CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL The tragic effect cause by a blast on any structure cannot be eliminated completely, but can be minimised to a certain level. The main idea of designing a blast resistance structure is to reduce the tragic effect. In the past few decades considerable emphasis has been given to problems of blast and earthquake. Conventional structures, particularly that above grade, normally are not designed to resist blast loads; and because the magnitudes of design loads are significantly lower than those produced by most explosions, conventional structures are susceptible to damage from explosions. With this in mind, developers, architects and engineers increasingly are seeking solutions for potential blast situations, to protect building occupants and the structures. In the recent years, there has been a new approach of designing a blast resistance structure by using elastomeric polymers as a structural retrofitting material and adding polyethylene fibre in a reinforced concrete.

1.2 BLAST LOAD 1.2.1 Definition The load that is accounted normally to different structures is its dead load and Live load. The loads that are impacted on it are not very often encountered, but it has been seen and encountered in different places around the globe. The loads which are impulsive in nature are known as BLAST LOAD. It is a high frequency loading, but not last for a long period mostly.

The difference between Blast loads and static loads is the impulsive nature of the blast loads. Since most of the existing buildings are not designed to withstand the dynamic loads cause by the extreme blast, it will result in the failure of the main load bearing frames of the structure leading to the failure of the whole structure and collapse after a very short period of explosion and will further result in the loss of life and loss in economics. 1.2.2 Effects on structure The behaviour of structure under blast loadings is more complicated than that of static loadings. In particular, the fracture modes of reinforced concrete (RC) slabs subjected to blast loadings are characterised by spalling, due to the tensile stress wave being reflected from the back side of the slab. To protect human lives inside the structure and nearby under such conditions, it is necessary to prevent the launch of concrete fragments that accompany spalling. Therefore reducing spall damage is the most important problem faced by designers of blast resistance structures.

CHAPTER 2

PRESENT BLAST RESISTING PRACTICES

2.1 BLAST RESISTING SOLUTIONS One of the approaches to enhance the resistance of the structural elements (i.e. columns, beams, walls and slabs) to blast loads is by increasing their mass and ductility. These may be done by using additional concrete and reinforcement for concrete structures, and by using larger sections for steel structures, or alternatively, by using external strengthening techniques such as composite laminates or steel jacketing. Extensive experimental and numerical investigations have been undertaken in recent years to evaluate the performance of existing structural strengthening applications to withstand blast effects. Most of the present practices in strengthening of structures against blast loads are focussed on the utilisation of composite laminates such as fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) applications. This can be attributed to the improved properties of modern FRP composites, which include its high strength to weight ratios and their corrosion free characteristics, as well as the cost effectiveness when compared to other strengthening techniques such as using bonded steel plates. Research and the subsequent application of this technology have largely focussed on the use of carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) and glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP), even though other materials such as aramid fibre reinforced polymers (AFRP), aramid/glass (A/G) hybrid applications and GFRP rods have also been studied. Malvar et al. (2007) and Buchan & Chen (2007) have undertaken comprehensive reviews and summarised the findings from researches in recent years, in the area of strengthening and retrofitting of structures subjected blast effects. While a lot on focus have been dedicated towards identifying new approaches to enhance the
3

efficacy of structural retrofitting against blast effects, and improvising the properties of existing strengthening materials, there is yet to be any specific and cost effective technique or material established to be considered as principally suitable in retrofitting structures facing the risks associated to blast and impact effects. A similar observation was provided by Buchan & Chen (2007), who also suggested that a more systematic direction is required to determine the advantages and limitations of the various strengthening applications.

Steel stud walls can be applied to the interior of existing walls to increase ductility and energy absorption. To maximise this ductility, the connection to the floor and ceiling must be well designed so they do not fail but instead the stud yields and failure can occur due to strain elongation.

The various Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures such as columns, beams, walls etc can be protected at the site by providing an externally bonded steel plates at the surface. The mechanism of strengthening RC structures like walls, beams and slabs is by increasing their flexural strength. While columns can be strengthened by providing lateral confinement of the concrete which enhances the compressibility and ductility.

Catcher systems on the inside face of walls can be used to prevent fragments from entering an occupied space. For this method, a fabric covers the entire surface of the wall and is securely anchored at the floor and ceiling with just enough tension to remove slack. Special arrangements must be made for load bearing walls as this does not provide structural strength and for walls with windows as the fabric must span continuously without interruption.

2.2 LIMITATIONS 2.2.1 Since maintaining the appearance of architecturally and historically important buildings is important while they are the ones that are liable of attacks as they are usually governments and corporates properties, increasing the dimension and changing them into a fortress and bunkers will not be a good idea. Also, the building should still be functional for its purpose and its maintenance should not be an additional issue. 2.2.2 The blast resistance of a structure can be improved by increasing its mass and strength with additional concrete and steel reinforcement. Unfortunately, this solution can be expensive, add considerable gravity loads to the foundations of the structure and require a significant amount of time to install.

2.2.3 The disadvantages of steel stud walls is the long installation and loss of floor space.

2.2.4 Even though FRP have indicated to be a potential solution, they do come with their own set of limitations. For example, in some situations, the excessively thin sheets of the material require an impractical number of layers or wraps on the structure to function effectively. Besides, in cases of close-in detonations, the strain demand of the strengthening material is beyond the strain capacity of FRP (Malvar et al. 2007). Another drawback of FRP strengthening is that it may lead to a premature brittle failure, such as through FRP de-bonding and FRP concrete cover delamination when subjected to such high intensity loading.

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS

3.1 POLYETHYLENE 3.1.1 Definition

Polyethylene is a synthetic polymer which is synthesised from a low molecular weight compound. It is an important themoplasts formed by the polymerization of ethylene and can be soften on heating and stiffen on cooling. It has a low molecular weights unlike thermosetting polymers. Like all the other polymers, the strength is estimated by means of stress-strain test.

3.1.2 Formation

As mentioned earlier, it is formed by the polymerisation of ethylene. Ethylene gas is first liquefied under a high pressure of about 1500 atmospheres and then pumped into a heated pressure vessel kept at 150 to 250o C. Then by the catalytic effect of traces of oxygen present, ethylene undergoes polymerization to give polyethylene which comes out as a waxy solid through the perforation at the bottom of the vessel. Chemical equation is as given below:nCH2 = CH2 Ethylene
Polymeruisation

- (CH2-CH2) nPolyethylene

If free radical initiator is used, low-density polyethylene is the product wheareas if ionic catalysts are used high-density polyethylene is the product.

3.1.3 Properties

Low density polyethylene is a rigid, waxy, white, translucent, nonpolar materials having a specific gravity of 0.91 to 0.93. It is chemically inert and shows good resistance to the action of acids and alkalies, salt solutions etc. It will not dissolve in any solvent at room temperature but becomes slighty swollen in liquids like benzene and carbon tetra chloride in which it is soluble at high temperatures. It is a good insulator of electricity. High density polyethylene possesses higher melting point, higher density (0.9410.965) and higher tensile strength. It is near crystalline polymer. It finds use in the production of houseware toys, detergent bottles etc. 3.1.4 Review as reinforcing material

Since 1990s, new synthetic fibers have prosperously been developed, which have better mechanical characteristics than conventional fibers. Among the synthetic fibers, polyethylene fiber having high molecular weight or high density polyethylene fiber is expected to be utilized as a defensive material, because of its good balance between the tensile strength and the elongation. Furthermore, this fibre has already been utilized as a reinforcing material in engineered cementitious composites (ECC) with pseudo strain hardening behaviour. The influences of mix proportion of concrete matrix, shape of short fiber, and fiber volume fraction on slump and various mechanical characteristics of polyethylene fiber reinforced concrete (PEFRC) was studied and it was shown as a result that, PEFRC with higher flexural toughness than
7

steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) and sufficient slump for precast concrete could be derived by applying high-fluidity matrix and binding short fiber to the PEFRC. 3.2 POLYUREA

Polyurea is a type of elastomer that is derived from the reaction product of an isocyanate component and a syntheticresin blend component through step-growth polymerization. The isocyanate can be aromatic or aliphatic in nature. It can be monomer, polymer, or any variant reaction of isocyanates, quasi-prepolymer or a prepolymer. The prepolymer, or quasi-polymer, can be made of an amine-terminated polymer resins will not have any intentional hydroxyl moieties. Any hydroxyls are the result of incomplete conversion to the amine-terminated polymer resins. The resin blend may also contain additives, or non-primary components. These additives may contain hydroxyls, such as pre-dispersed pigments in a polyol carrier. Normally, the resin blend will not contain a catalysts.

General chemical reaction O R OCN NCO + H2 N Polyamine R NH2 N H R N N H H Polyurea O R N H n

Di-isocyanate

3.3 POLYURETHANE

Polyurethane is an elastic polymer which is obtained by the reaction of di-isocyanate with a diol. It composed of a chain of organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links. Polyurethane polymers are formed by combining two bi- or higher
8

functional monomers. One contains two or more isocyanate functional groups and the other contains two or more hydroxyl groups. More complicated monomers are also used.

The alcohol and the isocyanate groups combine to form a urethane linkage:

ROH + R'NCO ROC(O)N(H)R' (R and R' are alkyl or aryl groups)

This combining process, sometimes called condensation, typically requires the presence of a catalyst. Polyurethanes are used in the manufacture of flexible, highresilience foam seating; rigid foam insulation panels; microcellular foamseals and gaskets; durable elastomeric wheels and tires; automotive suspension bushings; electrical potting compounds; high performance adhesives; surface coatings and surface sealants; synthetic fibers (e.g. spandex); carpet underlay; and hard-plastic parts (i.e. for electronic instruments). Polyurethane is also used for the manufacture of hose as it combines the best properties of both rubber and plastic.

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

In designing a blast resistant structure, the technique of employing fiber reinforced concrete as a slab material has been the most common approach along with the technique of employing a fiber reinforced polymer composites or steel plates on the area to be protected. A few decades has it been, since then that new synthetic fibers have been developed prosperously. These synthetic fibers have better mechanical characteristics than conventional fibers. Because of the good balance between the tensile strength and the elongation, high molecular weight polyethylene fiber is expected to be utilised as a defensive material. An experimental investigations have been conducted for investigating the applicability of polyethylene fiber reinforced concrete for use in blast resistant structure. This test was conducted regarding the evaluation of the damage to PEFRC slabs subjected to contact detonation. 4.1 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 4.1.1 Materials and mix proportions Binding polyethylene short fiber is used to make the PEFRC. A granulated blast furnace slag and super plasticizer is used to compensate for the decrease in slump due to the surface area effects of mixed fibers. High-early strength Portland cement is also used, in view of the intended application of PEFRC to precast concrete walls. For comparision a normal ready mixed concrete with a nominal strength of 30 MPa and a specified slump of 18cm was employed.
10

A table below, Table 1 shows the materials used for making PEFRC. Table 1 Materials used for PEFRC Series 1 High early strength Portland cement River sand Crushed sand Blast furnace slag Superplasticizer High molecular Short fiber weight polyethylene fiber Series 2 High early strength Portland cement River sand Crushed sand Blast furnace slag Superplasticizer High molecular weight polyethylene fiber Series 3 High early strength Portland cement Crushed sand Crushed sand Blast furnace slag Superplasticizer High molecular weight polyethylene fiber

Cement

Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Admixture

The mix proportions of the PEFRC are as shown in Table 2 below. Because of the spall damage which is caused by the tensile stress wave being reflected from the back side of the slab, the mechanical characteristic namely, flexural toughness is considered important. Table 2 Mix proportions of PEFRC Series Vf (%) 1 2 4.0 2.0 4.0 3 4.0 W/B (%) 33 33 33 33 Sg/B (%) 50 50 50 5 s/a (%) 65 65 65 65 Unit weight(kg/m3) C 488 488 488 49 Sg 488 488 488 490 W 325 325 325 323 S 550 565 565 562 G 339 341 341 310 Sp/B (%) 0.40 0.25 0.50 0.80 Pa/C (%) 0 0 0 0.01

Note: Vf fiber volume fraction, W/B water-binder ratio, Sg/B blast furnace slagbnder ratio, s/a sand percentage, C cement, Sg blast furnace slag, B(=C+ Sg) _
11

binder, W water, S fine aggregate, G coarse aggregate, Sp superplasticizer, Pa powdered antifoamer. For mixing the PEFRC, a forced double mixer is used: first, the cement, the blast furnace slag, and aggregates were dry mixed for 15 seconds; secondly, the water, superplasticizer andpowdered antifoamer (used in series 3) were added and mixed for 90 seconds; finally, the polyethylene short fibers were added and mixed for 3 minutes. 4.1.2 Test methods The three specimens were prepared for a separate test with different measurement as shown in Table 2. The specimens were cured for 14 days for PEFRC and 28 days for normal concrete, and then cured in air until testing The tensile toughness of the PEFRC was evaluated indirectly using the flexural toughness coefficient b, which is given by b =

Where Tb= an area under load-displacement curve until the displacement reached 2.0mm in N.mm.

= displacement of 2.0mm l = span length in mm b = width of prism specimen d = depth of prism specimen

12

Table 3 Material test methods Specimen configuration Compressive test 100mm dia x 200mm high Number Measurement item 3 3 3 Compressive Stress-Strain curve Maximum load Load-displacement

Splitting

cylindrical specimen tensile 100mm dia x 200mm high cylindrical specimen 100x100x400mm prism

test Flexural test

specimen curve The material test results for the contact detonation tests are given in the table below, i.e., Table 4. The values of the flexural toughness coefficient of the PEFRC were distributed within the range of 5.96 to 10.3 Mpa. Table 4 Thirteen types of specimen for contact detonation tests and material test results.
Specimen A B C D E F G H I J K L M Types of concrete Normal concrete Normal concrete Normal concrete Normal concrete PEFRC (Series 1,Vf = 4.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 2,Vf = 2.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 2,Vf = 2.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 2,Vf = 4.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 2,Vf = 4.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 2,Vf = 4.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 2,Vf = 4.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 3,Vf = 4.0 % ) PEFRC (Series 3,Vf = 4.0 % ) T (mm) 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 W (g) 200 100 100 200 100 100 200 200 200 100 200 100 200 Slump (cm) 13.5 20.0 17.5 17.5 6.5 20.0 20.0 11.5 18.5 13.0 13.0 3.0 3.0 fc (MPa) 41.5 38.7 41.6 41.6 57.8 59.9 59.9 70.6 59.4 54.6 54.6 76.0 76.0 E (GPa) 32.2 29.1 31.9 31.9 21.5 26.3 26.3 23.3 24.3 22.5 22.5 25.5 25.5 ft (MPa) 3.33 3.04 3.48 3.48 8.85 6.36 6.36 7.28 7.94 7.65 7.65 5.60 5.60 fb (MPa) 11.2 6.34 6.34 10.2 9.37 8.79 8.79 9.20 9.20 (MPa)

10.3 5.96 5.96 9.54 8.69 8.12 8.12 8.46 8.46

Note: T - slab thickness, W amount of explosives, fc compressive strength, E Youngs modulus, ft splitting tensile strength, fb flexural strength, toughness coefficient. 4.1.3 Specimen configuration
13

- flexural

For the test, a specimens of thirteen types were made. All the specimens have the same dimension, i.e., 600mmx600mm. This dimensions is considered large enough not to disturb the creation of the crater and spall. The slab thickness was changed to 50mm and 100mm . As for the reinforcement, a deformed steel bars SD295A D10 and a polished steel bars 5mm diameter were used for 100mm thick and 50mm thick respectively. The specimen were cured in wet conditions for 14 days and 28 days for PEFRC and normal concrete respectively. Then it was cured in air until testing. The configuration and bar arrangement of the slab specimen is as shown below

600mm

50 or 100mm

600mm

PEFRC or normal concrete Reinforcement steel bars Fig 1 Specimen configuration and bar arrangement

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

REFERENCE:

28

1. Makoto Yamaguchi, Kiyoshi Murakami, Koji Takeda and Yoshiyuki Mitsui, Blast resistance of Polyethylene Fibre Reinforced Concrete to contact detonation, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, Vol. 9, No. 1, 63-71, February 2011. 2. Makoto Yamaguchi, Kiyoshi Murakami, Koji Takeda and Yoshiyuki Mitsui , Blast Resistance of Double Layered Reinforced concrete slabs composed of precast thin plates, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, Vol. 9, No. 2, 177-191, June 2011. 3. S.N. Raman, T. Ngo and P. Mendis, A Review on the use of Polymeric coatings for Retrofitting of structural elements against blast effects, Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering, 11, 2011.

29

30