal acceleration spectrum value as per 6.4.2 of the code = (Z/2) (I/R) (Sa/g) W= Seismic weight of the building as per clause 7.4.2 of the code. Where = Zone factor as per table 2 of IS Code (1893 -2002) = 0.24 (in this case) I = Importance factor as per table 6 of IS -1893-2002) = 1.5 (Assuming that the bldg. is T.E. Bldg.) R = Response reduction factor as per table 7 of IS code = 3.0 (for ordinary R.C. Moment resisting frame (OMRF) (S a /g) = Average response acceleration coefficient for soil type & appropriate natural periods and lamping of the structure. W= Seismic weight of the building as per clause 7.4.2 of the code. For calculating of (Sa/g) value as above we have to calculate value of T i.e. Fundamental National Period (Seconds) (Clause 7.6 of IS Code ) T = 0.075 h 0 . 7 5 (For RC Frame building) = 0.0 85 h 0 . 7 5 (For Steel frame building) h = Height of building in Meter In case of building with brick in fills walls. T = 0.09 h /d 1 / 2 Where h = height of building in Meter and d = Base dimension of the building at the plinth level in Meter along the considered direction of the lateral force. Value of (Sa/g) is to be read from fig 2 on page 16 of IS Code depending upon Soil condition & Fundamental Natural period T. Z
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Step5. VERTICAL LOAD ANALYSIS: a) GENERAL: The skeleton frame work of a multi-storied R.C.C. framed structure is made up of a system of columns, beams and slabs. It is presumed that the reinforcements are always so arranged that all joints of the frame are monolithic. In view of the uncertain property of material creep, shrinkage and a number of approximate simplifying assumptions made in the detailed analysis of multi storied framed structures, it is considered sufficient to obtain reasonable accuracy of analysis for the design of structure. If the normal moment distribution is applied to all joints, the work involved is enormous. However with certain assumptions, it is possible to analyze the frames and get results which are adequate for design purposes. In manual analysis, the three dimensional multistoried R.C.C. framed structure are considered as combinations of planer framed in two directions. It is assumed that each of these planer frames act independently. b) METHODS OF ANALYSIS: Analysis of large framed structures beams too Cumbersome with the classical method of structure analysis such a Clapeyrons theorem of three moments, Castingilianos therefore of least work, Poisons method of virtual work etc. Therefore, it becomes necessary to evolve simpler methods. Some of these are:a.) Hardy cross method of moment distribution. b.) Kanis method of iteration. Step6. HORIZONTAL LOAD ANALYSIS: Frame analysis for horizontal loads calculated in step 4 is carried out by using Approximate Method:- i) Cantilever method. ii) Portal method. Approximate methods are used for preliminary designs only. For final design we may use exact method i.e (i) Slope deflection or matrix methods (ii) Factor method. We will not discuss these methods in detail as now modern computer package as STAAD PRO etc. is available for analysis. Step7: DESIGN OF COULMN, FOUNDATIONS, BEAMS & SLABS: After load calculation & analysis for vertical & horizontal loads, design of Columns ,Foundations, Beams, Slabs and are to be carried out as per the various clauses of IS codes, IS 456-2000, IS:1893-2002, IS:13920-1993 etc.
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Step 7A: Design of columns: - With the knowledge of (i) Vertical load (ii) Moments due to horizontal loads on either axis;(iii) Moments due to vertical loads on either axis, acting on each column, at all floor levels of the building, columns are designed by charts of SP-16(Design Aids) with a load factor of 1.5 for vertical load effect and with a load factor of 1.2 for the combined effects of the vertical and the horizontal loads. The step confirms the size of columns assumed in the architectural drawings. The design of each column is carried out from the top of foundation to the roof, varying the amount of steel reinforcement for suitable groups for ease in design. Further, slenderness effects in each storey are considered for each column group. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN OF CO LUMNS:(i)Effective height of column:- The effective height of a column is defined as the height between the points of contra flexure of the buckled column. For effective column height refer table 28 (Annexure E) of IS: 456-2000. For framed structure effective height of column depends upon relative stiffness of the column & various beams framing into the column at its two ends. (Refer Annexure E of IS: 456-2000.) (ii)Unsupported Length: - The unsupported length l, of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between end restraints except that:In beam & slab construction, it shall be the clear distance between the floor & under side of the shallower beam framing into the columns in each direction at the next higher floor level. (iii) Slender Compression Members A compression member may be considered as short when both the slenderness ratios lx/D and ly/B are less than 12. It shall otherwise be considered as a slender compression member. The design of slender compression members shall be based on the forces and the moments determined from an analysis of the structure, including the effect of deflections on moments and forces. When the effect of deflections is not taken into account in the analysis, additional moment given in clause 39.7.1of IS456 shall be taken into account in the appropriate direction. (iv) Slenderness limits for columns: - The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60 times the least lateral dimension of a column. (v) Minimum Eccentricity: - All columns shall be designed for minimum eccentricity equal to unsupported length of column/500 plus least lateral dimension/30, subject to a minimum of 20 mm. Or emin l/500+ D/30 20 mm Where l= unsupported length of column in mm. D=Lateral dimension of column in the direction under consideration in mm. (vi)Design Approach: - The design of column is complex since it is subjected to axial loads & moments which may very independently. Column design required:I. Determination of the cross sectional dimension. II. The area of longitudinal steel & its distribution. III. Transverse steel. The maximum axial load & moments acting along the length of the column are considered for the design of the column section either by the working stress method or limit state method. The transverse reinforcement is provided to impart effective lateral support against buckling to every longitudinal bar. It is either in the form of circular rings of polygonal links (lateral ties).
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B. Design of foundations: - With the knowledge of the column loads and moments at base and the soil data, foundations for columns are designed. Plinth beams, retaining wall if any, are also designed at this stage, being considered as part of foundations. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS:a) Introduction: - Foundations are structural elements that transfer loads from the building or individual column to the earth. b) Depth of foundation:Depth of foundation below ground level is obtained by using Rankine's formula 2 h = p -- 1 Sin --- ----- --- 1 + Sin
Where h = Minimum depth of foundation p = Gross bearing capacity = Density of soil = Angle of Repose of soil C. Recommendations of IS 456 -2000 for footings i) To determine the area required for proper transfer of total load on the soil, the total load (the combination of dead, live and any other load without multiplying it with any load factor) need be considered. Total Load including Self Weight Plan Area of footing = ------------------------------------Allowable bearing capacity of soil ii) IS 1904 1978, Code of Practice for Structural Safety of Buildings: shallow foundation, shall govern the general details. iii) Thickness of the edge of footing:-The thickness at the edge shall not be less than 15 cm for footing on soils. iv) Dimension of pedestal:In the case of plain Cement Concrete pedestals, the angle between the plane passing through the bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal and the horizontal plane shall be governed by the expression. 100 q o Tan (should not be less than) 0.9 x ----------- + 1 fck Where q o =Calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of pedestal/ footing in N/mm2 fck = Characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2 (v) Bending Moment The bending Moment will be considered at the face of column, pedestal or wall and shall be determined by passing through the section a vertical place which extends completely across the footing, and over the entire area of the footing or, one side of the said plane.
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Column
PLAIN CONCRETE PEDESTAL
COLUMN BASE PEDESTAL
Y
FACE OF PEDESTAL
FACE OF COLUMN
ISOLATED COLUMN FOOTING (vi)Shear The shear strength of footing is governed by the following two factors:a) The footing acting essentially as a wide beam, with a potential diagonal crack intending in a plane across the entire width, the critical section for this condition shall be assumed as a vertical section located from the face of the
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column, pedestal or wall at a distance equal to the effective depth of the footing in case of footings on soils. FOR ONE WAY BENDING ACTION For one way shear action, the nominal shear stress is calculated as follows:Vu ------b.d Where v = Shear stress Vu = Factored vertical shear force b = Breadth of critical section d = Effective depth v < c ( c = Design Shear Strength of Concrete Based on % of longitudinal tensile reinforcement refer Table 61 of SP-16) v =
CRITICAL SECTION
d d
CRITICAL SECTION FOR ONE -WAY SHEAR FOR TWO WAY BENDING ACTION For two may bending action, the following should be checked in punching shear. Punching shear shall be around the perimeter 0.5 time the effective depth away from the face of column or pedestal. For two way shear action, the nominal shear stress is calculated in accordance with clause 31.6.2 of the code as follows:-
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Vu v Where v b0 d Vu = = = = = ---------b0.d Shear stress Periphery of the critical section Effective depth Factored vertical shear force
When shear reinforcement is not provided, the nominal shear stress at the critical section should not exceed [Ks. c] Where Ks = Bc = 0.5 + Bc (But not greater than 1) Short dimension of column or pedestal ---------------------------------------------------Long dimension of column or pedestal c = 0.25 fck N/mm2
Note:-It is general practice to make the base deep enough so that shear reinforcement is not required. (vii)Development Length The critical section for checking the development length in a footing shall be assumed at the same planes as those described for bending moment in clause 34.2.3 of code (as discussed 4.5 of the handout) and also at all other vertical planes where abrupt changes of section occur. (viii) Reinforcement:- The Min % of steel in footing slab should be 0.12% & max spacing should not be more than 3 times effective depth or 450 mm whichever is less. Only tensile reinforcement is normally provided. The total reinforcement shall be laid down uniformly in case of square footings. For rectangular footings, there shall be a central band, equal to the width of the footings. The reinforcement in the central band shall be provided in accordance with the following equation. Reinforcement in central Band width -------------------------------------------------Total reinforcement in short direction Where Long side of footing B = --------------------------Short side of footing = 2 -----B+1
(ix)Transfer of Load at the Base of Column The compressive stress in concrete at the base of column or pedestal shall be transferred by bearing to the top of supporting pedestal or footing. The
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bearing pressure on the loaded area shall not exceed the permissible bearing stress in direct A1 Compression multiplied by a value equal to but not greater than 2 Where A1 = Supporting area for bearing of footing, which is sloped or stepped footing may be taken as the area of the lower base of the largest frustum of a pyramid or cone contained wholly with in the footing and having for its upper base, the area actually loaded and having side slope of one vertical to two horizontal. Loaded area at the column base. -----A2
A2
For limit state method of design, the permissible bearing stress shall be = 45 fek If the permissible bearing stress is exceeded either in column concrete or in footing concrete, reinforcement must be provided for developing the excess force. The reinforcement may be provided either by extending the longitudinal bars into the footing or by providing dowels in accordance with the code as give in the following:1) Minimum area of extended longitudinal bars or dowels must be 0.5% of cross sectional area of the supported column or pedestal. 2) A minimum of four bars must be provided. 3) If dowels are used their diameter should not exceed the diameter of the column bars by more than 3 mm. 4) Enough development length should be provided to transfer the compression or tension to the supporting member. 5) Column bars of diameter larger than 36 mm, in compression only can be dowelled at the footing with bars of smaller diameters. Te dowel must extend into the column a distance equal to the development length of the column bar. At the same time, the dowel must extend vertically into the footing a distance equal to the development length of the dowel.
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C. DESIGN OF FLOOR SLABS :-. Design of floor slabs and beams is taken up with the First Floor & upwards .The slabs are designed as one-way or two-way panels, taking the edge conditions of the supporting edges in to account, with the loading already decided as per functional use of slab panel. The design of floor slab is carried out as per clause 24.4 & 37.1.2 & Annexure D of IS: 456-2000. The Bending moment coefficients are to be taken from table- 26 of the code depending upon the support condition & bending moment calculated & reinforcement steel may be calculated from the charts of SP-16. The slab design for particular floor may be done in tabular form as shown below.
SLAB DESIGN
Na me o f pro j e ct : Lev el o f sla b
Sla b ID E d ge conditi on To t a l load in KN/S q.m w Short span lx m long span ly m l y/ l x 1.5 *w * lx *l x slab thick ness in mm Steel in short span Steel in long span
Short span Moment
KN-M
Lo n g s p a n mo m e n t K N - M
x (+) 1
2
x (-)
10
mu x + 11= 7 x 9
mu x 12= 7 x1 0
Stee l 13
y (+)
14
y ( - ) 15
mu y + 16= 7 x1 4
mu y 17= 7 x1 5
Stee l
18
S1
T wo Ad j . Ed g e. Di sco n t. (Ca se No .4 )
8 .5 0
3 .5 0
5 .2 5
1 .5
156. 80
120
0 .0 5 6
0 .0 7 5
8 .7 8
1 1 .7 6
0 .0 3 5
0 .0 4 7
5 .4 9
7 .3 7
S2
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D. DESIGN OF FLOOR BEAMS:The beams are designed as continuous beams, monolithic with reinforced concrete columns with their far ends assumed fixed. The variation in the live load position is taken into account by following the two-cycle moment distribution. the moments are applied a face correction to reduce them to the face of the members. The moments due to horizontal loads are added to the above moments. Each section of the beam is designed for load factor of 1.5 for vertical load effect and with a load factor of 1.2 for the combined effects of the vertical and the horizontal loads. The effect of the shear due to vertical and horizontal loads is also similarly taken care of. It may be noted that the shear component due to wind or earthquake may be significant and it may affect the size and the range of shear stirrups. Bent- up bars are not effective for earthquake shear due to its alternating nature. The beam design can be easily done by a computer program which will give reinforcement at various critical sections along the length of the beam and also shear stirrups required it saves considerable time and labour of a designer. In manual method span of a beam is generally designed at three sections i.e at two supports & at Mid span. The each section is designed for factored Moment, Shear & equivalent shear for Torsion if any at a section.
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Chapter-4 OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER AIDED STRUCTURAL DESIGN THROUGH STAAD PRO
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Overview Of Computer Aided Structural Design through STAAD PRO
1.0 Computer-Aided Analysis & Design:Computers have recently been brought in to aid structural designers. These machines are as effective as the available software (i.e. computer programs). Programs are available for design of slabs, simply supported and continuous beams, Isolated footings, combined footings and rafts. A very powerful program STAAD PRO is also available in the market for 3-D analysis of a building as a whole. It is useful for analysis and design of multi-storied buildings.
2.0 Comparison with Manual Method s
Limitations of Hand Computation Methods Applicable for small problems Tedious for even medium sized problems 3-d analysis almost impossible Advantage for Invention of Computer Matrix methods of structural analysis Development of numerical techniques Finite element method Very accurate analysis & design
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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Analysis is performed to predict the response of a structure to applied external loads.
Real world problem
Idealization to a mathematical model
Solution of the model
Real world structural problems are very complex in nature. Analysis of these problems requires idealization.
3 . 0 Important Features of STAAD- PRO
Interactive user environment for model development, analysis, design, visualization and
verification.
Full
range of analysis including static, P-delta, pushover, response spectrum, time history, cable (liner and non-linear), buckling and steel, concrete and timber design. Object-oriented intuitive 2D/3D graphical model generation. Pull down menus, floating tool bars, tool tip help. Quick data input through property sheets and spreadsheets.
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Customizable structural templates for creating a model. Supports truss and beam members, plates, solids, linear and non-linear cables and curvilinear beams. Advance automatic load generation facilities for wind, snow, area, floor and moving loads. Flexible zoom, pan and multiple views. Isometric and perspective view and 3D shapes. Toggle display of loads, supports, properties, joints, members, etc. Built-in command file editor for text editing. State-of-the-art graphical pre and post processors. Rectangular/cylindrical coordinate systems with mix and match capabilities. Joint, member/element, mesh generation with flexible user-controlled numbering scheme. Import/Export DSF, DWG and Excel files. Efficient algorithm minimizes disk space requirements. FPS, metric or SI units. Presentation quality printer plots of geometry and results as part of run output.
3.1 Graphics Environment 3.1.1 Model Generation
Easy auto mesh and auto refinement of user-defines polygonal element boundary by simple mouse clicks, including openings and column/wall lines. Unlimited Undo and Redo. More structure wizard models including user-defined parametric structures to create any structural template. 2D and 3D graphic generation using rectangular, cylindrical and reverse cylindrical coordinates systems. Segments of repetitive geometry may be used to generate complex structural models. Generate, copy, repeat, mirror, pivot, etc. for quick and easy geometry generation. Comprehensive graphics editing. Library of commonly used structures can be picked and display of properties, loadings, supports, orientations etc. Graphical specification and display of properties, loadings, supports, orientations etc. Import/Export Auto Cad 2D/3D/ DXF or CIS/2 files to start your model.
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Access to text editor to modify model quickly through command syntax. User-controlled scale factors for deflected or mode shapes. Intelligent objects (beams, plates, columns) to report geometry. Structure Wizard to create parametric templates, meshes with holes and curved surfaces. Easy snap-to construction grid for laying out beams and columns on irregular grids. Step-by-to hand calculations including all formulae, intermediate results, and code clauses for steel and concrete design. Graphically displaying built-up sections and customized shapes in 3D within the STAAD. Pro environment. New customizable node/member renumbering scheme.
Element Types
Structural Elements Line
Truss Beam

Surface Plate/ Shell Surface
Solid
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Structure Types
STRUCTURAL TYPES:
Y
TRUSS (2D)
GY

TRUSS (3D)
X Z
GX GZ
PLANE

SPACE

FLOOR

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Boundary Condition
Fully Restrained
Partially Restrained
Partially restrained w/ Springs
Inclined
Multi-linear
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3.2 Axis & Sign Convention
Overall Features of STAAD.Pro
Axis & Sign Convention

Local & Global Axis System for Member
Depends on Connectivity Upward Global Axis

Member End Forces - Transnational Degrees

Member End Forces Rotational Degrees
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3.3 Analysis & Design Static Anal ysis Primary P-delta Non-linear Non-Linear Cable
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Basic Design Steel Concrete
Static Analysis Geometric Modeling Material Properties Sectional Properties Supports : Boundary Conditions Loads & Load combinations Special Commands Anal ysis Specification Design Command Geometric Modeling Nodal Co-ordinate Data Selection of Elements : Element Library Beam Elements : Beams, Columns, Truss Members Plate Elements : Structural Walls, Floor Slabs Plane Stress Elements : Shear Walls, Floor Slabs Acting As Rigid Diaphragm To Lateral Loading Solid Elements : Thick Raft, Block Foundations Surface Element: Rectangular Default Division 10X10, no. can be controlled Mainly introduced for Shear Wall Modeling & Design Sectional Properties Beam Elements : Cross Section Plate Elements : Thickness Solid Elements : NIL Material Property means a set of: Modulus of Elasticity Poissons Ratio Weight Density Thermal Coefficient Damping Ratio Shear Modulus 3.4 LOADS Self Weight Joint Loads Concentrated Load & Moments Support Displacement Loads
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Member Loads Uniform Force & Moment (Full / Partial) (d1, d2, d3) Concentrated Force & Moment (d1, d2) Floor Load & Area Load (new GX, GZ Floor Load) L i n e a r V a r yi n g & T r a p e z o i d a l L o a d Pre-Stress / Post -Stress Load H yd r o s t a t i c T r a p e z o i d a l L o a d T e m p e r a t u r e L o a d ( x , y, z ) Fixed End Load Plate Element Loads Pressure (Full / Partial) C o n c e n t r a t e d F o r c e ( x , y) T r a p e z o i d a l & H yd r o s t a t i c T r a p e z o i d a l L o a d Surface Element Pressure Generated Loads Wind Load Seismic Co-efficient Method Repetitive Moving Load Dynamic Loads Time History Response Spectrum Combined Effect of Loads Combination (Algebraic, SRSS, ABS) Repeat Load IS 1893 2002 (Part 1) Parameters: Seismic Zone Coefficient Response Reduction Factor Importance Factor Soil Site Factor T yp e o f S t r u c t u r e Damping Ratio (obtain Multiplication Factor for Sa/g) Depth of Foundation below Ground Level Reduction of A h due to Depth of Foundation C Value Abolished Acceleration as Function of Time Period and Soil Type Evaluation of Base Shear Distribution of Lateral Storey Forces (same as before) New Floor Weight & Element Weight Commands
3.5 DESIGN Once anal ysis is completed for different load combination design will be perform for load envelope c ase. Concrete Design can be done either using IS456 or for ductile detailing IS-13920 can also be used.
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3.5.1 DESIGN CODES & SECTIONS SUPPORTED (A) Steel Design Design codes include AISC (ASD and LRFD and & 3 r d Ed.), AIS I and AASHTO. Optional codes available include ASCE 52, BS5400, BS5950, Canadian, South Africa, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Indian, Scandinavian, Mexican (NTC and CFE), Eurocode and much more. Built-in-steel tables including AISC (7 t h -9 t h Editions), Australian, British, Canadian, Chinese, European, India, Japanese, Korean, Mexican, Russian and South Africa. Shapes include I-Beams with or without cover plates, channels, angles, double angles/channels, pipes and tubes (HSS Sections). User-specified design parameters including sides way, stiffeners, welding, net section factor, drift and deflection. Code check, member selection consisting of anal ysis/design cycles. Calculation of Effective Length Factors (K Factors) for Steel Design. Powerful grouping command to design disjointed members as a physical member. (B) Concrete Design Design of concrete beam/columns/slabs per AC I 318 -02, 318-95. Also footing design per ACI 318 -02. Optional codes include BS8007, BS8110, Canadian, French, Germ an, Spanish, Scandinavian, Japanese, Chinese, Australian, South African, Singaporean and Indian Codes IS -456-2000. Design circular, rectangular, I and L shaped, trapezoidal and Tee sections. Numerical and graphical design outputs with complete reinforce ment details. Interactive concrete design and detailing with bar scheduling and interactive rebar layout. Design Physical members by combining separate beam entities as one with full step -by-step calculation sheets for verification. Full, integrated rect angular shear wall anal ysis and design (including openings) with output including forces at different heights along the wall (axial, shear and moment in -plane and out-of-plane bending moment), automatic meshing of the wall, horizontal and vertical shear an d edge reinforcements at different heights. 4.0 Using STAAD PRO for analysis & design the Building as a whole Steps in design 1. Manual design of slabs, stairs, chajjas, non -grid beams(Lintles), etc.
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2. Preparing data for STAA PRO program at all levels i.e generation of model, load intensities at all floors and wall load as u.d.l, support conditions, material properties etc . 3. Using computer, feeding data and getting the out -put. It gives beam and column design at all levels and it also gives column loads for design of foundations. 4. Manual design of footings. 5. Preparation of structural drawings with foundations and upwards by AUTOCAD or by manual. After anal ysis and design by STAAD Pro software we have to note down area of steel for column at va rious levels & grouping is done accordingl y. For beams be have to do detailing as per SP -34 by noting down the main reinforcement & Shear reinforcement & at various section floor wise. The drawings are prepared floor -wise, starting from the found ation, plinth beam and upwards and issued to the site for execution in the same order.
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Chapter-5
Overview of CPWD Specifications
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OVERVIEW OF CPWD SPECIFICATION 1.0 OVERVIEW OF CPWD SPECIFICATION

The CPWD Specifications being published by CPWD from time to time are very comprehensive and useful in execution of works and are used as guide by a number of Engineering Departments, Public Sector Undertakings, Architects and Builders. These specifications not only give the standards for building materials but also serve as guidelines for execution of works, measurements etc. The CPWD Specifications were first compiled in 1950. Subsequently, these specifications have been revised in the years 1962, 1967, 1977 and 1996. The revised/updated specifications are being published in two volumes.
1.0 CPWD Specifications, 2009 are the revised edition of existing CPWD Specifications. 2.0 CPWD Specifications, 2009 is published in two volumes as under: Volume Number Sub-head No. Contents/ Chapters
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CARRIAGE OF MATERIALS
1.0 GENERAL The carriage of materials includes loading within a lead of 50 metres, unloading and stacking within a lead of 50 metres. 2.0 MODE OF CARRIAGE The modes of carriage are - (i) Mechanical (ii) Animal Transport (iii) Manual Labour. 3.0 LEAD Lead means horizontal distance. Carriage by manual labour shall be reckoned in units of 50 metres or part thereof. Carriage by animal and mechanical transport shall be reckoned in one km unit. 4.0 LIFT The vertical distance for removal with reference to the ground level. The excavation up to 1.5 metres depth below the ground level are included in the rate of earth work.
EARTH WORK
1.0 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS The earthwork shall be classified under the following categories and measured separately for each category: (a) All kind of soils: Generally any strata, such as sand, gravel, loam, which for excavation yields to application of picks, shovels and other manual digging implements. (b) Ordinary rock: Generally any rock which can be excavated by splitting with crow bars or picks and does not require blasting (c) Hard rock: Generally any rock or boulder for the excavation of which blasting is required.
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(d) Hard rock (blasting prohibited): Hard rock requiring blasting as described under (c) but where the blasting is prohibited for any reason and excavation has to be carried out by chiselling, wedging etc.
CONCRETE WORK
2.0 MATERIAL Water, cement, fine aggregate or sand, surkhi, and coarse aggregate are materials. 2.1 Coarse Aggregate General: Aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75 mm IS (a) Stone Aggregate: It shall consist of crushed or broken stones. (b) Gravel: It shall consist of naturally occurring river bed shingle or pit gravel. (c) Brick Aggregate: shall be obtained by breaking well burnt dense brick/ brick bats. 2.2 Deleterious Material: Course aggregate shall not contain any deleterious material, such as pyrites, coal, lignite, mica, shale etc. 2.3 Size and Grading (i) Stone aggregate and gravel: It shall be either graded or single sized as specified. (a) Nominal sizes of graded stone aggregate or gravel shall be 40, 20, 16, or 12.5 mm as specified. 3.0 Workability of Concrete The concrete mix proportion chosen should be such that the concrete is of adequate workability for the placing conditions of the concrete and can properly be compacted. 4.0 Concrete Mix Proportioning (a) By designing the concrete mix: such concrete shall be called Design mix concrete. (b) By adopting nominal concrete mix: such concrete shall be called Nominal mix concrete. For grades of M20 or lower, nominal mixes may be used. 5.1 Machine mixing;Only machine mixing of concrete should be allowed. Coarse aggregate should be placed first, followed by fine aggregate and then cement. After dry mixing them, pour water gradually. Mixing shall be done at least for 2 minutes after adding water. 5.2 Hand Mixing: When hand mixing has been specifically permitted in exceptional circumstances by the Engineer-in-Charge in writing, subject to adding 10% extra cement, it shall be dry mixed thoroughly before mixing the water. 6.0 Curing Curing is the process of preventing loss of moisture from the concrete. The following methods shall be employed for effecting curing. 6.1 Moist Curing: Exposed surfaces of concrete shall be kept continuously in a damp by ponding or by covering with a layer of sacking, canvas, Hessian or similar materials and kept constantly wet for at least 7 days from the date of placing of concrete.
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6.2 Membrane Curing: Approved curing compounds may be used in lieu of moist curing. Such compound shall be applied to all exposed surfaces of the concrete as soon as possible after the concrete has set.
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE WORK

1.0 GENERAL Reinforced cement concrete work shall comprise of the following (a) Form work (Centring and Shuttering) (b) Reinforcement (c) Concreting: (1 Cast-in-situ), (2 Precast) 2.0 Concreting: - Work shall comprise of Water, cement, fine and coarse aggregate 3.0 Steel for Reinforcement The steel used for reinforcement shall be any of the following types: (a) Mild steel and medium tensile bars conforming to IS 432 (Part I) (b) High strength deformed steel bars conforming to IS 1786 (c) Hard drawn steel wire fabric conforming to IS 1566 (d) Structural steel conforming to Grade A of IS 2062 (e) Thermo-mechanically treated (TMT) Bars. Mild steel is not recommended for the use in structures located in earthquake zone subjected to severe damage and for structures subjected to dynamic loading (other than wind loading) such as railway and highway bridges. 4.0 FORM WORK (CENTRING & SHUTTERING) 4.1 General Requirement It shall be strong enough to withstand the dead and live loads and forces caused by ramming and vibrations of concrete and other incidental loads, imposed upon it during and after casting of concrete. 4.2 Material for Form Work (a) Propping and Centring: All propping and centering should be of steel tubes. 4.3 Shuttering: Shuttering used shall be of sufficient stiffness to avoid excessive deflection and joints shall be tightly butted to avoid leakage of slurry. 4.4 Camber: Suitable camber shall be provided in horizontal members of structure, especially in cantilever spans to counteract the effect of deflection. The camber for beams and slabs shall be 4 mm per metre (1 to 250). For cantilevers, the camber at free end shall be 1/50th of the projected length. 5.0 REINFORCEMENTS Reinforcement shall be clear and free from loose mill scales, dust, loose rust, coats of paints, oil. Reinforcement bars shall be placed in position as shown in the drawings.
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6.0 COVER: The minimum nominal cover to meet durability requirements shall be as under:-
7.0 CONCRETING The proportion by volume or by the weight of ingredients shall be as specified. 7.1 Consistency The concrete should flow sluggishly into the forms and around the reinforcement without any segregation of aggregate. 7.2 Placing of Concrete Concreting shall be commenced only after Engineer-in-Charge has inspected the centering, shuttering and reinforcement as placed and passed the same. 8.0 Compaction Concrete shall be compacted into dense mass immediately after placing by means of mechanical vibrators. Hand compaction shall be done with the help of tamping rods so that concrete is thoroughly compacted and completely worked around the reinforcement. 9.0 Construction joints 9.1 Concreting shall be carried out continuously upto the construction joints, the position and details of which shall be as shown in structural drawing or as indicated in figures below. Number of such joints shall be kept to minimum. The joints shall be kept at places where the sheer force is the minimum. These shall be straight and shall be at right angles to the direction of main reinforcement.
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In case of columns the joints shall be horizontal and 10 to 15 cm below the bottom of the beam running into the column head. For slabs & beams, the construction joints shall be keyed by providing a triangular or trapezoidal fillet nailed on the stop board. When the work has to be resumed, the joint shall be thoroughly cleaned with wire brush and loose particles removed. A coat of neat cement slurry at the rate of 2.75 kg of cement per square metre shall then be applied on the roughened surface before fresh concrete is laid. 10.0 Curing After the concrete has begun to harden i.e. about 1 to 2 hours after its laying, it shall be protected from quick drying by covering with moist gunny bags, sand. After 24 hours of laying of concrete, the surface shall be cured by ponding with water for a minimum period of 7 days. 11.0 Finishing In case of roof slabs the top surface shall be finished even and smooth with wooden trowel, before the concrete begins to set. 16.2 Standard of Acceptance for Nominal Mix 16.3 Mandatory Lab. Test: For concrete sampled and tested as prescribed specification, the. Out of six sample cubes, three cubes shall be tested at 7 days and remaining three cubes at 28 days.
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BRICK WORK
1.0 Bricks Brick either modular (20 x 10 x10cm) or F.P.S (23 x 11.5 x7.5cm) type according to availability shall be used. The bricks are classified according to crushing strength as class 125,100, 75, 50 or 35. 2.0 Tests Samples of bricks shall be subjected to the following tests: (a) Dimensional tolerance. (b) Water absorption.(Not more than 20%) (c) Efflorescence. (d) Compressive strength. 3.0 Laying Of Brick 3.1 Mortar: The mortar for the brick work shall be as specified. 3.2 Soaking of Bricks Bricks shall be soaked in water before use for a period for the water to just penetrate the whole depth of the bricks. 3.3 Laying Bricks shall be laid in English Bond unless otherwise specified. For brick work in half brick wall, bricks shall be laid in stretcher bond. The brick work shall be built in uniform layers. Top courses of all plinths, parapets, steps and top of walls below floor and roof slabs shall be laid with brick on edge. Brick on edge laid in the top courses at corner of walls shall be properly radiated and keyed into position to form cut (maru) corners. Where bricks cannot be cut to the required shape to form cut (maru) corners, cement concrete 1:2:4 (1 cement : 2 coarse sand : 4 graded stone aggregate 20 mm nominal size) equal to thickness of course shall be provided in lieu of cut bricks. Bricks shall be laid with frog (where provided) up. In case of walls one brick thick and under, one face shall be kept even and in proper plane, while the other face may be slightly rough. In case of walls more than one brick thick, both the faces shall be kept even and in proper plane. 3.4 Joints Specified thickness of joints shall be of 1 cm.. 3.5 Finishing of Joints: The face of brick work may be finished flush or by pointing. The joints shall be squarely raked out to a depth of 1 cm while the mortar is still green for subsequently plastering. 3.6 Curing
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The brick work shall be constantly kept moist on all faces for a minimum period of seven days. 4.0 Scaffolding 4.1 Single Scaffolding: Where plastering, pointing or any other finishing has been indicated for brick work, single scaffolding may be provided. 4.2 Double Scaffolding: Where the brick work or tile work is to be exposed and not to be finished with plastering etc. double scaffolding having two independent supports, clear of the work, shall be provided.
STONE WORK
1.0 TERMINOLOGY 1.1 Bed Joint The joint where one stone presses on another for example, a horizontal joint in a wall or radiating joint between the voussoirs or arch. 1.2 Cornice A horizontal moulded projection which crowns or finishes a wall, any horizontal division of wall, or any architectural feature. 1.3 Cramp: A small piece of metal or the hardest or tough test stone procurable sunk in mortises and fixed across joints as additional ties. 1.4 Course A layer of stones in wall including the bed mortar. 1.5 Dowels Dowels are small sections of metal, stone or pebbles bedded with mortar in corresponding mortise in bed or side joint or adjacent stones. 1.6 Jamb The part of the wall at the side of an opening. 1.7 String Course A horizontal band, plain or moulded, usually projects slightly from the face of wall 1.8 Bond Stone (through Stone) Selected long stone used to hold a wall together transversely 1.9 Corbel Stone Stone bonded well into the wall with part of it projecting out of the face of wall to form a bearing surface. 1.10 Rubble Masonry Masonry built of stones either irregular in shapes as quarried or squared and only hammer dressed and having comparatively thick joints. As far as possible, stones for rubble masonry shall be angular for better interlocking and bonding. 1.11 Ashlar Stone masonry using dressed square stone blocks of given dimensions having faces perpendicular to each other and laid in courses.
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2.1 (A) Courses The masonry shall be carried out in regular courses of height not exceeding 50 cm and masonry on any day will not be raised more than 60 cm in height when using mortars having compressive strength less than 20 kg./sq. cm at 28 days and 100 cm when using mortars exceeding this strength.
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2.1(B) Thickness of Joints The joint thickness shall not exceed 30 mm at any point on the face. 2.1(C) Raking out joints All the joints on the faces to be pointed or plastered shall be racked out with racking tool to a depth of 20mm while the mortar is still green.
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2.2 Through Stones Through bond stones shall be provided in walls upto 600 mm thickness, a set of two or more bond stones overlapping each other by at least 150 mm shall be provided in a line from face to back. Each bond stone or a set of bond stones shall be provided for every 0.5 m2 of the wall surface and shall be provided at 1.5 m to 1.8 m apart clear in every course. Through stone must invariably be used to hold a wall together transeversely with strong bonding and to make masonry monolithic. 2.3 Joints Face joints shall not be more than 20 mm thick. For the surfaces to be plastered or pointed, the joints shall be raked to a minimum depth of 20 mm when the mortar is still green for bonding with plaster. 2.4 Curing Masonry work in cement or composite mortar shall be kept constantly moist on all faces for a minimum period of seven days.
WOOD WORK
1.0 INTRODUCTION The wood work is involved in Doors and Window Frames, Shutters, cup-board, false ceiling. 1.1 Bellies:- Thin round poles usually without bark. 1.2 Beam: A structural timber generally long in proportion to its width and thickness and used for supporting load primarily by its internal resistance to bending. 1.3 Block Board: A Board having a core made up of strips of wood, each not exceeding 25 mm in width glued to form a slab which is glued between two or more outer veneers. 1.4 Hard Wood: A conventional term used to denote the wood obtained from broadleaved trees. It has no relationship to the physical properties of hardness or strength 1.5 Joint in Timber: A prepared connection for joining adjacent pieces of wood, veneer, etc. details is given below: 1.6 Dovetail Joint: A joint at the corner of two pieces in such a way that the notches made to one are fitted exactly into projections of corresponding (Fig C). 1.7 Mitred Joint : A joint, between two members at an angle which bisects the joining angle usually the joining faces are cut at 45 to form a right angle (Fig. B). 1.8 Mortise and Tenon Joint: A joint in which the reduced end (Tenon) of one member fits into the corresponding slot (mortise) in another member (Fig. D). 1.9 Tongue and Groove Joint: A joint in which a tongue is provided on edge of one member to fit into a corresponding groove on the other (Fig. A). 1.10 Rebate: A recess along the edge of a piece of timber to receive another piece or a door, sash or a frame.
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2.0 PANELLED GLAZED OR PANELLED AND GLAZED SHUTTERS (FIG. 9.2) Panelled or glazed shutters for doors, windows, ventilators and cupboards shall be constructed in the form of timber frame work of stiles and rails with panel inserts of timber, plywood, block board, veneered particle board. 2.1 Frame Work Timber for stiles and rails shall be of the same species and shall be sawn in the directions of grains. The stiles and rails shall be joined to each other by mortise and Tenon joints. The bottom rails shall have double Tenon joints. The lock rails of door shutter shall have its centre line at a height of 800 mm from the bottom of the shutters. The thickness of each Tenon shall be approximately one-third the finished thickness of the members and the width of each Tenon shall not exceed three times its thickness. 2.2 Gluing of Joints : The contact surfaces of Tenon and mortise shall be treated with synthetic resin adhesive conforming to IS 851 suitable for construction in wood or synthetic resin adhesive (Phenol and amino plastic) and pinned with 10 mm dia hardwood dowels or bamboo pins or star shaped metal pins.
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2.3 Rebating The shutters shall be single-leaf or double leaved. In case of double leaved shutters, the meeting of the stiles shall be rebated by one third the thickness of the shutter.
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2.4 Panelling The panel inserts shall be either framed into the grooves or housed in the rebate of stiles and rails. The depth of the groove shall be 12 mm. 3.0 Sapwood: The outer layers of the log, which in the growing tree contain living cells and feed material. The sapwood is usually lighter in colour, and is readily attacked by insects and fungi. 4.0 Seasoning: A process involving the reduction of moisture content in timber under more or less controlled conditions towards or to an amount suitable for the purpose for which it is to be used. 5.0 Seasoned Timber: Timber whose moisture content has been reduced to the specified minimum, under more or less controlled processes of drying. 6.0 Knot: Base of a branch or limb embedded in the tree which becomes visible when it is cut. 7.0 TIMBER Timber is classified as under: (i) Teak wood (ii) Deodar wood (iii) Non-coniferous timbers other than teak (iv) Coniferous timber other than deodar. 7.1 Teak Wood (Tectona Grandis) It is of outstanding merit in retention of shape and durability. The heart wood is one of the most naturally durable woods of the world. It usually remains immune to white ant attack and insect attack for very long periods. It is generally used for making furniture and all important timber construction. 7.2 Deodar Wood (Cedrus Deodars) It is the strongest of the Indian conifers. Its weight and strength is 20% per cent less than teak.. It is not, suitable for polish or paint work as the oil in the wood seeps through such finishes and discolours them. It is used for house building, furniture and other construction work 7.3 Sal Wood (Shoera Robusta) Sal is about 30 per cent heavier than teak, 50 per cent harder, and about 20 to 30 per cent stronger. It is durable wood, and usually remains immune to attack by white for beams, rafters, flooring, piles. 7.4 Kail Wood (Pinus Roxburgh) Kail Wood is not a very durable wood. It is useful for joinery works, constructional work, light furniture and house fitments.
STEEL WORK
1.0 INTRODUCTION & DEFINITIONS Steel work is required for roof trusses, door, frame, steel windows, and grills and at few other situations either for structural considerations or protective requirements. If a single section is used then it is called steel work in single section. If combination of two or more
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similar or dissimilar section is used then it is termed as built up sections. The built-up sections can be prepared either by welding or by riveting and bolting. 1.1 Weld A union between two pieces of metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by heat or pressure, or both, Filler metal may be used to affect the union. 1.2 Butt Weld A weld in which the weld metal lies substantially within the extension of the planes arc the surfaces on the parts joined. 1.3 Fillet Weld A weld of approximately triangular cross-section joining two surfaces approximately at the right angles to each other in a lap joint, tee joint or corner joint. It is of two types: (1) Continuous (2) Intermittent 1.4 Fusion Welding Any welding process in which weld is made between metals in a state of fusion without hammering or pressure. 1.5 Non- fusion welding A term applied to the deposition, by the Oxy-Acetylene process of filler metal on parent metal without fusion of the latter. 1.6 Oxy-Acetylene Pressure Welding Pressure welding in which any Oxy-Acetylene flame is used to make the surface to be united plastic. No filler metal is used. 2.0 STEEL DOORS, WINDOWS, VENTILATORS AND COMPOSITE UNITS Hot rolled steel sections for fabrication of steel doors, windows, ventilators and fixed lights shall conform to IS 7452. Shapes weights and designations of hot rolled sections shall be as per IS 7452. The size of doors and windows shall be calculated, so as to allow 1.25 cm clearance on all the four sides of opening to allow for easy fitting of doors windows and ventilators into opening.
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2.1 Doors: The hinges shall be of 50 mm projecting type, Non projecting type hinges may also be used The hinge pin shall be of electro-galvanized steel. In the case of double doors, the first closing leaf shall be the left hand leaf locking at the door from the push side. 2.2 Window (a) Fixed windows (b) Side hung windows. The hinges shall be of projecting type with. Non projecting type hinges may also be allowed. The hinge pin and washer shall be of galvanized steel. 2.3 Ventilators (a) Top Hung Ventilators The steel butt hinges for top hung ventilators shall be riveted to the fixed frame or welded to it.
FLOORING
1.0 Cement Concrete It is made of cement concrete of grade 1:2:4(1 cement:2 coarse sand:4 aggregate). Flooring is generally divided by glass strips of panel size not more than 2.00 square metre. 2.0 Terrazo (Marble Chips) Flooring Laid In Situ 2.1 Under Layer Cement concrete of specified mix shall be used for under layer. 2.2 Fixing of Strips 4 mm thick glass strips shall be fixed with their top at proper level to required slope. Use of glass and metallic strips shall be avoided in areas exposed to sun. 2.3 Top Layer Mortar: The mix for terrazzo shall consist of cement with or without pigment, marble powder, marble aggregate (marble chips) and water. 3.0 Pressed Ceramic Tiles:- Generally used in Bath rooms, Kitchen & W.C. 4.0 MARBLE STONE FLOORING Marble Stone:-Generally provided for decorative finish.
ROOFING
1.0 CORRUGATED GALVANISED STEEL SHEET ROOFING 1.1 C.G.S. Sheets These shall be of the thickness specified in the description of the item and shall conform to IS 277. The sheets shall not show signs of rust or white powdery deposits on the surface. The corrugations shall be uniform in depth and pitch and parallel with the side. 1.2 Purlins Purlins of the specified material or M.S. rolled sections of requisite size shall be fixed over the principal rafters.
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1.3 Slope Roof shall not be pitched at a flatter slope than 1 vertical to 5 horizontal. The normal pitch adopted shall usually be 1 vertical to 3 horizontal. 1.4 Laying and Fixing The sheets shall be laid with a minimum lap of 15 cm at the ends and 2 ridges of corrugations at each side. The above minimum end lap of 15 cm shall apply to slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal and steeper slopes. For flatter slopes the minimum permissible end lap shall be 20 cm. Sheets shall be fixed to the purlins or other roof members such as hip or valley rafters etc. with galvanised J or L hook bolts and nuts, 8 mm diameter, with bitumen and G.I. limpet washers
FINISHING
1.0 PLASTER WORK:1.1 Surface Preparation: Before plastering it is necessary to prepare the surface for plastering. All masonry joints shall be raked out properly, dust and loose mortar shall be brushed out and efflorescence shall be removed. 1.2 CEMENT PLASTER The cement plaster shall be 12 mm, 15 mm or 20 mm thick as specified in the item. 1.3 Scaffolding For all exposed brick work double scaffolding independent of the work having two sets of vertical supports shall be provided. For all other work in buildings, single scaffolding shall be permitted. 1.4 MORTAR The mortar of the specified mix using the type of sand described in the item shall be used. 1.5 Application of Plaster Ceiling plaster shall be completed before commencement of wall plaster. Plastering shall be started from the top and worked down towards the floor. To ensure even thickness and a true surface, plaster about 15 15 cm shall be first applied, horizontally and vertically, at not more than 2 metres intervals over the entire surface to serve as gauges. The surfaces of these gauged areas shall be truly in the plane of the finished plaster surface. The mortar shall then be laid on the wall, between the gauges with trowel. 1.6 Curing The plaster shall be kept wet for a period of at least 7 days. 2.0 WHITE WASH Before new work is white washed, the surface shall be thoroughly brushed free from mortar droppings a foreign matter. In case of old work, all loose particles and scales shall be scrapped off 3.0 PAINTING WOOD/STEEL WORK. 3.1 Wooden Surface: The wood work to be painted shall be dry and free from moisture. The surface shall be thoroughly cleaned .The priming coat shall be applied before the
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wood work is fixed in position. After the priming coat is applied, the holes shall be stopped with glaziers putty or wood putty.
SANITARY INSTALLATIONS
1.0 TERMINOLOGY 1.1 One Pipe System In this a single soil waste pipe conveys both soil and waste directly to the building 1.2 Two Pipe System In this, the soil pipe conveys discharges from water closets, urinals, and similar soil appliances directly to the drainage system and the waste pipe conveys waste from ablutionary and culinary appliances to the drainage system directly or through a trapped gully where desired. 1.3 Single Stack System This is the name given to a simplified one pipe system wherein all ventilation pipes are omitted. The stack itself is made to cater (or provide) for all the vent requirements by restricting the flow into the stack to certain predetermined limits. 1.4 Vent siphon Pipe A ventilating pipe connected to or close to the outlet side of a trap seal. 1.5 Branch (a) A special form of vitrified sewer and cast iron pipe used for making connections to a sewer or water main. The various types are called T, Y, T-Y, double Y, and V branches, according to their respective shapes. (b) Any part of piping system other than a main. 1.6 Automatic Flushing Cistern A flushing cistern arranged to discharge its content by siphon age at regular intervals, determined by the rate at which water is fed into the cistern. 1.7 Ball Cock A faucet opened or closed by the fall or rise of a ball floating in the surface of water. 1.8 Ball Valve A simple non return valve consisting of a ball resting on a cylindrical seat within a fluid passageway. 1.9 Bell Mouth An expanded rounded entrance to a pipe or orifice. 1.10 Cistern A fixed container for water in which the water is at atmospheric pressure. The water is usually supplied through a ball valve. 1.11 Float Valve A valve in which the closure to an opening such as a plug or gate is actuated by a float to control the flow in to a tank type water closet and similar fixture.
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1.12 Flushing Cistern A cistern provided with a device for rapidly discharging the contained water and used in connection with a sanitary appliance for the purpose of cleaning the appliance and carrying away its contents into a drain. 1.13 Wash Basins Wash basins shall be of white vitreous china conforming to IS 2556 (Part-I) and IS 2556 (Part-4). Wash basins either of flat back or angle back as specified shall be of one piece construction, including a combined overflow. The wash basins shall be one of the following patterns and sizes as specified (Fig. 17.14). (a) Flat back: 660 x 460 mm (Surgeons Basin) 630 450 mm 550 400 mm 450 300 mm (b) Angle back: 600 480 mm 400 400 mm
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84
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1.14 Urinals (a) Bowl Type Urinals: Urinal basins shall be of flat back or corner wall type lipped in front. These shall be of white vitreous china conforming to IS 2556-(Part 6). (b) Half Stall Urinals: They shall be of white vitreous China conforming to IS 2556 (Part 6). They shall be of one piece construction with or without an integral flushing box (c) Squatting Plate Urinal: The plates shall be of white vitreous china conforming to IS 2556 (Part-1) and IS 2556 (Part-6) with internal flushing rim with front or side inlet.
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LONG PAN INDIAN W.C.
ORISSA PATTERN
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PATTERN 1 AND PATTERN 2 WATER CLOSETS
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1.15 Water Closet (a) Squatting Pans (Indian Type W.C.) (Fig. 17.19, 17.20 & 17.21): Squatting pans shall be of white vitreous china conforming to IS 2556 Part-I for General Requirements and relevant IS codes for each pattern as described below: (i) Long pattern-conforming to IS 2556 (Part-3).
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(ii) Orissa pattern-conforming to IS 2556 (Part-3). (iii) Integrated type conforming to IS 2556 (Part-14). (b) Wash Down Type (European Type W.C.) (Fig. 17.22 & 17.23): Water closets shall be of white vitreous china conforming to IS 2556 (Part-1) and 2556 (Part-2), as specified and shall be of Wash down type 1.16 Ball Cock: A faucet opened or closed by the fall or rise of a ball floating on the surface of water.
1.17 Branch (i) A special form of cast iron pipe used for making connections to water mains. The various types are called T, Y, T-Y, double Y, and V branches, according to their respective shapes. (ii) Any part of a piping system other than a main. 1.18 Cross: A pipe fitting used for connecting four pipes at right angles. 1.19 Elbow: A pipe fitting for providing a sharp change of direction in a pipe line. 1.20 Ferrule: A pipe fitting for connecting a service pipe to a water main. 1.21 Flange: A projecting flat rim on the end of a valve, pipe etc. 1.22 Flanged Pipe: A pipe provided with flanges so that the ends can be joined together by means of bolts. 1.23 Nipple: A tubular pipe fitting usually threaded on both ends and less than 300 mm long used for connecting pipes or fittings. 1.24 Socket: The female part of the spigot and socket joint. 1.25 Spigot: The male part of a spigot and socket joint. 1.26 Union: A pipe fitting used for joining the ends of two pipes neither of which can be turned.
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1.27 Stop Cock: A control valve fixed at the end of a communication pipe which controls the Supply from the water main.
1.28 Non Return Valve: A device provided with a disc hinged on one edge so that it opens in the direction of normal flow and closes with reversal of flow. 1.29 Sluice Valve (Gate Valve): A valve in which the flow of water is cut off by means of a circular disc., fitting against machine-smoothed faces, at right angles to the direction of flow. 1.30 Reflux Valve: A non return valve used in a pipe line at a rising gradient to prevent water that is ascending the gradient from flowing back in the event of a burst lower down.
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DRAINAGE
1.0 TERMINOLOGY a) Manhole (Manhole Chamber): Any chamber constructed on a drain or sewer so as to provide access there to for inspection testing or the clearance of obstruction. b) Gully Chamber: The chamber built of masonry around a gully trap, for housing the same. c) Gully Trap: A trap water seal provided in a drainage system in a suitable position to collect waste water from the scullery, kitchen sink, wash basins, baths and rain water pipes.
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1.1 Septic Tank: A water tight single storied tank in which sewage is retained sufficiently long to permit sedimentation of suspended solids and partial digestion of settled sludge by anaerobic bacteria.
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1.2 Soak Pit Seepage Pit/ Soak Way: A pit through which effluent is allowed to seep or leach into the surrounding soil
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Chapter-6
MANDATORY TESTS AS PER CPWD SPECIFICATIONS
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MANDATORY TEST AS PER CPWD SPECIFICATIONS 1.0 General: - For better quality assurance of the building product, certain mandatory Test are required to be done for maintaining quality and standards of construction materials. 2.0 Mortars:-Mandatory Tests of following ingredient material of mortar is to be done (i)Water (ii) Cement (iii) Sand (iv) Fine Aggregates 2.1 WATER Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing.
Permissible Limits of Impurities in Water (a) Limits of Acidity: To neutralize 100ml sample of water, using phenolphthalein as an indicator, it should not require more than 5ml of 0.02 normal NaOH. (b) Limits of Alkalinity: To neturalise 100ml sample of water, using mixed indicator, it should not require more than 25ml of 0.02 normal H2SO4. (c) Percentage of Solids: Maximum permissible limits of solids when tested in accordance with IS 3025 shall be as under: Organic 200mg/ litre Inorganic 3000 mg/ litre Sulphates 400 mg/ litre Chlorides 2000 mg/ litre for concrete not containing embedded steel and 500 mg./ltr for reinforced concrete work. Suspended matter 2000 mg/ litr
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2.2 CEMENT& SAND & FLY ASH
Setting Time of Cement: Setting time of cement of any type of any grade when tested by Vicat apparatus method described in IS 4031 shall conform to the following requirement: (a) Initial setting time: Not less than 30 minutes
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(b) Final setting time: Not more than 600 minutes 2.3 FINE AGGREGATE Aggregate most of which passes through 4.75 mm IS sieve is known as fine aggregate. Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, crushed stone sand. (a) Silt Content: The maximum quantity of silt in sand shall not exceed 8%. (b)Grading: On the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded in to four zones..
Note: Fine aggregate conforming to Grading Zone IV shall not be used in reinforced cement concrete . (c)Deleterious Material: Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities. The maximum quantities of clay, fine silt, fine dust and organic impurities in the sand / Marble dust shall not exceed the following limits: Clay, fine silt and fine dust when determined in accordance within IS 2386 (Part II). In natural sand or crushed gravel sand & crushed stone sand
Not more than 5% by mass
(d) Bulking: Fine aggregate, when dry or saturated, has almost the same Volume but dampness causes increase in volume which is called bulking.
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3.0 CC WORK:- In addition to the tests of materials as mortar, test of coarse aggregate has also to done in CC Work.
3.1 Deleterious Material: Coarse aggregate shall not contain any deleterious material, such as pyrites, coal, lignite, mica, shale etc. 3.2 Size and Grading (i) Stone aggregate and gravel: It shall be either graded or single sized as specified. Nominal size and grading shall be as under:-
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3.3 Workability of Concrete The concrete mix proportion chosen should be such that the concrete is of adequate workability for the placing conditions of the concrete and can properly be compacted Workability of concrete is to be tested by Slump cone Method. 4.0 RCC WORK
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4.1 Tests of Steel - In addition to the Tests as disused in CC Work ,Mandatory tests of Steel Reinforcement has also to be carried out as given below 4.1.1 All the tests pieces shall be selected by the Engineering-Charge by cutting of bars. 4.1.2 Tensile Test: 0.2% proof stress and percentage elongation This shall be done as per IS 1608, read in conjunction with IS 226. 0.2% Proof stress:-The stress at which a elongation of 0.2% of original gauge takes place Percentage Elongation: - Elongation corresponding to maximum load reached in a tensile test. 4.1.3 Rebend test: This shall be done as per IS 1786. 4.1.4 Chemical composition of reinforcement bars shall be as per Table 5.3 as follows:-
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5.0 Strength of Concrete The compressive strength on the work tests for different mixed shall be as given in Table 5.5 below:-
5.0 Cube Test for Compressive Strength of Concrete - Mandatory Lab Test: Mandatory tests shall be carried out.
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5.1 (a) 7 days Tests Sampling: The average of the strength of three specimen shall be accepted as the compressive strength of the concrete provided the variation in strength of individual specimen is not more than + 15% of the average. 5.1 (b) 28 days Test The average of the strength of three specimen be accepted as the compressive strength of the concrete provided the strength of any individual cube shall neither be less than 70% nor higher than 130% of the specified strength. 5.1 Slump Test: This test shall be carried out as prescribed. 6.0 BRICK WORK
For the purpose of sampling a lot shall contain a maximum, of 50,000 bricks. In case a consignment has bricks more than 50,000, it shall be divided into lots of 50,000 bricks or part thereof.
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6.1 Dimensional Tolerances: The dimensions of, modular bricks when tested as described above shall be within the following limits per 20 bricks or locally available size as approved by Engineer-in-charge. (a) For modular bricks Length 7320 to 3880 mm (3800 80 mm) Width 1760 to 1840 mm (1800 40 mm) Height 1760 to 1840 mm (1800 40 mm) for 90 mm high bricks 760 to 840 mm (800 40 mm) for 40 mm high bricks (b) For non modular bricks Length 4520 to 4680 mm (4600 80 mm) Width 2240 to 2160 mm (2200 40 cm) Height 1440 to 1360 mm (1400 40 mm) for 70 mm high bricks 640 to 560 mm (600 40 mm) for 30 mm high bricks 6.2 Compressive Strength: The bricks, when tested in accordance with the procedure shall have a minimum average compressive strength for various classes as additional class e.g 100 kg/ sq.cm ,75 kg/ sq.cm etc 6.3 Water Absorption: The average water absorption of bricks when tested shall be not more than 20% by weight. 6.4 Efflorescence: The rating of efflorescence of bricks when tested in accordance with the procedure laid down in Appendix D of Chapter 6 shall be not more than moderate. 7.0 WOOD WORK
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7.1 Moisture Content Control on moisture content of timber is necessary to ensure its proper utility in various climatic conditions. For specifying the permissible limit of moisture content in the timber the country has been divided into four climatic zones each of the zones, maximum permissible limit of moisture content of timber for different uses, as per Table 9.2
7.2 Tolerance on Moisture Content: Average Moisture content of all the samples from a lot shall be within + 3 per cent and moisture content of individual samples within + 5 per cent of maximum permissible moisture content specified in Table 9.2. 7.3 Flush Door Shutters One sample for every 100 sqm or part thereof shall be taken and testing done as per IS 3097. However, testing may not be done if the total requirement of veneered particle boards in a work is less than 30 sqm. All the samples tested shall meet the requirements of physical and mechanical properties of veneered particle boards as under:
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8.0 STEEL WORK
9.0 FLOORING
9.1 TEST REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURE FOR TESTING OF PRECAST CC/TERRAZO TILES Sampling The number of tiles selected for each mandatory test shall be as follows
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(a) For conformity to requirements on shape and dimensions, wearing layer, and general quality - 12 tiles (b) For wet transverse strength test - 6 tiles (c) For resistance to wear test - 6 tiles (d) For water absorption test - 6 tiles A. Water Absoption When tested the average water absoption shall not exceed 10 per cent. B. Wet Transverse Strength Test Six full size tiles shall be tested for the determination of wet transverse strength., the average wet transverse strength shall not be less than 3 N/mm2 (30 kgf/cm2) C. Resistance to Wear Test When tested according to IS 1237 edition 2.3, average wear shall not exceed 3.5 mm and the wear on any individual specimen shall not exceed 4 mm, for general purpose tiles. And 2 mm and 2.5 mm of average wear on any individual specimen, respectively for heavy duty floor tiles.
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Chapter-7
Building ServicesExternal/Internal Planning, Design & Execution of Water Supply
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QUALITY OF WATER AND DESIGN OF EXTERNAL WATER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 1.0 QUALITY OF WATER Absolute pure water is never found in nature. Water found in nature contains a number of impurities in varying amount in the form of salts, gases, bacteria algae etc. 1.1 Only potable water is to be supplied in a water supply scheme. A potable water is one that is safe to drink, pleasant to the taste, and usable for domestic purpose. Contaminated water is one that contains micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial or other waters, or sewage so that it is unfit for its intended use. 1.2 The following are the standards of water to be used for domestic purposes. Physical Temperature Odour Colour Turbidity Taste Chemical Total Solids Hardness - upto 500 p.p.m. - 75 p.p.m. to 115 p.p.m. (hardness expressed as caco3 equivalent) Chlorides Iron and Manganese PH Value Lead Arsenic Sulphate Carbonate Alkalxity - upto 250 p.p.m. - upto 0.3 p.p.m. - 6.5 to 8 - 0.1 p.p.m. - upto 250 p.p.m. - upto 120 p.p.m. - 100 c to 15.60 c - 0 to 4 P0 value - 10 to 20 (platinum cobalt scale) - 5 to 10 ppm (Silica scale) - no objectionable taste
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Dissolve Oxygen B.O.D. Biological B- coil Most Probable Number (M.P.N)
- 5 to 6 p.p.m. - Nil
- No B- coil in 100 ml. - One Number in 100 ml.
1.3 Regular periodical chemical, physical and bacteriological tests of water samples shall be got it done through approved laboratory. Remedial measures based on test results shall be taken. 2.0 Treatment Process The treatment process depends on the impurities present in water. For removing various types of impurities, the following treatment processes are used. Impurity 1. Floating matters such as leaves etc., 2. Suspended impurities as silt clay, Sand etc. 3. 4. Fine suspended matter Micro-organism and Colloidal matters 5. Dissolved gases, tastes and odours 6. 7. Softening Pathogenic bacteria Aeration and chemical treatment Permutit method Disinfections Sedimentation with coagulation Filtration Process used for removal Screening Plain Sedimentation
2.1 We generally use either Municipal water or ground water. Water received from above sources are usually clear and may require only disinfection, chemical treatment softening etc. Therefore discussion is only restricted to the disinfection of water. 2.2 Methods of Disinfection
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The disinfection of water can be done by the following common methods. a) By the boiling of water. b) By ultra-violet rays. c) By the use of ozone. d) By treatment with silver or electro-Katadyn process. e) By the use of Iodine and Bromine. f) By the use of excess lime. g) By using potassium permanganate. h) By the use of chloride. Methods a.b.c.d. & e are effective but very costly. Therefore these methods can be used at individual level and can not be used in water works. 2.2.1 Disinfection by Chlorine Disinfection by Chlorine is very useful to kill the various Micro-Organisms present in the water. When Chlorine is dissolved in water, it hydrolysis immediately as :
Cl2 + H2O
HOCL + H+ + Cl( Hypochlorous Acid)
After some time Hypochlorous Acid further ionizes as HOCL H+ + OCL( Hypochlorite Ions)
Two prevailing species HOCL (Hypochlorous Acid) and OCL- (Hypochlorite Ion) are called Free Available Chlorine and are responsible for the disinfection of water. 2.2.1.1 Forms of Chlorine Chlorine is generally available in the following forms a) b) In the forms of Liquid Chlorine. In the forms of gaseous Chlorine.
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c) d) e)
In the form of Chlorine dioxide. In the form Chloramines. In the form of Bleaching Powder.
Form of Chlorine (a) to (d) require treatment plants and are used in big water works. For small colonies we commonly use Bleaching Powder as a source of Chlorine for disinfection. When Bleaching Powder (Calcium Hypochlorite) is added to the water, following chemical reaction takes place. Ca (ocl)2 (Calcium Hypochlorite) ----Ca++ + 2OCL(Hypochlorite Ions)
Hypochlorite ions obtained further combine with Hydrogen ions present in water and form hypochlorous Acid as follows OCl- + H+ HOCL (Hypochlorous Acid) Hypochlorous Acid and Hypochlorite Ions so formed kills the bacteria present in the water. 2.2.1.2 Dosage of Chlorine In normal waters that are pre treated with settling and filtration, a chlorine of about 0.2 to 1 ppm (Particle Per Million) may be required to obtain the desired results. The commercial bleaching powder normally contains low values of chlorine which vary 25-30%. The value of chlorine content continuously decreases if the powder is exposed to the atmosphere; therefore it should be stored in air tight container. The dose of Bleaching Powder should be calculated properly. If the dose is less, it will not be effective to kill the Bacteria and if it is more, odour and taste of water will be objectionable and will not be potable. 3.0 Example Given Data Population of Colony = 1,000
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Demand of water Availability of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder Required dosage of Chlorine in water at Water works.
= 200 litre/Capita/day = 30%
= 0.3 p.p.m.
Calculate the Quantity of Chlorine & Bleaching Powder required Per day ? Solution
Water requirement of The colony
= =
200 x 1,000 2 x 100000 litre
Chlorine dose required For disinfection
0.3 p.p.m. = 0.3 mg/litre
Quantity of Chlorine Required
0.3 x 2 x 105 mg
60 gm/day
Quantity of Bleaching Powder
60 x 100 30
200 gm.
DEMAND REQUIREMENT AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1.0 The demand load of water supply system in a building is not exactly determinable. The total daily requirement of the buildings is calculated on the basis of the population to be served and per capita rate of supply. Calculate the population on the
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basis of the five members per family, and number of dwelling units in the building. The per capita rate may be taken as 200 lit/head/day as residences are to be provided with full flushing system. In case of non-residential buildings the daily consumption per day in liters shall be given table B and the population to be provided for, shall be as per actual requirements in the building or as given in table A. 1.1 Requirement of water for Buildings The total expected population of the building should first be worked out with reference to area of the building by using table A. The total requirement of water per day of this population should be calculated on the basis of table B. This would give the figure for storage of general water supply. 2.0 General Guide lines for Underground and Over Head Tank 2.1 The underground and overhead tank with independent staging should be designed and constructed for the ultimate requirements of the building or complex to meet the needs of further expansion. 2.2 Whenever temporary overhead water storage tanks are located over the terrace of a building with a provision for future vertical extension, such tanks should be designed for 1/3rd daily requirement of existing phase only. However the underground tank should be designed for 2/3rd of ultimate daily requirement of the building after further expansion. 3.0 Principles and General Guidelines for Planning of External Water Supply System. 3.1 Distribution 3.1.1 Pipe Work a) There should be no inter- connection or cross connection whatsoever between pipe or fitting for conveying or containing whole some water and a pipe or fitting for containing impure water. b) All pipe work should be completely water tight. c) No piping should be laid in or through any sewer or drain or any manhole. d) To reduce frictional losses, the piping should be as smooth. e) Change in diameter and direction should preferably be gradual rather than abrupt to avoid undue loss of head. 3.1.2 Water Supply Mains a) b) c) d) Mains should be divided into sections by provisions of sluice valves (or stop valves if the main is of 50mm bore or less). Air valves should be provided at summits and washouts at low points. Washouts should not be discharged into drain. Mains may follow general contour of the ground. They should, fall continuously towards the washouts and rise continuously towards the air valves.
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Provisions should be made at every bend, branch and dead end in a main to resist the hydraulic thrust. 3.1.3 General Principles for Arrangements of External Water Supply Pipe The distribution pipes consist of supply mains, branches and laterals. They are normally laid sloping from high level to low level areas to secure maximum advantage of head available due to gravity. Sluice valves are placed at intervals on straight runs, at junctions and at branching of points to control the flow of water in different sections. 4.0 LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 4.1 Dead End System Since the distribution pipes are to be laid under the roads in towns, their layout gets guided by the layout of the roads. Where the roads are not properly planned, the water supply mains have to follow main roads and branches are taken off from these at different junction which usually terminate at a number of dead ends. Each system has also to be followed in the ribbon development which usually takes place along the main roads to longer towns, and cities. This system requires less number of valves to control the flow in the system and also shorter pipe lengths so that it is cheap and simple but since water can be reached to any place by only one route, any damage and subsequent repair to the pipe line result in shutting downs the supply of a large area ahead. Further the dead ends in the system cause the water in pipe to remain stagnant which results in the degradation of its quality.
e)
4.2 Grid Iron System Where the roads arranged in grid iron pattern the pipe lines are laid similarly in the form of net work with number of interconnections. Water reaches different places through more than one route. Hence the amounts to be carried frictional losses, and the sizes of the pipe get reduced. However the system requires more length of pipes and number of
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sluice valves to control it. It is also difficult to design and costlier to construct. But it eliminates all dead ends and because of its different interconnections the water remains in constant circulation. If repairs are to be carried out to any pipe, only a small portion in the vicinity gets affected, since water can be supplied ahead by some other route.
4.3 The Ring Main System The capacity of grid iron can be enhanced and the pressure can be improved by running a looped feeder around the high demand section and arranging grid over it.
Table - A The assessment of the population in occupancies based on plinth area (clause 6.2.1. part IX Plumbing services section I. Water supply and clause 7,5 or part IV fire protection as given in National Building code of India )
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Type of Building i) Staff Quarters & residence
Population Assume a family of 5 person per quarter or an area of 12.5m2/person whichever is more. 10.00m2/person
ii) Technical buildings such as Telephone Exchange Buildings, Telecom Buildings, Factories And workshop. iii) Post offices and Administrative Buildings iv) Dormitories v) Assembly without seating facilities including Tiffin rooms, dining rooms canteen etc. vi) Day Schools, Boarding schools and Hostels. vii) Community halls viii) Institutional ix) Stores
10.00m2/person 7.50m2/person
1.5m2/person 4.00m2/person 1.5 m2/person 15.00m2/person 30.00m2/person
Table B Building i) Staff Quarters & residence Demand of Water 200 Liters/ head/ day (Para 5.1.N.B.C. 1983) 45 liters/ head/ day (Para 3.2 IS-1172-1971)
ii) Technical buildings such as Telephone Exchange Buildings, Telecom, Buildings, factories And workshops. iii) Post offices and Administrative Buildings Iv ) Dormitories v) Assembly without seating facilities including Tiffin rooms,
45 liters/ head/ day (Para 3.2 IS-1172/ 1971) 135 liters/ head/ day (para 3.2 IS-1172-1971) 70 liters/ seat/ day (Para 3.2 Is. 1172 1971)
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dining rooms canteen etc. vi) School a) Day Schools, b) Boarding Schools and Hostels. vii) Institutions viii) Community halls ix) Stores
45 liters/ head/ day 135 liters/head/day 45 liters/ head/ day 15 liter/seat/day 45 liters/ head/ day
DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 1.0 Till date no direct methods are available for design of distribution pipes. While doing the design, diameter of pipes are assumed. Terminal pressure is calculated, after allowing the losses of head, when full peak flow discharge is flowing. The Hazens williams formula is widely used for determining the velocity through pipes. V = 0.85 CH.R0.63. S0.54 V = Velocity m/Sec. S = Slope of the Energy Line. R = Hydraulic Mean Depth R = A/P = (Cross section Area/ Perimeter) CH = Coefficient of Hydraulic Capacity.(Roughness Cofficient) For circular conduits, expression becomes V = 4.567 X 10-3.CH.d0.63.S0.54 Discharge Q = 3.1 X 10-4 X CH. d2.63 . S0.54 In the above said expression Q = Discharge in K.L Per day d = Dia of pipe in mm S = Slope of Hydraulic Gradient CH = Coefficient of Hydraulic Capacity (Roughness Coefficient). 1.1 Value of CH for Different Pipes (Hazens Williams Coefficient) The value of CH for new conduit materials are as follows:
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sl. No. Conduit Material Value CH for New Material Recommended Value of CH for design purpose
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. 2. Cast Iron G.I. for more than 50mm dia G.I. for less than 50mm Steel rivetted joints Steel, welded joints with cement or bitumen enamel Steel, welded joints Concrete A.C. 130 100
120 120 110
100 55 95
3. 4. 5.
140 140 140 150
110 100 110 120
6. 7. 8.
9. P.V.C. 150 120 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.2 Head Losses due to Friction Head loss due friction can be determined by the formula
1 X Q 1.85 L
HL
= --------------0.094
---------CH
X --------------D4.97
HL = Head loss due to friction in M L= Length of pipe in M. Q= Discharge in cum/sec. D = Inner dia of pipe in m CH = Coefficient of Hydraulic Capacity
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Head loss in assumed pipe diameter is determined by above formula. After deduction head loss, the terminal pressure is determined. 2.0 2.1 2.2 General Design Guide Lines Design Period It is generally taken 30 years for new distribution system. Peak Factor Capacity of distribution system should be sufficient to meet the maximum hourly flow which can be computed by multiplying the average hourly flow the following peak factors. For Towns having Population i) Up to 50,00 = 3.0 ii) From 50,000 to 2 lac = 2.5 iii) Above 2 lac = 2.0 iv) For Industrial demand = 1.0 Rate of Water Supply As discussed earlier. Generally we may assume 200 lit/capita/day for staff quarters. Terminal Pressure Distribution system should be designed for following minimum terminal pressure i) ii) iii) 2.5 Single Stroyed Building Double Stroyed Building Three Stroyed Building = = = 7.0m 12.0m 17.0m
2.3 2.4
Permissible Velocity The permissible velocity is kept as per follows --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Diameter of pipe Approximate value of the velocity (Internal in cm) meter/second --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10 0.9 15 1.2 25 1.5 40 1.8 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3.0
Design of pipe Network Since the design of network involves the method of trial and error by assuming various diameters of the pipes, it is very tedious and cumbersome job. To reduce the tedious calculations, the Hazens Williams Nomogram is used Hazens Williams chart for various materials of pipe are available in Public Health Engineering departments of the state Govt. For using the Nomogram, a straight edge is placed on any two known values, such as discharge and velocity, and the value of the two other unknowns such loss of head per thousand meter and the diameter of pipe can be directly read out. If the terminal pressure in any particular zone is found to be more or less than the minimum permissible, than size of pipe can be suitably decreased or increased. The process is continued on trial till the terminal pressures are obtained.
4.0 Example Design a water supply scheme. Various zone and population shown in plan as Annexure A. Average requirement of water = Reduced Level of O.H.T. = R.L. of Point A = ------do-------- B = ------do-------- C = ------do-------- D = Length of pipe AB = ------do-------- BC = ------do-------- CD = Peak Factor = Minimum terminal pressure = 200 lit/ capita/ day 120 m 100m 98m 96m 93m 700m 500m 600m 3 17.00m
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Annexure A
200
200
500
200
500
A
O.H.T.
500 300 200 300 300 200 400 400

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400
500
700
O.H.T.
D 500
600
300
300
900
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S. N
Line
Population Served
Maximum Demand 3x200xP 24x60x60 Lit./second
Proposed dia meter of pipe in mm
Loss of head
Hydra ulic level in M
Groun d level in M
Termin al Head in M
Previous
Local
Total
Rate per 1000 M 6 14.58 150 7 8 8.0
Length of pipe in M
Loss in pipe in M
1 1.
2 CD
3 -----
4 2100
5 2100
9 600
10 4.8
11 D= 111.1 C= 115.9 B= 117.9
12 D = 93
13 18.1 O.K 19.0 O.K 19.9 O.K
2.
BC
2100
800
2900
20.14
200
4.0
500
2.0
C = 96
3.
AB
2900
1300
4200
29.17
250
3.0
700
2.1
B = 98
A = 120 A = 100 20
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DESIGN OF INTERNAL WATER SUPPLY 1.0 1.1 Principle and General Guide for Planning of Internal Water Supply System The maximum rate of demand for water in premises should be estimated based on number, nature and use of the fittings provided. A stop valve should be provided in the service pipe in an accessible position inside the building, as near as practicable to the point of entry of pipe, so that the supply may be readily shut off in case of trouble and for repairs. Where practicable, water for drinking should not pass through O/H Tank and taps supplying water for these purposes should be supplied directly from service pipe. The services should be designed and installed so as to avoid airlocks. Service should be designed and installed so as to reduce the production and transmission of noise as much as, possible. High velocity of water in piping should be avoided Noise may be reduced by the use of thick walled piping and choice of pipe material. All pipe work should be planned so that the piping is accessible for inspection, replacement and repair.
1.2
1.3
1.4 1.5
1.6
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NUMBER OF CONNECTIONS FED FROM A MAIN DIA OF DELIVERY PIPE 100 100mm 90mm 80mm 65mm 50mm 40mm 32mm 25mm 20mm 1 90 1 1 80 2 1 1 DIAMETER OF BRANCH PIPE (MM)
65 3 2 2 1 -
50 6 4 6 2 1 -
40 10 8 6 3 2 1 -
32 17 13 10 6 3 2 1 -
25 32 25 18 11 6 3 2 1 -
20 53 43 32 19 10 6 3 2 1
15 113 88 66 39 20 12 7 4 2
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Chapter-8
Building Services (External/Internal) Design & Execution of Sanitary Installation
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DESIGN OF SEWER SYSTEM 1.0 Introduction: - In the modern sewage disposal system, sewage is carried by water. 2.0 Layout of Sewer System: Flowing are the various layouts for sewer systems: Separate System Combined System Partially Separate System When the drainage and sewage are taken independently of each other through different set of conduits it is called a separate system. And when drainage is taken along with the sewage it is called combined system. Sometimes a part of drainage is allowed to be admitted into sewers, this system is called partially separate system. 3.0 Estimating the Design Sewage of sewerage Quantity of sewage must be estimated correctly as possibly Design of Sewage must be economical. Theoretically it depends upon the water supply. Water supply finally gets converted into sewage. But in actual practice some addition and subtraction taken place in municipal supply. 3.1 Design period:The following design periods are often used in designing the different component sewages scheme. Design Periods for Different Components of a Sewerage Scheme Sl. No. (1) 1. 2. 3. 4. Type & Name of the Component Structure (2) Lateral sewers, less than 15 cm in dia. Branches, mains, and, Trunk sewers. Treatments Units Pumping Plant. Special characteristics and reasons for the selected design period (3) Requirements may change faster in limited area. Difficult and costly to enlarge. Growth and Interest rates being high to moderate. The additional Pumps can be installed in future, very easily and also within a short notice. Design Period in Years (4) Full development. 40 -50 15 - 20 5 - 10
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3.2 Variation in Per Capita Water Demand and Sewage Production with Population in India. Sl. No. (1) Population (2) Per Capita Water demand in litres/day/person(q) (3) Per Capita Sewage production in litres/ day/ person q=80% of col.(3) (4) 90 90 120 120 150 150 170 170 190 190 200
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Less than 20,000 20,000 50,000 50,000 2 lakhs 2 lakhs 5 lakhs 5 lakhs - 10 lakhs Over 10 lakhs
110 110 150 150 180 180 210 210 240 240 270
3.3 Variation in sewage flow and their effects on design of various components of sewages The flow of sewage fluctuates seasonally, monthly, daily, as well as hourly depending on water consumption. The estimation of maximum hourly flow for different types of sewage is given in the following table Hourly Variations in Sewage Flow Ratio of maximum flow to average flow 1. Trunk main above 1.25 m in dia. 1.5 2. Mains up to 1 m in dia. 2.0 3. Branches up to 0.5 m in dia. 3.0 4. Laterals and small sewers upto 0.25 m in dia. 4.0 The sizes of the sewers can then be easily designed for carrying the computed maximum hourly flows, with sewers running 3/4th full. This peak sewage flow has been connected with the population and can be calculated by the formula. 18 + P Qmax = ------------- Qav 4 + P Where P = Population in thousands. Qmax = Peak sewage flow Qav= Average sewage flow Sl. No Type of Sewer
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3.4 Minimum flow: -The minimum flow passing through a sewer is also an important factor in the design of particular sewer, because at low flow, velocity will be reduced which may cause silting in sewer hence, slope at which the sewer is to be laid has to be decided on the basis of minimum permissible velocity. For branch sewer in moderate area the maximum daily or hourly sewage flow, can be expressed as: Minimum daily flow = 2/3 average daily flow Minimum hourly flow = 1/2 minimum daily flow = 1/3 average daily flow The sewer must be checked for minimum velocity at their minimum hourly flow. 3.5 Provision of Freeboard in Sewers and S.W. Drains The sanitary sewers, as pointed out earlier, are designed large enough to carry the maximum sewage discharge while flowing half or three-fourth or two-third full. Generally, the sewer pipes of sizes less than 0.4 m dia are designed as running half full at maximum discharge, and the sewer pipes greater than 0.4 m in dia are design as running 2/3 rd or 3/4th full at maximum discharge. The extra space, thus left, above the designed full supply line, will leave an ample margin, as to act as a factor of safety to counter-act against the factors, such as: (i) Low estimates of the average and maximum flows, made due to some wrong data obtained regarding the private water consumption by industries, or public, or about the quantit y to be supplied from the water -works at the end of the design period. (ii) Large scale infiltration of storm water due to wrong or illegal connections, and that of underground water t hrough cracks or open joints in the sewers. (iii) Unforeseen increase in population or water consumption and the consequent increase in sewage production. Table 4.6. N.B.O (National Building Organisation) Recommendations for Small Sewers Dia of the sewer in mm Gradient required to generate self cleansing velocity Velocity generated in the sewer when running half full, for which depth, small sewer are usually designed (3) (2) 1 in 60 1 in 100 1 in 120 0.58 m/sec 0.61 m/sec 0.79 m/sec
(1) 100 150 225
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3.6 Maximum Velocities. The smooth interior surface of a sewer pipe gets scoured due to the continuous abrasion caused by the suspend solids present in sewage. It is, therefore, necessary to limit the maximum velocity that will be produced in the sewer pipe at any time. This limiting or non-scouring velocity will mainly depend upon the material of the sewer, and its values are given in Table 4.7 for different commonly used sewer materials. Table 4.7. Non-scouring Limiting Velocities in Sewers and Drains S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sewer Material Vitrified tiles and glazed bricks Cast iron sewers Stone ware sewers Cement concrete sewers Ordinary brick -lined sewers Earthen channels Limiting velocity in m/sec 4.5-5.5 3.5-4.5 3.0-4.0 2.5-3.0 1.5-2.5 0.6-1.2
The problem of controlling the high velocities generated in the sewers mainly arises in hilly areas, where the available ground slopes may be very steep. In such places, available extra head may be controlled by providing the drops in the manholes, at suitable places along the length of the sewer. 4.0 DESIGN OF SEWERS. 4.1 Precaution for Planning Sanitary Installation For office buildings Layout should be as simple as possible Make sure that WCs discharge directly in to the stack without unnecessary bends Pipes should be approachable Pipes should not be embedded in the wall Holes made in the wall for laying of pipes should be closed sealed.
4.2 Gradient and pipe sizes The self cleansing velocity of 0.75 m/sec should be aimed Wherever not possible, a flatter gradient can be used but min. velocity should not be less than 0.61 m/sec wherever unavoidable, velocity should not be greater than 2.4 m/sec- If so use Castiron pipes
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The approximate gradients which give self cleansing velocity when flowing half full is as under:
5.0 Example :Design a separate sewer system for given data

TE Bldg. (Area 1000m2)
A 7T-II
B 7T-III
C G
H I
F 7T-IV D A E 5T-V
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5.1 SOLUTION:S. Type No. of bldg. (1) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (2) 7T-II 7T-III 7T-IV 5T-V TE Bldg Plinth area m2 (3) 50.00 60.75 No. of person/qtr Qty. Of water in ltr/day (5) 7x 5 x200 7x 5 x200 7x7.0x200 5x12x200 100x45 Qty of sewage per day 0.8x col 5 (m3 ) (6) 5.6 5.6 7.84 9.6 3.6 Peak flow of m3/min Col 6 x 3/24x60 (7) 0.012 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.01
(4) 50/12.5 = 4 60.75/12.5= 4.86 =5 88.00 88/12.5 = 7.05 =7 145.75 145.75/12.5=12 = 11.6 1000 1000/10 = 100
Note : For residence, minimum family of 5 person are to be adopted. SEWER NETWORK DESIGN S. Line No. (1) A B C D E F G (2) Discharge m3/min (3) 0.012 0.012 0.024 (A+B) 0.016 0.02 0.036(D+E) 0.06 (C+F) Dia of pipe in mm (Table 19.1) (4) 100 100 100 100 100 100 150 Slope Remarks
(5) 1:57 1:57 1:57 1:57 1:57 1:57 1:100
(6)
150mm dia taken due to Practical Consideration 150mm dia taken due to Practical Consideration
H I
0.01 0.07 (G+H)
100 150
1:57 1:100
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6.0 SOME IMPORTANT POINTS for Quality of Pipes & Fittings:(i)Two type of pipes are available (a)Sand cast iron pipes -conforming to 1759-available in 1.8 m length(b)spun cast iron pipes conforming to 3989-available in 1.74 m length (ii)There is a tendency on the part of contractor to use Rain water grade pipes (iii)There is a tendency to use more of yarn and less of lead (iv) Sanitary fittings are classified as First and Commercial. The standard companies mark the commercial sign boldly on commercial fittings. The commercial quality will have defects which are not visible but their performance is not good subsequently .
7.0 CHECK LIST OF SANITARY INSTALLATION Pipes-check for size and strength of materials Valves- check for conformity to specification and pressure Check jointing Check that all installations are approachable for maintenance Check standard weights, Dimensions Check clamps Check Quality of lead in lead jointing Water tanks, size, fittings, whether mosquito proof coupling & lid fixed properly or not Check - General line and level of installations
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Chapter-9
DESIGN OF KITCHEN, BATHROOM & OTHER FACILITIES OF BUILDING
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DESIGN OF KITCHEN, BATHROOM & OTHER FACILITIES OF BUILDING

I. KITCHEN STANDARDS
1.0 INTORDUCTION:Kitchen design should be functional in the sense of minimizing reaching and stooping. Storage facilities should be provided at suitable height so that a woman can reach with both feet flat on the floor. Kitchen Function is the basis of good design, especially in an area where you'll be working day after day. But to make your life easier and more enjoyable, you'll want to start out with a clear plan for your work triangle, because you can save yourself a lot of unnecessary movement-and time-over the years There should be sufficient space to store items so that they may be easily seen, reached, grasped, and taken down and put back without excessive strain.
1.1
COUNTERS AND WORKING SURFACE:-
The height of counters and working surfaces should permit a comfortable working posture. The worker should be able to sit, if she wishes, while doing certain kitchen tasks, such as working at the sink. Continuous lines and surfaces permit ease of movement, and are easier to keep clean.
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Kitchen Platform Counter Detail
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1.2 WHAT IS WORK TRAINGLE

The Kitchen work triangle consists of the distances between the locations of Refrigerator, Kitchen Platform & Sink in the kitchen. For good planning, the following Kitchen Work Triangle basics should be observed
1.2.1 Kitchen Work Triangle Basics

Each leg of the triangle should be between 4 feet and 9 feet. The total of all three legs should be between 12 feet and 26 feet. No obstructions (cabinets, islands, etc.) should intersect a leg of the work triangle Household traffic should not flow through the work triangle
1.3 KITCHEN LAYOUTS

Your kitchen layout is often dictated by the size of the room, the way you use the space and the dynamics of your family.
There are five basic kitchen layouts. One Wall Layout Galley Layout (Corridor-Style) U Shaped Layout L Shaped Layout G Sharpe Kitchen Layout
1.3.1 One Wall Kitchen Layout

One wall kitchen offers a very open and well-ventilated kitchen & is suitable for apartment or small home.
The one wall kitchen offer a neat solution for small kitchen as everything is contained in one wall. One wall kitchen layout places all the equipment, sink, and cabinetry along one
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wall. As you cannot create a triangle in one wall kitchen layout, maximize accessibility by locating the sink between the refrigerator and the cook stove.
1.3.2 Galley Kitchen Layout

Galley kitchen layout is also known as corridor or parallel kitchen layout. The galley kitchen layout is best option when space is limited as you can place the appliances on opposite sides which help the workflow.
1.3.3 U shape Kitchen Design

A U shape kitchen is what many experts believe to be the most efficient kitchen design. Cabinets, counters, appliances are all arranged along three walls in a U configuration. The greatest benefit for this plan is ease of traffic flow.
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1.3.4 L Shape Kitchen Design

L-Shaped Kitchen most flexible and most popular kitchen layout
L shaped kitchen design places the kitchen on two perpendicular walls. L shape usually consists of one long and one short "legs" and lends itself to an efficient work triangle without the problem of through traffic. If it's well designed, it is flexible enough for two cooks to work simultaneously without getting in each other's way.
1.3.5 G Shape Kitchen Design

G-Shaped kitchen offers a great deal of space. G shape kitchen design is a hybrid of U shape with a shorter fourth leg added in the form of a peninsular. While the G shape may be suitable for more than one person, working in the kitchen offers a great deal of space, ideal for larger families needing extra storage space.
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1.4 Some important point to be remember 1.4.1 DOOR ENTRY:

a) The clear opening of a Main entrances door should be at least 39(inch) 33including frame
Main door
b) The clear opening of a internal door should be at least 36(inch) 3-0 including frame
Internal door
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1.4.2 Dining area

i. The clear distance between wall and the edge of the dining table should not be less than 36 (inch) or 3 (feet) where no traffic passes behind a seated for single person as shown in the picture
ii.
The clear distance between wall and the walk past of the dining table should not be less than 44 (inch) or 3-7 (feet) where traffic passes behind a seated dinner , as shown in the picture.
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1.4.3 Cooking platform safety

Unacceptable Condition
a) Do not locate the cooking surface under an openable window b) Windows treatment above the cooking surface should not use flammable materials c) A fire extinguisher should be located near the exit of the kitchen away from cooking equipment. d) Place the fire extinguisher between 15 and 48 off the finish floor.
Acceptable Condition
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II.
BATHROOM STANDARDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The bathroom is often the smallest space in a house and the most frequently used. Therefore planning is the key to a successful bathroom. It is vital to plan what are the essential items required within the space as sometimes we cannot fit everything in and sacrifices or compromises have to be made.
Toilets can be categorised into three types: 1. Residential toilet 2. Public toilets 3. Toilet for differently abled persons. 1.1 Residential toilet:- It is further divided into two categories i) Attached toilet- meant for single person use, having provision for Washbasin, water
closet, shower with bathtub as shown in the diagram with minimum size possible.
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ii) General Toilet -for more than single persons use, having combined bath with WC
and separate wash basin.
1.2. Public Toilets:- Meant for more than one persons at a time, which are of two
types Male Toilet - With minimum provision for one WC, two wash basins and three urinals Female Toilet- With minimum provision for two WC (one western) and two wash basins of counter type.
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1.3. Toilet For Differently Abled Persons-:

Meant for single person use, having provision for special type WC (low height for wheel chair users) and wash basin with tilted axis, beside other facilities like grab bars and sliding door with minimum clear width of 2-8 (inch).
PLAN
SECTIONAL ELEVATION
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1.4 Minimum Sized Adaptable Bath Rooms
Clear Floor Space

Right Hand Approach
Clear Floor Space

Right Hand Approach
Rear Wall Elevation

without stall
Side Wall
without stall
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2.0 General Specifications for Toilets from Maintenance & Safety Considerations 2.1. Flooring
Non slippery (honed surface) not necessarily to be rough finish, as it attracts dirt / soap residue/ fungus Number of joints should be minimum and seam less (without gap) Proper slope towards floor trap Floor drop of minimum 1 (inch) at jamb/rebate location as shown in the drawing to avoid water splash during bathing
2.2. Dado
Number of Joints should be minimum and seam less (without gap) Minimum 3 feet high in WC area and 7 feet in bathing area Door /ventilators should be of high density water repellent material All plumbing pipes (Water Supply, Drain, Waste, Vent Pipes) should be located in one wall, to be easily repairable which saves materials also.
3.0 ANTHROPOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 3.1 Anthropometric considerations for Bath Room Standards
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3.2 Anthropometric considerations

Shower detail Bath Tub
3.3 Anthropometric considerations Lavatory Male

DOUBLE SINGLE
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3.4 CHILD ANTHROPOMETRIC CONSIDERATIOS
3.5 CLOSET AND STORAGE FACILITY
PLAN
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CLOSET AND STORAGE FACILITY SECTIONAL ELAVATION

FEMALE MALE
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Chapter-10
QUALITY CONTROL & EFFECTIVE INSPECTION OF BUILDING WORKS
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Quality Control & Effective Inspection Of Building Works

Quality control during construction of building is very important to achieve good qualit y and durable building. Effective & periodical inspection is ver y important tool to ensure qualit y construction. 1.0 Testing facilities to be available at site Field lab should be well equipped with: a) Standard Tool Kit (i) Ball pin hammer (ii) Screw driver (iii) Steel measuring tape (iv) Screw-guage &vernier calipers (v) Plumb bob (vi) Gunia (Right Angle) (vii) Soot (nylon thread) & gola b) c) d) e) f) g) Level, Theodolite. Cube mould (required nos.). Slump Cone Standard Sieves. Graduated cylinders, weighing balance. Cube testing machine (calibrated) etc.
2.0 Registers to be available at Site Cement register - Details of cement received should be entered with brand name, source of receipt, date of manufacture and a reference of test certificates. Steel Register -Details of steel received should be entered with brand name, source of receipt and a reference of test certificates. Test Registers Test registers to be maintained in the standard format. To be reviewed by SE/EE. Suitability of water for construction (a) Water for construction should be potable. (b) All Mandatory tests prescribed in BIS should be carried out before start of work and should be repeated at suitable /prescribed intervals.
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3.0 Quality and testing of materials/ products General Observations (i) Mandatory Field & Laboratory tests to be done to required number. (ii) Development plan, plan of compound should be available. (iii) Level of site should be taken before start of work. (iv) Water test should be carried out before start of work. (v) Columns reinforcement bars should be anchored in terrace beams. (vi) Last landing of staircase should be casted at higher than slab level. (vii) Brick on edge at plinth & roof slab should be done. (viii) Hoop iron bars in half brick work should be provided one every third course. (ix) Hacking of RCC surface should be done after removing shuttering. (x) In Aluminum work, brass/steel screws only should be used not the MS screws. (xi) Lead joint in plumbing should be done properly.
4.0 CHECK LIST FOR EFFECTIVE INSPECTION OF BUILDING WORKS 4.1 MATERIALS 4.1.1 COARSE AGGREGATE (1) Whether the stone aggregate is hard, strong, dense, durable and clean and cubical in shape and is not oversize. (2) Whether it contains flaky and elongated pieces limited to the accepted limit of 5%. (3) Whether it contains disintegrated or soft or deleterious material such as pyrites, coal, lignite etc. Deleterious material limit (<5%). (4) Whether the metal is well graded? (5) Whether it conforms to the grading given in CPWD Specifications. IS Sieve % passing by weight for Designation Un- graded graded stone aggregate 20 mm nominal 20 mm nominal size Size 40 mm 100% 100% 20 mm 85-100% 95-100% 10 mm 0-20% 25-55% 4.75 mm 0-5% 0-10% (6) Whether different sizes of ungraded aggregate are being mixed in proportion as recommended in table 4.3 of CPWD Specifications to achieve graded aggregate. (7) Whether coarse aggregate is tested for : (a) Determination of particle size and shape (b) Estimation of organic impurities
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(c) Determination of 10% fine value 4.1.2 SAND (1) Whether sand contains any harmful impurities. The impurities should not exceed 5%. (2) Whether sand is being tested for silt content / particle size distribution/ Bulkage etc. (3) Whether silt content is less than 8% if no, whether, sand is being washed to bring it within limit. (4) Whether record of particle size distribution is maintained? Whether the grading falls within the limits of grading zone I, II, III as given below IS Sieve I 10 mm 4.75 mm 2.36 mm 1.18 mm 600 microns 300 microns 150 microns 4.1.3 FORM WORK 1) Whether form work is strong enough to withstand all type of incidental loads imposed upon it during and after casting concrete. 2) Whether form work is made sufficiently rigid by using adequate number of ties and braces. 3) Whether wedges have been provided below props over the bearing plates. 4) Whether propping and centering is made of steel tubes etc. 5) Whether form work is water tight to avoid leakage of slurry. 6) Whether shuttering has holes from where slurry can leak. 7) Whether assembled form work has been provided with adequate camber, required for particular member (for beam and slab 1 in 250, for cantilever beam: 1 in 50). 8) Whether requisite stripping time is being adopted. 9) Whether the surface of shuttering are properly oiled by using suitable mould oil. 10) Whether the form work adequately depressed for toilet/ kitchen portion etc. 11) Whether form work and concreting of upper floor is being avoided prior to proper setting of concrete of lower floor. 12) Whether lower floor suitably supported while casting roof of upper floor. 4.1.4 REINFORCEMENT (1) Whether reinforcement bar is free from loose mill scales, dust, loose rust etc. 100 90-100 60-95 30-70 15-34 5-20 0-10 % Passing for Grading Zone II 100 90-100 75-100 55-90 35-59 8-30 0-10
III 100 90-100 85-100 75-100 60-79 12-40 0-10
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(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Whether the bar is free from coats of paints, oil etc. Whether the placing of bars is as per structural drawings. Whether adequate anchorage/development length has been ensured for each bar. Whether adequate lap has been provided. Bars in layers may be kept apart by 25 mm or 1 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate whichever is greater. (7) Whether overlaps are staggered. (8) (a) Whether binder/ stirrups/ links are of adequate size as per structural requirement. (b) Whether the straight portion of bar beyond curve in stirrups is 8 dia of bar. (9) Whether bars crossing one another are tied together at every intersection with two stands of annealed steel wire o.9 mm to 1.6 mm thickness twisted tight. (10) Whether pre-cast cover blocks are placed properly so that there is required cover for reinforcement. (11) Whether requisite cover blocks/ template being used to keep vertical bars in position. (12) Whether cover in coastal regions/ reactive atmosphere have been adequately increased. (13) Whether proper chairs/ spacers or support bars are provided to maintain the vertical distance between the horizontal bars. These are to be placed preferably at 1.0 m or less spacing. (14) Whether proper spacer bars have been provided in between two layers of bars. (15) Whether finished column is truly in plumb and not twisted. (16) Whether due reinforcement has been left for any future extension. (17) Whether exposed bars are covered in lean concrete.
4.2 QUALITY OF EXECUTION

4.2.1 CONCRETE (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Whether finish surface of concrete is homogeneous, non-porous and dense. Whether it gives a clear ringing sound when struck with a hammer. Whether the general workmanship such as its lines, levels etc are satisfactory. Whether its thickness is as per structural drawing. Whether the work is properly dated to watch for period of curing. Whether curing arrangements are adequate at site so as to keep the exposed surface constantly damp or wet for seven days. (7) Whether surfaces are hacked with pointed tool. These hacking should be spaced not more than 5 cm. Whether the pocks are more than 3 mm deep. (8) Wherever expansion joint is provided properly. (9) Whether construction joint are being provided as indicated in CPWD Specifications and are being provided where shear force is minimum. (10) Whether lifting hopper mixer is being used at site. If not, whether the labour is resorting to tokries system. (Use of measuring boxes is mandatory. Therefore, use of hopper mixer is essential)
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(11) Whether mixing of concrete is by hand or by machine (mixing time 1 min to 2 min.) (12) In case of hand mixing whether dry mixing is being done prior to adding water. (13) Whether 10% extra cement is being added in case of hand mixing. (14) Whether suitable sizes of boxes are being used for measuring sand and aggregates. (15) Whether allowance of bulkage is being accounted in case of damp sand. (16) Whether correct water cement ratio is being adopted to achieve desired workability. Whether proper container for measuring water is provided. (17) Whether quantity of water is being regulated by carrying out slump test. (For M20 upto30 lit of water per bag of cement allowed) (18) Whether any record is being maintained for slump test. (19) Whether concrete is being transported to the place of laying in the shortest possible time to prevent segregation and to maintain required workability. (20) Whether proper arrangement for laying the concrete (not throwing) is available at site. (21) Whether vibrators in working conditions are available at the time of concreting. (22) Whether reinforcement is having proper cover and is not exposed. (23) Whether there is any arrangement for making cover block of required sizes at site (24) Whether concreting is being done after properly cleaning the shuttering from dust and other foreign materials and surfaces being treated with oil etc. (25) Whether any arrangement is made to ensure that the labourers do not walk over the reinforcement. (26) Whether progress of concreting in vertical directions is being restricted to 1m per hour and drop is not more than 1.5m at a time. (27) Whether compaction is being completed within 30 minutes of preparation of concrete. (28) Wherever the work has to be resumed on a surface which has hardened, whether proper care is being taken such as roughening of surface, wetting applying neat cement slurry, removal of laitance with wire brush etc. (29) Whether further work, such as brick work etc. over the freshly laid concrete is being resorted to within less than 48 hours. (30) Whether cubes have been collected and got tested. Whether results are satisfactory: Whether any cube has failed in 7 days result. (31) Whether another set of cubes sent for 28 days testing and with what result. (32) Whether cubes tests are sufficient with respect to the quantity executed and are as proposed in specification. (33) While preparing test specimen, the following points are need to be kept in view - Surfaces of cube should be oiled. - Cube should be filled up in three layers. - Each layer should be rodded 35 times with 16mm rod, 60 cm in length, bullet pointed at lower end. - The strokes shall penetrate to under laying layer. - Thus bottom layer shall be rodded through-out its depth.
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4.2.2 MORTAR 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Whether water being used for mixing and curing is potable. Whether water is being got tested every three months. Whether sand is being tested for silt content/ particle size distribution/ Bulkage etc. Whether sand contains any harmful impurities, the impurities should not exceed 5%. Whether silt content is less than 8% if no, whether, sand is being washed to bring it within limit. Whether grading of sand for use in masonry mortar is as per CPWD Specifications. Whether grading of sand for use in plaster is as per CPWD Specifications. Whether mortar is being used within 30 minutes of its preparation. If not, whether additional cement is being added while using. Whether left over mortar or fallen mortar is being re-used by adding extra cement and proper mixing. I.
4.2.3 EARTH WORK 1) Classification of soil. 2) General quality of work, line, levels and dressing of sides and bottom. 3) Whether filling of earth has been done by spreading the earth, watering and consolidating in layers. This is very important to avoid unequal settlement. 4) Recording of independent levels for filling in the plot. 4.2.4 CONCRETE FLOORS 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) WORK (GENERALLY IN FOUNDATION & UNDER
Check the quality of concrete & its ingredients as discussed earlier. Strength of concrete by resistance to picking by a sharp instrument. Thickness of concrete. General quality of work, lines, levels etc. Curing arrangements.
4.2.5 RCC WORK Same as for concrete work. (As above) Cube tests register. Whether the concrete was mechanically vibrated. Cover blocks at the bottom of reinforcement. Whether reinforcement found exposed on removal of form. Classification of R.C.C. items. Rigidity, evenness and lines and levels of the centering and shuttering for R.C.C. work. 8) Diameter used, cross-bracing, wedging etc. for centering and shuttering.
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9) Gauge of binding wire and whether it has been used at all intersections of reinforcement. 10) Spacing and hooks in reinforcing rods. 11) Over laps in reinforcement - Whether suitably staggered and required length. 12) Record of slump. 13) Finishing of expansion joints. 14) Hacking of the surface of R.C.C.Work. 15) Check the thickness R.C.C. member. 16) Whether throating, moulding and drips to chajjas provided. RWP/Spouts of adequate size to be provided in chajjas and balconies. 17) Finishing of RCC shelves with special attention to underside, true to dimensions , thickness, uniformity, strength of rendering done, lines and levels. 18) Check the quality of water. 19) Depressed floor to be provided in balconies. 4.2.6 BRICK WORK 1) Quality of bricks. 2) Check (i) Whether it has smooth rectangular faces with sharp corners. (ii) Whether it has uniform colour. (iii)Whether it emits clear ringing sound when struck. Expected Result a) Dimensional tolerance --------L (452 to 468), B (216 to 224), H (136 to 144 ) (20 Bricks) for 70mm high bricks b) Water absorption -------- < 20% by weight. c) Efflorescence --------< moderate. d) Compressive strength -------> 80% of average compressive. 3) Soaking of bricks in tanks 4) Check the quality of mortar & whether mortar ratio is as per the item. 5) Whether vertical joints properly buttered with mortar. It should not be hollow. 6) Check mortar strength and filling of joints by scratching with sharp instruments. 7) Whether thickness of joint does not exceed 1 cm. 8) Whether total thickness of joints is insufficient (four courses and three joints 31 cm). 9) Whether joints properly raked to take plastering/ pointing at later date.] 10) Whether long walls and cross walls properly jointed and not by toothing. 11) Whether joints are properly staggered. 12) Whether Brick work is truly in plumb. 13) Whether Brick work is being properly dated to ensure curing period of 7 days. 14) Whether proper bearing is provided on either side of opening for lintel etc. 15) Whether bed blocks are provided under beams. 16) Whether due care is taken in cutting horizontal chases. 17) Curing arrangements.
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4.2.7 LOAD BEARING WALLS 1) Whether scaffolding holes filled up with properly soaked bricks buttered with mortar on all four faces. 2) Horizontal chase should be avoided as far as possible. 3) Vertical chase can be provided. (i) Depth of vertical chase 1/3rd thickness of wall. (ii) Depth of horizontal chase 1/6 thickness of wall. 4) Holdfasts and other fixture which are required to be built into the walls are being embedded as the work proceeds. 5) Whether due care is being taken to avoid excessive gap around door/window opening. 6) Whether top course of all plinths/parapets/steps and top of walls below floor and slabs are laid with bricks on edge. 7) Whether due care has been taken for laying the frog upward. 8) Whether freshly laid brick-work is being restricted to 1 m in height. 9) Whether bearing plaster (1:3) is done before centering and shuttering is started. 4.2.8 STONE WORK 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Quality of stones. Whether joints fully filled with mortar. Whether required number of bond stones provided and suitably marked. Bushing in stones. Height of individual stones as compared to the width on face or the depth inwards. 6) Whether Cramps and dowels provided. 4.2.9 WOOD WORK 1) 2) 3) 4) Check Classification of timber. Timber to be free from cracks, shakes, dead-knots etc. General quality of work, lines, levels, finish. Whether joints are secured with bamboo/hardwood pins and treated with adhesive like Fevicol. 5) Whether dimensions of various members are within laid down tolerance. 6) Whether portions of timber: coming in contact with masonry treated with coaltar or some other wood preservative. 7) Size of hold fasts in door and window frames. 8) Plaster rebates in door and window frames, where required. 9) Thickness and dimensions of panel in door and window shutters. 10) Thickness of glass panes and quality of glass. 11) Fitting for doors and windows, hinges, al-drops , tower bolts , locks, handles, door closer etc. 12) Size of screws, for fixing of various fittings. 13) Whether glass panes fixed with wooden beading.
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14) Whether layer of putty provided between glass and sash bars and between glass panes and beading. 15) Quantity of flush door shutters. whether tested. 16) Quality of planning and sand papering prior to painting. 4.2.10 STEEL WORK Quality of steel Whether tested or untested. Whether priming coat given on steel work is as per specifications. General workmanship, lines , levels , finishing. Dimensions of various members. Whether holes drilled or punched. Whether welding fillets well formed and filed. Thickness of sheets in collapsible doors etc. Whether steel doors and windows prepared from standard sections. Both as regards to size and make. 10) Whether metal beading in steel doors and windows provided where specified. In cases where glass panes are to be fixed with putty, whether metal putty used and glazing clips provided. 11) Fittings of steel doors and windows. 12) Whether bolts for steel work dipped in linseed oil. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 4.2.11 FLOORING 1) Quality of materials same checks as for cement concrete and brick work. 2) Whether terrazzo tiles pre- tested for abrasion and strength. 3) Strength of concrete used in floor. 4) Thickness of floors. 5) Thickness of tiles or stones slabs where applicable. 6) Sizes of panels. 7) General workmanship lines and levels and cracks. 8) Curing arrangements. 9) Whether edges of kota stone and marble slabs table rubbed. 10) Any hollow sound when tapped. 4.2.12 ROOFING AND CEILING 1) General workmanship, lines and levels. 2) Thickness of sheets. 3) Fixing arrangements of sheets. 4) Slope in flat roof terraces. 5) In Integral Cement based Water proofing (a) Check slopes, location of ridges & valley. (b) Check locations of RW pipes. (c) Whether chequers have been provided. (d) Check for any thumping sound from water proofing.
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4.2.13 FINISHING 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Quality of materials. Thickness of plaster. Strength of mortar. General quality of work, lines, levels, and surface finish. Types of paints whether they conform to specification or brands approval by the Department. 6) Whether surface properly prepared before painting. 4.2.14 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY INSTALLATIONS 1) Sanitary fixtures -dimensions, approval of brand, compliance with ISI specifications. 2) SCI and CI pipes dimensions, weights, makes, standard of finish whether pipes coated with approved corrosive treatment at the factory, class of CI pipes. 3) GI pipes class, size, weight, make standard of finish. 4) Water supply fittings, weight, makes standard of finish. 5) Lead connection pipe, size, weight etc. 6) Sizes of brackets for wash basin, sinks and flushing cisterns. 7) MS clamps for fixing CI pipes size of ms-flat and whether clamps fixed in cement concrete blocks. 8) Quantity and quality of lead in pipe joints. 9) Dimensions of trenches for laying pipes and filling/bedding. 10) Quantity and quality of concrete under and around sewer lines. 11) Quantity and quality of brickwork and plaster in manhole chamber. 12) Manhole covers round gully gratings etc weight, sizes, make and finish. 13) Stone ware pipes: make, dimensions and finish. 14) Whether tarred gasket of hemp yarn soaked in thick cement slurry used in joints of stoneware pipes. 15) Depth of channels and benching in manholes. 16) General quantity of work, lines, levels, etc.
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Chapter-11
COMMON PROBLEMS IN MAINTENANCE AND REMEDIAL ACTION
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COMMON PROBLEMS IN MAINTENANCE AND REMEDIAL ACTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION: Most of the problems in maintenance are inherent in nature and may be due to defective planning, design, co-ordination and execution. 2.0 WATER SUPPLY:2.1 Head and Discharge of water is not uniform in External Water Supply.:In big campuses / colonies, it is sometimes observed that discharge and head of water is not uniform. Water overflows over the terraces of buildings nearer to Over Head Tank of the colony. On the contrary water does not reach to the water storage tanks on the terrace of the buildings located away from the O.H Tank of colony. 2.1.1 Reasons: - If proper design of External Water supply system has not been done considering the demand requirement of water and head losses in the pipe network, such type of the problem occurs. 2.1.2 Remedy in New Work: - Proper design of external water supply system is to be done. Following procedure should be adopted in the design. (i) (ii) Calculate the demand requirement of water based on estimated population and requirement of water per person per day. Calculate the Head losses in the pipe line on the basis of HazenWilliams formula. For convenience, Hazen- Williams Nomograms can be used to calculate the head losses. Calculate the Terminal Pressure of water in the pipe after deducting the head losses (HL).
(iii)
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HL P1 P2
P2 = P1 - HL
(iv) (v)
P2 should be little more than Desired Terminal Pressure. Minimum Terminal Pressure (Assuming Floor height as 3 m)
Single storey = 7m Double storey = 12 m Three storey = 17 m 2.1.3 Remedy for Existing problem (i) Calculate the Terminal Pressures of existing pipe network. (ii) Provide additional looped feeder as per new design. 2.2 Problem due to interlocking of Air:If overhead tank at the Terrace becomes empty, water does not reach to some of the taps even after filling the O.H.T at terrace. Such type of the problem occurs due to interlocking of air in the pipe network. 2.2.1 Reasons:(i) By providing the reverse loop in the water supply pipes. (ii) By not designing the water supply system properly and by providing the insufficient dia. of pipe. 2.2.2. Remedy in New Work:(i) Do proper design of internal water supply system and provide proper dia. of the pipe.
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(ii)
(iii)
Provide horizontal feeder pipe in the building preferably at lintel level and provide only vertical drops of (15 mm or 20mm) pipe to the water supply fittings. No reverse loop should be provided.
2.3 Leakages in concealed water supply pipes.:2.3.1 Reasons Leakages generally occur through G.I. fittings like Elbow, Tee, Reducers, Sockets & Nipples etc. 2.3.2 Remedy in New work:(i) Special care must be taken for ensuring the quality of fittings. (ii) Our water supply system should be flexible; means sufficient number of unions should be provided in the water supply system so that repairs can be done easily. 2.3.3 Remedy for Existing Problem:(i) In case of minor leakages from the fittings, repair with Epoxy (Resin + Hardener) can be done like M-seal etc. (ii) In case of major leakage, defective fittings have to be replaced.
3.0 Leakage from Toilets/Bathroom/Kitchen etc. (i) If one or two C.I. pipes are dropped on the Floor Trap, a concrete Block is constructed. This concrete is not very dense; with the result leakage starts through this concrete block. Remedy Provide cement grouting by hand in the inner surface of concrete block and observe. If leakage does not stop, take out the pipe outside and connect it with Y- junction to the existing stack.
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(ii)
With the use of continuous Acid for cleaning purpose, cement joint of W.C. Pan and W.C. Trap is damaged and leakage starts. Remedy Provide cement grout (polymer modified cement) by hand to the damaged joint and observe.
(iii)
(iv)
In case of minor leakage/dampness, injection grouting with polymer modified cement can be tried. Nipples are fixed and polymer modified cement slurry can be injected through 3 to 5 m head. Even if the above measure does not work, the dismantling of toilets etc should be done and redoing of sanitary installation is to be done.
3.1 Redoing of Toilet Sanitary Installation:Following operation should be done for providing sanitary installations in New Work as well as in Old Work. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Dismantle the floor and reach up to the slab level. Clean the RCC Slab thoroughly with wire brush. Grout the R.C.C. sunken slab with cement slurry and water proofing compound. Do the integral cement based water proofing treatment with a slope 1:50. Slope should be concentrated in one outer corner to drain out the leaked water if any. Or Alternatively provide C.C 1:2:4 in slope of 1:50. Then provide 15 mm cement plaster (1:3) with floating coat of neat cement. Plaster with floating coat of cement should also be extended on the walls in sunken portion. (v) Provide 40 mm G.I. pipe spout on outer wall where slope of water proofing is concentrated. Outer end of spout should be chamfered and projected 150 mm beyond wall.
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(vi)
Filter of boulder/ aggregate of bigger dia. at the mouth of spout (40 mm to 50 mm) and progressively smaller size aggregate at farthest end may be provided. Size of filter should be 30 x 30 x 15 cm (height). (vii) Lay the sanitary pipes very carefully. Quality of SCI pipes and fittings like traps should be ensured. Joints in horizontal pipe should be avoided. However collar joint should never be allowed. Slope in SCI Pipe (not less than 1:50) should be provided. Testing of pipe length should be done. Then concreting 1:1.5:3 around the pipe should be done. (viii) Fill the 150 mm thick coarse sand. (ix) Then do the Lime concerting
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4.0Leakage and Dampness through Terraces 4.1 Choakage of C.I. Grating:Due to frequent choakage of C.I Gratings of rain water pipe, water stagnates and leakage starts. Net opening area of C.I. Grating is only 30% to 40%. Dry leaves or polythene etc further blocks the C.I. Grating. Remedy Remove C.I. Grating and provide simple granting using 5 mm thick flat. This is consist of a circular ring and perpendicular cross of 5 mm thick flat.
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4.2Due to leakage from Khurra:(a) If rainwater pipe is not covered the full thickness of wall, leakage starts. The piece of C.I. pipe should be extended beyond the full thickness of wall.
(b) Level of horizontal pipe should be 10 mm below khurra level, not above the khurra level. Otherwise water will permanently stagnate over the khurra and leakage will start. If level of khurra is high: Raise the level of khurra if possible. If not possible, remove the top one pipe length, cut it slightly than re-fix it and khurra is also to be reconstructed.
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4.3Leakage From Integral Cement Based Water Proofing or Lime terracing Dismantling and redoing of cement based water proofing and lime terracing should be avoided due to the following reasons. Dismantling will disturb the occupants of lower floor. Some times R.C.C slab is also damaged during dismantling. Disposal of debris (Malba) from Terrace is also a serious problem. 4.3.1 Remedy It is always better to do the injection grouting of water proofing treatment instead of dismantling. It is cheaper, quicker and will avoid all above said problems It can be done during rainy season also while dismantling cannot be done in rainy season. It will strengthen the concrete by filling the voids and cracks by cementing material. Cement slurry will also provide a protection all around the rusted steel. Injection-Grouting:(i) (ii) Make the circular holes in the W/P treatment 100 to 150 mm dia. and reach up to the R.C.C Slab. Spacing of hole should be decided as per site conditions. Holes should be done at the point of leakages, near the khurra, near the junction of Parapet walls and points of cracks appeared on the top surface of W/P treatment. Fix the 15 mm GI. Pipe Nipple chamfered at the bottom. Length of nipples should be equal to depth of W/P treatment + 100 to 150 mm. Bottom position of hole should be filled with aggregate (20 to 25 mm) at bottom and smaller size (10 mm) in upper side. Top portion of hole about 50 to 70 mm should be sealed with rich concrete (1:1:2)
(iii)
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(iv)
After curing the sealing concrete 2 to 3 days, injection grouting should be started. (v) Inject the cement slurry + Silica based water proofing compound with the help of Pressure Pump (Gattu) or simple 3 to 5 M. head through Nipple up to the point of saturation or refusal. (vi) Important care is to be taken that water injected in the terracing will find its way through the cracks/ voids of slabs. Precaution for collection/disposal of dripped out water from the bottom of terrace slab is to be taken. (vii) Projected Nipples may be cut. (viii) Damaged Topping of W/P treatment may be chipped out and repaired and chequers may be provided.
4.4 (i)
Leakage Through Dummy Columns:Dummy columns, if not properly constructed, becomes biggest source of leakage. Sometimes it is cast with residual aggregate, mortar & little quantity of cement. That is not correct. Up to 450
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(ii)
mm height, it should be cast with concrete mix of lower floor. A groove in the plaster should be marked up to the height of rich mix of concrete. If leakage is through existing dummy columns, Do the injection grouting of columns. Surface should be re-plastered (1:3) + silica based water proofing compound + Polyurethane fiber (Reliance or eq.) as per manufactures specifications. (Generally 50 gm fiber per bag of cement.) Coping should also be provided in concrete 1:2:4 in slope 1:50 followed by floating coat of neat cement. Coping should be projected all around with drip course.
4.5 Leakage in Basements: Leakage in basements occurs due to failure of water proofing treatment provided below the raft /floor and vertical RCC walls.
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The remedy is to do the injection grouting with Pressure pumps in walls and floors. In floors pressure grouting Nipples are sometimes available and the same can be used. 4.6 leakage in U/G Water Tanks:(i) The remedy is to do the injection grouting in walls, floors and junction of wall and floor at the points of leakages. Injection grouting should also be done at some adjoining points of leakages. (ii) Re-plaster 15 mm (1:3) + W/P compound + Polyurethane fiber (iii) Plus neat cement punning. 4.7Leakage in R.C.C O/H Tank (i) Treatment is to be done from inside of O/H Tank. (ii) Do injection grouting at point of leakages if required. (iii) Do 1:3 Plaster 18 mm (12 mm with coarse sand + 6 mm with fine sand) with W/P compound and polyurethane Fiber. (iv) Plus neat cement punning. (v) Provide good C.C. gola at the junction of wall & floor slab. 4.8 Failure of D.P.C and rising of dampness in ground Floor 4.8.1 Reasons:Ground water rises through capillaries in the superstructure. Rising dampness brings the dissolved salts and chemicals and result into peeling of plaster, paint and rotting of wood. D.P.C at plinth level provides the barrier to rising water through capillary. But this problem occurs due to failure of D.P.C. 4.8.2 Remedy This problem can be attended by providing chemical D.P.C. various chemicals are available in the market (e.g M.C. Bauchemie, Sikka, Pidilite etc.) chemicals of different company may be different but methodology or application is same. (i) Drill the hole in the wall below D.P.C. level
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(ii)
Dia. of Hole = 15 mm Angle with horizontal line = 300 Depth of hole = 70% to 90% of wall thickness Spacing = 30 cm (Horizontal) = 15 cm (vertical) Pattern = Staggered If wall thickness is more than 50 cm, holes should be done on both side SAMFIT- VK is the product of MC BAUCHEMIE for providing chemical D.P.C. It is two components product available in liquid form. These two components should not be mixed. First pore SAM FIT VK1 by pipe and Funnel in the hole. Pouring should be continued up to point of saturation ( means refuses to absorb) Then pour SAM FIT VK2 after hour but not later than 1 Hour. If dampness is very high, repeat complete process on next day also to ensure that there is no further also absorption.
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(iii)
Reaction:Two components react with each other in the capillaries of Brick Work and form GELATIN PRODUCT sealing the capillaries. Now water cannot rise in the capillaries against gravity. Thus Dampness is checked by chemical D.P.C. Efflorescence is also prevented by this treatment.
4.9 Leakage Through Elevation Features:Leakage are observed through elevation features like closed Boxes or upward facia in chajjas.
Remedy (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Dismantle the vertical fascia Repair projected chajja Top surface may be plastered in slope with 1:3 mortar + floating coat of neat cement Provide gola at the junction of wall and cantilever Provide the drip course
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4.10 Dampness through Holes of Scaffolding (i) Dismantle the plaster and take out loose mortar filled in the holes (ii) Fill it with rich concrete + W/P compound (iii) Re-plaster with 1:3 + W/P compound 4.11 Cracks in the Plaster Sometimes temperature cracks are developed in the plaster, with the result dampness enters in the Bricks wall. Remedy (i) Dismantle the cracked plaster (ii) Rack out the joints of Brick work (iii) Do plaster 1:3 + Polyurethane Fiber 5.0 Sewer:(i) Frequent choakage of sewer is mostly due to insufficient slope in the channels of manhole. Therefore sufficient slope may be provided in the channel of Manhole to provide self cleansing velocity. 6.0 Problems in Expansive Soil (Black Cotton Soil): Expansive soils swell considerably on absorption of water and shrink on drying creating wide cracks in the soil. In wet condition they have low shear strength and show large settlements on application of load. 6.1Damages due to Expansive Soil (i) In rainy season, soil exerts the uplift pressure on foundation and settles in dry condition. With the result differential settlement is caused and cracks are developed in the structure (ii) Cracks are developed in the wall. (iii) Floors sink. 6.2 Remedy in New Work (i) (ii) Foundation should be provided at sufficient depth (in the Zone of in appreciable movement) Use of Under-reamed piles instead of open foundation.
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6.3 Remedy in Existing Buildings (A) Cracks in Walls To repair the cracks in the walls, stitching is to be done in following manner. (i) Chase in Brick Works about 25 x 30 mm deep perpendicular to the crack. Length of chase should be 350 mm and spacing should be 250 mm. Insert 8 mm dia. Tor steel in the chase and fill the chase with 1:3 mortar. Plaster the surface with polyurethane fiber.
(ii) (iii)
(B) Sinking of Floors. (i) Dismantle the sunken floor.
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Compact the soil by ramming Stabilize the soil with 4% cement + 4% lime Provide Polythene sheet Provide non structural slab 100 mm thick with nominal reinforcement (vi) Redo the flooring (C) Good Plinth Protection all around the building approximately 3.0 m wide with C.C. gola at the junction of wall and plinth protection should be provided. (D) We may provide 9 inches thick Brick curtain wall 90 cm deep below the plinth protection edge. 7.0 Efflorescence:Calcium Hydroxide and other salts available in Bricks, Sand or Aggregate react in the presence of water (and C02) and converted into soluble CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate) Ca (OH)2 + CO2 + H20 CaCO3 + 2 H2O
(ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
After evaporation, CaCO3 is leaved on the surface as white deposit. This is Efflorescence. Chlorides in the water are also responsible for Efflorescence. 7.1 Remedy (i) Dismantle the damaged plaster. (ii) Wet the surface fully. (iii) Surface should be allowed to dry fully for 2 to 3 weeks. (iv) Remove the Efflorescence by Wire Brush. (v) Wash the wall with IMLI water. (vi) Let it be dried and clean again. (vii) Do the plaster 1:3 + Polyurethane Fiber + W/P compound. (viii) Apply Dr FIXIT PRIMESEAL with potable water by volume 2:1 (2 parts Primeseal : 1 part water) and allow it to dry for 2 to 3 hours.
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Chapter -12
PRECAUTION IN PLANNING & CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS FOR MINIMAL MAINTENANCE
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PRECAUTIONS IN PLANNING & CONSTRUCTION FOR MINIMAL MAINTENANCE
1.0
1.1
GENERAL:Most of the maintenance problems are inherent in nature and may be due to defective planning, co-ordination and execution. There should be proper planning and co-ordination in various disciplines, like Civil/Electrical, Architect and user as well.
2.0
SUGGESTIONS:-
We can ensure trouble free maintenance with minimum cost, if we keep in our mind the following key issues:(a) A building should be well conceived by an Architect keeping in view the maintenance and serviceability aspect. A structure should be well designed based on sound engineering principles and practices. Structure should be well constructed using quality material and workmanship.
(b)
(c)
2.1
PRECAUTIONS IN PLANNING STAGE:-
Architects, Civil Engineers, Electrical Engineers and Users as well, should be involved in the planning process. 2.1.1 PLANNING POINTS RELATED TO ARCHITECT:(i) Terraces should be accessible. (ii) Rain water pipes should be spaced around the building uniformly and not concentrated around the shaft.
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(iii)
RCC Landings of staircase at terrace level should be raised sufficiently above the roof slab to accommodate the thickness of terracing and to prevent rainwater coming inside the staircase from terrace. Sufficient space should be provided for pipe shaft to accommodate all the pipes and provide sufficient space for workmen to work with. Shaft should be accessible at every floor and should have adequate light and ventilation. Proper drainage of the shaft floor should be ensured.
(iv)
(v)
(vi) (vii)
Pipe shaft should be covered at the top by transparent sheets at sufficient height to check the entry of rainwater in the shaft and to provide ventilation to shaft too. (viii) External walls should be protected by projection of at least 60 cm at roof level. For high rise buildings, slab projection at intermediate level should also be provided to break the flow of water and for maintenance convenience. (ix) Chajjas with upward fascia should be avoided which will obstruct the free flow of water. Closed boxes in the elevation should be avoided. These boxes accumulate the dampness and transfer it to the buildings. External walls should not be exposed concrete or sand stone tile veneering. Concealed rainwater and sanitary pipes should be strictly avoided.
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii) Water bodies like, toilets, kitchen, water coolers etc. should be nearer to the shaft to minimize the distance of horizontal water disposal pipes. (xiv) A space for desert coolers and window A.C. should be clearly earmarked so that provision for water supply and disposal of water may be planned. In staff quarters following measures must be provided:-
(xv)
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a) A space for washing machines along with electrical point, water supply & disposal arrangement must be planned. b) Headway and width of landings & staircase flight must be designed keeping in view of shifting of house hold goods during transfer. c) Provision for drying of clothes and in sufficient number must be kept in mind while planning the balcony. Solar movement from North to South Equinox must be also kept in mind while planning the orientation of balconies and kitchen. d) Main door of quarters should preferably be of single leaf for safety point of view.
2.1.2
i)
ii)
PLANNING POINTS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS R.C.C. O/H tank on terrace should be provided sufficiently above the terrace level to attend the possible leakage from the bottom of tank & to attend the problems of water proofing treatment of terrace below the tank. Selection of correct type of water proofing treatment should be done very carefully keeping in view the climatic condition and temperature variation. Traditional C.I. grating at mouth of rain water pipe have hardly 40% net open area. This should be modified with M.S. grating having large opening area. The over flow pipe from O/H storage tank should be taken directly to the rain water pipes. If two or more tanks are there, they should be interconnected at top. A working platform of steel structure should be provided 0.90 to 1.2m below the floor level in each shaft along with the provisions of foot rest. Detailed plan of internal plumbing system of toilet or kitchen including floor slopes and detailing of TUK(difference of levels) etc. should be prepared in advance.
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
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vii)
For balcony and staircase, floor landings should be depressed 15mm & sufficient slope should also to be provided towards spout or pipe. Therefore, it is desirable to depress the structural slabs itself 30mm or more.
viii) Minimum depression in toilet with Orissa pattern W.C. should be 600mm and in bathrooms & kitchens should be 250 mm. ix) Crossing of sanitary/drainage pipes through R.C.C. Beams should be avoided, by lowering the beams. If unavoidable, suitable opening should be provided in the beams and should be designed accordingly. x) Integral cement based water proofing treatment must be provided over the sunken slab and along the walls keeping a slope of 1:80 towards outer wall. A 25mm or 32 mm G.I. spout should be provided through the walls to drain out water in case of any eventuality. But at the mouth of the spout, some loose aggregate must be filled. We should not provide bottle traps or any other type of traps in Wash Basins, Sinks & urinals. We should provide khurra & floor trap below the wash basins & sinks and waste pipe should be directly fixed with waste coupling & disposed directly to floor trap. In series of urinals, we should provide ceramic half round channels with sufficient slope and waste pipe disposal should be direct in these channels. Expansion joints should not be provided in toilets portion.
xi)
xii)
xiii) For covering the expansion joints, traditional A.C. sheet covering does not work. Some other methods like aluminum moulded sheet covering etc. should be used. xiv) Aluminum sliding door bolts are not safe on entry doors for safety point of view. xv) Window sills should be provided of kota, kadappa or similar stone keeping the slope outwards.
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xvi) In heavy rainfall areas & coastal regions, powder coated Aluminum window should be provided. xvii) There should be no compromise in deciding the plinth level of Buildings. Future raising of municipal roads should always be kept in mind. Invert level of municipal sewer should also be checked before deciding plinth level. xviii) Complete drainage plan should be prepared in advance. 2.1.3 PLANNING POINTS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS: i) Condenser units should be avoided at terrace. If not possible, details of these structure may be given in advance so that supporting structure may be provided at terrace without disturbing the water proofing treatment and structural slab. ii) Details of all the cutouts in slab & walls, power cable trenches and E/A set foundation, exhaust fan opening etc. should be given in advance to civil Engineers to avoid any subsequent dismantling. Cutouts in terrace slab should not be planned at all. In machine rooms, details of cutouts for rope & wheel, design of hook etc should be planned in advance to avoid any subsequent cutting in slab. Electrical components should be planned away from water bodies. Details of RCC hume pipes, to be provided below the road for laying power cables should be planned and given in advance to avoid any subsequent road cuttings.
iii) iv)
v) vi)
2.1.4
PLANNING POINTS RELATED TO USER:Details of all the features required by the user should be given in advance to avoid any cuttings or dismantling subsequently.
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2.2 PRECAUTIONS IN CONSTRUCTION STAGE: Following precautions should be taken in construction stage:i) Rain water pipes and spouts should cover the full thickness of the wall. If necessary, extra length of pipe should be provided. Its inlet level should be just below the finished level of khurra. Water supply pipes should not be laid just over the terrace but suitably fixed over masonry/concrete blocks. Sufficient care must be taken for treatment of Expansion joints and cutouts in terrace slab in case of future vertical expansion. Sufficient care must be taken for the constructing & treatment of dummy column at terrace. Because they become a very big source of leakage. Concrete for Khurras to be laid before construction of Parapet and Mud Phaska. Tiles to over lap the concrete of Khurra by not less than 7.5 cm. PVC sheet under Khurra should not be less than 400 micron.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi) vii)
viii) Chase for C.C. Gola should not be less than 75mm wide & 75mm deep. C.C. Gola should be completed before plaster of Parapet. ix) Provide PVC sheet of 400 micron on entire slab after bitumen application for Mud Phaska. Mumty door should open outside. It should be well protected from rains by providing chajja & side walls. The sill level and lintel level of the door should be suitably increased depending upon the thickness of water proofing treatment. The holes in the walls around the sanitary and drainage pipes should filled with the concrete to check leakage.
x)
xi)
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xii)
All the pipes, fittings and fixtures and their joints must be tested under the specified pressure before covering.
xiii) Drainage pipes, from bath toilet and kitchen etc. should not be less than 100 mm dia. xiv) Special care must be taken for the quality of G.I. fittings like elbow, tee, unions etc. xv) Enough valves should be provided in W/S system to regulate the supply in case of break down.
xvi) Enough G.I. unions should be provided in G.I. pipes to have more flexibility in maintenance operations. xvii) Top of floor trap and finished floor should be connected with S.C.I. pipe, not by C.C. blocks. xviii) Sufficient care must be taken for making joints of W.C. pan, trap and soil pipes. After jointing and testing, joint may be covered with 1: 2: 4 concrete. xix) Discharging of one floor trap into another should be avoided. xx) Pipe from Floor Trap to the stack should have a slope not less than 1 in 50. xxi) Collar joints should be avoided in the horizontal pipe from Floor Trap to stack. xxii) Pipe socket in case of European WC should project over the floor. xxiii) Use of Rigid PVC pipe is recommended in toilets, kitchen & bathrooms. xxiv) G.I. waste pipes from wash basin, sink and urinals should be firmly fixed in the walls and not be left hanging. xxv) Special care must be taken in the joinery work of wood. Glue should be applied liberally and bamboo pins should not be very near to the edges.
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xxvi) Wooden cleats spoils the veneering of flush door shutter. Instead of cleats, floor door stoppers should be used. xxvii) Window grills should be so designed that window fittings may be operated easily. xxviii) Size of steel windows should be 20mm less than the size of brick work opening. xxix) Special attention should be given for steel windows. After plastering, traditional hinges create the problem. Box type hinges are much better instead of traditional hinges as specified in specifications. xxx) Provision of little long locking bracket should be made in steel windows which will provide additional locking arrangement with the help of peg stays. xxxi) Traditional holder bat clamps to hold the SCI or CI pipes are not satisfactory. Holding arrangement with angels & long bolds are very useful. Pipe should be projected 50 to 60mm away from the wall of the shaft to avoid any dampness in the wall in case of leakage. xxxii) We should not forget to provide required slope in the channel of manholes. xxxiii) All the drawings and details of W/S and S/I installations must be prepared after construction is over and should be available with maintenance units.
3.0
CONCLUSION:
A designer and executing authority must keep the idea of maintainability in their mind for minimal maintenance. This will not only reduce the expenditure on maintenance but will also provide the consumer satisfaction.
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Chapter-13 WATER CONSERVATION & RAIN WATER HARVESTING
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Concept of Water Conservation & Rain Water Harvesting
Rahiman Pani Rakhiyo, Bin Pani Sab Soon Paani Gaye Na Ubre, Moti Maanas Choon
Rakhiyo Soon Ubre Moti Manas Choon To Protect Empty Not Survive Pearl Man Hydreted Lime
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Next to air, water is the onl y other resource in the nature which sustains life on Earth. If we cannot live without air for more than a few minute, we cannot live without water form more than a few hours. Life without water is impossible, with scare water extremel y hard and with abundant water a blessing. In recognition of this fact Nature has covered two -third of our planet with water, but rapid industrialization leading to its indiscriminate use has already ma de it a scarce commodit y which is getting scarcer day by day. Indiscriminate mining of water due to rapid industrialization as led to its acute shortage at an alarming rate. Although our country has been blessed with an above average rain fall, the availabilit y of water has become scarcer over the years. Lowering of water table leading to drying up of bore wells has become common occurrence. Government of India has since undertaken a number of steps aimed at preventing its excessive mining and harvest ing and conservation. Ministry of water resources has voiced its concern vide his D.O. No. 11-2-2000-GW-II dated May 17, 2001 address to secretary department of telecommunication suggesting various measures of water harvesting. In pursuance of the same Dr . D.P.S.Seth, the then CMD, vide his D.O. No. 4859/CMD (BSNL)/2001 dated June 21, 2001 issued direction to - -Take up roof top rain water harvesting in our own building in including residential area, with this single step begin the journey of a thousand miles in search of water solution. Rain water harvesting is the technique of collection and storage of rain water of surface or in sub -surface aquifer by recharging it for future requirement so that it is not lost as surface run -off. Rain water is the purest form of raw water available on the earth. In fact the total freshwater available on earth is only 3% as against 97% saline water in Oceans. Out of this 3% fresh water, 77% water is in the form of glaciers and icecaps, 11% water is in deep aquifers whi ch is 800 meters below ground and onl y 12% is available for drinking and other purpose out of which 11% is in acquires which are up to 800 meters below ground and remaining 1% is available in rivers, lakes, ponds and streams
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3%
Fresh water saline water
97%
11 %
11 %
1 %
Glaciers 77% Deep Aquifers>800 m 77 % Deep 11% Aquifers<800 m rivers, ponds, 11% streams 1%
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The solution of drinking water problem of the vast majorit y of population in our country lies in the appropriate use of Rain water harvested through roof and from built up catchments where annual rainfall is sufficient. It has been estimated that the amount of rain water that falls on t he terrace of a medium house can take care of the drinking-water requirement of an average famil y of four members for one year.
Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting: Conservation of valuable ground water and availabilit y. Recharge ground w ater level and improve it. Provides sufficient water for home needs Reduction in flooding and drainage problems. To arrest seawater ingress. Conserve urban water waste. Controls soil erosion. Improves the underground water qualit y. Saves the energy fo r lifting ground water.
enhancing
the
Rainwater Harvesting Systems: There are basicall y two main techniques for harvesting rainwater: Conservation by providing storage tank on the ground or underground and recharge of aquifer. A rain water harvesting structure can incorporate either of these two techniques or a combination of both depending upon various factors as shown below.
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RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS GROUND CONSERVATION WATER STORAGE TANK CHECK DAMS LAKES & PONDS CONSERVATION & RECHARGE DUG WELL CAVITY WELL HAND PUMP RECHARGE RECHARGE PIT RECHRGE TRENCH RECHARGE SHAFT RECHARGE BORE WELL
Conservation of rainwater by storing it on the surface is a traditional technique and structure used are storage tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. while recharging is a new concept of rainwater harvesting. Methods of Rainwater Harvesting: In houses and flat complexes rainwater falls on both the Terrace as well as on the open area all around. It is this water which will have to be led into the ground wherever possible, this can broadl y be done in two ways: 1) Direct the terrace rainwater drain pipes directl y into open wells through a filter tank.
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2) Direct these pipes to percolation / absorption pits and wells constructed specificall y for this purpose. A similar thing will have to be done for the water falling on the open area around.
A. Percolation/Absorptions Pit A percolation/absorption pit is a hand bore made in the soil with the help of an augur and filled up with pebbles and river sand on top. The depth of these pits will be anywhere between 4 and 8 meters depending on the nature of the soil if the soil is clayey the pit has to be dug to a depth till a reasonabl y sandy stratum is reached. These pits will be 25 cm. (10 in.) A square/ circular collection chamber with still arrestor is provided at the top. B. Percolation/Absorption Well These wells are constructed using cement rings readil y available in the market. The diameter of these rings from 2ft.to 6 ft. the depth to which these wells are dug depends on the nature of the soil and the diameter depends on the number of r oof top pipes that are likel y to be connected to each one of these wells. These wells are left unfilled and are covered with RCC slabs of suitable thickness to facilitate free pedestrian and vehicular movement on the ground C. Percolation Well cum Borepit (for clayey soil) In areas where the soil is likel y to be clayey up to say 15 ft.and more, it is advisable to go in for a percolation well up to 10 ft or 15 ft. and a hand bore pit within this well up to a depth of 10 ft to 15 ft. from its bottom. A PVC pipe of 6 in. diameter is inserted into the bore for the entire length. There are different structure for rain water harvesting which singl y or in combination with structures are employed depending upon various factors as described below: Recharge Pit It is suitable for areas where sandy formations occur within 1 -2m from the ground surface. This is ideall y suited for small buildings up to 100 sq. m roof top area.
1.
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It can be circular, square or rectangular in shape. These are generall y constructed 1 -2m wide and 2-3m deep. After excavation the pits are refilled with pebbles and boulders.
2.
Recharge Trench It is suitable when permeable strata of adequate thickness are available at shallow depth and the roof area of the building is 200 300sqm. Recharge trench can be of any dimensions. Generall y it is 1 -1.5m deep, 0.5-1m wide and of any length depending upon the availabilit y of water to be recharged. Recharge trench can be straight, zig -zag, L-shaped, U shaped. The recharge trench should be filled with f ilter media which can grade from boulders (5 -20cm) at the top for filtration of water. The sides of the trench should slope at low angle for stabilit y.
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3.
Recharge Shaft: This is the most efficient and cost effective technique to recharge unconfined aquifer overlain by poorl y permeable strata. This is like an open well but filled with filter media. Diameter of the shaft generall y varies from 1 -3m depending upon the availabilit y of the water to be recharged. It is constructed where the aquifer to e rec harged is located at medium depth. The recharge shaft end in permeable strata to be recharged. It may not touch the water table. In the upper portion of 1 -2m depth, the brick masonry work carried out for the stabilit y of the structure.
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4.
Dug Well: Dug wells may be utilized as recharge structure after cleaning & desilting the same. A filtration chamber may be constructed so that the water can be made silt free before entering the dug well. The recharge water is guided through a pie to the bottom of the dug well and it is converted into dug -cum-bore well. It is suitable for large buildings preferably having the roof area more than 1000sqm from where the rain water can be diverted and recharged. Periodic chlorination should be done for controlling the bacteriological contaminations.
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5.
Recharge/Injection Well: This is used to recharge deep aquifer or where multiple aquifers are met interspersed with impervious strata. In case of recharge well single diameter pipe assembl y is used and it should have the provision of slotted pipes against the water bearing strata. The rainwater is allowed to pass through the filter media before it is channeled to the well under gravit y flow conditions. The number of recharging wells depends upon the roof top area and aquifer characteristics.
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6.
Abandoned Tube wells/Hands Pumps: These water abstraction structures act as good recharge structure. The hand pump is suitable for small building having roof area up to 150sqm. Water is diverted from the roof top to the hand pump through pipe of 100 mm dia.
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7.
Cavity Wells : Cavit y wells in use also form good recharge structures. Cavit y wells are constructed by drilling boreholes with hand boring and pipes are driven up to the bottom of the clayey bed. Cavit y is formed within the underl ying sand bed with the help of the high capacit y pumps. Filter/screen is not used in these wells and the bottom of the pipe is not closed but kept open for entering water. The filtered water is recharged under gravit y through these wells. Cavit y well can be constructed in the areas where overl ying aquifer layer to be charged is hard and plastic in nature. The recharge capacit y of the cavit y well is generall y 5 to 10 liters/Sec. It is cheap structure compared to recharge well. The water to be recharged should be silt free. The cavit y should be developed periodicall y whenever it is found that the recharge capacit y is reduced. It can be used as pumping well.
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8.
Contour Bunds: These are suitable in low rainfall areas where monsoon runoff can be impounded by constructing bunds on the sloping ground all along the contour of equal elevation. Flowing water is intercepted before it attains the erosive velocit y by keeping suitable spacing between the bunds. Spacing between the two contour bunds depends on the slope of the area as well as the permeabilit y of soil. Contour bunds are suitable on lands with moderate slopes without involving terracing. Contour bunds are effective methods to conserve soil moisture in watershed for long duration. Rainwater Harvesting in Individual Houses
Rain Water Harvesting Methods
9.
Dig a number of 3 to 6 meter deep and 30 cm diameter -percolation pits at 3 meter intervals all around the house. Lead the terrace pipes into the open
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well if any, through a 60cm x 60cm x 60cm filter (filled with pebbles) under the ground level. 10. Rainwater Harvesting in a Flat Complex (Service Well cum Recharge Well Method)
Utilize the open well if any within the complex to divert the rainwater from the terrace into it. If not, construct a well for this purpose. The rainwater falling on the open space around the complex can be collected near the gate by providing a gutt er with perforated lid. The collected water can be led through necessary piping arrangements into a recharge well of 1 meter diameter and 5 meter deep.
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Maintenance of Rain Water Harvesting Systems The key to satisfactory performance of a RWH system li es in its periodic maintenance. If not maintained properl y, the system may not onl y not work at all but or silting of drains etc. which will have to be tackled on emergent basis. As such a RWHS should be provided onl y when its periodic maintenance can be e nsured. Expenditure on maintenance of RWHS may be booked under maintenance head as there is no need for submitting the estimate for obtaining A/ A & E/ S. Simple measure given below so a long way for a trouble free service for RWHS. 1. It is desirable to preclude first shower from the RWHS as it as known a contain pollutants from the atmosphere and excessive silt. 2. All terrace and drains may be cleaned before the onset on the monsoon. 3. Filter may be removed and washed with clean water in a drum and placed back. This may be before monsoon or more frequentl y as per the requirement. 4. Silt collected in the buffer/storage tank or sedimentation tank may be removed prior to monsoon. 5. Bore well may also be developed before monsoon as silt and fine sand present in runoff may clog the gravel and the aquifer immediatel y surrounding the screen. If development operation is to be effective, it must cause reversal of flow through the screen opening of the formation immediatel y around the well. Development may be done every alter nate year before monsoon or less frequentl y as per the need. Date of development as well as annual maintenance may be displayed on the parapet of the buffer tank. 6. Reading water table should be recorded before and after the monsoon. Glossary of Terms 1. Aquifer/Ground water aquifer: Any underground formation of soil or rack which can yield water. 2. Artificial recharge: Any man scheme or facilit y that adds water to an aquifer. 3. Bore well: small diameter wells which are generall y deeper than open well.
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4. Dug Wells: large diameter pits excavated in the ground until water table is reached. 5. Ground Water: The water retained in the inter -granular pores of the soil or fissures of rock below the water table. 6. Runoff: water that flows away from a surface after falling on the surface in the form of rain. 7. Recharge: the process of surface water joining the ground water aquifer. 8. Water Table: The level of water within the granular pores of the soil or fissures of rock below which the pores of the host are saturated. 9. Buffer tank/Storage Tank: Tank used for storing of rain water. Storage tanks can be of any size, shape and capacit y depending upon requirement. 10.Sedimentation tank: A tank is used to settle down/retain the impurities of water. 11.Detention Period: Period for which the water is retained in a sedimentation tank. 12.Rate of infiltration: The speed by which the water is absorbed by the natural soil/earth. 13.Rainfall Intensit y: Rainfall intensit y is the rate fall measured in mm per hour in any particular area. 14.Peak rainfall intensity/Peak flow: The maximum intensit y of rain fall in any particular area which lasts for a very short period and given a peak flow of water. 15.Rain Water Harvesting Structure: The whole system fabricated/Constructed for rain water harvesting is termed as Rain Water Harvesting structure. 16.Permeable Strata: A strata through which water can pass. It depends upon the size of the voids and uniformit y coefficient of the particles in the strata. 17.Filter Media: A media consisting of granular particles, which reta ins the impurities of water when passed through it. 18.Catchment Area: A small piece of land which collects the surface runoff and produces a stream flowing through its deepest through it. 19.Well Screen/ Strainer: Screens/strainers are long slotted pipes fitted at proper elevation according to the depth of the water bearing strata. They allow the ground water to enter into the well but not the sand or silt around. They are made of brass, iron, copper, galvanized iron or steel, various alloys and concrete. 20.Injection Well: Used to recharge deep aquifer or water multiple aquifers are met.
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Cost of Rain water Harvesting The cost of implementation of rainwater harvesting systems in a house/flat complex will vary from Rs.5000 - Rs.50, 000 depending on the size of the premises as well the nature of the soil. Once put in place, the harvesting structure does not require any serious maintenance and hence there is no recurring expenditure involved.
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Chapter-14
RAIN WATER HARVESTING
DESIGN PARAMETERS
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EYE OPENER CHIRAPUNJI (MEGHALAYA) receives 11000 mm (433 inch.) rain fall annually but suffers from acute shortage of drinking water. Because rain water is not harvested and conserved and is allowed to drain in the rivers. The Average Annual rainfall over India is 1170 mm (46 inch.). The Average Global rainfall is 800 mm (31.5 inch.) The rainfall in India occurs with high intensity and for short duration. With the result rainfall flow away fast to Nallah, River & Sea leaving little scope for ground water. Hence, India suffers shortage of water even for domestic use. Therefore Rain Water Harvesting & its Conservation is the need of hour.
POTENTIAL OF RAIN WATER CONSERVATION The Rain water can be collected and stored for drinking and other purposes at a very low cost. Let us look at the example of Kohima(Nagaland), which is very high water scanty area in non-rainy season, i. We consider a small house of 100sqm ( T-IV quarter) at Kohima ii. Annual rainfall at Kohima= 1856 mm iii. The discharge/ Run-off which can be collected for storage (Q) = Collection Eff. x Runoff Coff. x Area x Ann-Rainfall = 0.8 x 0.8 x 100 x 1856/1000 cum = 118.784 cum = 1,18,784 litres For a family of 5 persons availability of Water per person per day = 1,18,784 /365x5 = 65 liter per capita per day For such a small roof area in hilly region, the availability of water through rain water conservation shows the rosy picture of potential of Rain Water. 1.0 OBJECTIVE Mainly following objectives are relevant which singly or in combination may dictate the design of RWH system To recharge the ground water deep or shallow aquifers. To capture and store rain water - to be reused after treatment - when water supply is either absent or scanty To improve the quality of ground water by diluting the impurities particularly where ground water is not directly being used due to the impurities. To prevent flooding of low-lying areas without needing to raise the ground level by filling or by constructing the rain water sumps and pumps.
i. ii. iii. iv.
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2.0
TOPOGRAPHY Topography of the compound is important as the entire rain water falling in a compound is required to be conveyed to one or more points where it is stored and then led into aquifer. Sloping ground are easily amenable to rain water collection. The characteristics of the catchment area as regards its permeability to determine the quantity of runoff which shall be available for the recharge. If the runoff is largely from unpaved area, a sedimentation tank may be introduced to desilt the water before it enters the buffer tank.
3.0
HYDROGEOLOGY Hydro-geology of an area particularly the aquifer characteristics including the depth of aquifer(s), the thickness and permeability of aquifer-material dictate the selection of rain water harvesting structure. Where a shallow aquifer is underlain by a thick aquifer at some depth, the latter should be preferred for recharge. Generally the upper 3 meter of the unsaturated zone is not considered for recharging as it may cause the adverse environmental impact e.g. water logging, soil salinity etc. In the absence of the detailed exploration, hydro-geological characteristics of the area can be assessed from the bore hole details of neighborhood bore. 4.0 HYDRO METEOROLOGY The rainfall and its intensity is of utmost importance in design of RWH system. The data on rainfall intensity, number of rain-days, length of spell of rains and the total rainfall during the spell etc. help in deciding the capacity and design of the artificial recharge structures. GEOLOGY Sub surface soil characteristics particularly the permeability, porosity & vegetation cover etc. determine the infiltration of rain water into the ground and consequently the run-off that will be generated for the harvesting purpose. Where the artificial recharge is through recharge pit/trench or shaft, soil characteristics that affect infiltration and percolation assume special significance.
5.0
Map showing infiltration rates of soils are available with Central Ground Water Board which help in the design of a suitable artificial recharge structures and to assess the extent of recharge from these structures.
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6.0
STEPS OF DESIGN
6.1 Select the design rainfall intensity i. Select the design rainfall intensity and its duration based on peak rain fall Intensity and its duration. Runoff is that portion of rainfall that is not lost by evaporation or natural infiltration and can be intercepted for conservation or recharge.
Rain Water Harvesting Structure need not be designed for peak flow of rare occurrence but it is important to provide adequate capacity to avoid too frequent flooding of the catchment area particularly if the prevention of flooding is the prime reason for undertaking the scheme. For general guidance the heaviest rainfall in one hour in mm for important places in India is given in table no.1 for ready reference. This table is based on the rainfall records of Meteorological Department, Govt. of India and is based on 35 years of rainfall records. Values provided in the table are of rare occurrence. Design rainfall intensity for RWH structures shall be less than this value. In Punjab, Haryana, UP & Delhi, RWH structures designed with 25 mm/hour are working satisfactorily. Table no. 2 gives the annual rainfall of some cities which can be used for calculating the total amount of rain water that can be harvested for the purpose of conservation.
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TABLE 1 Heaviest Rain Fall in mm in one Hour for Important Places in India
Station Rain fall Station in mm Rain fall Station in mm Rain fall in mm 58 60 72 46 49 58 76
Agarthala Ahemedabad Aligarh Allahabad Amritsar Anantpur Bombay (Colaba) Calcutta Chambal Cherrapunji Coimbatore Dhanbad Dhanwar Dholpur Dibrugarh Dum Dum Durgapur
66 80 51 65 74 38 129
Asansol Aurangabad Bangalore (Central) Barmul Baroda Imphal
86 61 61
Barrackpur Bhim Kund Bhopal Bhubneshwar
75 71 48
Bhuj Bokaro Okhla
62 84 127 80 74 20 47 93 68 90
Indore Jabbalpur Jamshedpur Jodhpur Tonk Dam Khijranwan Konar Lucknow Madras
60 55 62 60 60 66 59 70 62
Pannaji Pathankot Patna Pune Port Blair Rajpur Ramgarh Shilling Sindri Srinagar
54 68 59 47 61 49 56 43 50 52
Mahabaleshawar 51
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Gangtok Ganna Param Gannapa Gaya Gawalior
81 61 61 70 63
Mangalore Mawsynram Minicoy Nagpur New (North) Lakhimpur
72 127 70 78 Delhi 79
Shanty Niketan Triuchirappalli Tejpur Trivandrum Vengurla
49 78 63 96 66
Hazaribag Hira Kund Hyderabad
78 82 102
65
VeraPal
64
Vishakhapatnam 63
TABLE 2 ( Annual Rainfall) S. No. City Annual rain fall (mm) (R) S. No. City Annual rain fall (mm) (R)
A-1 Class 1 2 Mumbai New Delhi (Safdarjung) New Delhi (Palam) A-Class 4 5 Ahemdabad Bangalore C-Class 803.4 970.0 41 43 Varanasi 1025.4 2146.6 797.3 38 39 Solapur 750.8
Thiruvananthapu 1827.7 ram Tiruchirappali 880.2
794.0
40
Vishakhapatnam 968.8
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6 7 8
Calcutta Chennai Hyderabad B-1 Class
1641.4 1333.8 812.5
43 44 45
Portblair Dibrugarh Tezpur
3168.8 2588.7 1768.3
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Bhopal Indore Jaipur Kanpur Lucknow Ludhiana Nagpur Pune Surat B-2 Class
1146.7 1008.3 673.9 832.6 1021.5 752.3 1112.7 721.7 120
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 35
Chapra Jamshedpur Muzzafarpur Bhuj Karnal Shimla Bidar Hoshangabad Ratlam Rajkot Ranchi Salem Ujjain Kolhapur Imphal Shillong Kohima Bhubneshwar
1028.3 1320.7 1239.8 413.6 814.1 1424.8 981.1 1225.9 1033.5 726.9 1431.6 1014.0 934.1 1138.5 1353.1 2050.5 1856.0 1542.2
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Agra Allahabad Amritsar Aurangabad Bareli Chandigarh Coimbatore Gorakhpur
776.5 1017.7 681.2 688.05 1071.9 1059.3 631.0 1228.1
36 37 55 56 57 58 59 60
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26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Guwahati Gwalior Jabalpur Kochi Kota Madurai Meerut Nasik Patna
1717.7 899.0 1331.6 3228.3 761.4 873.3 901.0 703.0 1003.4
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
Cuttack Pthankot Alwar Vellure Agartala Aligarh Dehradun Roorkee Darjiling
1475.3 1319.0 774.6 1004.4 2178.6 781.6 2315.4 1156.4 2667.1
TABLE 3 SIZING OF RAIN WATER PIPES FOR ROOF DRAINAGE S. No. Diameter of pipe (mm) Average rate of Rain Fall (mm per hour) 50 75 100 125 150 200
Roof Area (sqm) i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) 50 65 75 100 125 150 13.4 24.1 40.8 85.4 8.9 16.0 27.0 57.0 6.6 12.0 20.4 42.7 80.5 5.3 9.6 16.3 34.2 64.3 4.4 8.0 13.6 28.5 53.5 83.6 3.3 6.0 10.2 21.3 40.0 62.7
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6.2 Select the coefficient of runoff and the catchment area Run off also depends upon the permeability of the surface. Coefficient of runoff C may be taken from the table no.4. 6.3 Computation of discharge Generally the following non-empirical formula, popular by the name Rational Formula is used for calculating the discharge: Q = 0.8 x C x Ip x A /1000 ---- (Eqn. no.1) Here Q = discharge in cubic meter per hour for the purpose of recharge C = coefficient of runoff to be obtained from table 4 Ip = peak intensity of rainfall in mm per hour A = area of catchment in m2 0.8 is the collection efficiency. Since the rain water falling over an area can not be 100 percent harvested because of evaporation, spilling, leakage etc. TABLE 4 RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS STRUCTURES 1. Roof Catchment 1.1 1.2 Tiles Corrugated metal sheets Co-efficient C 0.8-0.9 0.7-0.9
2. Ground Surface Covering 2.1 2.2 2.3 Untreated Ground Catchments Soil on slope less than 10% Rocky material catchment 0.0-0.3
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2.4
Residential Complex in Suburban Areas Apartments Parks, cemeteries Play grounds Railroad yard Unimproved Land Areas Asphaltic or concrete pavement
0.50-0.70
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
0.10-0.25 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35 0.10-0.30 0.70-0.95 0.70-0.85
2.10 Brick pavement 2.11 Lawns, sandy soil having slopes 2.11.1 Flat 2% 2.11.2 Average 2 to 7% 2.11.3 Steep 7% 2.12 Lawns, clay soil having slopes 2.12.1 Flat 2% 2.12.2 Average 2% to 7% 2.12.3 Steep 7% 2.13 General Drive ways and Walls
0.05-0.10 0.10-0.15 0.15-0.20
0.13-0.17 0.18-0.22 0.25-0.35 0.15-0.30
6.4 Calculate the capacity of the buffer tank or Storage Tank (A) Buffer Tank
Runoff water is required to be collected in an underground chamber which acts as a buffer. The buffer tank contains the filter media on its bed that also serves as a filtration tank.
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Capacity of buffer tank = (Runoff as per eqn. no.1 Rate of Recharge) x buffer tank detention period. When the hourly peak rainfall intensity has been used in eqn. no.1, buffer tank detention period may be taken as 1 hour. Capacity of the buffer tank or Storage Tank.
(B) De-silting Chamber

Surface runoff carrying lot of silt, which if not removed at this stage, may lead to the chokage of bore and thus drastically reduce the absorption capacity of the aquifer. Therefore it is necessary to provide the de-silting chamber before water enters into the harvesting system. Where de-silting chamber is also provided, it may be designed for 30 minutes detention period in which case the detention period of buffer tank shall be reduced from one hour to 30 minutes.
(C). Rate of Recharge

Rate of recharge may be obtained from CGW Board. For the alluvial soil generally found in Punjab, UP & Haryana, the rate of recharge vary from 19m3 per hour to 50m3 through a cased bore well of 100-150mm dia. Where one bore of 150mm dia is insufficient, number of bore wells is increased & not the dia of the bore. In such cases bores are dispersed away from one another. Primarily, the soil has to be identified as sandy or clayey. An indication of rate of recharge can be obtained from the grain size of aquifer which determines the permeability of the formation as shown in the following table.
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TABLE 5 (Aquifer Material)

S. no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Grain Size Above 2 mm 2.0 to 0.6mm 0.6 to 0.2mm 0.2 to 0.06mm 0.06 to 0.002mm Below 0.002mm Coefficient of permeability k in cm/s 0.69-1.16 0.29 0.17 0.12 0.0011 0.00011
Illustration to calculate the approx. rate of recharge using coefficient of permeability (k)
Suppose grain size = 2mm (the coefficient of permeability will be around 0.69 cm/sec) Suppose dia of borewell pipe is 150mm and height of screen in aquifer is 300cm Entry of water from borewell to aquifer per sec = surface area of screen x percolation of water in 1 sec. = (3.14 x 15 x 300)x 0.69 = 9749.7 cm3 per sec = 9.74 lit per sec Rate of Recharge = 9.74 x3600/1000 = 35.0 cum per sec
(D). Storage Tank for Conservation When entire rain water of the catchment area is required to be stored in the storage tank for future use, the storage capacity of the tank shall be calculated in a different manner as it will depend upon the annual pattern of runoff and the pattern of demand for the whole year.
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Computation of Discharge of Storage Tank (Q) Q = 0.8(Coll. Eff.) x c (Run. Coeff.) x Annual Rainfall x Area e.g. Area = 100 sqm Annual Rainfall = 1000 mm Runoff Coeff. C = 0.85 (Tiles) Collection Efficiency = 0.8 Q = 0.8x0.85x100/1000x100 =68 cum = 68,000 lit. (A) Tank capacity should be designed for dry period e.g. for eight months means 243 days Drinking/cooking water requirement= 10 lit/capita/day For a complete family of 5 persons, Total requirement of water = 243 x5 x10 = 12,150 litres Add 20% more for factor of safety = 1.2 x 12,150 = 14,580 litres. Say 15,000 litres
Or alternatively capacity of tank = Q (A)/3 = 68,000/3 = 22,666 lit Say 23,000 lit.
6.5 Provide filter media

Design of filter media is empirical. Generally filter media should be made in three layers of 50 cms each. (i) Bottom Layer - 10 to 20mm aggregate (ii) Middle Layer - 5 to 10mm aggregate (iii) Top Layer 1.5 to 2mm Coarse sand Approx. 30% of the gross volume of filter media is available as voids which are accounted while deciding the dimensions of the buffer tank.
6.6 Decide casing, strainers & gravel packing

Tube well assembly should match the strata chart so that strainer is placed against the aquifer in multi-aquifer strata. Casing can be of mild steel, GI or PVC.
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PVC is perfected due to low cost and durability if the soil is acidic. Slotted pipe strainers are available in mild steel, GI, brass and PVC.
(a) Casing
Dia of casing can be designed on the basis of rate of percolating ensuring that velocity of water in the casing shall be between 2.5 m/s to 3 m/s. For percolation rate of 10 liter/sec, the required dia comes to 71mm. For most situations 100mm dia casing shall be sufficient. More than 150 dia pipes are rarely provided for recharge. Where large amount of runoff is available but the percolation rate is not high, more number of recharge structures separated from one another may be planned instead of increasing the size of buffer tank.
(b) Strainers
Well screening is the most important component of a well. The basic requirements of a well screen are that it should be
(1) Resistant to corrosion and abrasion (2) Strong enough to prevent collapse (3) Offer minimum resistance to flow of water and (4) Prevent excessive movement of sand into well during pumping or into aquifer during recharge.
(c) Percent open area

Corey (1949) observed that little or no increase in efficiency result when open area is greater than 15% of the total surface area while an open larger than 15% affects the structural strength.
(d) Placement of screen

In confined aquifer: 80% of the depth of aquifer (centralized portion leaving 10% on each end.) In unconfined aquifer: At the top of aquifer after leaving 1 meter length.
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Strainer should be followed by minimum 3m long casing at the end which should be closed with bail plug. This part acts as a repository of silt and increases the life of the bore.
(e) Slot size

Over sized slots will allow passage of silt whereas undersized slots will provide more resistance to flow of water. Generally slot should be able to retain 90% of the gravel pack. Generally 1.58 mm wide slot 75mm long in MS strainer and 1.5mm dia circular holes in PVC strainer should serve the purpose. When the bore is used only for recharge and not for pumping, bigger size of slots can be provided without fear of getting sand in the water. Thickness of the gravel pack should be 100mm to 200mm but not less than 75mm.
(f) Provide Splash Pad, Air vent pipe & Overflow pipe
Splash pad may be pre-cast RCC or stone slab of 1000mmx1000mm placed right below the inlet tee. Air vent pipe of 25mm is generally found to be sufficient for percolation rate up to 7.5 liters per second. Over flow pipe from buffer tank can be of same dia as the dia of inlet pipe.
7.0
ILLUSTRATION
DETAILED CALCULATION FOR DESIGN OF RWH STRUCTURE AT T.E. BUILDING COMPOUND, TRANSPORT NAGAR, LUDHIANA Salient Features: Total plot area Roof top area Paved area Proposed RWH structure = 5674 sqm = 1485 sqm = 2024 sqm = Buffer Tank with bore well of 150mm dia.
Consider Collection efficiency = 0.8
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(i) Design Rainfall Intensity:In Punjab, the design rain fall intensity is assumed as 25mm/hour. (ii) Calculation of Discharge:Catchment Roof top Paved area Area 1485 sqm 2024 sqm Runoff Co-efficient (Refer Table 4) 0.8 (S. no. 1.1) 0.7 (S. no. 2.9) Discharge/Runoff (Refer Eq. No.1) 0.8x08x1485x25/1000 = 23.76m3/hour 0.8x0.7x2024x25/1000 = 28.34m3/hour 52.1 m3/hour say = 52m3/hour
Total discharge
(iii) Rate of Recharge: For RWH structures designed in this topographical conditions i.e. in Punjab and for a recharge well of 150mm dia, the rate of recharge as 10 litre per second or 36m3/hour has been found to be satisfactory.
(iv) Capacity of buffer tank required = (Runoff or Discharge - Rate of recharge) x Detention period. Considering the detention period as 1 hour Capacity of buffer = (52-36) x 1 = 16m3 (v) Filter Media:Assuming the size of the buffer tank as 4m x 3m x 3m Considering Filter media consisting of 0.5m depth of each layer Bottom 10-25 mm Aggregate Middle 5 10 mm Aggregate Top 1.5-2 mm Coarse sand.
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Volume of filter media = 4m x 3m x 1.5m = 15m3 Assuming the volume of voids as 30% of total volume of filter media, Storage capacity available in this filter media = 18 x 0.3 = 5.4m3 Taking 0.45m as the free board of the storage tank. Clear Storage depth = Total depth Filter depth Free board = 3.0 1.5 0.45 = 1.05 m Clear Storage capacity of storage tank available = 4m x 3m x 1.05m = 12.6m3 Total capacity of the storage tank i/c filter media = 12.6+5.4 = 18m3 18m3 >16m3 So Storage Tank of size 4m x 3m x 3m is O.K. Circular construction is more stable and economical as compared to rectangular. Therefore, it is recommended that circular tank should be preferred in rain water harvesting construction. In the present case, circular buffer tank of 3.5m dia & 3.5m depth is sufficient.
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Chapter-15
EXPANSIVE SOIL PROBLEMS & REMEDIAL MEASURES
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EXPANSIVE SOIL (BLACK COTTON SOIL) PROBLEMS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES

1.0 Expansive soils are organic clays which contains organic particles. They swell on saturation and leave wide cracks on drying. In wet conditions they have low shear strength and show large settlements on application of Load. These expansive soils are Black Cotton Soils of Central India, bentonites of Rajasthan and Kashmir and Mar and Kabar [local names] of Bundelkahnd [U.P]. In India about 16% of land comprises black cotton soil. This area mostly falls in the Deccan Plateau and Malwa Plateau and spread in M.P, Gujrat, Mahrashtra, Kashmir & A.P. They are also known as Black Cotton Soils and Shrinkable Soils. Clays consist of three minerals (i) Illite (ii) Kaolnite (iii) Montmorillonite. The black cotton soils have a predominance of Montmorillonite clay minerals and are said to be formed as a result of weathering of mostly deccan trap or basalt. Montmorillonite is responsible for swelling in wet condition and shrinking in dry condition. Their name is derived because of their black colour and great suitability for growing cotton. The black colour is due to presence of Iron and Titanium which exists in small quantity. Its depth varies from 1mtr. to 8mtr. deep. There are some soils which may have black colour but are not such Expansive Clays, while there are some soils which are grey, brown, yellow in colour, but possess characteristics of Black Cotton Soil. Thus proper identification of the soil is very essential. 2.0 Identification of Expansive Soils & Measuring Differential Free Swell (D.F.S.) 2.1 It is difficult for the man in the field to decide if the soil is expansive or not, by mere physical inspection. A simple field test to be used for this purpose. Two graduate cylinders [50 cc], one containing water and the other containing kerosene oil may be taken. Two samples of soil oven dried and powered [passing through sieve IS 425] should be taken in equal quantities [weight 10 gm] , and one should be poured in kerosene and the other in water for 24 hours. The sample poured in the water will swell and the one poured in kerosene will not. The volume in kerosene oil should be taken as original volume and volume in the water as increased volume on free swell. The differential swelling or the increase in the volume over original volume should be calculated. This is Differential Free Swell [D.F.S.]. 3 to 4 such test should be carried out.
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(V2 V1) x 100 D.F.S = -------------------V1 Where : V1 V2 = = Original volume in Kerosene oil Volume in water
2.2 CATEGORIZATION OF EXPENSIVE SOIL ON D.F.S. BASIS D.F.S PERCENTAGE > 60% 40% TO 60% < 40% CATEGORY VERY VICIOUS MODERATELY VICIOUS NOT VICIOUS
2.3 CATERGORIZATION ON THE BASIS OF DAMAGES

Degree of Damage Expected Approx Maximum Ground Movement D.F.S
Expansiveness Low Cracking due to foundation movement Undistinguishable from temperature Cracks etc. Cracking slightly but not Unsightly. Normal maintenance. No damage to services and functioning of structure. Cracking unsightly but structural Stability unimpaired. Functionally affected like distortion of doorframes etc. Services slightly damaged. Cracking unsightly, structural stability impaired, special repairs like providing Tie rods and propping necessary. Functionally affected-heaving and cracking of floors breaking of service.
Less than 1.27 cm 1.27 3.80 cm
20
Moderate
20-35
High
3.80 10 cm
35 -50
Very high
Over 10 cm
More than 50
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2.4 D.F.S. Test should be carried out in black cotton soils or soils with black colour or in soil of any other colour at a place where buildings show extensive cracking. Test should be carried out on soil of yellow or brown or grey colour underlying the black soil. 2.5 The black cotton soil is dangerous for building on account of its volumetric changes with the change of atmospheric conditions. It swells excessively when wet and shrinks when dry. As said earlier the black cotton soil has great affinity towards water. This tendency of soil is on account of presence of fine clay particles which swell when they come in contact with water. The differential settlement of the structure caused by the movement of foundation on account of alternate swelling and shrinkage results in formation of the crack. The cracks thus formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5m to 4m deep. The soil in its natural dry state can stand high bearing pressure but after rains, it is so soft that even a man cannot walk on it without sinking. The soil swells considerably when confined between walls or under a floor and exert very great upward and side pressure. In dry weather, water evaporates considerably fast and soil shrinks considerably forming wide fissures. When rains start, the fissures favour the percolation of water, accelerate the swelling process up to considerable depth. 3.0 PROBLEMS DUE TO EXPANSIVE SOILS. It has been observed that field swelling pressure goes up to a level of 11.5 ton/sqm therefore, following problems may arise in the structures: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Uplift of whole structure during wet season and settlement of the same during dry condition. Cracks in the walls. Cracks and heaving of floors and pavements. Cracks in structural slab. Differential settlement of foundation Structure becoming unserviceable and dangerous.
4.0 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE CONSTRUCTING BUILDING IN EXPANSIVE SOILS. 4.1 Provision of vertical Extension:In black cotton soils normally a single storey quarter block create more problem due to less axial loads and higher uplift. In fact a single storey quarter block, constructed with larger foundations to take Load of 2 more floors in future, gives more swelling pressure of black cotton soil on large size footings designed for 3 storeys. In fact, in such
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cases, the superimposed load of single storey cannot counter balance the uplift pressure. That is resulting cracks in the walls. 4.2 Proper Drainage: Most of the failures are also result of improper drainage of rain water from the compound of the buildings so that sub-soil would get saturated and expand. Subsequently during dry season it would shrink resulting in unequal settlement of foundation and cracking in buildings. 4.3 Stabilization of soil :The properties of expansive soil can be improved favourably by following methods of soil stabilization. The object of stabilization of black cotton soil is to increase their strength characteristic and to overcome the harmful properties such as, swelling and shrinkage. However, stabilization of such soil is not very easy mainly because of difficulties of pulverization and of their proper mixing and mixing with stabilizer. (i) By Heat Treatment. The laboratory experiments show that if black cotton soil is heated up to a temperature of 400 to 450 degree Celsius, it loses its plasticity. The loss of Plasticity Index is attributed to the collapse of crystal lattice of clay. (ii) Stabilization with slaked lime. Slaked lime in proportions of 5 to 8% appears to be promising stabilizer for expansive soil. Addition of 5% of lime to black cotton soil increase the strength, reduce its plasticity, shrinkage and swelling considerably. Lime stabilized black cotton soil can be safely used as sub-grade and sub based materials. The experiments shows that lime treatment causes increase in the coefficient of consolidation of black cotton soils and hence treatment accelerate consolidation under normal rolling. (iii) Lime Cement Stabilization It is not economical to use cement alone for stabilization of black cotton soil. In fact the laboratory experiments shows that cement and lime should be used in combination for better strength and it was found that 4% of cement and 4% lime gives 7 day strength of 21 kg/sq.cm 4.4 Providing Foundation at Sufficient Depth Volumetric changes in black cotton soil are reduced and are negligible at certain depths. At such depths, the moisture content remains almost constant throughout the year. This depth varies from 2 m to 4.5m below ground level. Therefore, the foundation should necessary be taken to zone of inappreciable variation in moisture contents. Under no circumstances the foundations should be kept at higher level. In fact, the foundation of building must invariably be taken to firm and good soil.
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MARCH MAY 0
Depth 1 IN m
JUNEAUGUST
SEPTNOV
DECFEB 7.5 cm 5 cm
MARCHMAY
2 3
2.5 cm Practically nil
FIG -1 GROUND MOMENT VIS A VIS DEPTH In the case of foundations put on firm and good soil, the foundations behave like any normal foundation. The refilling of trenches and plinth should be with good and noncohesive sandy soil and moorum. Good moorum is the best material. When the foundation of the buildings are put on firm and good soil or alternatively when the buildings are constructed on under reamed piles, taken to zone of inappreciable movement, no further precautionary measures are necessary so far as building structure is concerned. However, adequate precautions are very necessary for stability of floors of the building. 4.5 PRECAUTIONS FOR SAFETY OF FLOORS/WALLS. 4.5.1 The most effective method is to remove all the black cotton soil and refill it with granular and/or non cohesive soils. However, the cost consideration will be the ruling criteria. The extent to which black cotton soil can be replaced will depend on: (a) Cost of disposal and lead involved for the black cotton soil. (b) Cost of supplying and refilling the space with moorum or good soil. 4.5.2 External walls of the building should be provided from foundation level instead of providing from above plinth beams. Trenches be filled up with moorum, good earth on both inside and outside. This will cut off contact of black cotton soil layer from outside the building, with that inside the building. 4.5.3 Providing Non structural slab with nominal reinforcement, over the compacted soil separated by a polythene sheet, is most popular measure to sustain the shrinkage and settlement of soil below the floor.
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4.5.4 Construction of slopping Concrete Apron 3m wide around the building is a must. In fact, the finished ground in the compound of the building should be paved and be kept higher than the surrounding areas and slopping away from the building so that rain water is efficiently drained off. Drainage of rain water away from the building and from the compound is most essential and should never be overlooked. 5.0 CONSLUSION: It could be summarized that: (i) Foundation on pile or those taken to good and firm soil do not need precautionary measures except that refilling of trenches both inside and outside should both be done from excavated Black Cotton Soil. Efficient drainage of rain water from the compound is a must. The precautions, necessary for plinth filling under floors, should be taken. When black cotton soil is more, non-structural slab and beams should be provided at Ground Floor level. Black cotton soil may be filled back in column foundation pits. External plinth beam shall have drop walls to cover the hollow space between plinth and ground level in the compound. Further, all buildings in B.C.S. areas shall be provided with aprons all-around and slopping away from buildings. The compounds are finished higher than adjoining areas etc.
(ii) (iii) (iv)
(v)
6.0 VARIOUS METHODS FOR LAYING FOUNDATION IN BLACK COTTON SOILS: (i) (ii) Excavation of soil completely and foundation on good soil. Raft foundation. This is very expensive method and should be used only where SBC of soil is very disproportionate. Pile foundations. Where the black cotton soil consists of clays up to great depth say 4m & above, the weight of structure may be transferred to piles. Under Reamed Piles. Where black cotton layers are very deep, the latest method is to provide underreamed piles, pile caps and grade beams etc. The length of under reamed pipes should be long enough to be in zone of inappreciable ground movement which may extend beyond 5m. Under reamed piles are bored cast in situ piles having one or more bulbs. Nowadays under reamed pile foundation are preferred on black cotton soils as they are more stable and economical compared to conventional footings.
(iii)
(iv)
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7.0 UNDER REAMED PILES
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7.1 UNDER REAMED PILES --------------- are bored, cast-in-situ piles having one or more bulbs formed by suitably enlarging the bore hole. Anchorage of pile increases by providing the bulbs. The under reamed piles are useful (i) to avoid the undesirable effect of seasonal moisture changes. (ii) to reach firm strata, (iii) to obtain adequate capacity for downward, upward, lateral loads and moments, (iv) to take foundations below scour level. 7.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: - It shall be designed in such a way that (i) (ii) (iii) Load from structure should not cause shear failure. Differential or total settlement does not result in structural damage and/or functional distress. Pile shaft should be adequate to extend all loads (vertical axial or otherwise) and moments.
7.2.1 MINIMUM DEPTH OF PILE:(i) (ii) (iii) In deep deposits the depth of pile shall be minimum 3.50 m below GL. Piles can be of smaller depth where expansive soil overlays non-expansive soil strata of rock. In case of recently filled up soils, the pile should pass through them and rest on good strata.
7.2.2 DIAMETER OF UNDER- REAMED BULB --------------- shall be 2 to 3 times the stem dia but normally it is 2.5 times of dia of stem. 7.2.3 SPACING OF BULB -- Shall not exceed 1.50 times dia of bulbfor pile up to 30 cm dia It can be reduced to 1.25 times dia of stemforpile dia more than 30 cm. 7.2.4 DEPTH OF TOP MOST BULBS ---- shall be governed by the following criteria -(i) (ii) (iii) Shall not be less than 1.75 m below GL in expansive soil. Minimum depth = 2 x dia of Bulb. Minimum 1.5 x Bulb dia . below bottom of pile cap embed in ground and bulb.
7.2.5 NUMBER OF BULBS ------- shall not be more than 2 without ensuring feasibility of strata and stabilization by drill of mud.
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7.2.6 DIA OF STEM: - Dia of stem varies from 20 cm to 50 cm. But by manual boring normally up to 37.5 cm is used. 7.3 DESIGN OF PILES:7.3.1 Load carrying capacity of pile depends on: (i) (ii) Pile dimensions and its configurations. Soil Strata.
7.3.2 Axial Load on pile is transmitted through: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Point bearing at toe. Bearing by project area of bulb. Skin friction along pile stem. Friction developed on the soil cylinder between extreme Bulb.
7.3.3 Uplift Loads (i) (ii) Point bearing at toe (i) above is absent. But other three of above as mentioned in7.3.2 (ii),(iii)&(iv) are present.
7.3.4 Lateral Loads/ Moments ------------- are sustained by horizontal soil reaction developed along pile length. 7.3.5 Design of piles should have adequate factor of safety (i) (ii) As a structural member to transmit the imposed loads Ensures desired limit of settlement.
7.3.6 PILE AS STRUCTURAL MEMBER (i) (ii) (iii) Should have a strength to sustain design load. Its cross section to be checked for vertical loads (both compressive and uplift, lateral loads and moments) Should be designed as a short column after considering both concrete and steel.
7.3.7 REINFORCEMENT IN PILES ------------- depends on loads, nature of strata and method of installation.
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7.3.7.1 According to type of piles a) Normal pile. (i) Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in stem = 0.4% of Mild Steel (or Equivalent Tor steel) (ii) = 3-10 mm dia (MS) Or = 3-8 mm dia (TOR) Rings of 6 mm dia Mild Steel Spacing of rings:= shall not be more than stem dia Or = 30 cm = whichever is less b) Under-reamed compaction pile (i) (ii) 4-12 mm Dia (MS) or 4-10 mm Dia (TOR). Ring as in (a) (iii) above.
(iii)
7.3.7.2 According to pile dimensions. a) Pile length > 5 m or > 37.5 cm dia -------6-12 mm dia MS or TOR Stirrups 8 mm Dia. Spacing as specified in7.3.7.1(a) (iii)
b) Pile diameter > 40 cm ------ 6-12 mm dia MS or TOR
7.3.8 COVER TO REINFORCEMENT (a) Longitudinal ----------In normal cases..40 mm ----------In aggressive environment of Sulphate 75 mm
(b) Bottom Cover ----------------------------------------------------------------75 mm
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7.4 SAFE LOAD ON PILE:7.4.1 Methods of determination (i) (ii) (iii) Ultimate load from soil properties & apply F.S. Load test. Safe load table of IS Code.
7.4.2 Safe load from Ultimate Load carrying capacity To be calculated from soil properties such as cohesion, angle of internal friction, soil density. The soil parameters may be found out from laboratory test. If not available can be obtained from N-Values (IS 4968-1976). The bearing capacity of under-reamed piles is the sum of total skin friction resistance and total point resistance.
(A) Ultimate Load Capacity for Clayey Soils: Qu = Ap. Nc. Cp. + Aa. Nc. Ca + Ca As + . Ca. As Where Qu = Ultimate bearing capacity of pile in Kgs. Ap = Area of pile at toe level in Sqcm. Nc = Bearing capacity factor, usually 9.00 Cp = Cohesion of soil around the toe in Kg/sqcm. Aa = ( / 4) x ( Du2 D2) in Sqcm. Where Du is dia of bulb & D is dia of stem in cm. Ca = Cohesion of soil around the bulb in Kg/Sqcm. . = Reduction factor = 0.50 for Clays. Ca = Average Cohesion of soil along pile stem in Kg/Sqcm. As = Surface Area of stem in Sqcm. As = Surface area of cylinder circumscribing the under-reamed bulbs (In between two bulbs). Note: 1) The above holds good where spacing of bulbs is not more than 1.50 x Bulb Dia. 2) First two terms in formula are for bearing and last two for friction components. 3) In-case of single bulb under-reamed piles, third term will not occur. 4) In uplift load, first term will not occur.
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(B) Ultimate Load Capacity for Sandy Soils: As per clause 5.2.3.1 (b) of IS 2911 (Part III) 7.4.3 SAFE LOAD FROM PILE LOAD TEST: - The safe load on piles in compression/uplift and lateral load can be determined by carrying out load test on piles as per IS 2911 (PART IV). In big works involving more than 200 piles and where soil data and past experience is not available, minimum two piles should be tested before finalizing the safe load on piles. 7.4.3.1 PILE LOAD TEST Before adopting under-reamed pile foundation system, Test Pile of different diameters or bored and tested both for compression and uplift loads. (A) COMPRESSION LOAD TEST For compression load test two different methods are adopted (i) Anchor Pile Method. (ii) Dead Load Method. (i) Anchor Pile Method In this system, additional two piles are bored in the line with test pile and the distance between the piles is to be kept within 3.0 meter for practical consideration. In this system the two Anchor Piles support a common girder, which passes over the test pile. Pressure through a hydraulic jack is transferred to the test pile from the girder which on the other side is supported by the Anchor Piles. The deflection of the test pile is measured by the deflection gauges and the final load at which a settlement of 12 mm is attained is noted. Two third of this load is taken as safe load carrying capacity of the pile. This test is not very reliable because it does not account for the strain of anchor pile. However, this is a cheaper method of carrying out the load test. Dead Load Test In this system, a dead weight is generated over a platform which is constructed temporarily over the test pile. The platform is totally supported on a girder, which passes over the test pile. The deflections are noted by minimum three different deflection gauges for the settlement of pile. This is a reliable method but care has to be taken for erection of temporary dead load and also safety precaution has to be taken for the safety of pupil working for the load test under the plat form. Any collapse of temporary structure may cause an accident. The routine test on working piles are terminated at 1.5 times the design load or 12 mm settlement whichever is earlier.
(ii)
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(B) UPLIFT LOAD TEST Similar arrangement is used for uplift load test but in this case test pile is provided with adequate reinforcement and anchor bolts which hold a thick steel plate or reaction frame and force is applied through jack to the steel plate as reaction from the girder supported on side supports which do not settle. The uplift is measured by deflection gauges. This test generally terminated at twice the estimated safe load or when the Load-Deflection Curve shows a clear break. 8.0 SAFE LOAD FROM TABLES: - In the absence of actual tests, soil data, the safe load on under-reamed pile, with bulb dia = 2.50 times the dia of stem, may be taken as per Table-1 of Annexure-B of IS: 2911 (PART- III) 8.1 Safe load Table is applicable for safe bearing load, uplift and lateral loads incase Medium compact sandy soil (10 < N < 30) Clayey soils of medium consistency (4 < N < 8) including expansive soils. Concrete is M15 Steel shown in the Table is for compression and lateral thrust. For uplift additional steel to be provided. In expansive soils, reinforcement shown in Table 1 is adequate to take upward drag. (v) Additional load carrying capacity for piles more than two bulbs in expansive soils and more than one bulb in other soils can be found out by adding 50% load shown in column 8 & 12. (vi) Value of lateral thrust column 16 & 17 may not be increased or decreased for change in pile length and value in column 17 should not be increased for multibulb. 8.2 For dense sandy soils (N> 30) and stiff clays (N > = 8) safe compression and uplift may be increased by 25% but lateral thrust should not be increased. 8.3 For loose sandy soils (4<N< = 10) and soft clayey soils (2<N< =4) safe loads may be taken as 0.75 times the loads in the Table. 8.4 For very loose sandy soils (N< = 4) and very soft clayey soils (N < =2) values obtained from Table may be reduced by 50%. 8.5 If the pile bore holes are full of subsoil water of drilling mud during concerting ---safe load may be reduced by 25%. No such reduction is required if water in the shaft is below bottom most bulb. 8.6 Safe load in uplift and compression, given in the Table or worked out by formulae, may be reduced by 15%, if bulb is two times of stem dia. But no reduction in lateral loads. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
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9.0 SPACING OF PILES:i) Centre to centre spacing of under-reamed piles shall not be less than 1.50 times the bulb diameter, preferably 2.0 times the bulb diameter. ii) If piles are of different diameters, average value of bulb diameter may be taken as spacing. iii) For grade beams, maximum spacing of piles should not exceed 3.00 mtrs. 10.0 i) GROUP OF PILES:- Safe load. Piles at 2 Du spacing ---- Safe load of group = Safe load of individual pile x No of piles For piles at 1.50 Du spacing------ The safe load of group may be reduced by 10%.
ii)
11.0 GRADE BEAMS:(i) The grade beams supporting the walls shall be designed taking due account of arching effect due to masonry above beam. The beam with masonry due to composite action behaves as a deep beam. For design of beam, Bending Moment of W.L2/50, should be adopted. Where: W = UDL per meter (considering a maximum height of Two Storeys in Load bearing structure and one storey in RCC framed structure) L= effective span of grade beam (iii) (iv) Minimum depth of beam should be 150 mm. In Expansive soil, Grade Beam shall be kept a minimum of 80 mm clear of the ground. In other soils grade beam may rest on the ground over a leveling course of concrete about 80mm thickness. In this case part load may be considered to be born by the ground. In case of exterior beams over piles in expansive soils, a ledge projection of 75 mm thickness extending 80 mm into ground shall be provided on outer side of beam.
(ii)
(v)
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12.0 PILE CAP: (i) Pile caps are generally designed considering concentrated loads. The depth of pile cap should be adequate for the shear or diagonal tension and it should provide for necessary anchorage of reinforcement both for column and the piles. The cap may be designed as a solid slab, carrying concentrated loads from piles. The clear overhang of the pile beyond the outer most pile in the group shall normally be 100 to 150 mm, depending upon the size of pile size. The cap is generally cast over a 75 mm thick leveling course of concrete. The clear cover for main reinforcement in the cap slab shall not be less than 75 mm. The pile should project 40 mm into the cap concrete.
(ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
13.0 CONTROL OF ALIGMENT: Piles shall be installed as correct as possible at correct location and truly vertical. Great care should be taken for single pile or piles in group of two under a column. In general vertical piles should not deviate more than 1.50%. Deviation in design position of piles: Position/location of the pile shall not deviate as under: Pile Dia Pile dia < = 600 Pile dia > 600 Maximum Positional Deviation 75 mm or D/4 .whichever is less. 75 mm or D/10 .. Whichever is more.
Where: D = Diameter of stem In case of single pile under column ---- Positional deviation.. A) Should not be more than 50 mm or D/4 whichever is less. (D = dia. of stem) B) 100 mm incase of pile dia. more than 600 mm. 14.0 PRECAUTIONS TO CONTROL ALIGNMENT: (i) (ii) (iii) Concreting of pile shall be done as early as possible. Bore hole full of drilling mud should not be left without concreting more then 12 to 24 hours. For placing concrete, funnel should be used. In empty bore holes for under-reamed piles, a small quantity of concrete is poured to give about a 100 mm layer of concrete at the bottom. Reinforcement
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(iv) (v)
(vi)
is lowered now and position correctly. Then concrete is poured to fill up the bore hole, Care shall be taken that soil is not scraped from the sides if rodding is done for compaction. Vibrators shall not be used. If water is confined up to the bucket length portion at the toe and seepage is low, water should be bailed out before concreting. In-case the pile bore is stabilized with drilling mud or by maintaining water head within the bore hole, the bottom of bore hole shall be carefully cleaned by flushing it with fresh drilling mud and pile bore will be checked for its depth immediately before concreting. Concreting shall be done by tremie method. The tremie should have a valve at its bottom and lowered with its valve closed at the start and filled up with concrete. The valve is then opened to permit flow of concrete which permits the upward displacement of drilling mud. The pouring should be continuous and termie is gradually lifted up so that the tremie pipe opening always remains in the concrete. In final stage, quantity of concrete in tremie should be enough so that on final withdrawal some concrete is spills over the ground.
15.0 PRECAUTIONS IN CONSTRUCTION OF UNDER REAMED PILES Whenever black cotton soil is encountered at a particular project site, a trial bore up to 15 m should be done to know the exact depth upto which black cotton soil is extending. Number of cases have been reported in past where the upper layer of black cotton soil was only having a depth of 7 to 8 feet and the field staff by digging a trial pit of 4 feet (being normal practice) reported the soil as black cotton soil and based on which under reamed piles were recommended. But at the time of actual execution of project, the refusal was started at a depth of 1.8 to 2 m. itself creating lot of complications and subsequent change foundation system. This is a vital point and should be ensured by all the field staff. When a project involving under reamed pile is taken up following operation should be adopted. (1) To give the layout of work for foundation, care should be taken for checking of center line of columns and center of pile caps and also center of each pile for farmed construction. For load bearing construction, thickness of wall and width of grade beam should be checked and layout of piles decided accordingly. (2) Cutoff level should be decided at site. This is bottom level of pile cap or grade beam. (3) Availability of proper equipment should be ensured. The equipment consist of the following: a) Auger of various diameter as per requirement with handle. b) A collapsible bulb cutting arrangement with a soil collecting bucket of required diameter. c) One double guiding frame stand to guide the boring mechanism. d) A mirror for checking the verticality of the bore.
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(4) For heavier and bigger size diameter piles, Tripod Hoist should be used to handle the mechanism more effectively. Generally upto 30 cm. dia piles are bored with tripod hoisting arrangement. (5) Following points should be further checked: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Availability of Bentonite slurry to stabiles the bore in collapsible soils. The depth of pile bore to be checked after bailing out water/mud. The depth of pile to be kept from the cut off level. One L shaped rod to check the diameter of bulbs. The upper bulb should be made first and then only bulb at lower depth should be cut. The length of reinforcement cage should be carefully worked out considering total depth of pile and cut off level and anchorage length all together. For casting, the pile funnel arrangement/ tremie should be used. The concrete should have slump of 15 cm. The concrete should be allowed through a central pipe system which passes through the reinforcement cage up to the bottom of the bored pile. The pipe along with funnel arrangement should be lifted slightly as the concreting progresses keeping the lower bottom of the pipe into the concrete itself. ________________
(vii)
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Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited

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Summer Training Course for B.Tech (Civil) Students

Building Science Civil Faculty

ADVANCED LEVEL TELECOMMUNICATION TRAINING CENTRE 0 GHAZIABAD-201002

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607784 12.50% 607784 607784 4% 0.50%

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SAMPLE DETAILED ESTIMATE (Based on DSR 2012) DETAILED ESTIMATE

DSR2012 30217 4.1.10/98

Add for Cost Index (151-149/149)100 = 1.34% Add 3% contingencies GT SAY

DSR2012 96180 6.1.2/118 133329 1787 135116 4053 139169 139,200/-

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2 15.81 0.575 2 15.69 0.46

2 15.58 0.345 2 15.46 0.23

7.16 0.575 7.27 0.46

7.39 0.345 7.5 0.23

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Perform satisfactorily during their intended life.

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