IMMANUEL KANT (Study only Kants Moral Theory) Theory of Knowledge Critique of Rationalism and Empiricism Rationalism arrive

e at truth from speculation or reasoning A priori (prior to experience) The source of knowledge is reason; emphasizes the importance of mathematics and scientific knowledge Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz Empiricism arrive knowledge from observation A posteriori (after experience) Source of knowledge is experience; emphasizes the importance of experiments and scientific knowledge Locke, Berkeley, Hume Kant was neither a Rationalist nor an Empiricist Without: a posteriori, human knowledge is empty; a priori, experience will have no meaning Kant tasks: 1. To unify rationalism and empiricism that is, to show how scientific knowledge is possible and how both reason and experience contribute to that knowledge. 2. To refute the scepticism of Hume who claimed that experience is extremely limited in what kind of knowledge it can provide. Concepts without precepts are empty; precepts without concepts are blind. Thus, Kant intends to synthesize Rationalism and Empiricism Problems: 1. The essence of science attacks freedom because science is deterministic, (follow certain rules, given A conditions, B will follow). The nature is governed by deterministic laws of nature which can make us predict events. Now if everything is determined, then what about human freedom? 2. No necessary contradiction between science and freedom His philosophy is an attempt to answer the following questions: What can I know? What I ought to do? What is there to hope for? What Can I Know? Kant begins his analysis of human knowing by contrasting it with God God has active knowledge of reality because God is Creator. As Creator, he already has in mind first what he wants to project. God knows from within. God knows everything. God knows the thing-in-itself. Human knowledge is passive; the thing has to exist first before we can know anything. Our knowledge is characterized by the passive character of the senses which wait to be impinged by the external objects. Manifold of Sensibility The beginning for knowledge of man would be senses/data/sense impressions. The start in the attempt of man to what he can know Although reality is out there, we dont have direct access to reality (thing-in-itself) While God knows already even before its existence, the object impinge in man, given that the object exist first

Man is in the level of the senses

Time and Space Forms of Intuition 1. Space(outer form), exteriority: object exist outside of me and the only way I can know of it is when it comes in contact with me.(left-right, above-below, near-far) 1.1. Space comes from the consciousness not from the outside and we project it to the data in order to organize it, e.g., a Japanese and Italian garden; personal room. 2. Time (inner form), succession: a before and after; even if the thing is one whole thing, we have to know it step by step. 2.1 Time is a frame imposed by the consciousness to the data, e.g.: Personal time, time management 2.2 All impressions are subject to time but not all impressions are subject to space: When we feel happy and distresses, not subject to space. All objects of sense experience are therefore to be found in some region of space and at some period of time. This act is from an a priori forms not from experience Sense data from the beginning are just manifold of sensibilities, gulo-gulo, its the mind who organize it. Categories Categories are predicates. Data without a concept would mean nothing. Data within space/ time are subjective impressions locked in our subjectivity. Thus we need categories to understand data in space/time frame. From the kategorein, which means to judge, to render visible or to make known After ordering the set of impressions, the need to categorize/predicate To make the experience of man intersubjective and communicative This renders sense experience from subjectivity to objectivity Three Important Categories 1. Of Inherence and Subsistence (SUBSTANCE) -because of the many data there is a need to determine the permanent ones which are centered to the object. What is it? 2. Of Causality and Dependence (CAUSE) -every change in an object of sense experience is determined by its prior state in accordance with a rule. What causes it? 3. Of Interaction/ Community (INTERACTIVE CONTEXT) -we imagine things are working in a systematic whole, we dont see whole interaction, but there is interaction -To make sense of data, one assumes that all these data interact another in certain context/system. Data interact in a systematic way in a system Transcendental Unity of Appreciation/Unity of Consciousness Unity assumes that it results in a unified whole. This means the data fit in one big coherent, systematic whole. This is a way that we come to know the truth. Based on all the evidence, the human person says, I KNOW. Therefore, there is no absolute human knowledge. It will never be absolute truth because new data might arrive that will not fit our system. More so because of our finite existence, we are not God. We cam only know the phenomena (appearances).We are simply looking at the outside, the appearance. Therefore, human knowledge is fallible. Because of the fallibility human knowledge, then lets be ready to ask pardon and give pardon to others.

Objections: 1. God exists. This is a matter of faith but this is not human knowledge. 2. I am, I exist. This is not absolute truth. We discover I first because of the presence of a mother. The self that we have is dependent on the early personalities around us. Its not absolute. 3. Knowledge in Mathematics-Mathematics is an analysis on concepts of the same thing or tautology (Greek-tautos, repeating) like: 1+3=4 4=4 Strictly in knowledge, we have to learn something new. Structure of Knowledge What Can We Know? Manifold of Sensibilities-Space and Time-Categories-Transcendental Unity of Apperception Phenomena (appearances), finite and not absolute Noumena (thing-in-itself), cannot be known and only God comprehends Human truth is changing because it judges from data, but contains a degree of truth because it is based on data which is valid (from the intersubjective point of view) Ethics Introduction: Kants revolution was a Copernican revolution. The foundation of ethics before was nature and God. Now, its the Self, the human person. What is morality for Kant? Morality is there to the people. It is not an invention by moral philosophers but it is an action commonly done What I Ought to Do? Since knowledge is grounded on sense perception, morality cannot be grounded on knowledge Human knowledge starts from the outside and Morality comes from within man himself Thus, his methodology (transcendental) as applied to man views that he cannot be subjected external but must be self-governing and rational will Critique of Existing Moral Theories 1. Morality based on Gods Will as its ground and norm That morality is based on what God says Morality is inspiring, sounds good and holy. It is a good motivation but it is not a good ground of morality. Why? Problem: we dont have direct line to Gods will. The Bible can be twisted. Gods will is open to abuse. It requires a lot of discernment. Thus in morality we have to use something more proximate to human being. 2. Morality is based on Human Nature Morality should be in line with the rational unity of man that is to achieve our purpose in life. Looking at human beings externally: Body: the development of his body. Is this really the purpose of man? No! otherwise we are no different among animals is our goal is to simply eat, drink and have sex Looking at Human beings man internally: Humans are moved by pleasure, power, wealth, and the desire for honor. Morality is the goal of human nature, its perfection, mans rationality Problem: How do we know that it is really the purpose of man? It appears to be dependent on human beings. But we act because its the right thing to do and not because it fulfills man and gain perfection.

3. Morality grounded on Utilitarianism or doing what is beneficial to man. Doing what will makes man happy, what brings benefits and what is useful. Experience of pleasure, happiness, utilitarian advantage, moral feeling or sympathy Problem: This is the most dangerous because it is completely relative. It reduces morality as materialistic and destroy the universality of ethics Kant maybe the way to proceed is to emphasize or consult the common man instead of just dictating from his head Morality is not the invention of moral philosophers but it is in action commonly done by the common man. After Kants common sense approach, majority mentions good will Good will Morality is when man acts not out of external conformity but from internal conformity External conformity: To have an ulterior motive like to receive something in return is an outside motivation, getting external advantage. Example a man donating 10 million to charity expecting to receive more votes in return. This is not moral. Internal conformity: There is something in me that demands to do it, not because of some personal advantage for personal gains. Internal conformity was developed to a sense of duty. The point of something good must not only be conditional but unconditional in itself Example: Charity, it is good intention, that within yourself, you know you got to do it Kant called this duty, that which ought to be done, signifies a tension that exists in man between what is and what ought to be A man of goodwill is therefore one who acts in obedience to duty (imperative) Imperative: Duty is a Command When is duty a duty? Considering that man is a rational will and empirical, morality takes a form of imposition The origin of the imperative must be from his rationality which subordinate his empirical senses Three types of Imperative 1. Imperative of Skill (Technical Duty) 2. Imperative of Prudence (Societal Duty) 3. Imperative of Morality (Moral Duty) 1. Technical Duty-refers to a requirement required by the laws of nature. Technical requirement like constructing a building or bridge. It is purely technical; one is required to follow the technical requirement to have a good result. So, this is not moral duty. This is not ethics. Its just a matter of technique and methodology, just finding the right means to achieve the end. 2. Prudential- because we live in a society we have to follow social graces, prudential duty, in order to be accepted by the people. 3. Moral duty is unconditional. The first two kinds of duty are hypothetical. Like if you want to have a good building, then you have to comply. If you want to be accepted, then you have to pay, etc. For Kant, moral duty is not conditional, i.e., no ifs and buts. Thou shall not kill! The real moral imperative is categorical. It is intrinsically good regardless of all considerations. The action is objectively necessary regardless of the end. How do I know that it is unconditional? 1. Universality. The universality refers to the form. This means that one is doing it as a representative of humanity. Each one of us has a sense of conscience, a sense of categorical imperative. Any man in his right mind will decide in my place should do it. In other words, the act that Im going to do could be use as a universal norm to follow. The test here is the test of reversibility. I will put myself into that position and ask myself, will I allow other to do it unto me also? It is just like the Golden rule: Do unto others what you want others do unto you.

2. Treat Humanity as an End not as means. This refers to the content of universality as a form. This is what ought to happen in reality because in reality, people treat each other as means or allow themselves to be used as means. Thus, we should respect every human being and treat each one of us as end. Here our actions will push forward the dignity of humanity. Example is helping a person who suffered accident. Can I make it as a norm for everybody to follow? Yes, because if I will put myself into that situation, I will also need the help of other people. On the other hand, in the case of prostitution, even if both parties give their mutual consent and enjoy the sexual act, in the ultimate analysis, still its not moral because both parties are simply using each other. Thus, if an act reduces the other as means, then it is not moral. We have to treat each other as end and not as means. 3. Autonomy as self-rule- The categorical imperative is a rule within me. It is not coming from the outside. I have to do it, to avoid self-condemnation. Here I am operating on the basis of my conscience. Now, if human beings are free, then they could express themselves. If human beings like robots, programmed to do something, then it is not morality. Freedom as self rule is the ultimate condition. Otherwise, if one is acting on the basis of external reward or force, then that is not morality. Why should we follow the Categorical Imperative? 1. The foundation of morality is human dignity as freedom. The ethical project is emancipation. Freedom is only possible if we use our ability to reason. By using our mind we decide on the basis of reason. Here, we are able to emancipate ourselves from the animals that operate on the basis of instinct and pleasure and decide to use our conscience. What is there to hope for despite the seeming immorality of this world? Kingdom of ends wherein people wish their actions are done by everyone, live in harmonious community of persons where goods are fairly shared and each one is treated with dignity. Three things that give us hope: 1. While non-living things are subjected to mechanical laws, nonliving things seem to defy them by having their own sense of balance. 2. Aesthetically, though nature seems to be harsh, presents her wonderful beauty, and itself implies a continuous birth, a glimpse of hope of life towards the Kingdom of Ends. 3. Historically, men leaves with evil deeds but at certain moments in history, the ideals of man prevail also. All these give us a sense of hope that the Kingdom of Ends remains a deep desire in the will of the human person.