a)

Particle path line

b)

Particle node

Fig. 5.1 Particle velocities in different reference frames in the context of an Eulerian continuous-phase grid: a) Lagrangian vectors based on particle positions (xp), b) Eulerian particle velocity vectors based on average over a control volume centered at a discrete fluid grid nodes (xf,i) .

a)

b)

xp

xi

Interpolate u@p at particle location

Collect for cell volume associated with a node

Fig. 5.2 Schematic of Lagrangian point-force particles in a two-dimensional Eulerian continuous-phase grid showing: a) interpolation of fluid velocity of the surrounding nodes to the particle position at xp, and b) summation of particle volumes in a computational volume to compute volume fraction associated with a node xi.

a)

np,i

np,i+1

lp-p

np,i+1/2

b)

x lp-p

np,i+1/2

Fig. 5.3 Two-dimensional Eulerian grid which contains discrete particles in adjoining computational control volumes: a) Np,1 allowing a continuum approximation, and b) Np,~1 so that a continuum approximation is not appropriate.

a) vin vin b) vout = 0 (e = 0) vout = 0 (e = 0)

vin vin

vout = 0 (e = 0) vout = - e vin

c) vin vin

vout = - e vin vout = - e vin

Fig. 5.4 Lagrangian particlewall interaction outcomes shown with solid lines for: a) absorbing (sticking), b) accommodation (rolling and/or sliding), and c) reflection (bouncing). Also shown for b) and c) are Eulerian no-flux boundary condition outcomes with dashed lines.

Physical description

Continuum descriptions

um v = p/x3 x
Mixed-fluid treatment um throughout (wu ) Does not employ particle diameter, shape, relative velocity, etc. One set of PDEs for mixed-fluid Ideal for very small particles with negligible inertia (St1)

x
Separated-fluid treatment v u and both used throughout Includes relative velocity effects such as drag, lift, St influence etc. PDEs needed for each phase field Ideal for computationally small particles (dx)

Fig. 5.5 Comparison of Eulerian mixed-fluid and separated fluid treatments for a computational cell in a multi-phase domain.

a)

Physical instantaneous particle concentration

b)

Mean Eulerian particle concentration contours

c)

Stochastic Lagrangian particle trajectories

Fig. 5.6 Particle point-force treatments in turbulent shear flow for particles released at the arrow location: a) actual distribution based on fully-resolved turbulence (St1), b) Eulerian mean diffusion based on p and steady RANS solution (St=0), and c) Lagrangian stochastic diffusion based on steady RANS solution (St=0) with random numbers to represent turbulent fluctuations.

Technique Mixed-Fluid v=um (St1) Weakly-Sepr. Avg. v =u +w term +... (St<1) Separated-Fluid Avg. d v /dt= f (u) Weakly-Sepr. DNS v=u+wterm+(St<1) Separated-Fluid DNS dv/dt=f (u) Resolved-Surface dv/dt=f (surf. integral)

Initial Conditions? No

Turbophoresis? No

Non-Linear Drag Bias? No

Prefer. Bias? No

Cluster Bias? No

No Yes Eul: No Lagr: Yes Yes Yes

Model Model Yes Yes Yes

Model Eul: Model Lagr: Yes Yes Yes Yes

Model Model Yes Yes Yes

Difficult to model Difficult to model Model Model Yes

Table 5.1 Capability of different approaches to accurately capture particle velocity effects for turbulent flows, in order of increasing computational resources.

a)

u@p streamlines

b)

xp ZF xi r

d Fint,i x Fint

Point-force treatment

Distributed-force treatment

Requires d<x for 1-way Lagr. Requires lP-P<x for 2-/3-way Lagr. Requires lp-p<x for 1-/2-/3-way Eul. Assumes definition of u@p to obtain relative velocity (does not resolve individual particle disturbances) Requires models for drag, lift, etc. Ideal for many small particles

Allows d ~ x Distributes interphase force of particle on fluid to a distributed region Interphase force on particle based on either: a) surface/volume averages of fluid char. b) semi-resolved fluid disturbances Ideal for many moderate-size particles

Fig. 5.7 Different representations for particle treatment based on particle size in relation to continuous-fluid grid resolution for a point-force representation and a distributed-force representation.

a)

U streamlines with f

V, p n

b)

c)
F=1

UmV

V, p Ap U, f x

I x
F=0

UmU

Gridded Interface Method (mesh along particle surface)

Immersed Interface Method (mesh independent of particle)

Resolved-surface treatments

Requires dx (high CPU/particle) Particle surface force automatically captured by flow around particle Ideal for complex and/or deforming particle shapes and complex flows

Fig. 5.8 Resolved-surface approaches showing: a) schematic of particle in a computational domain along with b) near-surface close-ups of a GIM mesh and c) of a IIM mesh superimposed on the marker function distribution.

a)

y x

b)

Fig. 5.9 Examples of resolved-surface velocity fields relative to particle centroid velocity: a) flow past a solid spherical particle using GIM for U vectors (Kurose and Komori, 1999), and b) deforming bubble near an eddy center using IIM for Um vectors (Loth et al. 1997).

Numerical approach

Continuous-phase momentum PDEs

Dispersed-phase momentum Eqs.

Eulerian with mixed-fluid Eulerian weakly-separated point-force for dispersed-phase

Eulerian point-force for dispersed-phase Lagrangian point-force for dispersed-phase Lagrangian resolved-surface w/ gridded interface for continuous-phase Resolved-surface with one-fluid & immersed interface

( mu m ),t + ( mu mu m ) = m g p + K m,i j
throughout domain and where dx

f (1 ) g p + f 2u ( p f ) g
throughout the domain
f (1 ) u ,t + f (1 ) uu = f (1 ) g p + f 2u Fsurf p

f (1 ) u ,t + f (1 ) uu =

v = u + w term + ... throughout the domain

p ( v ),t + p ( vv ) = p g + ( Fsurf + Fcoll ) p

throughout the domain

f (1 ) u ,t + f (1 ) uu = f (1 ) g p + f 2u n p Fsurf

throughout the domain

pp dv dt = pp g + Fsurf + Fcoll

throughout the domain

where Fsurf = FD + FL + F + FS + FH + ... along particle trajectories where Fsurf ,i = ( Pij + K ij ) n jA p along particle trajectories
pp dv dt = pp g + Fsurf + Fcoll

f U ,t + f ( U ) U = f g P + f 2 U outside of particle volume

m U m,t + m ( U m ) U m = m g Pm + K m,ij
with d and UmU outside the particle and UmV inside the particle

Table 5.1 Forms of the continuous-phase and dispersed-phase momentum equations for various multi-phase techniques (assuming constant density and viscosity of both phases and no interphase mass transfer).

Increasing Domain (D and ReD)

Continuous-phase approaches

Laminar flow

Transitional flow

Turbulent flow Q: Turbulent dispersion critical?

Yes No

Inviscid flow ReD=0

Resolved-eddy approach
Q: St critical? Yes No

Time-averaged approach
Q: Anisotropy critical? Yes No

DNS x ~lmin/10

DNS x ~

LES Reynolds stress x ~ G x ~ lmin/10

2-eqn. models Euler eqs. x ~ lmin/10 x ~ lmin/10

Increasing particle size (d and Rep)

Dispersed-phase field approaches

d x

d ~ x

d x

Point-force Q: Relative velocity negligible (wu)?

No Yes

Distributed-force

Resolved-surface
Q: Particle surface stresses more critical than deformation? Yes No

Q: Two-way coupling more critical than wall reflection? Yes No

Eulerian Eulerian mixed-fluid point-force treatment treatment

Lagrangian point-force treatment

Lagrangian distributed-force treatment

Gridded Interface Method

Immersed Interface Method

Q: Relative acceleration small (dw/dtDu/Dt)? Yes No

weakly-separated-fluid treatment

separated-fluid treatment

Fig. 5.10 Physics-based diagram for selecting computational approaches for continuousphase and dispersed-phase.

10 1.E+10 10 9 1.E+09 10

8 1.E+08 10

DNS estimate LES estimate 2-D RANS estimate DNS cases LES cases 2-D RANS cases

10 Nf 1.E+07 10 1.E+06 10 1.E+05 10 1.E+04 10 1.E+03 4 10 10000

3 4 5 6

10 100000

10 1000000

10 10000000

10 100000000

ReD
Fig. 5.11 Number of continuous-phase nodes for internal flows as a function of macroscopic Reynolds number (based on streamwise length of domain).

a)

Particle velocity component at each node described by a dispersed-phase PDE: v/t = f(u,w) b) larger Np More CPU/particle

Each particle path described by an ODE: dv/d t = f (u,w)

c)

Each grid node described by a continuous-fluid PDE: dv/dt = f (U) Fig. 5.12 Comparison of particle treatments for: a) Eulerian approach defined on Eulerian computational nodes b) Lagrangian approach defined on particle centroids c) Lagrangian resolved-surface approach with a surface-fitted grid

NpNf

Mixed-fluid Eulerian approach (6.1 and 6.2) Point-force Eulerian with weakly-separated approach for dispersed-phase (6.3) Point-force Eulerian with separated-fluid approach (7.1) two-way coupling dominates

relevant wu and dx larger St relevant St<1 and dx any St and dx

NpNf

NpNf

particle reflections or turbulent dispersion dominate NpNf Point-force Lagrangian for dispersed-phase with parcels (7.2) Point-force Lagrangian for dispersed-phase with particles (7.2) Distributed-force Lagrangian for dispersed-phase (7.3) Resolved-surface treatment for each particle with gridded interface or immersed interface method (8) any St and dx dx (any St) d~x (any St) dx (any St) larger d

Np~Nf or Np<Nf larger Np Np<Nf

Np~1-100

Fig. 5.13 Computational particle approaches as a function of the number of particles in the domain (Np), number of fluid nodes in the domain (Nf), non-dimensional particle response time (St), particle diameter (d), and continuous-phase grid resolution (x).