CONE SHELL

PHYLUM
Mollusca
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
== .....................
CLASS
Gastropoda
.,. FAMILY
~ Canidae
Cone shells are beautiful but deadly snails that live on tropical
seabeds. They paralyze their prey with nerve poisons that
are so strong they can kill full-grown humans.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length of shell: Up to 5 in.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, predatory, active
mainly at night.
Diet: Marine worms, mollusks, or
fish, depending on the species.
BREEDING
Method: Male and female come
together to mate. Fertilization is
internal.
Eggs: Laid in protective capsules.
Hatching time: About 10 days.
Larvae: Free-swimming. Feed on
plankton before settling and grow-
ing into adults.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 400 to 500 species of
cone shell in the genus Conus.
Their closest relatives are other
flesh-eating marine gastropods,
including the whelks, oyster drills,
and murices.
I FEATURES OF A CONE SHEll
Feeding: Water siphon senses prey. The proboscis
extends toward the prey. A dart at the end of the
proboscis is fired into the fish, injecting it with
poison. A cone shell then swallows prey whole.
Range of cone shells.
DISTRIBUTION
Cone shells are found throughout tropical and subtropical seas.
They are most common in the Indian Ocean and western Pa-
cific. Most species inhabit shallow waters up to 165 feet deep.
CONSERVATION
Although collection for their attractive shells is causing concern,
cone shells are not yet in serious danger.
Horny protective veil: Covers
outside of the shell. Prevents
encrusted plants and animals
from eating into the shell.
Shell : Thick and
sturdy. Conical with
spiral structure.
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There are 400 to 500 species of cone shell. Most are found
among the coral reefs of tropical and subtropical waters.
These carnivorous creatures are among the most highly
evolved of all snails. A cone shell has a specialized shell
shape and an extremely effective method of securing food.
Its beautiful multicolored shell conceals a stinger that is
powerful enough to paralyze prey within an instant.
~ HABITS
Cone shells are flesh-eating ma-
rine snails that live primarily in
tropical and subtropical waters
of the western Atlantic, Pacific,
and Indian oceans. A cone shell
absOrbs oxygen from the water
through a gill in its mantle-a
fold of soft body tissue.
A cone shell may spend most
of the day hidden in the sand
or a reef crevice, with its body
inside its conical, spiraling shell.
The shell opening is protected
by a horny "trapdoor" called
the operculum, which seals the
opening whenever the animal
withdraws inside.
At night a cone shell hunts for
prey in coral reefs. Like other
snails, it crawls on a slimy foot,
which moves in waves of mus-
cular contractions. It sniffs the
scent of prey by drawing wa-
ter through a tube and over a
chemical receptor that is called
the osphradium.
The colorful pattern on the
exterior of a cone shell is often
concealed by a horny veil that
prevents encrusted plants and
animals from eating into it. In-
stead, the encrustations stick to
the veil and act as camouflage.
They hide the cone shell from
enemies such as the wrasse
and the pufferfish.
~ BREEDING
Unlike marine animals that scat-
ter eggs and sperm in the wa-
ter, cone shells come together
to mate. The male passes his
sperm into the female's body,
where the eggs are fertilized.
This prevents waste and also
allows the fertilized eggs to be
enclosed in protective capsules.
The female lodges clusters of
the capsules under rocks or in
crevices. Sometimes several fe-
Left: Most of the cone shells that
feed on fish prey on only one or
two species.
DID YOU KNOW?
A hermit crab has a specially
flattened body that enables it
to enter the slotlike opening of
an empty cone shell and use it
as a home.
A worm-feeding cone shell
can haul a marine worm out
of its burrow. It inserts its pro-
boscis into the hole, grips the
worm, and then pulls it out, in
males place their eggs inside the
same crevice.
The eggs hatch into tiny free-
swimming larvae that feed on
microscopic floating organisms.
They drift with plankton for a
while as they develop, which
helps disperse the species to
other areas. Eventually, the lar-
vae settle on the seabed, where
they turn into small, but recog-
nizable, cone shells.
Right: A cone shell's eggs are en-
closed in capsules, where they are
safe from predators.
the same way that a bird pulls
a worm out of the ground.
Some fish have jaws that are
strong enough to crack a cone
shell open and devour the mol-
lusk inside. However, they do
not eat the proboscis with its
lethal barbs.
At least 20 people have died
from cone shell poisoning.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Most cone shells prey on marine
worms and other mollusks. But
some species such as the geo-
graphical cone specialize in kill-
ing and eating fish. This is quite
a feat for a creature that is actu-
ally a slow-moving snail. A cone
shell can accomplish it because
its tongue is essentially a barbed
harpoon armed with a deadly
nerve poison.
A typical snail's "tongue"-
known as a radula-is a contin-
uously growing ribbon of horny
teeth, which the animal uses to
scrape up food. However, on a
Left: The most lethal cone shells
are those that swallow fish whole.
Left: An empty
cone shell makes
a safe home for
another marine
creature such as
a bristleworm.
cone shell's radula, the teeth are
modified into tubes filled with
venom, and each has a needle-
sharp barb at its tip. The whole
structure is mounted on a pro-
boscis that can be shot out with
great force.
When a cone shell senses the
presence of prey, it extends its
proboscis and stabs the victim
with one of the barbed teeth. As
the tooth breaks off, the poison
flows out and instantly paralyzes
the victim. The cone shell then
draws the prey gradually into its
mouth on the proboscis. It swal-
lows the victim whole, much as
a snake eats a frog.
BRISTLE WORM
PHYLUM
Annelida
CLASS
Polychaeta
G OUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
Bristle worms are a very diverse group of marine animals, ranging
from simple clam worms to colorful, feathery fan worms. Like their
relatives the earthworms, they all have segmented bodies.
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: ft. Usually no more
than 4 in.
Body form: Soft, segmented, mus-
cular body with bristles.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Varies, depending
on latitude.
Method: A worm may have eggs,
sperm, or both. Fertilization is exter-
nal or internal. Asexual fission (split-
ting) and regeneration also used.
Larvae: Free-swimming or bottom-
dwelling.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Either stationary in a burrow
or tube or active on the seabed or in
shallow coastal water.
Diet: Organic debris or live prey.
RELATED SPECIES
Bristle worms are marine relatives of
earthworms and leeches. All 3 are
classes of segmented worms in the
phylum Annelida.
DISTRIBUTION
The 5,000 or so bristle worm species are found worldwide, in all
oceans and on nearly all coasts.
CONSERVATION
Bristle worms remain numerous throughout the world. But, like
most creatures that live on the seabed or in coastal waters, they
can be very seriously affected by marine pollution.
THREE BRISTLE WORM SPECIES
Sea mouse: Actively scavenges in sediment near
the low tidemark. This broad worm reaches 4
inches in length. Gray hairs on its back conceal
its body segments. Long, threadlike bristles on
its sides glow with iridescent color.
Sand mason worm: Stationary. Builds
a tube of sand and bits of shell , glued
with mucus. Tube is up to 10 inches
long, but only a small part protrudes
Fine tentacles
catch food float-
from the sand.
Clam worm: Up to 5 inches long. It crawls
on "legs," called parapodia, that sprout from
each segment. The legs are tipped with tufts of
bristles for gripping. The worm uses eyes and
antennae to find prey and strong jaws to grab it.
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There are approximately 5,000 species of bristle worm
living in oceans throughout the world. These animals are
named for the long bristles that sprout from their body
segments. The bristles, which are called setae, are often
used as tiny feet. They enable the more active species of
bristle worm to grip mud or sand as they crawl over
the seabed in their never-ending search for food.
~ HABITS
Most bristle worms live on the
seabed or in shallow coastal wa-
ters. Many are sedenta'Yt spend-
ing their adult lives in one spot.
They rely on currents to bring
them food. Others crawl about,
looking like marine millipedes.
Some sedentary worms, like
the lugworm, live in U-shaped,
mucus-lined burrows in mud or
sand. The animal can draw wa-
ter in at one end, extract what
it needs, and eject the rest from
the other end.
Other sedentary worms live in
tubes formed mainly of skin se-
cretions. The tubes of some spe-
cies, such as the peacock worm
and sand mason, are made of
mucus with sand or mud grains
cemented to it. In contrast, spe-
cies like the tube worm live in
hard tubes that encrust rocks,
seashells, or even a crab's shell.
Many mobile bristle worms
live in U-shaped burrows part of
the time. They emerge to feed
and breed.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Mobile bristle worms such as
clam worms and scale worms
crawl over rocks and sand to
find food. Some feed on weeds
and organic debris. Others scav-
enge for dead marine creatures.
Some bristle worms, such as the
green clam worm, even attack
live prey, seizing it in powerful
jaws that are mounted on an
extended mouth.
A burrow dweller such as the
lugworm extracts oxygen from
water, which it pumps through
Left: A bristle worm may move
over a sea fan, gripping with its
bristles and feeding as it goes.
Right: Palolo worms swarm to the
surface to release eggs and sperm
at certain times.
DID YOU KNOW?
In Fiji and Samoa the sec-
ond and third days following
the moon's third quarter in
October are known as "small
palolo time." The same peri-
od in November is called "big
palolo time." These are the
only times when the palolo
worm reproduces, and they
are celebrated with festivals.
its burrow. In the process, the
water is filtered through a plug
of sand that traps food particles.
The lugworm eats the sand, di-
gests the food, and ejects the
waste in a coiled cast at the bur-
row exit. The parchment worm
feeds in a similar way. However,
it filters its food directly from
the water.
Right: Parchment worms push
water through their tubes with
their three dorsal plates.
The jaws of a large clam
worm are strong and sharp.
You may get a nasty bite if
you pick one up carelessly.
Earthworms and their rela-
tives also have bristles, but
not many.
Some scale worms have
luminous organs that flash
when the worm is disturbed.
Most bristle worm species use
external fertilization, releasing
eggs and sperm at the same
time, so the two mingle in the
water. The fertilized eggs usually
develop into free-swimming lar-
vae, but in some species the lar-
vae live on the seabed.
In a few species, the eggs are
fertilized internally and develop
into larvae inside the female's
Left: Some species have many long,
sticky tentacles to search for food
on the seabed.
Left: Made of
lime, the tiny,
twisted remains
of a tube worm
can frequently
be seen encrust-
ing a coastal
rock. When the
worm is alive, a
fan of tentacles
protrudes from
one end of the
tube.
body. In some species the eggs
develop in a sac attached to the
body. Other species brood the
eggs inside their burrows. Still
others lay eggs in a mass of mu-
cus attached to the seabed.
Some bristle worm species al-
most destroy themselves when
breeding. Their tail ends swell
up with eggs and sperm and
eventually burst, scattering the
contents in the water. Other
species use fission, splitting in
half to create two individuals.
COMMON LIMPET
.. PHYLUM
~ Mollusca
~ CLASS
~ Gastropoda
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
~ FAMILY
~ Patellidae
~ GENUS & SPECIES
~ Patella vulgata
The common limpet lives along the coasts of western Europe.
In even the most exposed positions, it is able to cling to
the rocks, holding on despite the heavy pounding of waves.
SIZE
Shell diameter: Up to 3 in.
BREEDING
Mating: Probably throughout
the year.
Reproduction: Female releases her
eggs into the sea, where they are
fertilized by the male's sperm.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: During the larval stage, the
young limpet drifts as part of the
plankton. As an adult, it generally
stays attached to the rocks on the
upper and middle shore.
Diet: Algae.
RElATED SPECIES
Except for one species in western
Mexico, the family Patellidae is ab-
sent from NOlth American waters.
Instead, the keyhole limpets, family
Fissurellidae, and the zoned limpets,
family Acmaeidae, are common.
Range of the common limpet.
DISTRIBUTION
The common limpet is found on rocky shores along the Euro-
pean coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and along the North Sea and
English Channel.
CONSERVATION
There is no long-term threat to this species, which is plentiful
throughout its range. It suffers from oil pollution but quickly
recolonizes to make up for lost numbers.
FEATURES OF THE COMMON LIMPET
LIMPET SHELL INTERIORS
Shell: Dull gray. Conical , with ribs,
and often encrusted with barnacles.
The bottom edge may wear away,
sealing the limpet tightly against
the rock. High-water limpets
tend to have a taller shell ,
while limpets that are sub-
merged for long-
er periods are usu-
ally flatter.
Head: Tipped by
two tentaclelike
sensory organs.
The mouth con-
tains the radula
(a tonguelike
organ) .
Foot: Flat, muscular, and like a sucker.
Anchors the limpet against a rock but
also enables it to creep while grazing.
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\ /
Common limpet: Creamy yellow
with a smoky brown center.
Intermediate limpet: Smaller
than the common limpet. Heavily
ribbed shell with bands of color.
China limpet: Similar size to the
common limpet. Gleaming white
interior with orange center.
0160200861 PACKET 86
The common limpet can be found in clusters on rocky
European shores, especially in tidal pools. Powerful muscles
hold its protective shell firmly against the rock. Starfish are
among the few predators that are strong enough to pry it
loose. Coastal oil pollution can harm common limpets, but
usually they are able to reestablish themselves elsewhere.
~ HABITS
The common limpet belongs
to a very large class of small in-
vertebrates called the gastro-
pods. The 35,000 or so species
include slugs, snails, and a vari-
ety of limpets.
Like all gastropods, the com-
mon limpet has one broad, flat
foot. It lives in tidal waters. At
low tide, when it is exposed to
the air, it uses its foot to cling
to a rock. The limpet makes ad-
justments so that its low, wide
shell exactly fits the area of rock
where it makes its home. On
hard rock it will wear down its
shell, and on softer rock it will
grind away the rock surface.
By staying put so firmly, this
limpet protects itself from pred-
ators and keeps its body from
drying out. It also avoids being
washed away from its feeding
ground when the waves of the
incoming tide lash its rock.
When safely submerged at
high tide, the limpet relaxes its
grip and sets out to find food.
It leaves a trail of mucus to help
it find its way home. As the tide
recedes, the limpet returns to
its rock and holds on until the
next high tide.
Right: A watertight seal surround-
ing the base of a limpet's shell pre-
vents its body from drying out.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The common limpet eats algae
that grows on the rocks where
it lives. The muscles in its foot
contract in waves to pull it over
the rock as it grazes.
The limpet uses a tonguelike
organ known as the radula to
scrape off the algae. This horny
strip has rows of fine teeth and
works like a file. It also carries
the food into the animal's di-
gestive system.
Left: The shell of a limpet provides
a secure home base for common
acorn barnacles.
Right: The filelike radula can be
seen inside the mouth of the com-
man limpet.
DID YOU KNOW?
When the teeth of the lim-
pet's radula wear away, they
are replaced by new ones.
Protandry is the name for the
process by which an animal
such as the common limpet
changes from male to female
as it ages.
The trails of mucus left by the
moving limpet stimulate more
algae to grow. As a result, the
animal does not need to travel
far to find food. Each limpet
has its own feeding territory,
which it may defend from oth-
er limpets.
Right: Tracks of tiny scratches re-
veal where the common limpet has
been grazing.
Gastropods have been in ex-
istence for longer than most
other animals. Their skeletons
ave been found in Precam-
brian rocks, which are more
t han 580 million years old.
li mpets are among the most
primitive of all gastropods.
NATUREWATCH
The common limpet is a famil-
iar sight on western European
coasts. It is frequently found
on rocks at the halfway point
between high and low tides. A
limpet seals its shell so tightly
against its rock that, when it
dies or moves on, it leaves ring
marks on the surface.
The common limpet's rela-
tively tall, gray shell is ribbed
and has a scalloped edge. This
shell is frequently encrusted
with barnacles.
~ BREEDING
The female common limpet
releases her eggs into the sea,
where they are fertilized by the
male's sperm. They hatch into
microscopic larvae, which drift
or swim with plankton in sur-
face waters. The larvae are ex-
tremely vulnerable and face the
threat of being eaten by fish or
other sea animals.
Eventually the larvae that sur-
vive settle on rocks and evolve
into the adult form. Young lim-
pets are initially all males. But
some develop characteristics
that turn them into females.
Such a change of sex is com-
mon among mollusks.
HORSESHOE CRAB
ORDER
Xiphosura
FAMILY
Limulidae
G OUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
,. GENUS fit SPECIES
~ Limulus polyphemus
The horseshoe crab feeds and breeds on mud and sand flats
along the eastern coast of North America. This ancient
creature can be traced bock over 300 million years.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Body and tail length: 1 ~ - 2 ft.
Male slightly smaller than female.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 9-12 years.
Breeding season: May to July.
Mating: On shallow coasts. Female
lays eggs on the beach, and male
fertilizes them.
Eggs: 2,000-30,000.
Larvae: Hatch in about 5 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Feeds on the seabed on
sand or mud flats. Active mostly
at night. Found in large numbers
in isolated areas.
Diet: Worms, algae, and shellfish.
RELATED SPECIES
The 3 other species of horseshoe
crab in the family Limulidae are
Trachypheus gigas, T. . tridentatus,
and Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda,
which are found on coasts from
Japan to the Philippines.
Range of the horseshoe crab.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in isolated areas along the Atlantic coast of North Amer-
ica, from the Gulf of Maine to the Gulf of Mexico.
CONSERVATION
Large numbers are caught when they come inshore to breed.
Like many other creatures that live off the coast, the horseshoe
crab suffers from pollution. However, its numbers are not yet
seriously declining.
FEATURES OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB
Dorsal plate: A "horseshoe" made
from a tough material called chitin.
Protects the prosoma.
Opisthosoma: Middle body section.
Protects the delicate organs that are
used for breeding, digesting, and
Prosoma: The
foremost section
of the body,
including
the mouth-
parts and
limbs.
Chelicerae:
Mouthparts
for handling
food. Similar
to those of
a spider.
Limbs: 5 pairs of
walking legs with pincer-
like attachments to the first 4
pairs. The hindmost pair can be
used to crack open shellfish.
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Caudal spine: The tail helps
support the body when moving.
Also helps the crab turn over
if it settles upside down
on the sand.
Gill books: So-called because the
150 gill leaves lie like the pages of a
book. Highly charged with blood,
they pulsate when submerged. This
creates a water current from which
they extract essential oxygen.
0160200891 PACKET 89
The horseshoe crab is an extraordinary relic from a bygone
age. With its large pincers and beaklike mouth, it shares
many characteristics with other crab species. Yet this strange
creature is actually more closely related to spiders. Buried in
the mud, with only its beady eyes visible in the dim waters,
the horseshoe crab is able to avoid many predators.
~ H A B I T S
The horseshoe crab is found at
depths up to approximately 75
feet on mud and sand flats off
North America's eastern coast,
especially around New jersey.
The crab burrows into the sea-
bed, lifting the mud or the sand
with its legs. At the same time,
it drives its head forward and
down until only its eyes peep
above the sand.
At night the crab searches for
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The horseshoe crab eats algae
plus any worms it finds while
burrowing. In addition, it preys
on small shellfish.
The horseshoe crab uses the
food on the seabed, using dif-
ferent methods to travel. It may
pull itself along the bottom with
its forelegs or swim with gentle
strokes of its body. But the most
unusual method consists of a se-
ries of hops. The animal pushes
itself up onto its tail, arches its
jointed body, and thrusts itself
forward, using the tip of its tail
as a lever. Once the crab is lying
flat again, it repeats the process.
pincers of its chelicerae (mouth-
parts) to trap its prey. The crab
then shreds its meal into edible
bits and passes the pieces to its
mouth at the center of its body.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
The horseshoe crab's body has
21 segments within 3 sections.
Its front body section is the pro-
soma, which contains the crab's
legs and pincers. Covering this
is the horseshoe-shaped shell, or
dorsal plate.
The body's middle section, or
opisthosoma, holds the repro-
ductive and digestive organs. It
also bears gills for breathing-
more than 300 thin leaves that
extract oxygen from the water.
The third section is the tail, or
Left: Native Americans used to
attach the crab's tail spine to a
pole to make a fishing spear.
DID YOU KNOW?
In New jersey, farmers feed
horseshoe crabs to chickens
and pigs. It is thought that the
crabs help hens lay eggs and
give pork a special flavor.
The horseshoe crab is related
to an extinct scorpion like ani-
mal called the giant sea scorpi-
caudal spine, which helps sup-
port the two jointed pieces of
the shell. The crab uses the tail
to turn over when upside down
and as a lever when burrowing.
The two main body sections
are jointed, so the crab is able to
bend at the middle. The animal
seems large when viewed from
above. But a look under the dor-
sal plate reveals a small body.
This crab has two simple eyes
at the front of its shell, as well as
a compound eye at each side.
Right: A horseshoe crab thrusts
itself up and swims briefly before
sinking back to the seabed.
on. At a length of over six feet,
this animal was the largest seg-
mented creature ever known.
To keep its shell clean and
smooth, the horseshoe crab
secretes a substance from its
body that prevents parasites
from settling on it.
~ BREEDING
The horseshoe crab breeds be-
tween May and july. The breed-
ing season begins with a mass
migration of horseshoe crabs to
their spawning grounds on shal-
low, sandy coasts.
When the crabs have paired
up, the male climbs on top of
the female and clasps her low-
er body. The female digs a hole
about six inches deep and lays
2,000 to 30,000 eggs. The male
releases his sperm over the hole
at the same time. The two sexes
then go their separate ways.
Each fertilized egg is encased
Left: Several males may try to fer-
tilize the eggs of a single female
during spawning.
Left: The horse-
shoe crab's two
side-mounted
compound eyes
give it a wide
angle of vision.
The eye surface
serves as the lens
and is shed reg-
ularly with the
dorsal plate.
in a leathery shell, and the larva
hatches in about five weeks. A
thin, membranous shell around
the larva supplies it with nutri-
ents but is soon shed. The larva
develops quickly and soon be-
gins burrowing like an adult, al-
though it lacks a tail.
The crab grows by molting-
shedding its shell four or five
times in the first year. The shell
splits down the middle, and the
young crab crawls out of it back-
ward. With each molt the crab
grows larger, and its tail begins
to develop. After the first year,
the horseshoe crab molts once
a year. It reaches sexual maturity
between 9 and 12 years old.
EUROPEAN CRAYFISH
CLASS
Crustacea
ORDER
Decapoda
GROUP 6: PRI
FAMILY
Astacidae Austropotamobius pallipes
The European crayfish is a freshwater lobster. This crustacean
feeds on small aquatic animals at night in the cool,
oxygen-rich waters of fast-flowing streams.
SIZE
Length: Up to 4 in. Male is in.
longer than the female.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 3-4 years.
Mating season: Fall.
Eggs: Clusters are carried by the
female throughout the winter and
hatch in spring.
Larvae: Resemble parents in habits
and diet.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary. Forages by night
on the streambed.
Range of the European crayfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Diet: Small aquatic animals such
as snails, mussels, and worms. Also
dead or dying fish, frogs, and other
larger animals.
lifespan: Up to 20 years.
The European crayfish is found throughout Europe. It normally
lives in fast-moving hard-water streams that flow over chalk
or limestone.
RELATED SPECIES
CONSERVATION
Crayfish are close relatives of the
marine lobsters and belong to the
same order as shrimps, prawns,
and crabs.
The European crayfish is declining in numbers because of over-
fishing and the pollution of streams.
FEATURES OF THE EUROPEAN CRAYFISH
Mating: The male flips the female
onto her back or side and attaches
sticky packets of sperm to the swim-
merets under her abdomen. She then
lays her eggs and carries the fertilized
clusters throughout the winter.
. ' .
.. ., -.. ...... .. -
Tail: End section has
plates. crayfish can fan these
out and propel itself backward.
Shell : Hard out-
er skeleton. It is
shed frequently
until the crayfish
is 3 or 4 years
old, then only
once a year.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Antennae: Long
and sensitive,
used for touch.
Pincers: Modified first pair
of legs. Large and power-
ful, used for catching
food and in defense.
0160200901 PACKET 90
The European crayfish looks like an overgrown shrimp.
When evading its many enemies, such as predatory otters
or eels, this crayfish also moves like a shrimp-shooting
backward away from danger with a flick of its tail. For
centuries the European crayfish has been valued as a
dining delicacy. But today it has become quite rare as a
result of overfishing and the pollution of its habitat.
HABITAT
The European crayfish is some-
times found in lakes and ponds.
But normally it lives in shallow,
fast-flowing streams in chalk or
limestone areas where the wa-
ter contains plenty of oxygen,
which the crayfish needs to sur-
vive. If the water becomes pol-
luted, the crayfish is one of the
first casualties.
These mineral-rich waters al-
so contain calcium, which is a
key component of the crayfish's
shell. The crayfish cannot sur-
vive in habitats that have no
calcium, so it is unknown in re-
gions with acid waters.
With essentially the same ba-
sic body chemistry as marine
lobsters, the crayfish has salty
body fluids. In a process known
as osmosis, the animal's tissues
soak up the less salty stream wa-
ter through the membranes of
its shell joints. To counter this,
the crayfish pumps out large
quantities of diluted urine.
Right: Feeding at first on their own
supply of yolk, the young crayfish
cling to the female's swimmerets.
FOOD &: FEEDING
The European crayfish moves
too slowly to hunt fast-moving
animals, so it preys on insects,
snails, mussels, and worms. It
also uses its acute sense of smell
to find dead or dying creatures.
The crayfish usually forages at
night, creeping over the stream-
left: Spiny projections behind the
eyes distinguish European crayfish
from other species.
DID YOU KNOW?
If a young crayfish loses one
of its legs or pincers, it grows
another. Mature crayfish can-
not do this because, after the
age of three, they do not molt
(shed their shells) frequently
enough to allow a new limb
to grow properly.
The European crayfish is
prone to a disease that can
bed on its eight legs. It catches
prey in its large pincers, often
transferring the victim to smaller
pincers on its walking legs be-
fore tearing the meal into edible
pieces. It then grinds the food
to a pulp in the stout, toothed
mandibles beneath its head.
Right: The European crayfish de-
fends itself with its first pair of legs,
which bear large pincers.
left: The Euro-
pean crayfish
sheds its shell
many times be-
fore it is mature.
After it is about
three years old,
it molts only
once a year.
kill the whole population of a
river. In 1890 disease-resistant
American crayfish were intro-
duced into many European
rivers to replace native cray-
fish. These are now very wide-
spread in Europe.
Crayfish are frequently eat-
en by people. In many areas
they are raised for market.
SPECIAL ADAPTATION
The European crayfish normal-
ly moves slowly, whether it is
crawling or swimming. Since
it has many enemies, it needs
a way to escape if attacked.
At the end of its tail, the cray-
fish has five overlapping plates
that it can spread like a fan to

In fall the male European cray-
fish becomes very territorial and
waves his pincers at other males.
He may fight for control of part
of a stream. After dealing with
his rivals, he turns his attention
to mating.
The male fertilizes the female's
eggs externally but reduces the
loss of eggs and sperm by mat-
ing very carefully. He turns the
female onto her back or her side
and attaches sticky packets of
sperm to the swimmerets (tiny
"legs" used for movement) be-
form a broad, flat blade. By
sharply flipping these plates
forward in the water, it can
quickly propel itself backward.
In this way it can face its at-
tacker and threaten it with its
large pincers while trying to
get away.
low her abdomen. She glues
her eggs to the sperm packets,
so that most are fertilized. She
carries the clusters of eggs on
her swimmerets all winter.
When they hatch in spring,
the young look like tiny shrimp.
Over the front part of its body,
each has a carapace (domed
shell) containing a yolk sac. At
first it feeds on the yolk while
clinging to its mother's swim-
merets, but it soon catches prey,
taking anything it can overpow-
er, even other young crayfish.
CORAL
CLASS
Anthozoa
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
ORDERS
Madreporaria, Anthipatharia, etc.
Corals can be found in an amazing variety of unusual shapes.
Many look like underwater plants, but each "plant" is actually
an animate colony made up of hundreds of tiny tubular units.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: Individual polyps grow up
to 1 in. long. Colonies reach 1 0 ft.
in diameter.
BREEDING
Polyps may divide or bud to form
daughters. Colonies often undergo
mass spawning to produce free-
floating larvae.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Anchored to the seabed.
Most corals are colonies, although
some are solitary.
Diet: Zooplankton are caught by
stinging tentacles. Stony corals al-
so obtain food from microscopic
internal plants.
RELATED SPECIES
Corals belong to the class Antho-
zoa, which includes about 6,500
species of sea anemone and coral.
Jellyfish, which also have stinging
cells, are more distantly related.
TWO TYPES OF CORAL
Devonshire cup coral : Solitary ani-
mal that looks like an anemone.
Found off the southwest coast of
Great Britain, it grows to about an
inch across. The translucent, knobbed
tentacles that surround its slit mouth
are used for feeding.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of corals.
DISTRIBUTION
Corals are found in tropical, subtropical, and some temperate
seas and oceans. Reefs usually occur on the eastern side of a
continent because cold currents wash the western side.
CONSERVATION
Corals are very fragile, and colonies are often hurt by boat an-
chors and clumsy divers. Some species have almost become
extinct because of collection for the jewelry trade.
Pink sea fan: Has a hard skeleton
that supports a colony of hun-
dreds of feeding polyps. Found
off the northwest coast of Europe.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200931 PACKET 93
Corals are the sea's great architects. In shallow tropical
waters, colonies of hundreds or even thousands of these
animals create intricate habitats that support a variety of
marine species. Over thousands of years the remains of
coral skeletons may build up to form a coral island.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
Most corals consist of hundreds
or thousands of connected units
called polyps. Each polyp has a
short, cylindrical body with ten-
tacles around an opening at the
top. The polyps are connected
by tissue, through which they
share digested food.
There are two main groups of
corals. Stony corals have lime-
stone skeletons. Other corals,
such as soft corals, pipe corals,
sea fans, and sea whips, do not.
A stony coral polyp is less than
a tenth of an inch in diameter.
It secretes a limestone skeleton
from its base, providing a solid
foundation and protection. A
polyp can pull itself below its
skeletal cup to avoid predators.
Other coral polyps have feath-
ery tentacles and thick, fleshy
structures with a flexible scaf-
folding, allowing them to bend
with the current. Some, like sea
fans, branch in treelike shapes,
providing a large surface area
for filtering food particles.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Coral polyps feed primarily at
night on sea animal s and organ-
ic debris. They use nematocysts
(stinging cells) and sticky mucus
to trap food with their tentacles.
Algae live inside many polyps,
giving the coral a dull yellow or
browl' color. Some corals de-
~ BREEDING
Coral colonies grow by budding
new polyps. In some coral spe-
cies new buds arise from the tis-
sue connecting the polyps. In
other species they grow from
the base of a polyp, which splits
down the middle.
Corals also reproduce by re-
leasing billions of sperm and
Left: With their stinging tentacles,
coral polyps paralyze small crea-
tures that come too close.
I DID YOU KNOW?
Coral species fight long bat-
tles for space on a reef. Polyps
may attack a rival colony with
their stinging cells. They may
smother their neighbors or de-
prive them of light.
pend on algae for food and
must live in water where sun-
light can penetrate. The algae
use sunlight to convert carbon
dioxide into sugars, some of
which leak into the polyp. Al-
gae also help stony corals to
make their skeletons.
eggs into the water. The polyps
of a particular species spawn at
the same time, usually just after
a full moon.
The fertilized eggs hatch into
tiny larvae that drift on currents
as part of zooplankton. Eventu-
ally they find a suitable surface
and establish a new colony.
Right: Coral reefs provide a rich
environment for fish and many
other sea creatures.
Mediterranean r e ~ ~
popular for jewelry, but most
highly prized is the rare Pacific
black coral.
Some species, like fire coral,
can give a diver a bad sting.
J
Although some corals grow in
temperate regions, most live in
tropical or subtropical waters.
They remain in shallow water
where the ocean temperature
never falls below 60'" F. Stony
corals grow best in water that
is around 73') to 77F.
Most corals must live at depths
where sunlight can penetrate.
Stony coral s almost never live
Left : Stony corals grow at a rate
of about an inch a year, forming
a reef over thousands of years.
Left: The soli-
tary fungus cor-
al grows to a
diameter of 10
inches. When
disturbed, it
contracts its
tentacles into
its base.
more than 150 feet below the
surface, but soft corals extend
down as far as 325 feet. Because
corals cannot tolerate fresh wa-
ter or silt, they are never found
near river mouths.
Corals that depend totally on
catching prey are usually found
where a current brings a steady
supply of food. Delicate sea fans
gather zooplankton from gen-
tle currents, while the tough,
flexible sea whip can feed in a
much stronger flow.
ACORN BARNACLE
... CLASS
Crustacea
.. ORDER
Thoracica
... FAMILY
Balanidae
... GENUS & SPECIES
Balanus balanoides, etc.
Acorn barnacles are relatives of shrimps and crabs that spend
their entire adult lives cemented to rocks. They scoop food
out of the water with their feathery, jointed limbs.

SIZE
Diameter: Up to in. across .

BREEDING
Method: Individuals have both fe-
male and male sex organs. Fertiliza-
tion is internal.
Eggs: Remain inside the adult for 4
months, until larvae develop.
Larvae: Drift in plankton for about 1
month. Then settle, cement them-
selves to rocks, and turn into adults.

LIFESTYLE
Habit: Larvae are free floating, but
adults are attached to rocks and
cannot move.
Diet: Microscopic floating plants.
Lifespan: Up to 5 years.

RELATED SPECIES
Relatives include the goose and
whale barnacles. As crustaceans,
barnacles are in the same class as
shrimps, crabs, and lobsters.
Range of acorn barnacles.
DISTRIBUTION
Found on rocky shores throughout the world.
CONSERVATION
Acorn barnacles are not directly threatened by humans but are
vulnerable to pollution. They tend to accumulate heavy metals,
especially zinc, and are good indicators of zinc pollution. Some
in England's Thames Estuary contain huge amounts of zinc, up
to 15 percent of their dry weight.
OF ACORN BARNACLES
Submerged:
When covered
by water, a bar-
nacle opens its
shell door and
extends its
limbs.
Acorn barnacle
Cirri: These feathery
limbs sweep through
the water and draw bits
of food into the shell.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Exposed: When the tide recedes,
the barnacle closes its shell.
Star barnacle
Shell: Made up of 4 or 6 plates, depending
on species. Chalky white in young barnacles.
With age, gets grayish yellow from algae
.. ,;"'- that cover it. Steep-sided in exposed
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
positions; flatter in sheltered places.
CROSS SECTION OF AN
ACORN BARNACLE
The trapdoor segments are held
open by muscles, which shorten
to close the shell over the mantle
(body cavity) and cirri. A strong
muscle fi xes a barnacle to a rock.
01 60200911 PACKET 91
Acorn barnacles manage to survive in one of the most
punishing of all habitats-the wave-battered rocks of the
tidal coastline. In order to cope with these conditions, they
are equipped with armored shells and watertight trapdoors.
Because hardly any other creatures can survive in such an
inhospitable environment, acorn barnacles are among
the most abundant of all the seashore animals.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
An acorn barnacle looks like a
miniature limpet, but it is a crus-
tacean. Inside its chalky shell is a
shrimplike creature with six pairs
of hard-shelled, jointed limbs.
A barnacle uses its limbs to
feed, extending them into the
water through an opening at
the top of its shell. It closes the
shell with four trapdoors when
the tide recedes. This forms a
waterproof seal that keeps the
animal from drying out while it
is exposed.
An acorn barnacle's shell has
four or six plates that are white
at first but turn grayish yellow as
they become covered with al-
gae. The cone-shaped shell is
so firmly attached to a rock that
constant pounding with waves
and pebbles cannot remove it.
Most rocky coasts have acorn
barnacles. A vertical rock face on
an exposed headland may seem
bare of life, but it probably has a
few barnacles. Sheltered rocks
are often encrusted with them,
especially at mid-tide level. On
many coasts this barnacle zone
is a distinct pale band, with a
zone of black, algae-encrusted
rock above and a thick growth
of seaweed or mussels below.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Cemented to its rock, an acorn
barnacle cannot hunt for food.
Instead, it relies on the water to
bring food to its door. Opening
the trapdoors in its shell, a bar-
nacle extends its feathery limbs,
known as cirri, and sweeps them
through the water. Beating at a
rate of about 40 times per min-
ute, the cirri scoop microscop-
ic floating plant particles into
the shell.
Acorn barnacles can gather
food only when they are cov-
Left: When exposed at low tide,
acorn barnacles retract their limbs
and close their shells.
DID YOU KNOW?
Barnacles cluster in huge
numbers. Almost 2,800 bar-
nacles may crowd onto a sin-
gle square foot of rock.
Barnacles are preyed on by
dog whelks, which also feed
on mussels. Whelks that eat
mainly barnacles have pale
shells, while those that con-
centrate on mussels have
ered up by water, so those that
live low on the shore feed for a
much longer period each day
than those that live above the
mid-tide level. As a result, lower-
shore barnacles grow faster, al-
though they also pass through
their lifecycle more quickly. A
lower-shore barnacle may breed
after one year, but within three
years it is dead. An upper-shore
barnacle may not breed until it
is two years old, but it can live
for up to five years.
Right: Acorn barnacles may attach
themselves to a shore crab 1 shell,
moving with the crab.
dark shells. A whelk that has
fed on both may have alter-
nate bands of light and dark.
Barnacles will settle on any
reasonably solid surface, in-
cluding the hulls of ships and
the shells of mussels, oysters,
crabs, and turtles. There are
even some species that live on
whales and sea snakes.
[ < ~ NATUREWATCH
You can locate barnacles on
most rocky shores. They are
quite numerous around the
mid-tide level and often cover
exposed rock faces. Barnacles
on sheltered sites tend to be
fairly flat, but those in exposed
places have steep-sided shells
~ lIFECYCLE
An acorn barnacle has both fe-
male and male sex organs. How-
ever, it has to be fertilized by a
neighboring barnacle. Each in-
dividual delivers sperm to the
other through a long, flexible
tube. It retains its own fertilized
eggs in its shell for four months
while they develop into tiny
nauplius larvae.
When they are ready, the lar-
vae are released into the water.
For about a month, they drift
on the sea current, feeding on
Left: To reproduce, an acorn bar-
nacle extends a long tube to deliver
sperm to its neighbor.
that resist the battering waves.
Different kinds of barnacles
form separate bands on a rock.
Young small white barnacles
live next to older, bigger, yel-
lower ones and the remains of
barnacles that have had their
insides eaten by predators.
microscopic plants in plankton.
They molt six times as they con-
tinue to grow and then turn in-
to two-shelled cypris larvae that
sink to the bottom and seek a
suitable place to settle. The lar-
vae somehow sense the pres-
ence of other barnacles and
gather on rocks where adult
groups are already established.
Once it finds a good site, a
barnacle larva cements itself to
the rock with its antennae and
then develops protective chalky
plates. It spends the rest of its
life there, pulling food into its
mouth with its modified limbs.
FEATHER STAR
PHYLUM
Echinodermata
SUBPHYLUM
Crinozoa
CLASS
Crinoidea
Feather stars are relatives of starfish but are far less mobile.
They feed like sea anemones, extending their feathery arms
into the water to trap any edible particles that drift past.
SIZE
Diameter: 1 in.-3 ft.
BREEDING
Mating: External fertil ization, with
two sexes spawning into water. In
some species, the eggs remain at-
tached to the female.
Larva: Mobile, drifting with plank-
ton for 3-4 days. Then settles on
bottom and develops into adult
over several months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Passive feeder. Normally an-
chored to the seabed but capable
of movement.
Diet: Floating particles of organic
debris as well as microscopic plants
and animals.
RELATED SPECIES
Feather stars' closest relatives are
sea lilies, but they are also related
to starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins,
and sea cucumbers.
FEATURES OF FEATHER STARS
c; MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILE'M
Range of feather stars.
DISTRIBUTION
Feather stars occur in seas throughout the world. The great-
est variety of species can be found in the tropical coral seas
of Southeast Asia.
CONSERVATION
Feather stars are not directly threatened by humans, although
they are adversely affected by destructive activities such as
dredging and trawling.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Lappet
Reproductive
cells
Tube feet
CROSS SECTION OF A
GENITAL PINNULE
The genital pinnules are situated in
the arms and contain reproducti ve
cells. The lappet can close down
over the food groove if a feather
star senses a threat. The tube
feet emerge in groups of
3 at points on the arm.
Arm: Made up of interlocking, chalky
rings . Lined with many pinnu/es
(branches) and tube feet that
serve as feeding appendages.
There are 10 arms in all.
0160200981 PACKET 98
Feather stars are some of the least complex marine
animals in terms of structure. These simple creatures
not only look like plants, but they are also almost
plantlike in their immobility. Their fossilized remains
have been found in some of the oldest fossil-bearing
rocks-attesting to feather stars' success at survival.
~ HABITS
Although a feather star is related
to a starfish, it does not actively
creep across the seabed, search-
ing for food . Instead, it lies pas-
sively on its "back" and relies on
currents to bring it food .
In the center of a feather star's
"back," there are mobile tendrils
that resemble plant roots. The
animal uses its tendrils to grip
the rock and anchor itself in the
current. It is capable of moving,
and some species can swim in
short bursts by flapping their
arms. However, once a feather
star finds a good feeding spot
it tends to stay there.
Feather stars are particularly
numerous in shallow seas over
continental shelves, in places
where the coastal currents car-
ry a constant food supply of or-
ganic debris and plankton. But
they are found in all oceans at
depths down to 5,900 feet .
Right: A feather star's delicate arms
serve as sticky traps for microscopic
food particles.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
A feather star's pinnu/es, or leafy
branches, are lined with hun-
dreds of tiny tubular tentacles
that can be extended using hy-
draulic pressure. They are called
tube feet because starfish as well
as other echinoderms use them
to move along the seabed. But
feather stars use them as food-
catching devices.
The tube feet are arranged in
rows along grooves in a feath-
er s.tar's arms. Each has a gland
that produces a sticky mucus,
trapping microscopic creatures
or other food particles that drift
Left: A feather star rarely moves
once it has found a site that pro-
vides plenty of food.
Right: A close-up view reveals the
rows of tentaclelike tube feet on
each feathery frond.
DID YOU KNOW?
If a feather star loses an arm,
it can grow a new one. It can
also survive if up to a fifth of
the center of its body is lost.
Fossils show that there were
once several classes of feather
star, but only one has survived.
Along the Atlantic coast of
against it. The tube foot curls
over the particle and deposits it
in the groove, which then car-
ries it to the central mouth.
With its arms extended in a
food-bearing current, a feather
star is like a sticky net, catching
tiny organic fragments . Howev-
er, some particles are too bulky
to stick to the mucus and float
past the animal's arms.
Right: A feather star's rootlike ten-
drils, called cirri, anchor it securely
to a suitable rock.
North America, feather stars
usually live far below the low-
tide line.
In addition to catching food,
the tube feet of a feather star
act as gills, absorbing oxygen
from the water and getting rid
of carbon dioxide.
The water temperature as well
as chemicals released when one
feather star spawns stimulate
others to spawn. Some species
eject eggs and sperm into the
water, and currents bring them
together. In other species, the
eggs stick to the animals' arms.
~ STRUCTURE
With its cirri (rootlike tendrils)
clinging to a rock and its feath-
ery arms drifting in the currents,
a feather star looks more like a
plant than an animal. But it be-
longs to the echinoderms-a
group of animals that includes
starfish and sea urchins.
Like its relatives, a feather star
is constructed on a circular plan:
its "head" and all its internal or-
gans are in the middle, and the
rest of its body extends like the
points of a star. It has what is
A fertilized egg develops into
a barrel-shaped larva encircled
by mobile hairs called ci/io. The
larva uses its cilia to swim in the
plankton for a few days, feeding
on tiny organisms. It then settles
on the bottom and changes in-
to an adult over several months.
known as radio/symmetry, since
each radiating segment is iden-
tical in structure and bears the
same number of arms.
Each sinuous arm has a chain
of interlocking chalky rings like
the backbone of a fish, as well as
many side branches, creating a
feathery effect. The articulated
rings form flexible armor that
helps protect the animal from
damage or attack, but the struc-
ture is fairly brittle and the arms
sometimes break off.
COMPASS JELLYFISH
PHYLUM
Cnidaria
CLASS
Scyphozoa
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
ORDER ... GENUS &. SPECIES
Semaeostomeae '11IIIIIIII Chrysaora hysosce/la
The compass jellyfish is a drifting death trap. With its mass of
lethal stinging cells, it preys on tiny animals in the sunlit surface
waters of the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Diameter: Up to 12 in.
Length of tentacles: Up to 6 ~ ft.
LlFECYCLE
The swimming planula larva devel-
ops into a sedentary polyp called a
scyphistoma, which produces ephyra
larvae. Each of these larvae develops
into an adult medusa form, which
mates to produce planula larvae.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, drifting with plankton
on ocean currents. The scyphistoma
attaches itself to a rock.
Diet: Small fish and squid as well as
floating animals such as shrimps, fish
fry, and shellfish larvae.
RELATED SPECIES
The moon jellyfish, Aurelia aurita,
belongs to the same order and has
a similar lifecycle.
Range of the compass jellyfish.
DISTRIBUTION
The compass jellyfish is found throughout the North Atlantic,
from the Hudson Strait south to Venezuela's coast and from the
Norwegian Sea south to the coast of Senegal. It also occurs in
the Mediterranean.
CONSERVATION
The compass jellyfish is often found in large schools. It is not di-
rectly threatened by humans.
FEATURES OF THE COMPASS JELLYFISH
Oral arms: 4
large, frilly
tentacles ex-
tend from the
central mouth.
Medusa: Adult,
sexually mature
form.
Planula: First
larval form that
develops from a
fertilized egg.
Settles on a
rock.
Scyphistoma:
Polyp with ten-
tacles for trap-
ping food.
Developing
polyp: Elongated
form with disk-
like ephyra lar-
vae that break
off from its tip.
Ephyra larva:
Flower-shaped
segment that
eventually grows
into a medusa.
C'iJ MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILE'M PRINTED IN U.S.A.
"/. \'
0160200971 PACKET 97
The compass jellyfish gets its name from the radiating
brown lines that are on the bell of its adult form. These
lines reminded mariners of the points on the traditional
ship's compass. This name, however, seems inappropiate
in a waYt since the compass jellyfish spends much of its
life drifting without direction on the ocean currents.
~ lIFECYClE
Despite its simple structure, the
compass jellyfish has a complex
lifecycle, containing four distinct
stages. The familiar jellyfish form
occurs in the sexually active me-
dusa stage. The female takes up
sperm that the male releases in-
to the water. Within her body,
fertilized eggs develop into tiny,
swimming planula larvae.
The planula eventually settles
on a rock, and it changes into a
polyp resembling a sea anemo-
ne. Called a scyphistoma, it feeds
all summer and may generate
other polyps by budding.
As winter approaches, the scy-
phistoma grows longer and de-
velops segments. The spacing
of the segments gets tighter, so
they resemble a pile of saucers.
Then each "saucer" breaks off
to become a separate, flower-
shaped ephyra larva. This larva
floats away to feed on micro-
scopic animals in the plankton.
Eventually it develops into an
adult medusa.
Meanwhile the scyphistoma
grows a new set of feeding ten-
tacles and reverts to its anemo-
nelike form. It lives on its rock
for several years and produces
more ephyra larvae each winter.
~ M O V E M E N T
A band of muscle encircles the
compass jellyfish's bell. When
stimulated by nerve cells within
it, the muscle contracts, pulling
the edge of the bell down and
in, much like a folding umbrella.
After the nerve stimulus switches
off, the muscle relaxes, allowing
the bell to expand and return to
its original shape.
Animal muscles are usually ar-
ranged in pairs, pulling in oppo-
site directions. But the compass
jellyfish does not need a second
muscle, since the elastic fibers in
its bell act like a spring. The mus-
left: The compass jellyfish has vir-
tually identical segments that radi-
ate out from its center.
DID YOU KNOW?
The compass jellyfish is not
a hermaphrodite (both male
and female), but it usually be-
gins life male and becomes
female as it matures.
Although the compass jel-
lyfish is harmless to humans,
some jellyfish are deadly. Af-
cle around the bell pulls against
this spring when it contracts.
The effect of the squeeze-and-
relax action of the muscle is to
push water out from under the
bell and propel the compass jel-
lyfish up through the water. If
it needs to travel horizontally, it
simply lies on its side and swims
toward its goal in a series of un-
dulating surges. Since its body
density is almost identical to that
of seawater, the jellyfish has neu-
tral buoyancy and does not have
to stop itself from either sinking
or floating to the surface.
Right: The actions of the compass
jellyfish are simple responses to stim-
uli such as food, light, or gravity.
ter being stung by the Pacific
sea wasp or box jellyfish, sev-
eral people have died because
their respiratory systems be-
came paralyzed.
Some jellyfish are luminous,
and they look like light bulbs
drifting in the ocean.
~ STRUCTURE
The compass jellyfish's bell is a
thick disk of transparent jelly be-
tween two layers of cells, with a
mesh of elastic fibers to hold its
shape. Around its edge are 32
dark brown lobes with sense or-
gans and 24 slender tentacles.
A complex network of nerve
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The compass jellyfish catches its
prey using nematocysts, or tiny
stinging cells, in its tentacles and
bell. Each cell resembles a tiny,
spring-loaded harpoon and is
stored in a capsule with a hair-
trigger lid. If an animal brushes
against a nematocyst, its lid flips
open and the harpoon shoots
out, injecting poison. A single
sting has little effect. But if many
cells are triggered, there may be
enough venom to paralyze or
kill the victim.
left: The compass jellyfish gathers
food in its long tentacles and trans-
fers it to its mouth.
cells runs through the bell, link-
ing the sensory cells to the mus-
cles that let the jellyfish swim.
The nerve net has no "brain."
The central mouth is fringed
by four frilly tentacles called oral
arms. Four gastric pouches ex-
tend from the central stomach.
Although not strong enough
to subdue large prey, the poison
can kill small fish, squid, and var-
ious floating animals such as fish
fry, shellfish larvae, shrimps, and
copepods (tiny crustaceans). Us-
ing its long, frilly tentacles, the
compass jellyfish then transfers
its victims to its central mouth.
A jellyfish does not have blood
to carry digested food around
its body. Instead, the nutrients
travel to the muscles along a
network of canals that are lined
with cilia-tiny, pulsing, hairlike
structures that push the nutri-
ents through the system.
SPINY SQUAT LOBSTER ~ ~ .. .
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS '\
... PHYLUM ... CLASS ... ORDER ... GENUS & SPECIES
~ Arthropoda ~ Crustacea ~ Decapoda ~ Galathea strigosa
The spiny squat lobster is a colorful scavenger of rocky shores.
This relative of the hermit crabs spends much of its time
hidden from sight in crevices and under stones.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: Up to 5 in .
BREEDING
Mating season: Breeds twice a
year, in spring and in summer.
Eggs: Carried in clusters by the fe-
male after they are fertilized.
Larvae: Free-swimming in plank-
ton. They disperse widely before
settling on the seabed, where they
become adults.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary. Active at night be-
low and near the low tidemark on
rocky shores.
Diet: Organic debris and carrion.
Lifespan: Unknown.
RELATED SPECIES
The spiny squat lobster is 1 of 4
species of squat lobster resident in
European waters. They are all rela-
tives of the tiny porcelain crabs
and the hermit crabs.
Range of the spiny squat lobster.
DISTRIBUTION
Although not common, the spiny squat lobster is widespread
on rocky shores of the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
CONSERVATION
Unlike other lobsters, the spiny squat lobster has no commer-
cial value, so it is not directly threatened by human exploita-
tion. However, coastal pollution can have a very destructive
effect on the rocky shores where it lives.
ITWO SPECIES OF SQUAT LOBSTER
Spiny squat lobster: Distinctive red and blue markings.
Rounded, sawed-off shape. There are 4 pairs of legs, but
the last 2 legs are very reduced and not used for walking.
Long-clawed squat lobster: As its name suggests, it
has long, slender pincers, unlike the sturdy appendages
of its close relative the spiny squat lobster. It can be
found in open water that is deep and dark, but it hides
in crevices near the shore.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200941 PACKET 94
The spiny squat lobster has a rather strange sawed-off
appearance because it tucks its tail underneath its body
just like a crab. With its vivid red and blue markings, this
crustacean is one of the most striking of all shore animals,
but it is also one of the most rarely seen. This lobster hides
by day and emerges only after dark to scavenge for tiny
sea creatures that mingle with the sand of the seabed.
~ HABITS
The spiny squat lobster hides by
day under a rock. It slips its flat-
tened body into a narrow crev-
ice and wedges itself tight, with
its strong pincers ready to deter
any predators.
It begins its foraging at dusk,
using its three pairs of walking
legs to creep along the seabed.
Most lobsters walk on four pairs
of legs. But this lobster's match-
sticklike fourth pair is hitched up
under its body and rarely visible.
Like other lobsters, this species
has a long abdomen, or tail, that
has a number of armor-plated
segments. But the tail is curled
under the carapace that covers
the head and thorax, giving the
creature a strangely shortened
look. When it is alarmed, the
lobster may uncurl itself briefly
and use its tail to scuttle back-
ward through the water away
from any danger.
Right: The spiny squat lobster uses
its antennae to find food, especially
carrion (dead flesh).
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Like most bottom-living marine
creatures, the spiny squat lob-
ster feeds on plant and animal
debris that drifts down through
the water. It finds the majority
of its food in the seabed, using
its hairy mouthparts to sift edi-
ble particles from the sand. This
lobster's mouthparts are modi-
fied, jointed limbs that can sep-
arate organic debris from rock
fragments. Nevertheless, it still
takes in a fair amount of sand
with its food.
The spiny squat lobster also
feeds on the remains of dead
fish and other animals that set-
Left: The spiny squat lobster uses
its agile mouthparts to sift food
from the sandy seabed.
DID YOU KNOW?
The eyes of a squat lobster
and similar related animals are
made up of clusters of minia-
ture "mirrors" that gather any
light and reflect it into the op-
tic nerves.
The spiny squat lobster is ex-
tremely vulnerable to preda-
tors after molting, when its
new shell is still soft. It must
tie on the seabed. It finds this
carrion using smell and touch,
sampling the water for traces
of decaying organisms with its
long, sensitive antennae. After
following these traces to their
source, it tears off lumps of flesh
with its pincers and shreds them
into manageable pieces, which
it grinds up with its mandibles.
Although it is a scavenger, the
spiny squat lobster occasionally
takes live prey, especially weak
or injured animals. Like all lob-
sters and crabs, it is an opportu-
nist that will feed on anything
edible that it finds.
Right: With its tail curled under its
body, this crustacean looks more
like a crob than a lobster.
therefore hide in a crevice un-
til its shell has hardened suffi-
ciently to protect it.
The squat lobster's curled-
under "tail" represents a half-
way stage in the evolution of
true crabs like the blue crab.
This crab's "tail" is almost to-
tally fused into the underside
of its body.
[ ,J NATUREWATCH
The spiny squat lobster is wide-
spread but not very common.
It lives on rocky coasts, in crev-
ices, and under rocks near the
lowest tidemark and below.
This lobster can sometimes
be found in the shallows un-
der stones or seaweed. But it is
~ BREEDING
The spiny squat lobster breeds
in spring and summer. The male
fertilizes the eggs as the female
lays them, clasping her tightly so
that his sperm floods the eggs.
The eggs are laid in sticky clus-
ters that are cemented to the
female's swimmerets (small ap-
pendages on the underside of
her abdomen) . The eggs turn
bright red as they develop and
eventually hatch into tiny, free-
swimming larvae that drift away
in plankton. The larvae feed on
not a good idea to touch it. A
squat lobster can be fierce if it
is threatened, and its pincers
are strong enough to inflict a
nasty nip. The lobster can at
times be lured from its lair by
using a line that is baited with
a piece of bacon.
microscopic organisms in the
plankton for a few weeks and
then sink to the seabed, where
they change into small adults.
As an adult, the lobster keeps
growing, periodically molting
(shedding) its hard outer skele-
ton, or shell. A soft replacement
skeleton underneath is inflated
with water to the next "size"
and then hardens. The lobster
grows into this new oversize
shell and molts again when it
starts to outgrow it.
FAN WORM
PHYLUM
Annelida
CLASS
Polychaeta
FAMILIES
Sabellidae, Serpulidae, Sabellariidae, etc.
Fan worms are flamboyant sea-dwelling relatives of earthworms.
Attached to one spot, they feed by sifting organic particles
from the water with their feathery tentacles.
SIZE
Length: Up to about 1 ft.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Warm months,
usually summer.
Sexual reproduction: Each fan
worm releases eggs and sperm,
which are fertilized externally.
Asexual reproduction: Some
species bud (produce offshoots).
Larva: Planktonic, drifting to new
areas to settle.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Lives fixed to the seabed.
Diet: Floating organic matter.
RELATED SPECIES
Fan worms belong to the phylum
Annelida, the segmented worms.
The class Polychaeta includes other
bristleworms like the clam worm,
Nereis virens, and the lugworm,
Arenicola marina. Both of these
live in muddy beach sand.
TWO SPECIES OF FAN WORM
Range of fan worms.
DISTRIBUTION
Found worldwide in both shallow and deep waters, from the
tropics to polar seas. Some species form colonies in the shal-
lows of sandy or muddy beaches. Other species live on rocks,
debris, or seaweed.
CONSERVATION
Although local damage has been caused by trawling and pollu-
t ion, fan worms are in no particular danger.
Myxicola in-
fundibulum:
Lives buried in
sandy or muddy
beaches in a
tube up to 6
inches long. Its
radioles form a
funnel or cup
shape with a
dark fringe. Its
very thick cen-
tral nerve fiber
may measure
up to %5 inch
across.
Sabella pavonina: Widespread on sandy and
muddy beaches. It also attaches to rocks in
deeper water. Its fan is made up of two iden-
tical sets of radiates, or tentacles.
/
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200821 PACKET 82
The delicate tentacles of a fan worm are called radioles,
and they "bloom" like flowers in plankton-rich waters.
At the slightest sign of danger, however, the radioles are
quickly pulled inside and vanish in an instant. To trigger
the muscles that produce this reflex action, a fan worm
has an extremely thick nerve fiber. This fiber runs down
the entire length of the animal's segmented body.

Many fan worms live in deep
seas. Others form colonies on
mud flats or muddy beaches,
where they rely on their ability
to retreat into their tubes.
For several days each month,
the tide may recede so far that
the fan worms have no way of
feeding or breathing and are
exposed to the drying effects of
wind and sun. But the worms
usually stay damp and cool un-
til the tide returns. This is be-
cause the water in their tubes
provides enough oxygen. Also,
many species are able to plug
the tube top to retain moisture.
However, a very low tide on
a hot day can be fatal to a fan
worm. Exposed on the beach,
it is unable to regulate its tem-
perature. By the time the tide
floods in again, the worm is
dead-cooked in its tube by
the heat of the sun.
Right: A fan worm rapidly pulls its
fan back into the tube whenever it
senses danger.
FOOD &: FEEDING
Near coastlines and in areas of
strong currents, the sea teems
with food, including dead ani-
mals and plants, tiny floating
creatures, and the eggs as well
as larvae of marine animals. For
a fan worm, feeding is a simple
matter of extending its fan and
scooping up a meal.
left: A fan worm 5 blood-filled ra-
dioles take in oxygen and give off
carbon dioxide.
I ,-;J NATUREWATCH
You may see colonies of fan
worms at low tide. Look for
clusters of tubes that look like
muddy macaroni.
DID YOU KNOW?
Relatives of fan worms more
than 10 feet long live near vol-
canic vents in deep ocean wa-
ters. They feed on bacteria in
the volcanic chemicals.
The primary enemies of fan
worms are bottom-living fish
that graze on their tentacles.
But a fan worm often reg rows
tentacles that are bitten off.
The radioles have a fringe of
cilia (tiny hairs) that beat to cre-
ate a water current. The radi-
oles trap waterborne particles
and pass them along mucus-
filled gutters to the center of
the fan. Here the worm rejects
inedible material and eats the
food particles.
Right: Some fan worms thrive in
shallow water, using their tentacles
to catch food.
If you find fan worms with I
their tentacles extended, pass
your hand over them. They
will quickly pull in their fans. J
The hard tube of a fan worm
often survives for weeks after
the animal is dead.
Some fan worms start life as
males and turn into females.
Some fan worms draw in
sperm to fertilize their eggs,
which hatch inside the ani-
mals. The larvae are then re-
leased into the water.
STRUCTURE
A fan worm's body is basically
a fluid-filled cylinder. The walls
consist of two layers of muscle.
One layer contracts lengthwise,
allowing the worm to shorten
itself. The other tightens around
its body to squeeze it out again.
Anchored to one place for life,
fan worms are encased in pro-
tective tubes. Many species se-

Most fan worms have male as
well as female sex organs and
produce both sperm and eggs.
Like many marine animals, fan
worms release their sperm and
eggs into the water. The ocean
currents mingle the two, bring-
ing about fertilization.
All the fan worms in one col-
ony spawn at the same time, so
the chances of cross-fertilization
are increased. Although many
of the eggs become food for
other sea animals, the fertilized
crete tubes of calcium carbon-
ate. Others use mucus to build
tubes from sand and shells.
When there is no danger, a
fan worm extends its head and
spreads its radioles. The radioles
exchange gases through a thin
skin and filter food from the wa-
ter. At the slightest alarm, a fan
worm pulls its fan into its tube.
eggs develop into tiny larvae.
The larvae drift until they are
ready to change into adult fan
worms. By then they have trav-
eled far from the parent colony.
Many are carried out to sea, and
others drift onto barren shores.
But a few settle on mud or sand,
take root, and grow.
Some fan worms can also re-
produce asexually. The animal
buds, producing a tiny offshoot
from its body that grows into a
replica of the "parent."