DEVELOPMENT OF RUBBER COMPOUND FOR CONVEYOR BELT USING BIO-FILLERS

Conveyor belts manufactured in laminated layers from plastics, fibres and natural and synthetic rubbers are used to transport a wide variety of materials. Based on application, conveyor belts are classified into following groups: Highly resistant conveyor belts Oil resistant conveyor belts Food conveyor belts Underground conveyor belts

Based on minimum tensile strength, conveyor belts are classified into three categories: M-24 (Min. tensile strength: 24 MPa) M-17 synthetic N-17 (Min. tensile strength: 17 MPa) Conveyor belts are composite products composed of matrix (generally rubber) and filler (fibres and particulate fillers). Matrices used in conveyor belts are Natural rubber Styrene-Butadiene Rubber Chloroprene Polyvinylchloride-Nitrile Rubber Blend Polyvinylchloride Ethylene-Propylene Rubber (EPDM) Fillers to be used are: Wood Cellulose Coconut pith

MATRICES
NATURAL RUBBER `Vulcanisate properties of natural rubber (A) Strength Tensile strength: gum vulcanisates: 17-24 MPa Black filled vulcanisates: 24-32 MPa Good tear strength Good cut-growth resistance Strength of natural rubber vulcanisates decreases with increase in temperature, but better than other elastomers. (B) Abrasion and wear Excellent abrasion resistance under mild abrasive conditions. Abrasion resistance can be improved by blending with small amount of polybutadiene. Below 350C, NR shows better wear than SBR, but above 350C, SBR is better. (C) Dynamic properties NR has high resilience value more than 90% in well cured gum vulcanisates. Fatigue life of NR is superior to that of SBR at large strains, reverse is true for small strains. Good flex resistance (D)Compression set Compression set and creep are poorer in NR than synthetic polyisoprene. Compression set is reduced by good cure. Reasons for NR to be used for spring/belt applications Excellent resistance to fatigue cut growth and bearing High resilience Low creep Low heat build-up Reasonably good bonding with metals and fibres

Wide temperature range of use Low cost and Good processability Natural Rubber Conveyor beltings Top grade conveyor belting can be made from NR except those for those used in underground mines. In belt manufacture, good tack and adhesion are very important. Good compound viscosity is also very important in the proper compaction of the belt carcass. In service, NR offers reasonably good resistance to wear and chipping by such abrasive materials as stone, coal and ores. For moderate heat resistance, NR is blended with SBR. STYRENE-BUTADIENE RUBBER (SBR) o The properties of SBR are broadly similar to that of NR. o In comparison with NR and CR, SBR gum vulcanisates have poor mechanical properties. The raw gum elastomer must have reinforcing fillers. o Higher upper temperature heat ageing resistance than NR. o Cost of raw elastomer is low and comparable with NR. Physical Properties Property Tensile Strength( MPa) Elongation at tear (%) Glass Transition Temperature (0C) Polydispersity S-SBR 18 565 -65 2.1 E-SBR 19 635 -50 4.5

POLYBUTADIENE RUBBER (BR) High resistance to wear Cured BR imparts excellent abrasion resistancedue to its low glass transition temperature (Tg) BR is usually blended with other elastomers like natural rubber or SBR. Vulcanisate properties Tensile strength: 70 kg/cm2

Elongation:

540%

Modulus @ 300%:165 kg/cm2 Hardness (shore A): 59 Tear strength: 50.3 kg/cm2

ETHYLENE PROPYLENE DIENE MONOMER RUBBER (EPDM) The main property of EPDM is its outstanding heat, ozone and weather resistance. Good resistance to polar substances and steam. Properly pigmented black and non-black compounds are colour stable. Amorphous or low crystalline grades have excellent low temperature flexibility with glass transition points of about minus 60C. Heat aging resistance up to 130C can be obtained with properly selected sulphur acceleration systems and heat resistance at 160C can be obtained with peroxide cured compounds. Compression set resistance is good, particularly at high temperatures, if sulphur donor or peroxide cure systems are used. They can develop high tensile and tear properties, excellent abrasion resistance, as well as improved oil swell resistance and flame retardance. EPM and EPDM are used in highly resistant conveyor belts. Thermal properties of EPDM Max. Service temperature: 1500C Min. Service temperature: -500C Vulcanisate Properties of EPDM Hardness, Shore A Durometer: Tensile Strength: Elongation: Compression Set: Useful Temperature Range: Tear Resistance: Abrasion Resistance: Resilience: 30 to 95 7 to 21MPa 100 to 600 % 20 to 60% -50 to +160C Fair to Good Good to Excellent Fair to Good (stable over wide temp. ranges)

Properties of different matrices can be summarised as:

FILLERS
Wood Cellulose The depolymerized celluloses of wood and cotton. It is prepared by methylation and subsequent cleavage of methylates of wood celluloses. Cleavage of methylated wood cellulose under conditions of promoting the complete fission of trimethylated cotton cellulose resulted in dissection of materials into two parts. Another method of production of wood cellulose: acetylation action of Barnetts reagents on the wood cellulose under carefully standardized conditions results in formation of triacetates. Deacetylation of cellulose triacetates produces depolymersied wood cellulose. Methylated depolymerized cellulose is a white powder, which is soluble in chloroform, benzene, pyridine, alcohol and glacial acetic acid and insoluble in acetone.

Coconut Pith Coco peat, also known as coir pith, coir fibre pith, coir dust, or simply coir, is made from coconut husks, which are by-products of other industries that use coconuts. It consists of short fibres (<2cm) around 2% 13% of the total and cork like particles ranging in size from granules to fine dust. Coir dust strongly absorbs liquids and gases. This property is due in part to the honeycomb like structure of the mesocarptissue which gives it a high surface area per unit volume. Raw coconuts are washed, heattreated, screened and graded before beingprocessed into coco peat products of various granularity and denseness. Coir pith has a high lignin (31%) and cellulose (27%) content. Its carbonnitrogen ratio is around 100:1. Because of the high lignin content left to it, coir pith takes decades to decompose. Coir pith and fibre are widely used along with Rubber and Thermoset and thermoplastics resins to make composites. Most of the works were done to utilize the naturally occurring material in the polymer matrix for the cost reduction and property enhancement purposes.

SELECTION OF MATRIX
Depending on the application of conveyor belt, following matrices can be used: Highly resistant conveyor belts: NR, EPM and EPDM Oil resistant conveyor belts: NR, CR, NBR and PVC-NBR Food conveyor belt: NR, Polyurethane, PVC-NBR Underground conveyor belt: NBR

PREVIOUS STUDIES ON THIS FIELD

Coconut pith was found to have a thermal conductivity equivalent to granular cork and when bound into blocks with rubber latex was found suitable as insulating materials for fish boxes (Pillai and Varier 1952). Coconut pith can be used in fibre resistant building boards (Shrisalkar 1964); thermal insulating concrete (Jain and Goerge 1970); thermal insulation boards (Rao 1971). Viswanathan and L.Gothandapanistudied about the particle board madefrom UF and PF resin using coir pith as the filler. Coir pith with various particle sizeswere

employed to make the composite. Better mechanical properties were obtained forPF resins composite than the UF resin ones. V.G.Geethammastudied on the short coconut fibre natural rubbercomposites and the effect of fibre loading, orientation and chemical modification on theoverall properties of the composites. They treated the fibre with alkali like 5% solutionof sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate for 48 hrs.and washed to remove the excessalkali content. The fibres are then treated with natural rubber and toluene di isocyanatesolution. The tensile properties, both in transverse and longitudinal directions weremeasured and it was found better values in longitudinal direction. And in the case ofalkali treated + natural rubber and toluene di isocyanate solution treated one, gaveproperty enhancement than that of the alkali treated one. The fibre loading of 40 phrshowed better orientation of fibre in the matrix. But it failed to give a hike in tensilestrength and tear strength values. From another study from the same authors, dynamical mechanical behaviour ofshort coir fibre natural rubber composites was revealed. Short fibre reinforced rubbercomposites can be used in vibration dampers, tires etc. so the study on dynamicmechanical properties are of great interest. The study carried out on various treated anduntreated coir fibres in which, NaOH treatment, Resorcinol Formaldehyde Treatment,Bleaching etc were done. In thetreatments provided, the one with bleaching exhibitedgood dynamic mechanical properties. ChanakanAsasutjaritstudiedon the treated coir fibre green composites. The treatment done to coir fibres were washing in boiling water and then washing incold water. In the first treatment coir fibres were thoroughly washed in excess of watertill the water pH reached 7. By this the water procedure removes a part of extraneouscomponents, such as inorganic compounds, tannins, gums, sugars and colouring matterpresent in coir. The hotwater procedure removes, in addition, starches. From themorphology obtained it was found that in the surface of treated fibres there was theformation of small pits which increased the total surface area which eventually increasesthe interaction between binder and the filler. From the two treatments boiling and thenwashing in water gave much better properties than the first one. J.Rout studied on the coir polyester amide bio composite. The polyesteramide used was a biodegradable material thus the tag bio composite came. Variouspretreatments were done on the coir fibres which were used for composite preparation,namely alkali treatment, cyanoethylation, bleaching and vinyl grafting. In alkalitreatment the coir fibres were treated with NaOH and then washed in water. Afterdrying, AN and MMA were grafted on the surface of the coir fibre. In cyanoethylationthe coir fibres were obtained by refluxing the alkali treated coir with AN, acetone andpyridine (as catalyst) at 60C for 2 h, then washing the fibres with acetic acid andacetone, followed by washing with distilled water and finally vacuum drying. The fibre content used was from 30 60 wt%. For the untreated coir composites better propertieswere observed for 50 wt% coir fibre incorporated

composite. Among the treated coir fibre composites, the cyanoethylated one showed better properties than that of theuntreated and other treated fibres. In the case of alkali treated + grafted fibres, the 7%PMMA grafted one showed better mechanical properties. In the case of biodegradabilityof the composite, it showed same characteristics of the biodegradable polyester amideused. S.V.Prasadstudied on the properties of coir fibre polyester composite, inwhich alkali treated coir fibre was used. The coir fibre were soaked in 5% NaOHsolutions for various time spans and their impact on mechanical properties wereinvestigated. It was found that, the time span of 72 to 76 hrs..gave much better propertiesafterwards up to 96 hrs.of time span, the properties got a decreasing trend. In the case ofchanging alkali solution at every 24 hrs., the mechanical properties found decreasingnature after 48 hrs.of treatment. Scanning electron micrographs revealed that the cellwall thickening and fibre shrinkage was occurring by the alkali treatment. The untreatedcoir fibres were having a smooth surface in which alkali treatment increased surfaceroughness which can be accounted for the better wettability and increased mechanicalproperties. Wang Wei and Huang Gu carried out studies on coir fibre reinforced rubbercomposite boards. The composites were prepared using compression moulding techniquewith layer by layer construction of coir fibres. Various temperatures viz. 130C 140C150C and 160C were employed for compression moulding. From these temperatures130C was found to be the optimum one. As the coir fibres used were having lengthfrom 8 mm to 337 mm, they were not homogenously mixed in the rubber matrix, whichwas evident from the tensile property measurements. From the percentage of fillerincorporation versus Tensile Strength studies, it was found that 60% filler loading wasthe optimum one whereas higher or lower filler content the tensile strength reduces. K.G.Sathynarayana studied on coir fibrepolyester composites alongwith coir fibre, the studies were carried out in banana fibres, cotton were also used forcomposite preparation. The composites were prepared with an eye on end useapplications like laminates, helmets, roofing, postbox, mirror casing, electrical equipment casing, paperweights etc. the composites were using coir mats incorporatedin polyester resin matrix using hand layup process. These materials gave betterweatherablity properties as that of GRP composites. And a considerable cost reductionand utilization of natural resources were assured. R.V.Silva and co-workers studied on Fracture toughness of natural fibres/castor oil polyurethane composites. Sisal and coconut fibres and woven sisal matwere used for the composite preparation. 10% NaOH solution is used for the alkalitreatment and finally repeated washing in water was equipped. But the properties werelesser for coconut fibre composites than that of sisal fibre ones. But as compared to thepolyurethane matrix, no property enhancement was observed. In the treated fibre section the coconut fibres showed better properties. J. Rout and co-workers studied on the influence of the fibre treatment on theproperties of natural fibre polyester composites. Alkali treatment, cyanoethylation,bleaching and vinyl grafting were the different surface treatments

done on coconut fibre.From the result obtained it was found that the surface treatments gave much betteraddition between polymer and filler thus improving mechanical properties in aconsiderable manner. Among the treatments alkali treatment gave better results ascompared to the other three. From a study it was found that in the case of natural fibre, coated with lignin andethylene diamine (EDA) in order to reduce the higher resin consumption and to reducethe moisture absorption. Just half of the resin amount was utilized for the treated fibre ascompared to the untreated one. Even though the tensile and modulus values wereaffected little bit by the treatment and gave less value, considering the economic view,the resin consumption and moisture absorption got reduced.

FORMULATIONS FOR CONVEYOR BELT IN WHICH REINFORCINGSILICA IS BEEN USED:

Black conveyor belt cover (NR/BR) Formula: SMR CV60BR 1208Vanox ZMTI80 20 1.1

Carbon black N330 10 Hi-SilVanplastSundex79040 2 2.5

Santoflex 6PPD- 2.5 ZnORM SulphurSantocure MBSPerkacit TMTD3 2.5 1.4 0.2

This compound was mixed in a 2-wing lab internal mixer ML (1+4) 1000C MU15.8

Specific gravityTensile strengthElongationModulus @200% Modulus @ 300% Hardness (Shore A) Tear resistance

1.118 23.3MPa 766% 2MPa 4.3MPa 59 85.3N/mm

Abrasion Resistance DIN loss 137mm3 D-Flex Crack Growth, 100K cycles, Black Conveyor Belt Cover (SBR) Formula: Copo SBR1500Flectol TMQCarbon Black N550HiSilStearic AcidCumar MH100 2 15 50 2 10 5 mm

Calsol510 (NAPH Oil)- 10 Sunproof Reg. WaxSantoflex 6PPDZnO RM Sulphur Santogard PVISantocure TBBS2 2.5 4 0.5 0.2 3

Perkacit TMTD -

This compound was mixed in a 2-wing lab internal mixer. ML (1+4) 1000C Specific gravity De Mattia Flex, 1000 cycles Tear Resistance Abrasion Resistance30+ 1.176 8.0mm 43.9N/mm 147mm3

CONVEYOR BELT COVER NATURAL RUBBER POLYBUTADIENE RUBBER ZINC OXIDE STEARIC ACID ISAF BLACK AROMATIC OIL ANTIOXIDANT SULPHUR MBTS TMTD FORMULATION-2 NR PEPTISER ZnO STEARIC ACID ANTIOXIDANT

80 20 5 2 50 10 1.5 2.5 1.0 0.2 100 0.2 5 2 1

ANTIOZONANT HAF BLACK CI RESIN AROMATIC OIL PARAFFIN WAX CBS TMT PVI SULPHUR FORMULATION-3 SBR 1500 CARBON BLACK N375 ZINC OXIDE STEARIC ACID AROMATIC OIL CBS SULPHUR ANTIOXIDANT ANTIOZANANT

1 45 2 6 0.5 0.8 0.05 0.1 2.3

100 40 5 1 5 1 2.5 1.5 1.5

FORMULATION-4 EPDM YELLOW IRON OXIDE POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL 3350

100 6 2

SILICA POLYETHYLENE NAPHTHENIC OIL HYDROCARBON RESIN STEARIC ACID ZINC OXIDE SULPHUR TETD ZDMC DTDM

50 3 20 2 2 5 0.5 3 3 1

MANUFACTURING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

DRYING OF FABRIC(FOR COTTON FABRIC) RFL DIPPING(FOR SYNTHETIC FABRIC) FRICTIONING AND TOPPING BELT BUILDING PREHEATING(BY MICROWAVE TECHNIQUE) VULCANISATION & MOULDING a) PRESS CURE b) CONTINUOUS VULCANISATION

DRYING OF FABRIC

Drying of fabrics is essential to avoid blowing of the laminate occurring during the vulcanising operation. The fabric is dried by passage over a multiple stem-heated drum drier or hot plate at a speed of 15 m per min at a surface temperature of 115oC. A minimum moisture level of 1% for cotton containing fabrics is required.
RFL DIPPING

Synthetic filament fabrics, which have been impregnated with adhesive, eg: RFL type, and heat treated, do not usually require pre-drying before skim coating.
FRICTIONING AND TOPPING

To ensure good fractioning, a hot fabric is essential. Frictioning on each side is carried out on a three/four roll calendar. The lighter weight fabrics are friction coated, and heavier fabrics are also topped or skim coated to give additional rubber between plies and between the outer plies on covers. It is important that a uniform layer of rubber is applied during the topping operation.
BELT BUILDING

Usually full width fabrics to the optimum width of the calendar are used for the calendaring operation, in which both sides of fabric are coated simultaneously. The fabrics are then cut accurately to the width required on a cam-cutting machine which as multiple circular cutting knives. The cut widths are adhered together by passing them through a doubling roll arrangement until the correct number of plies are obtained. The covers are calendared directly onto the belt carcass using a three/four roll calendar; or calendared sheeting is applied on the building table. In the latter case, the completely built belt is then consolidated and passed through pricking rollers to remove any trapped air.
PREHEATING

This can sometimes result in substantial reduction of vulcanising time, because materials, such as rubber, are difficult to heat uniformly without degrading their structure. Rubber has high dielectric characteristics and thus can absorb energy of very high frequency, generating heat uniformly within the material structure. Micro wave heating is basically similar to dielectric heating but, with the frequency increased from 100 MHz to 2000 MHz. Microwave heating system consists of a power supply to raise the mains voltage to approximately 7Kv, which is then fed to a magnetron oscillator. The magnetron oscillator contains within its vacuum envelope a tuned circuit and delivers the energy via an aerial and waveguide to the applicator.

A typical applicator is a metal chamber , so designed that , for frequency generated, the chamber becomes a resonant cavity. The laminate is placed inside the cavity: no direct contact with metal is required as in dielectric heating, and the material can be heated irrespective of the product shape. Even distribution of energy is obtained through cavity design and the provision of a rotary deflector system mounted at each entry point, and perhaps inside the pre-heating chamber.
VULCANISATION & MOULDING

PRESS CURE

Various types of large flat multi-ram presses are used, of frame or column construction, both single and double daylight. The raw belt is unreeled from a braked let-off station to the press, and a section is vulcanised. The presses have cool areas at the ends t prevent over cure between successive sections of the belt. Each press is equipped with stretching gear, usually consisting of flat hydraulically operated clamps, the belts being stretched a given amount prior to closing the press. This stretching is essential to prevent excessive lengthening of belt occurring in service. A moulding frame is made from flat 50-75 mm wider metal irons placed along each side of the belt. Lateral pressure to form the belt edges is usually applied by hydraulically operated cams which move the metal irons in a fixed amount after the press has been closed on low pressure. The thickness of the metal irons is selected to give 10-12 % compression on the raw belt thickness . The length of cure depends upon the thickness of the belt, and an average cure time would be 17 min at 1450C. On completion of the cure of a section , the next length is indexed into the press, the small semi-cured end section being brought to the exit end of the press and its cure completed on the next operation.

CONTINUOUS VULCANISATION

The belt is passed between a rotating steel drum and an endless high-tensile-steel band, pressure being applied by tensioning the latter hydraulically; heat is applied to both sides of the product, from the internally heated drum and also through the steel band by contact with steam-heated shoes. Typical dimensions of one such machine are as follows: width of steel band, 2m; width of main drum,2.3m; approximate maximum

product width,1.9m; drum diameter,1.5m; maximum pressure, 4.8kgf/cm2. The maximum product thickness is 32 mm, but the maximum product width varies with the application. The curing speeds are variable between 65m/h and 40m/h, giving cure times of from 3.5 min to 53 min, which adequately covers the range normally required for rubber belting. The belt being fed through the vulcaniser is subjected to an initial tension accurately set and maintained, and also to a predetermined stretch.

TESTING
1. 2. 3. 4. Raw material testing In process testing Functional testing Final product testing

Raw material testing 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Plasticity Mooney viscosity Tack Plasticity retention index Die swell and stress relaxation Dynamic stress strain properties

In process testing

1. Tests on rubber compound 2. Tests on rubber vulcanisate Tests on rubber compound I. II. III. Rheometeric test Mooney viscosity test Mooney scroch test

Tests on rubber vulcanisate

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI.

Hardness Stress strain-tensile strength, elongation at break, modulus Creep/stress relaxation Load deflection Set properties Abrasion Flexing test Heat build up Ageing tests Pressure test Electrical testing

Functional testing

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Flammability tests Propane burner test Large scale fire test Drum friction test Surface resistance test Limiting oxygen index test

Final product testing

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Flexing test Ageing test Hardness Stress-strain test tensile strength, elongation at break, modulus Creep /stress relaxation Load deflection Set properties Abrasion

Dynamic mechanical analysis Dynamic mechanical analysis (abbreviated DMA, also known as dynamic mechanical spectroscopy) is a technique used to study and characterize materials. It is most useful

for studying the viscoelastic behavior of polymers. A sinusoidal stress is applied and the strain in the material is measured, allowing one to determine the complex modulus. The temperature of the sample or the frequency of the stress are often varied, leading to variations in the complex modulus; this approach can be used to locate the glass transition temperature of the material, as well as to identify transitions corresponding to other molecular motions motions. Types of analyzers There are two main types of DMA analyzers used currently: forced resonance analyzers analyzers and free resonance analyzers. Free resonance analyzers measure the free oscillations of damping of the sample being tested by suspending and swinging the sample. A restriction to free resonance analyzers is that it is limited to rod or rectangular shaped samples, but samples that can be woven/braided are also applicable. Forced resonance analyzers are the more common type of analyzers available in instrumentation today. These types of analyzers force the samp to sample oscillate at a certain frequency and are reliable for performing a temperature sweep.

Analyzers are made for both stress (force) and strain (displacement) control. In strain control, the probe is displaced and the resulting stress of the sample is measured by implementing a force balance transducer, which utilizes different shafts. The advantages of strain control include a better short time response for materials of low ntages viscosity and experiments of stress relaxation are done with relative ease. In stress control, a set force is applied to the same and several other experimental conditions (temperature, frequency, or time) can be varied. Stress control is typically less temperature, expensive than strain control because only one shaft is needed, but this also makes it harder to use. Some advantages of stress control include the fact that the structure of the sample is less likely to be destroyed and longer relaxation times/ longer creep studies can be done with much more ease. Characterizing low viscous materials come at a disadvantage of short time responses that are limited by inertia Stress and strain inertia. control analyzers give about the same results as long as characterization is within the linear region of the polymer in question. However, stress control lends a more realistic response because polymers have a tendency to resist a load. e

Stress and strain can be applied via torsional or axial analyzers. Torsional analyzers are mainly used for liquids or melts but can also be implemented for some solid samples since the force is applied in a twisting motion. The instrument can do creeprecovery, stress-relaxation, and stress-strain experiments. Axial analyzers are used for solid or semisolid materials. It can do flexure, tensile, and compression testing (even shear and liquid specimens if desired). These analyzers can test higher modulus materials than torsional analyzers. The instrument can do thermomechanical analysis(TMA) studies in addition to the experiments that torsional analyzers can do. Figure shows the general difference between the two applications of stress and strain. Changing sample geometry and fixtures can make stress and strain analyzers virtually indifferent of one another except at the extreme ends of sample phases, i.e. really fluid or rigid materials. Common geometries and fixtures for axial analyzers include threepoint and four-point bending, dual and single cantilever, parallel plate and variants, bulk, extension/tensile, and shear plates and sandwiches. Geometries and fixtures for torsional analyzers consist of parallel plates, cone-and-plate, couette, and torsional beam and braid. In order to utilize DMA to characterize materials, the fact that small dimensional changes can also lead to large inaccuracies in certain tests needs to be addressed. Inertia and shear heating can affect the results of either forced or free resonance analyzers, especially in fluid samples.

NVH analysis NVH is an industry term that stands for noise, vibration, and harshness. It is a search for the source of a noise, shake, or vibration, and it refers to the entire range of vibration perception, from hearing to feeling. Noise is unwanted sound; vibration is the oscillation that is typically felt rather than heard. Harshness is generally used to describe the severity and discomfort associated with unwanted sound and/or vibration, especially from short duration events. NVH is also called sound quality analysis, which involves metrics such as loudness, sharpness, sound exposure level, and others. NVH Test Equipment Include Analyzers, shakers and controllers, accelerometers, noise dosimeters, octave band filters, transducers for vibration and acoustics, dynamometers, sound level meters, microphones, and analysis software.