WHY ANIMALS SLEEP

Almost all animals sleep, some for a matter of minutes, others for
20 hours a day. It is quite easy to tell when an animal is sleeping,
yet exactly why animals sleep remains a mystery.
KEY FACTS
HOW LONG ANIMALS SLEEP (HOURS PER DAY)
DALL'S HARBOR
PORPOISE
SHREW
GIRAFFE
ELEPHANT
HORSE
BOTILENOSE
DOLPHIN
SHEEP
GUINEA PIG
COW
MAN
MOLE
HEDGEHOG
CHIMPANZEE
RABBIT
JAGUAR
CHINCHILLA
RAT
CAT
MOUSE
PIG
HAMSTER
SQUIRREL
LEMUR
ARMADILLO
OPOSSUM
Less than 1
Less than 1
11
12
13
13
13
14
14
16
19
19
BAT 19
TWO-TOED SLOTH 20
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.SA
KEY
DAY
NIGHT/DAY
NIGHT
From the shrew's minute-long
naps to the sloth's 20-hour
slumber, the variation in the
amount of time animals spend
asleep is enormous. Sleep is
measured in 24-hour periods,
but many animals, such as the
dolphin, rabbit, and horse,
divide their periods of sleep
into short naps.
us P 6001 12012 PACKET 12
Sleep has long been regarded as the body's
response to fatigue. But the discovery that sleep is
controlled by the brain together with the wide variation
in the time animals sleep, suggests instead
that it is a life-preserving response.
~ W H A T IS SLEEP?
For an animal, sleep can be
defined as a period of immo-
bility that often lasts for long
periods of time.
A sleeping animal is more
or less oblivious to the world
around it. A sleeping fish can
actually be taken out of the
water before it will -struggle.
In contrast, a sleeping deer
will awaken and flee at the
first unfamiliar sound.
There are also two distinct
types of sleep: deep or quiet
sleep, and active sleep. In
birds and mammals, these
states can be recognized by
characteristic brain wave
patterns which reflect a
decrease in breathing rate.
~ THE BENEFITS OF SLEEP
One of the main advantages of
sleep is that it reduces an ani-
mal's chances of being discov-
ered by a predator while it
waits for the best time to feed.
As a result, animals that need
less time to feed tend to spend
Above: A polar
bear sleeps out
on the ice.
Left: Two
koala bears
take a nap.
Right: Head
under wing, a
swan sleeps.
more time sleeping.
Sleep can also help an
animal conserve energy or
avoid extremes of tempera-
ture. Many desert animals
sleep away the entire day
when it is too hot to feed .
~ WHEN ANIMALS SLEEP
How long an animal sleeps
depends on three factors : the
time available for it to be
awake, its feeding time, and
the danger posed by pred-
ators. Many birds can only fly
when it is light, so they sleep
at night. Reptiles also sleep at
night since they absorb heat
from the sun.
To avoid daytime predators,
many small mammals sleep
by day and feed at night.
Some animals, like rabbits and
foxes, sleep during portions of
the day and night so they can
feed at dawn and dusk. In all
cases, their body clocks are
synchronized with the daily
cycle of night and day.
~ HOW ANIMALS SLEEP
How and where an animal
sleeps depends largely on
whether it is predator or prey.
Animals that are preyed upon
must sleep in safe locations.
Rabbits, for example, curl up in
the security of their burrows,
birds perch safely in trees, and
bats sleep in caves.
Grazing animals like deer
and horses have no areas of
natural defense in which to
retreat, so they often sleep
standing up.
Mice (above) sleep by day.
Parrot fish (left) sleep protected
I in mucous cocoons.
DI D YOU KNOW?
Hippopotamuses sleep
standing in water where they
are safe from predators.
Elephants often sleep on
piles of dried grass or in
hollows they make in the
ground called elephant beds.
Some fish change color
when they sleep-possibly to
make them look more
aggressive and so deter
predators from attacking
them.
In winter, starl ings fly from
the countryside to roost in
the warmer environment of
towns and cit ies.
Giraffes sleep standing,
sometimes supporting their
heads in the fork of a t ree.
CAR02
HOW MAMMALS SEE
Our ability to see greatly influences our perception of the world
around us. Do all mammals see in the same way that we do? Is
sight as important to their way of life?
WHAT DIFFERENT MAMMALS SEE
All mammals have the same
basic eye construction. But;it is
the position of the eyes on the
head that most dramatically
affects the way in which
different mammals see.
Successful predators, such as
cats, must be able to focus
their vision exactly in order to
pinpoint prey. They generally
have eyes that face forward.
Although their peripheral
vision is limited, their binocular
vision (the ability to focus both
eyes together on an object)
and depth perception allow
them to gauge the exact
distance between themselves
and their prey.
Animals that are preyed
upon, however, such as
rabbits, mice, and deer, have
eyes that are located on either
side of their head, which
allows them a much wider
range of vision. This position-
ing diminishes their binocular
vision, but their panoramic
field of vision is increased
because their eyes work
independently to survey their
surroundings for predators. A
rabbit, for example, has an
almost 360-degree field of
vision, which means it can
spot danger from every
direction.
By contrast, a human being
looking straight ahead can see
about 200 degrees around
without moving his or her
head. A cat's field of vision is
slightly narrower-about 185
degrees.
THE PREDATOR
THE PREY
As a hunted
animal, the mouse
needs good all-
around vision. It
therefore has eyes
situated on either
side of its head.
But, as a result, its
binocular vision is
very limited.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Vertical
field of
vision
A cat has the forward-looking eyes of a
hunter, with good binocular vision-that
is, both eyes focus accurately on prey.
0160200031 PACKET 3a
All mammals depend on light to see.
Objects in the world reflect light at
different levels in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Our eyes pick up the waves and,
with the help of the brain,
convert them into visual images.
Left: Whatever
the shape-big
and round or
small and
beady-the
basic design of
all mammals'
eyes is the
same.
Right: Light
enters the eye
via the iris and
is then focused
by the lens onto
the layer of
light sensitive
cells called the
retina. The
image is then
sent to the
broin by the
optic nerve.
~ HOW THE EYE WORKS
The eyes of all mammals have
the same basic design, so
they all work the same way.
At the front of the eye is the
transparent cornea, which
acts as a window allowing
light to enter the eye. Behind
the cornea is a colored area
known as the iris, which can
change its diameter to vary
the intensity of light entering
the eye.
Behind the iris is the lens,
which directs the light rays
onto a light-sensitive surface
at the back of the eye, known
as the retina. The lens is
surrounded by muscles which
expand and contract, allow-
ing the eye to focus on an
object.
The retina is made up of
closely-packed, light-sensitive
cells. They are connected to
the optic nerve, which is in
turn connected to the brain.
These cells receive an upside
down image, and they pass it
on tothe brain through the
optic nerve.
The brain interprets, or
decodes, this image, turns it
right side up, and transforms
it into a three-dimensional
picture. Thus the brain can
be considered as much an
organ of sight as the parts of
the eye are.
DID YOU KNOW?
The retinas of many mam-
mals have only two types of
cones, so they are less able to
see shades of red and yellow-
green.
When light is shone into
mammals' eyes, they reflect
Lens
different colors. A fox's eyes
are yellow, a rabbit's red.
Whales have no binocular
vision. Because of the position
of their eyes, they can never
focus both of them on the
same object.
--
When focusing
at a distance,
the muscles
around the lens
are relaxed.
They contract,
altering the
shape of the
lens, when they
focus on a
nearby object.
~ NIGHTTIME VISION
If viSion depends on light have a reflective layer behind
reaching the retina, how can the retina, which bounces
some animals see in the dark? light back through the eye,
The design of the eyes giving the light-sensitive cells
belonging to nocturnal -called rods-in the retina
prowlers is almost exactly the another chance to absorb the
same as in other mammals. lightwaves. This effect is
The most obvious difference, visible when car headlights
Right: A fox's
eyes have a
special light-
reflecting layer
behind the
retina to help
it see in dim
light. It is this
layer that
makes the fox's
eyes shine at
night.
though, is that the eyes of
mammals with excellent
nighttime vision are larger
and more bulbous, and thus
more sensitive to light.
Nocturnal mammals also
~ SEEING IN COLOR
How do our eyes interpret
color, and do all mammals
see different colors to the
same extent?
The electromagnetic waves
sent out by objects vary in
length: the longer ones are
interpreted by our eyes as
reds and oranges, and the
shorter ones as greens and
blues.
The light-sensitive cells in
the retina are divided into
two different types- rods
and cones. The rods cannot
distinguish colors, but they
are sensitive and pick up even
very low levels of light. The
cones, however, interpret and
shine on a cat's eyes; they
shine back.
In addition, the retinas of
these animals generally
contain more rods, increasing
their sensitivity in dim light.
relay information about the
colors of the wavelengths
they receive. Mammals with
the best color vision have
three different types of cones.
The brain transforms the
messages received by the
cones into the multicolored
images of the objects we see
in front of us.
The cones receive color
wavelengths only in good
light conditions. This may be
why it has long been thought
that nocturnal animals do not
see in color. However, it is
now generally accepted that
all mammals have some
degree of color vision.
DO ANIMALS TALK?
It is easy to think of a lion IS roar or a chimp IS chatter as words in
an animal language. But what do these sounds mean, and do
animals really use them to communicate with one another?
KEY FACTS
TALKING CHIMPS
Although the chimpanzee is
man's closest relative and
uses many of the same facial
expressions, wild chimpan-
zees do not appear to use
language as we understand
it. Still, chimpanzees raised in
captivity have been taught to
use sign and symbolic
languages, proving that they
have the capacity to commu-
nicate through language.
The first chimpanzee to be
taught sign language was
Washoe, who, in the 1960s,
was raised in a human
environment and taught to
communicate using American
Sign Language. She eventu-
ally learned 1 60 different
word signs and proved
capable of conveying ideas
with word combinations.
One day, surprised to see a
toy doll placed in her cup,
she signed her most famous
phrase, "baby in my drink./I
Other researchers have
used new artificial languages
in similar studies. Two
chimps, Austin and Sherman,
were taught to use Yerkish-a
language which substitutes
symbols for words.
When given suitable
linguistic tools, then, chim-
panzees demonstrate that
they can express ideas and
even grasp some concept of
grammar. While they may
not possess a language in the
wild, it does appear that
chimpanzees can learn to
communicate through
language.
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: The chimpan-
zee's intelligence and
its well-developed
hands have enabled
it to be taught sign
language.
contact have
been taught
methods of
communica-
tion that
left: More
than any
other animal
except man,
chimpanzees
use facial
expressions
to communi-
cate and
display
moods and
0160200051 PACKET 5
Animals communicate in
many ways. Some spray scent,
others perform startling visual
displays, and still more use gestures
to convey a wide variety of messages. D
:i
But it is the use of sound
OJ
o
which provides the most

immediate and flexible
means of communication.


ci
TRUE LANGUAGE
Language is any method by
which information is ex-
changed. But true language
is the means by which a
range of information is
conveyed, including the
expression of abstract ideas
and past and future
thoughts and actions.
VOCAL VERVET MONKEYS
Most animals communi-
cate, not through language,
but by instinctual behaviors
that convey messages to
others.
TALKING ANIMALS
Animals make a wide variety
of sounds, from the musical
song of a bird to the howl of
the wolf, to the contented
purr of a cat. While they are
unable to talk in the sense
that humans do, they do
communicate with sound in
a way thatis understood
only by other members of
their own species.
Still, researchers have been

The vervet monkey is one of
the most vocal of all animals.
It has developed three or four
distinct sounds that it uses to
identify different predators to
fellow members of a troop.
If a monkey spots an eagle,
it gives the appropriate
warning call, which makes
the monkeys in the trees drop
to the ground. A different
sound is used to communicate
the presence of a leopard.
It is believed that the distinct
sounds the vervet monkeys
make are learned, rather than
instinctual. Young vervets often
make the wrong calls, and
unable to translate individual

animal sounds in a frame-
work that can be called true
language.
OJ

o
o


Above: A
chaffinch's
song shown in
a visual image
cal/ed a
sonogram.
Left: A male
chaffinch
singing to
establish his
territory.
different troops use their own
sounds for the same preda-
tor.
Below: Vervet monkeys are known
to use different sounds as they
communicate dangers to one
another. Inset: A monkey
screeches a word of warning.
DID YOU KNOW?
Traveling through channels
in the ocean floor 2,000-
4,000 feet beneath the
water's surface, the sounds of
the humpback whale are
carried from one side of the
Pacific to the other.
Few animals use more than
VOCABULARIES
Although humans often
attribute subtle and compli-
cated meanings to the various
sounds animals make, most
animal communication is
actually simple in context.
Animal communication is
most often used in situations
where the attraction of a mate
or the defense of territory or
food from rivals is involved.
Furthermore, such communi-
cation is an instinctive form of
behavior rather than a learned
skill, and not a sign of the use
of true language.
So, although every dog
makes a different sound when
it barks, the bark is simply
used to announce its presence
to a mate or as a warning to a
rival or intruder. The message
is uncomplicated, and the
ability to bark is inherited.
A few animals do show signs
of sophistication in their use of
language. Some birds use a
whistle as a warning that a
predatory hawk is near, but
use a remarkably different
series of chirps to rally a group
to defend itself against less
dangerous predators.
a dozen calls; a human vocabu-
lary may contain 40,000 words.
Some scientists believe that the
best example of a true animal
language is the dance of the
honeybees, by which they com-
municate information about
food sources.
Above: Humpback whales make
very loud whistling noises.
Below: The grasshopper mouse of
Mexico makes a wide range of
noises and cal/s.
'" CARD 4 1
WHY DO ANIMALS HIBERNATE?
Hibernation is a necessary means of surviving the dark,
cold months of winter. For species such as the hedgehog (above),
hamster, and brown bat, the only alternative is starvation.
MAMMALS THAT HIBERNATE
TRUE HIBERNATORS
Only true hibernators are
able to lower their body
temperature to near freezing
and then generate enough
warmth to revive themselves.
Both the echidna and the
duck-billed platypus hiber-
nate for several periods of
5 to 10 days. The koala and
the Tasmanian pygmy opos-
sum are two of the few mar-
supials that are true hiberna-
tors.
The majority of true hi-
bernators are either rodents
or bats. Rodent hibernators
include ground squirrels,
marmots, woodchucks, dor-
mice, and hamsters. The
hedgehog spends the cold
winter months curled up in a
nest of dried leaves. Among
bats, hibernators include the
noctule and serotine bats
that spend the winter in
deep, damp caves, wrapped
in their wings.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: The
duck-billed
platypus
hibernates in
brief stretches.
Below left:
The black bear
sleeps most of
the winter in
its den but is
not a true
hibernator.
Below right:
The tiny water
shrew is a light
sleeper.
WINTER SLEEPERS
Certain large mammals such as
American black bears spend
much of the winter asleep in
their dens, but they are not
true hibernators. Although their
heartbeat slows to just 10 beats
per minute, their body tem-
perature is actually maintained
at 86 F. Badgers, raccoons,
and skunks also sleep through
cold spells, but they, too, must
maintain relatively high body
temperatures.
0160200131 PACKET 13
Hibernation-a long winter sleep-
enables some warm-blooded animals
to survive the months when their food supplies
become unreliable or disappear altogether.
True hibernators save precious energy by
reducing their body temperature to a level
that would normally prove fatal.
~ WHY HIBERNATE?
During the winter, most plants
stop growing, and cold-
blooded animals such as in-
sects become inactive. Warm-
blooded animals-birds and
mammals-cannot respond in
the same manner. Although
some animals can survive even
in the below-freezing condi-
tions of Antarctica, they all
must keep their body tem-
peratures constant within very
narrow limits. If their tempera-
tures rise or fall beyond these
limits, the animals will die.
For most animals, keeping
warm presents the greatest
challenge in winter, because
the body temperature of birds
and mammals is almost always
higher than the surrounding
air temperature. Maintaining
a high body temperature re-
quires energy in the form of
food-and food is scarce in
most places in winter.
Many animals that live in the
extreme cold of the world's
polar regions conserve energy
by growing thick winter
coats. The husky, a hardy
breed of dog that lives in the
polar regions, grows a coat
so thick and warm that it can
sleep on the snow in temper-
atures that may get as low as
Above and below: The raccoon
and badger both sleep through
cold spells without actually
going into hibernation.
-22 F. Smaller animals lose
heat more quickly and must
burn their food faster to stay
warm. A mouse, for example,
burns energy 20 times faster
than a sheep. Furthermore,
~ WHAT IS HIBERNATION?
Throughout the summer,
small, warm-blooded animals
such as ground squirrels and
marmots keep their body tem-
perature at about 99 F, no
matter what the air tempera-
ture is . Their breathing and
heartbeat are also quite normal
at approximately 16 breaths
and 88 beats per minute.
there is a limit to how thick
a coat a small animal can
grow. As a result, many smaller
animals build themselves snug,
well -insulated nests, often in
deep, underground tunnels.
For a warm-blooded mam-
mal to keep its body tempera-
ture at 100 F, it must eat.
Some species of mouse build
up reserves of fat on which
they rely when food becomes
scarce. Other animals live on
stored supplies of nuts and
seeds. For many, especially
those that feed mainly on
insects, the only way to sur-
vive is to reduce their energy
by hibernating.
As soon as winter comes
and the temperature drops,
t he marmot curls up and falls
into what appears to be a
deep sleep but is actually
hibernation. This is a state
t. hat the animal enters deliber-
ately, and during which it
retains some control over its
body temperature. Such
control allows the animal to
revive itself periodically when
it needs to eat, or if some
emergency arises, such as its
nest's becoming flooded.
During hibernation, the
marmot's body temperature
drops to 50 F-Iow enough
to be fatal to any non-
hibernating species.
Itight: A long-eared bat
hibernates in a secluded crevice,
ears tucked under wings.
~ ~ A RESTLESS SLEEP
Hibernators do not remain
constantly asleep throughout
the winter. Small bats hiber-
nate for the longest periods,
but even they remain dor-
mant for no longer than a
month. The hedgehog, by
comparison, hibernates for
only several weeks before
waking briefly.
At the other extreme, the
t iny shrew, which weighs
barely two grams, hibernates
for less then eight hours at a
time, and its body tempera-
ture falls to just 64 F.
While hibernating, some
animals may appear to be
dead. They are cold to the
touch and seem lifeless. Other
species wake almost instantly
if they are disturbed.
Almost all hibernators will
wake up when the tempera-
ture falls below the point
from which they could not
recover. Waking is usually
accompanied by shivering as
the animal begins to raise its
body temperature.
Although constant reawak-
ening uses up energy, it
seems vital to the animal's
survival. Since the animal uses
some energy during hiberna-
tion, the resultant waste
products must be expelled.
HIBERNATION IN BIRDS
It was once thought that
swallows spent the winter
underwater, hibernating at
the bottom of rivers and
ponds. But it is now known
that they migrate south to
warmer climates each fall.
More recently, however, it
has been discovered that
certain species of bird do
appear to hibernate, if only
for short periods of time. The
white-throated poorwill feeds
on insects, and when they
become scarce in winter, it
hibernates. For several hours
at a time, its body tempera-
ture drops from 104 F to as
low as 43 F.
Several species of tropical
hummingbird also appear to
hibernate for a few hours each
night, when their body tem-
perature falls to 46 F.
HOW BIRDS MIGRATE
Great flocks of birds, gathering for their winter migration, are a
familiar sight every fall. But how do they know where to go and
how do they find their way to and from their destination?
KEY FACTS
MIGRATION PATTERNS
The migration routes used by
birds in the United States are
called flyways. To give mi-
grating birds safe resting
spots, wildlife sanctuaries
have been established along
many of the flyways. There
are four flyways, named after
their geographical locations:
the Atlantic flyway follows the
East Coast; the Mississippi
flyway follows the Mississippi
River; the central flyway
follows the Rocky Mountains;
and the Pacific flyway follows
the West Coast.
Migrating birds found in
Europe use flyways that
extend as far as southern
Africa. Swallows are among
the best known of all migrat-
ing birds, and their arrival in
Europe heralds the start of
Right: The
Arctic tern
migrates farther
than any other
bird species-
some travel
from the Arctic
to the Antarctic.
summer. They come from
southern Africa and stay until
fall, before returning south for
the winter.
Migrating birds are not
restricted to the Northern
0MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left : A pair of
house martins
perch on a
ship's rigging.
Like many other
birds which
migrate long
distances over
the sea, house
martins often
stop on passing
ships to rest and
recuperate
along the way.
Hemisphere during the
summer, but because there is
less land south of the equator,
the north provides them with
habitats that are better suited
for breeding.
Left: Bewick's
swans migrate
from northern
Eurape to winter
in warmer
regions.
Below: Sandpi-
pers in Florida.
In winter, 'they
migrate to
South America.
01 60200081 PACKET 8
Migration is essential to many birds'
survival. Their seasonal migrations
take them to the most inhabitable
climates, where enough food and
nesting sites are available.
WHY AND WHEN?
The seasonal availability of
food, the search for suitable
nest sites, the need to escape
from predators, and over-
crowding are the main
reasons that birds migrate.
The distance traveled during
migration, as well as its
duration, varies greatly
among species.
During fall in the Northern
Hemisphere, the days get
shorter and colder and plant
growth slows down, diminish-
ing the food supply. These
factors prompt the birds to
head south.
In the spring, their southern
wintering grounds gradually
become hotter and drier,
causing the birds to once
again migrate north. After
arriving in a place where
weather conditions are cooler
and food is plentiful, they will
breed before returning south
the following winter.
Seasonal change is the most
common trigger that prompts
birds to migrate. In spring, the
axis of the earth is tipped toward
the sun, and the hours of daylight
are increased (above) . As winter
approaches, the axis turns away
from the sun, and the amount of
daylight decreases (below).
s
Magnetic Field
N
~ FINDING THE WAY
Many species migrate in flocks,
and it is thought that the
experienced adults guide the
young and teach them where
to go. In this way, knowledge
of the route is passed on from
generation to generation. But
then there are some birds that
migrate singly, so how do they
know where to go and how to
get there? Birds clearly have an
instinct that guides them
during migration.
Birds that migrate during the
day may very well navigate by
North Africa
Mediterranean
using the sun's position as a
guide. It is believed that birds
that fly at night during migra-
tion navigate in a similar way,
using star configurations to find
their direction.
It also appears that birds use
the earth's magnetic field to
help them find their way.
Functioning something like a
compass, the birds have an
instinct that is sensitive to the
magnetic field, and that allows
them to use it as a directional
reference. As a bird migrates
using the magnetic field as a
guide, it remembers in which
direction it is traveling, and
simply reverses its flight on
the return migration.
It is possible, too, that some
birds use their sense of smell
Many migrating birds navigate
by the sun's position.
to recognize odors that are
particular to their flyway. By
following a sequence of familiar
odors, the birds find their
destination. Many birds are
often kept on course by recog-
nizing familiar landmarks.
Some birds navigate by the
earth's magnetic field.
HOW LIZARDS LOSE
THEIR TAILS
Many lizards are able to shed their tails when caught by a
predator. By deliberately sacrificing its own tail, a lizard can
free itself and distract its attacker.
KEY FACTS
A lizard sheds its tail as an
escape tactic. Where preda-
tors are rare, this drastic
method of defense is less
likely to be used. It is also less
common among lizards that
have other means of defense,
such as thick armor or power-
ful teeth and claws.
Because the lizard gives up
its tail to escape, tail shedding
is more common among fast-
moving lizards than among
larger, less agile species. These
slower-moving lizards are
more likely to fall victim to a
predator's second attack. The
cost of tail loss may be higher
than it appears. Losing a tail
may save the lizard from a
predator, but it may prevent
the lizard from catching food
or reproducing successfully.
Lizards use their tails for
balance when running and for
climbing and swimming. A
few species run faster without
their tails. But most tailless
lizards are actually slower
without the proper body
balance that a tail provides.
Climbing species use their
tails as a fifth limb. Iguanas
and some geckos, for ex-
ample, have adhesive pads on
their tails and use them in
gravity-defying maneuvers-
even feeding while suspended
by thei r tails. Skinks and other
aquatic lizards cannot swim
after losing their tails.
Some lizard species use
their tails to signal status.
Tailless lizards lose rank and
find it difficult to hold territo-
ries or to mate. Lizards also
use their tails for energy
storage. A tailless lizard may
starve if food becomes scarce.
Top: An agama lizard has shed
its tail to distract predators from
its body.
Above left: This agama lizard
still has its distinctive tail.
Left: Two green lizards flee from
a predator. One has shed its tail.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200191 PACKET 19
Tail shedding is an effective and very
complex defense mechanism. Many
factors-including the danger of its
circumstances and the normal escape strategies
of its species-dictate whether or not a
reptile will shed its valuable tail.
~ WHY TAilS ARE SHED
Lizards are popular prey for
many kinds of predators-
from eagles to snakes. The
lizards' main defenses are
their camouflaged skin and
the ability to stay motionless
or to rush away. As a last re-
sort, many lizards have the
ability to lose their tails.
In some species the tail is
brighter than the rest of the
body. This provides a more
visible target for a predator
than the head or body.
Many lizards have green or
blue tails that are bright
enough to distract a preda-
tor, yet not so conspicuous
that they make the lizard
Front cover: Green lizards have
their original tails. Inset: A tail
regrows after shedding.
easy to spot from far off.
As a lizard runs away from
a predator, it can easily shed
its tail. But it is more difficult
to shed the tail when the
lizard is being held in place.
Thus, shedding is probably
not an automatic or purely
physical response, but a
choice made by the lizard ac-
cording to the circumstance.
~ ABILITY TO SHED
Some lizards lose all or part of
their tails, depending upon
the escape strategies of their
species. A larger, slow-moving
lizard will usually give up more
of its tail than a smaller, faster
one, but there are exceptions.
A desert lizard, for example,
loses its whole tail because
hiding places in its habitat
are scarce, so the lizard needs
time to escape.
Some iguanas are able to
shed their ~ a i l s when they are
young. But they lose this ability
as they mature. Instead they
develop the ability to defend
themselves.
The tail does not always
break at the same place each
time, nor does it always snap
off when pulled with the same
amount of force.
Top left: This
lizard has just
shed its tail.
Right: Tail shed
by an adult
iguana.
Below: A slow-
worm with a
broken tail.
~ HOW TAILS ARE SHED
Tail shedding is not common
to all lizard species. But for
those that do shed, two
different methods of tail loss
have evolved. Most lizards
have areas of weakness in the
vertebrae, or backbones, of
their tails that run through
the surrounding connective
tissue and muscle. If a lizard is
caught by its tail, it will con-
tract the muscles in front of
the weak area to split a ver-
tebra and shed the part of its
tail held by the attacker. Split-
ting a vertebra is called
intravertebral autofJomy.
A more primitive method
of tail loss involves the tail's
breaking between vertebrae
(intervertebral autotomy). Tails
lost in this way are less likely
to regrow.
A regrown tail looks like the
original tail, but there is often
a joint or a change in color
where the old tail broke off.
Also, a new tail has tough
cartilage instead of bone. A
lizard can shed a regrown tail
only above the place where
the old one broke off.
TAil lOSS AND RENEWAL
Some lizards have developed a technique of releasing
their tails in exchange for freedom from a predator. A
smaller, quicker lizard sheds only the tail's tip, but a
slow-moving species may shed most or all of its tail.
DID YOU KNOW?
Some lizards store up to
60 percent of their body fat
in their tails. Skinks, which
can survive 35 days without
food, may die within 24
days after losing their tails.
Geckos can live for up to 3
months without food-but
they seldom last for more
Loss: Fleeing
lizards shed their
tails more readily
than those
whose bodies
are being held
while their tails
are tugged off.
Renewal: Most lizards regrow
their tails in a month. Larger
lizards take a year.
New tail: The
regrown tail
contains
cartilage
instead of
bone.
than 50 days without tails.
Lizards sometimes eat their
own tails after shedding them
to recover the energy stored
in the tails.
Tailless female lizards tend
to produce fewer eggs, since
much of their energy goes
to regrowing their tails.
HOW BIRDS LEARN
Already, while they are still in the egg, birds learn to recognize
their parents' calls. Most activities, from feeding to singing,
involve learning, and learning is vital to survival.
KEY FACTS
~ - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - -
HOW BIRDS LEARN TO SING
Young male songbirds such as
the chaffinch are born with
the ability to sing, but the
nerves and muscles that en-
able them to make sounds
take time to develop fully.
The young bird usually
learns a simple version of his
father's song in the fall of his
first year. The following spring
the young male begins to de-
velop his song by hearing
himself and other males sing.
If a chaffinch is raised away
from other birds, he will try to
sing, but the song will bear
little resemblance to a chaf-
finch's song.
By learning his father's ver-
sion, the young bird is also
taught to recognize and iden-
tify with his own family. If a
male songbird is raised by
parents of another species, he
may learn the foster father's
song rather than his own, al-
though he usually attempts the
song of his own species first.
The Australian Iyrebird
collects the songs of other
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILE'M PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: A
young chaf-
finch must
develop physi-
cally before it
can sing.
Left: The chaf-
finch perfects
his song by
listening to his
father, other
males, and
himself.
species and weaves them into
its own. Like other birds that
live in dense undergrowth, it
needs a long song to identify
its location, so it adds bits of
other bird songs to its own.
Another form of imitation
occurs with the great tit and
the blackbird. The young bird
does not learn its family's
song, but its neighbor's.
Left: Eighty percent of the Iyre-
bird's song may be imitation.
0160200361 PACKET 36
Like all young animals, young birds learn
to tell good food from bad, friends from enemies,
parents from other members of the same species,
and useful from unnecessary information.
Learning these distinctions helps them cope
with changes in their surroundings.
~ IMPRINTING
Young ducks learn to recog-
nize their mother's call when
they are in the egg, so they
can identify their parent
when they hatch. The mother
duck is probably the first
thing that a duckling fresh
out of the egg sees, and it
imprints on her, following
her everywhere.
Young geese do not imprint
by sound but by movement.
They will imprint on another
species if it is the first moving
object they see. They then fol-
low it around as they would
follow a parent.
Imprinting helps the young
bird to get food and protec-
tion from the parent. But if
a bird is fostered by another
species, it may unsuccessfully
try to mate with a member of
its foster species.
~ LEARNING WHAT IS IMPORTANT
When a predator such as a
hawk flies overhead, young
geese hide in the grass. But
Front insets from left: A weaver,
a blue tit, and mallards show ex-
amples of learning by instinct,
experience, and imprinting.
they soon learn that a goose
flying above is not a threat.
They learn to ignore informa-
tion not vital to their survival.
In this task they are aided by
their parents' calls, to which
they react instinctively.
Above: Nest
building is
instinctive, but
building the
complicated
weaver bird's
nest takes
practice.
~ LEARNING BY IMITATION
Mating, nest building, and
caring for the young are in-
stinctive behaviors. Other be-
haviors are learned by copy-
ing parents or other birds.
Oystercatchers eat mussels
by picking at the shell's weak-
est part or by prying it open
with their bill. Chicks use
their parents' method, but
Left: How an oystercatcher eats
mussels depends on the method
it learned from its parents.
fostered chicks adopt their
foster parents' habits.
In the wild mynah birds do
not copy other species' calls.
In captivity, if they have not
heard other mynahs, they
copy human sounds most like
their natural call, such as
whistles, coughs, and shouts.
Parrots in the wild imitate
their mate's call to strengthen
their bond. Imitating humans
may be a substitute.
~ LEARNING BY EXPLORING
By exploring their environ-
ment, young birds learn the
landmarks of their home area.
This information is important
for migration. Homing pi-
geons recognize their own
loft, while long-distance mi-
grants learn the relative posi-
tions of their seasonal homes.
This ability is not acquired
immediately. If an experi-
enced adult is taken away
from its migration route, it
can still find its way home,
but an inexperienced young
bird will get lost.
~ ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
Young birds learn to tell good
experiences from bad by trial
and error. A chick pecks at
everything, even pebbles, but
it soon learns what is and is
not good to eat. The cinnabar
moth caterpillar, which has
a yellow-striped body, tastes
horrible, and the bird learns to
avoid all yellow-striped cater-
pillars. Through "good" and
"bad" experiences, it also
learns to behave in ways that
bring food. Pigeons learn to
peck at an object if they are
rewarded with food, because
they associate the two events.
In 1921 a blue tit was seen
left: A mallard is most susceptible
to imprinting at 16 hours, when it
first takes to water.
pecking at the cardboard top
of a milk bottle to get at the
milk. Once the association
with food was learned, other
birds copied the behavior.
A green-backed heron in
Miami accidentally learned to
use bread as bait for catching
fish. It was playing with a
scrap of bread, when a fish
was attracted by the move-
ment. The heron caught the
fish. It then associated the
bread with catching the food
and repeated the behavior.
Although mating behavior
is instinctive, it can be af-
fected by association. Any-
thing that improves a bird's
mating success may be
learned and repeated.
left: In the
wild mynahs
make sudden,
loud calls. In
captivity they
imitate human
sounds be-
cause there
are no mynahs
to learn calls
from. But in-
stinct plays a
part, for these
mynahs most
often copy
sounds that
resemble the
natural call.
COURTSHIP RITUALS OF
REPTILES
Reptiles exhibit a wide variety of courtship behaviors: some
actually change color or shape, while others become defensive
and aggressive.
KEY FACTS
------... ..--
SNAKE COURTSHIP
Snakes lack the frills, crests,
and changeable colors that
other reptiles use for visual
display during courtship ritu-
als. Instead, snakes attract
each other by giving off, or
secreting, a chemical substance
through their skin. This chemi-
cal, called a pheromone, en-
ables them to communicate
with other members of the
same snake species.
For example, when they are
ready to breed, female adders
secrete a pheromone as they
pass through the under-
growth. The male adder can
identify the pheromone by
collecting the scent with his
tongue. He transfers it to two
sense organs on the roof of his
mouth, called the Jacobson's
organ. The male determines
the female's direction and fol-
lows her. He occasionally flicks
his tongue into the air to en-
sure that he is still on the fe-
male's track.
In the fall, the North Ameri-
can red-sided garter snake
forms hibernating colonies of a
few females and several hun-
dred males. During mating,
DID YOU KNOW?
The male Texas banded
gecko attracts a mate by
striking her gently with his
tail and licking her sides.
The marine iguana
normally has gray-brown
skin. During the mating
season, the iguana devel-
ops red spots on its skin.
between 30 and 100 red-sided
garter snake males gather
around each female.
The group of snakes be-
comes a twisted, squirming
mass as each male tries to posi-
tion himself for mating. At the
height of mating season, the
ground may be covered with
many masses of snakes.
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: The
mating ritual
of the greater
Indian rat
snake is long
and elabo-
rate. The male
and female
snakes writhe
and entwine
each other in
their coils.
After about an
hour, the
female finally
allows the
male to mate
with her.
Above: Chin
rubbing is part
of the garter
snake's mating
ritual.
Left: The
mass of
coiled garter
snakes
breaks up
after the
female has
mated.
0160200261 PACKET 26
Fights are frequent among rival male
reptiles during breeding season.
Many of these fights are only ritual
shows of strength, but in several
species they can be dangerous
and even fatal.
~ RITUAL FIGHTS
Many reptile courtship displays
are nothing more than ritual
fighting between rival males.
They threaten each other by
changing shape and color or by
producing loud noises. They also
use threatening behavior, such
as lunging toward an opponent
and acting as if they are biting.
These contests are often only
ritual shows of strength, with
each male trying to gain
Right: Two male emerald lizards
fight over territory.
Front inset left: Alligators court
at night.
Front inset right: The anole's
inflated throat sac frightens off
rival males.
dominance over the other.
The male common agama
lizard threatens a rival by
bobbing his head. If the rival
remains, the agama rears up on
its hind legs while its body
becomes pale and spotted.After
this display, the rival males lash
out at each other with their
muscular tails until one retreats.
~ COURTSHIP BEHAVIOR
Reptiles use a variety of behav-
iors and displays for courting.
These may include unusual
changes in shape and color.
The male eastern fence lizard
moves his body to show off
bright blue skin on his throat
and stomach. If the female is
not ready to mate, she arches
her back, raises herself off the
ground, and jumps away
sideways.
Left: The male iguana displays
bright strips when courting.
Right: The collared lizard is one of
the fiercest lizard species.
~ TERRITORIAL DISPLAYS
Many species of reptile-
especially lizards-become
more territorial at the start of
breeding season. The males'
displays are intended to
frighten away other males.
The Australian frilled lizard
raises a wide collar, or frill, of
skin around his neck. He also
Left: A male Australian frilled
lizard raises a collar of skin to
frighten a rival.
~ BREEDING
The Nile crocodile mates when
it is five or six years old. At the
start of each mating season,
males share their territories
along the riverbank with
females and immature males.
shows off his powerful teeth
and a bright red mouth.
The territorial green anole
lizard often expands his terri-
tory up to 20 times when he is
ready to mate. He threatens
intruders by inflating a throat
sac that has patches of bright
red and blue skin.
Males of other anole species
raise crests on the backs of their
necks and inflate throat pouches
while making loud noises.
The male selects a female
and displays by thrashing his
tail and snout through the
water. The pair swims in circles,
with the male on the outside as
he approaches the female.
Alligators also mate in the
water, but usually at night.
The male attracts a female by
opening his jaws and roaring
and by giving off a scent from
glands in his throat.
Left: Vicious fighting often occurs
as male Nile crocodiles establish
their territories.
HOW FISH SWIM
For a human, swimming is hard work, yet many fish swim
effortlessly for days or even years on end. How do they do it,
and how are they able to keep going?
ACTION FILE
FISHPOWER: MUSCLES FOR CRUISING AND SPRINTING
Midwater fish such as mack-
erel and many sharks have to
keep swimming to maintain
their level in the water and to
keep their gills working effi-
ciently. They swim continu-
ously throughout their lives.
How do they do it?
The answer lies in the red
muscle, a band of dark tissue,
rich in blood, that lies along
each flank just beneath the
skin. The blood carries fats
and oxygen, which together
fuel the muscle. As long as the
fish keeps eating and breath-
ing it can swim at a steady
speed without tiring.
Large blocks of white mus-
cle lie beneath the dark tissue
and operate in a different
way. White muscle has a
sparser blood supply and is
powered by a carbohydrate
called glycogen. The muscle
needs no oxygen to operate
and delivers a massive amount
of power-but only in short
bursts. As the glycogen breaks
down it produces lactic acid,
which builds up and eventu-
ally clogs the system, causing
muscle fatigue. It can only be
cleared by a lot of oxygen.
A FISH' S MUSCLE STRUCTURE
I White muscle: When a fish needs
a sudden burst of energy it relies
on the white muscle for power.
A chemical called glycogen
provides this powerful surge. If
the fish sustains this level of
activity for long it quickly becomes
exhausted.
Fish use red muscle for
cruising steadily at slow speed
and white muscle for sprint-
ing to catch their prey or
escape from their enemies.
Sprinting speed cannot be
sustained for long.
Left: Salmon
need bursts of
power to get
upstream.
Below: A great
white shark
cruises slowly
through the
water looking
for prey.
Red muscle: Lying just below the
skin, this muscle is rich in blood.
The blood carries oxygen and fat
that provide a constant flow of
energy, allowing the fish to swim
continuously.
iCMCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200241 PACKET 24
Since its body is supported and maintained at
a constant temperature by the surrounding
water, a fish can devote all its energy to
movement-with a fluid efficiency and grace
that is unmatched by any other creature.
MOVING THROUGH WATER
Water is dense, so it resists
anything that moves through
it. The more streamlined the
object the more easily it slips
through.
Fish that are active swim-
mers are streamlined for
forward movement, but they
have relatively broad flanks
The large tail fin powers the
average fish through the wa-
ter and enhances the effect
of the fish's flexing body. As
it sweeps back and forth, the
fin pushes against the water
to thrust the fish forward. In
some. fish, such as the tuna,
its action is more complex
(see illustration).
The body fins of the tuna
are merely stabilizers. When
they are not needed the tuna
Front cover inset: A spotlight fish
hugs the side of a reef.
(sides) that resist the water. By
flexing their bodies side to
side in a series of waves, these
fish slip through the water
much like a snake writhes
through grass. Each wave
travels from head to tail, push-
ing against the resistant water
and driving the fish forward .
folds them to its body to
increase its streamlining. For
other fish, like sharks and rays,
the body fins perform a more
important function (see
illustration).
Most fish row themselves
along with their pectorals
while they feed, but they use
the power of their bodies to
escape from predators. Some
fish, such as the sea horse,
rely on their body fins alone
and have no other means of
propulsion.
DID YOU KNOW?
Swordfish can swim over
60 miles per hour.
Occasionally they collide
with ships at full speed,
puncturing wooden boats.
The fins of most fish are
adapted to work in water,
but the pectoral fins of
flying fish have become
elongated into wings,
enabling them to glide in
the air for short distances.
An African catfish swims
upside down so that it can
eat food from the water's
surface with its under-
slung mouth.
Some flatfish can move
by jet propulsion, gulping
water into their mouths
and ejecting it forcefully
from their gills.

A fish's body is slightly heavi-
er than water, so it has a
tendency to sink. This is a
problem for fish that do not
live on the sea bottom.
Sharks keep swimming
slightly upward to counter-
act the fact that they are
heavier than water. A shark is
lighter in the water than
many fish . It has a light-
weight skeleton and a large
oily liver that is buoyant.
Still, most sharks will sink if
they stop swimming.
A bony fish such as a pike
has a different system. Its
inflatable gas bladder acts as
a float. The fish controls the
amount of gas in the blad-
der, enabling it to stay mo-
tionless in the water.
Above: The
weedy sea
dragon pushes
itself gently
through the
water with its
fins.
Above left: A
pike remains
perfectly still as
it waits for its
prey.
Left: A ray slips
through the
water powered
by its pectoral
fins.
FISH SWIM IN DIFFERENT WAYS
Bluefin tuna: On each sweep of the tuna's
powerful tail fin , the side facing forwar'd
generates lift, which pulls the fis along,
whi the side facing
rd generates
Eagle ray: Rays
push themselves
I through the water
by flapping their
enlarged pectoral
fins like wings.
Blue shark: The
Common eel:
The eel moves
through the
water with a
writhing motion.
This movement
forces it forward,
, following the
line of least
resistance.
Sea horse:
A sea horse
drives itself
through the
water by
rippling its
small dorsal
fin.
FISH MIGRATION
____________ ______
Many fish undertake vast migrations across oceans. Some species
even travel between rivers and oceans. Why do fish migrate, and
how do they find their way?
KEY FACTS
EEL MIGRATION
For centuries little was known
about the European eel's
breeding habits. Elvers (young
eels) swam upriver where
they gradually developed into
adults. They fed in the fresh
water for several years before
they became sexually mature,
at which time they began
swimming downriver toward
the sea. When they reached
the sea, people were no
longer able to track them.
Years of patient research
determined that once the eels
left the rivers they migrated to
their spawning, or breeding,
grounds. Their migration
carried them 3,700 miles
from the coasts of Europe to
the Sargasso Sea, a region of
calm water in the North
Atlantic northeast of the
islands of the West Indies.
How the eels find their way
to the spawning grounds is
still unknown. Since birds
appear to migrate by follow-
ing the earth's magnetic field,
some scientists believe that
migrating eels do the same.
Alternatively, they may be
TRACKING MIGRATION
Little is known about fish
migration; still, it is becoming
easier for scientists to track
the fish as technology ad-
vances. Tracking is done by
using transmitters. The type
of transmitter used depends
on the location and the kind
of fish being followed.
A common method for
Above: The
migratory
instinct is so
strong that
eels travel
across land if
necessary.
Left: Young
eels rest on the
journey to
their feeding
==-----------""=-.... grounds.
sensitive to changes in the
water's temperature, pres-
sure, or scent, which they
use to help them navigate.
The eggs are laid in the
warm (68
0
Fahrenheit) wa-
ters at depths of more than
1,000 feet; the Sargasso Sea
is one of the few places in
tracking fish is to attach an
acoustic device to the fish ex-
ternally or insert it in a body
cavity. The device emits ultra-
sound pulses, which are
then converted into sounds
that humans can hear. The
signals are monitored from
either a boat or a riverbank,
and they usually have a maxi-
the world where this is
possible. Since the adults do
not eat during the six-month
migration, they die after
spawning. The eggs hatch
into leaf-shaped larvae that
drift slowly east with the cur-
rents, arriving on the coasts
of Europe two years later.
mum range of half a mile.
Using such tracking devices
allows scientists to learn more
about fish migration. Much of
the tracking requires that the
fish be followed closely by
boat, but computers and
other automated equipment
are being developed to make
it easier to gather information.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A 0160200181 PACKET 18
Fish migrate down river and across the sea
to reach their feeding grounds. During the breeding
season, the fish make a return migration to their
spawning grounds, since the young must hatch in the
calmer waters of a lake or riverbed.
~ WHY MIGRATE?
Fish migrate to find food or
breeding sites. Many feed on
the seasonal growth of micro-
scopic plants and animals,
called plankton, or prey on
smaller, plankton-eating fish.
During the breeding season
some species migrate to
special spawning grounds to
lay their eggs. The spawning
grounds are located far from
the feeding grounds because
the young fish have different
feeding requirements from
the adults. The distance also
lessens the chance that the
adults will eat their own
young.
ADAPTATIONS OF MIGRATING FISH
Migrating fish must adapt to
moving between freshwater
rivers and the much saltier
oceans. In fresh water the body
fluids of a fish are more salty
than the water in which it swims.
As a result, water seeps
through the fish's skin to
create a balance between its
saltier body fluids and the less
salty water (1) . This process is
known as osmosis. A fresh-
~ RIVER MIGRATION
Most migrating fish move from
one ocean to another, but some
travel from rivers to the sea.
Brown trout, for example, swim
downriver each spring to feed in
the sea. Fish that migrate from
fresh water to salt water must
adapt to the change. But the
~ SALMON MIGRATION
Salmon are born in fresh
water but spend nearly half
their adult lives feeding in the
ocean. Some salmon travel
thousands of miles through
the ocean to reach the spawn-
ing rivers. The upstream
migration to the spawning
grounds occurs only once in
the lifetime of most salmon.
When they reach breeding
age salmon migrate thou-
sands of miles to reach the
spawning grounds. Once they
arrive at the river's mouth,
they gather in the brackish
(slightly salty) water and wait
for high waters to carry them
water fish maintains the concentra-
tion of its body fluids by expelling
the surplus water as diluted urine
(2) , which prevents the fish from
becoming waterlogged. Unlike
fresh water, sea water contains a
greater availability of food in
the ocean allows them to
grow twice as large as the
freshwater fish.
The brown trout return to
the rivers to spawn (breed)
because their eggs must be
laid in shallow fresh water.
upstream.
The journey upstream may
take several months. The fish
must often leap over water-
falls and rapids to reach the
shallow spawning streams.
Because the salmon do not
feed in fresh water, they have
lost 40 percent of their body
weight by the time they lay
and fertilize their eggs. Most
of the salmon then die.
Top: Thousands of salmon spawn
in an Alaskan stream.
Right: At the end of a long
journey, salmon become easy prey
for bears.
higher concentration of salt
than the body fluids of most
fish, so osmosis works in
reverse. Rather than gaining
water, the fish loses water
through its skin (3) . To avoi d
~ NAVIGATING THE OCEANS
Salmon navigate by smell. Sea trout also use their
Each fish remembers the scent sense of smell to navigate,
of the stream where it was but they are not as able as
hatched. As it migrates back salmon to follow a scent. If a
across the ocean toward the migrating sea trout is caught
spawning river, the fish instinc- and taken beyond its home
tively finds its way as the familiar range and then released, it
scent grows stronger. becomes lost.
dehydration (drying out), the
fish drinks sea water (4) but it
must expel the excess salt as
highly concentrated urine (5) .
Any fish that travels down-
stream from the ri ver to the sea
makes the transition from fresh
water to salt water through
reverse osmosis. Trout and
salmon are among the few fish
that are able to survive in both
types of water.
4
..