RECIPROCATING ENGINES 8001. Both ball bearings and roller bearings are used in aircraft engines.

However, since the steel balls in a ball bearing offer less surface contact than the rollers of a roller bearing, ball bearing produce less rolling friction. Therefore, ball bearings are generally used in high-powered reciprocating engines to keep friction to a minimum. 8002. If a bearing fails or is in a process of failing, metal to metal contact is occurring. The friction which accompanies this metal to metal contact generates a great deal of heat and can cause high oil temperatures. The higher the oil temperature, the more oil is consumed. 8003. The amount of horsepower an engine produces is directly related to the engine rpm. Therefore, most aircraft engines must run at a speed in excess of 2,000 rpm to develop sufficient power. However, propeller efficiency at these speeds decreases rapidly. Therefore, in order to maintain an acceptable level of propeller efficiency a reduction gear is used. A reduction gear allows an engine to run at the high rpm needed to produce more horsepower while at the same time, allow the propeller to rotate at a lower, more efficient rpm. 8004. Volumetric efficiency is a comparison of the volume of a fuel/air mixture charge inducted into all cylinders to the total piston displacement. Factors that reduce volumetric efficiency include part-throttle operation, long, small diameter intake pipes, and sharp bends in the induction system, excessive carburetor air temperature, excessive cylinder head temperatures, incomplete scavenging, and improper valve timing. 8005. Special deep-groove ball bearings are used as thrust bearings in most radial engines. This type of bearings generates the least amount of friction of all types of bearings listed while still being able to withstand both the thrust and radial loads. Although tapered roller bearings and double-row ball bearings are capable, they produce more friction than a deep-groove ball bearing. 8006. As a radial engine warms up, the aluminum alloy cylinder heads expand causing the rocker arm in the head to move away from the crankcase. At the same time, the pushrod also expands but at a lesser rate than the cylinder head. The difference in expansion amounts between cylinder head and pushrods effectively increases the space between the valve stem and rocker arm (valve clearance).

8007. The four stroke cycle begins when the piston starts moving down in the cylinder on the intake stroke. When the piston reaches bottom center it reverses direction and starts moving up on the compression stroke. Near the top of the compression stroke, the spark plug fires causing ignition of the fuel/air mixture. As soon as the fuel/air mixture begins to burn, the piston is forced down in the power stroke. As the piston approaches bottom center, the exhaust valve opens and the piston reverse s direction to begin the exhaust stroke. Therefore, the five events of a four stroke engine are intake, compression, ignition, power and exhaust. 8008. The firing order within the engine is designed to provide for balance and to eliminate vibration to the greatest extent possible. 8009. Combustion is the third event in the cycle of a four stroke engine. The combustion process begins as the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke and the fuel/air charge is ignited by means of an electric spark. The time of ignition varies from 20 to 35 degrees before top dead center to ensure complete combustion by the time the piston is slightly past the top dead center position. 8010. A thin edge on a popper valve is called a feather edge. Valves with a feather edge are likely to overheat and burn away in a short period of time. Both of these conditions can lead to precognition. 8011. Each time a cylinder on an engine fires, a pulse of energy is transferred to the crankshaft, causing the crankshaft to flex and vibrate. When the engine is running, the crankshaft receives hundreds of these pulses each minute and vibrates constantly. To help minimize these vibrations, moveable counterweights, sometimes called dynamic dampers, are installed on a crankshaft. 8012. For a reciprocating engine to operate properly, each valve must open at the proper time, stay open for a specific length of time, and close at the proper time. In a typical reciprocating engine, the intake valve opens just before the piston reaches top dead center on the exhaust stroke and remains open into the intake stroke. On the other hand, the exhaust valve is open throughout the exhaust stroke and remains open after top dead center when the piston begins the intake stroke. Therefore, at the end of the exhaust stroke and the beginning of the intake stroke both valves are open at the same time. 8013. The master rod in a radial engine is subjected to radial loads only and, therefore, plain bearings are typically used as master rod bearings.

8014. Brake horsepower is the horsepower that is delivered to the propeller shaft. One way to determine an engines brake horsepower is to subtract an engines friction horsepower from its indicated horsepower. 8015. A cam-ground piston is constructed with a slightly oval cross-section. In other words, the pistons diameter perpendicular to the piston pin is slightly larger than the diameter parallel to the piston pin. That oval shape holds the piston square in the cylinder when an engine is cold and allows the greater mass of the piston pin bosses to expand more freely at operating temperatures. Once expanded, cam-ground pistons provide a better fit within the cylinder. 8016. Most cylinders have a certain degrees of choke, or taper. This means that the cylinder barrel is slightly narrower at the cylinder head than at the cylinder skirt. A choked cylinder allows for cylinder expansion resulting from the hangar operating temperatures near the head. Once a choke cylinder reaches operating temperature, the choked area expands to match the bore at the skirt, once the entire bore becomes straight. 8017. In a zero-lash or zero-clearance hydraulic valve lifter, oil pressure forces the lifter outward until all clearance between the rocker arm and the valve stem is removed. This, condition in an engine is normal. 8018. The timing disk is a more accurate crankshaft positioning device than timing reference marks. When setting up the ignition timing on an engine, a timing disk should be attached to the engine to measure the crankshaft rotation in degrees. 8019. As a piston leaves top dead center (TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC), it accelerates and attains its maximum speed at 90 degrees after TDC and 90 degrees after BDC. 8020. The distance an intake valve may be opened before TDC is limited by several factors. For example, if the intake valve opens too early hot gases remaining in the cylinder may flash back into the intake pipe and induction system causing a backfire. 8021. The cylinder barrel of a reciprocating engine is made of steel alloy forging with its inner surface hardened to resist wear. One method used to harden cylinders is nitriding. In the nitriding process, the cylinder is heated and exposed to ammonia or cyanide gas. Nitrogen from the gas is absorbed by the steel causing iron nitrides to form on the steels surface.