1

Abstract: Historically, Caribbean settlements developed along the coast usually around or near sheltered, deepwater bays, in order to facilitate trade with neighboring territories and the colonial power. Often these nodes experienced rapid demographic growth, which outpaced the capacity of supporting infrastructure. Today, many of these urban centers suffer the detrimental repercussions of poor natural resources management. The limited land resource of Caribbean SIDS and the fragility of their natural resources exacerbate the problems associated with rapid urbanization and result in worsening ecological challenges. South-West Tobago accounts for about one-fifth of the islands total land area. It is highly bio-diverse and is the most populated area of the island. Also the physical infrastructure, social, recreational and cultural services are concentrated in this location. As such, this area lends itself to the current thrust of built development. However, fragile coastal resources and ecosystems are left vulnerable to the impacts of increasing tourism and erratic patterns of development. It becomes imperative then, for planning policies and practices to address the issues of optimal use of coastal land, conflicting and competing land uses, natural resource degradation and hazard vulnerability. This apparent dichotomy between development and the environment is in actuality a symbiotic relationship that must be allowed to regain its equilibrium. In theory this appears to be quite attainable but in practice the over-riding influences of capital gain and political power often exacerbate the already wanting situation.

Introduction: The paper highlights the potential threat posed by climate change, outlines the importance of biodiversity to the islands physical and economic environments, and examines the role of physical planning in addressing these issues, using South-West Tobago as a case-study. In so doing, the intricate relationships amongst climate change impacts, biodiversity and how it shapes livelihoods in a Small Island Developing State, and the inadequacies of land use planning in shaping the aforementioned factors are succinctly presented.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND CARIBBEAN SIDS: The Reality and the Response The term Small Island Developing States (SIDS) refers to low-lying coastal countries that share similar sustainable development challenges. Small Island Developing States constitute only a tiny portion of the worlds land area, yet represent unique and beautiful coastal and marine ecosystems with high species diversity and a significant degree of endemism. Their often rich fisheries, forests, and other natural resources have long supported the livelihoods of human settlements and formed the basis of SIDS economies1. There is an interconnectedness of these diverse ecosystems that facilitates their rapid depletion in health and sustainability. The Small Island Developing States Program of Action (SIDS PoA) had its genesis in the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED/Rio Summit). The international community realized that SIDS shared certain characteristics that made them unique and often stymied their growth and development, inter alia: Insularity which sometimes leaves them isolated, Lack of economies of scale, Weak and specialized economies subject to the vagaries of international trade, High population size and densities, Susceptibility to natural hazards, Vulnerability to external shocks, Disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure, Heavy dependence on narrow and fragile resource bases, High transportation and communication costs,

Limited means and capacity to implement comprehensive sustainable development goals, Small range of primary products for export, and Dependence to a great extent on tourism, fisheries in vast ocean areas within exclusive economic zones, and, on larger islands, mining and mineral extraction.

Figure 1

Trinidad and Tobago in Caribbean Context

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk

The Caribbean is a microcosm of this environmental and development global situation (Figure 1). Natural resource intensity, often in products designed for export, has historically been one of the main features of productive activity within the region. The regions agriculture, forestry, fishing and tourism all depend for their economic success on a healthy and productive environment2. These qualities rendered them more vulnerable than other territories and so special ways to assist SIDS in meeting

these tests began to gain wider global focus. Thus in 1994, the first global conference on sustainable development and the first dedicated to the dealing with the unique issues of direct concern to SIDS was convened in Barbados. The Barbados Plan of Action (BPoA) effectively transcribed the principles of the Rio Summit into a more relevant context for SIDS. The environmental issues of Caribbean SIDS ordered from a regional perspective are illustrated in Figure 2 with the areas of major concern highlighted.

Figure 2

Regional Perspective of SIDS Priority Areas

Climate change poses both positive and negative impacts, which vary from one region to another. Table 1 shows some of the threats and benefits of climate change highlighting the issues of particular concern to Caribbean SIDS like Trinidad and Tobago (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Case Study Area: South-West Tobago in Focus

Table 1 Threats and Benefits of Climate Change NEGATIVE IMPACTS (THREATS) Sea level rise Increase likelihood of flooding and/or drought

POSITIVE IMPACTS (BENEFITS) Opportunity for new technologies Shifting climatic zones (some regions more habitable)

Increased storm intensity and frequency; storm Greater access to resources in polar regions (oil, surge Increased forest fires Reduced plant productivity in some regions gas, fish) Improved marine transportation Shifting tree line (production zone expands N & S of Equator) and increased potential crop yield in some regions

NEGATIVE IMPACTS (THREATS) Increased incidence of diseases Change in precipitation quantities and

POSITIVE IMPACTS (BENEFITS)

decreased water availability; salt water intrusion of groundwater Source: IPCC, 2001 (Adapted by author) According to a 2004 United Nations Environment Program document, rising sea levels are already contaminating underground freshwater supplies in several SIDS including those in the Caribbean Sea. Effects of the expected sea-level rise include: inundated lowlands, damage to critical infrastructure (physical, social and tourism such as sanitation, storm-water drainage and sewage disposal systems) and a large, displaced coastal population. Scientific studies report that a 1 degree Celsius rise in sea temperatures in tropical regions could result in about a 33.3% increase in the number of storms. It is also believed that warmer ocean waters in turn fuel stronger winds and observations of meteorological data for the past three decades support the position of some experts who point to a direct correlation between increased hurricane intensity and warmer sea temperatures. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) findings indicate that global sea surface temperatures had risen by 0.74 degrees centigrade from 1906 to 2005, and predict a possible warming of between 1.8 and 4.0 degrees centigrade by 2100. However, these figures cannot be directly applied to oceans for the following reasons: 1. Differences in sea depth; 2. The impact of ocean circulation; 3. The high specific heat capacity of large oceans; 4. The state of the El Nio system; and

5. Changes in solar radiation. Based on Trinidad and Tobagos green house gas emission and general climate models and projections released by the IPCC it has been predicted that Trinidad and Tobago will experience a temperature rise between 1.0 and 3.5 degrees centigrade, a sea level rise of 15 to 95 cm and a rainfall deficit of 15% by 2100. In South-West Tobago (Figure 4), such changes could translate into, inter alia: increased incidences of flooding, disruption of road and air networks, damage to reefs and beaches and significant property loss. Table 2 elaborates on the potential impacts of climate change in the area.

Figure 4

Location of Study Area within South-West Tobago

Table 2 CHANGE FACTOR Sea level rise

Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Resources of South-West Tobago IMPACT Extensive inundation of coastal areas and communities Backing-up of rivers and impeded drainage Saline intrusion of groundwater Increased hurricane frequency and intensity will lead to more occurrences, resulting in increased damage to housing, commercial buildings and infrastructure due to wind damage and landslides Increased likelihood of flooding Loss of tourism infrastructure, such as jetties Damage/loss of property Increased rainfall duration/intensity could result in greater incidence of flooding

Hurricanes

Storm surge Rainfall patterns Temperature

Increased surface air temperatures may increase the risk of random fires in some places Increased sea surface temperatures may result in coral bleaching and mortality Source: Lewsey et al, 2003 (Adapted by author)

The global response to climate change is centered on new innovations, public education and awareness, development and enforcement of relevant regulations and an integrated approach to land use planning. The most renowned example of such is the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement setting targets for industrialized countries to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Regionally, a number of climate change initiatives and projects funded/implemented/supported by international organizations were undertaken to promote the awareness of climate change impacts on the regions SIDS and the mitigative and adaptive strategies and measures imperative for their survival (Figure 5). Trinidad and Tobago participated in the: Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) project and was one of three pilot sites for the project Economic Valuation of Coastal and Marine Resources

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Adaptation to Climate Change in the Caribbean Project (ACCC) in which one of the outcomes produced were statistically downscaled climate scenarios for development for Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago.

Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) 1997-2001

To build capacity in region for adaptation to climate change and sea level rise GEF/OAS/World Bank Vulnerability assessments Adaptation Planning Capacity building 4 regional projects, 5 pilot projects Participated: ANU, BHM, BDS, BZE, DOM, GND, GUY, JAM, SLU, SKN, SVG, T&T

Adaptation to Climate Change in the Caribbean (ACCC) 2001-2004

To sustain and supplement CPACC World Bank/CIDA 9 components incl. public education & outreach, regional capacity building, risk management approach, sectorial adaptation strategies

Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre 2005

Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) 2004-2007

To build on CPACCs achievements & integrate climate change & variability into sectorial agendas World Bank/GEF Expansion of knowledge base Integration of climate change impacts into planning and practice Develop cross-sectorial strategies Support dissemination and replication

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Figure 5

The Regional Response to Climate Change

On a national scale, Trinidad and Tobago has completed activities that demonstrate the governments commitment to addressing impacts of climate change. A Cabinet-appointed Working Group was created in 1990 to determine the implications of global warming, climate change and sea level rise. In November 2001, Trinidad and Tobago submitted its Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Secretariat. In an article dated March 18th 2008, the technical advisor to the Minister of Housing, Planning and the Environment, Odetta Alexander affirmed Governments intention to tackle the continuing dangers caused by the emission of carbon dioxide by employing a multi-pronged approach. The State has plans to explore alternate energy sources as well as strengthen existing legislation as it acknowledges the need to reduce global emissions. The Environmental Management Authority (EMA) will therefore be given greater legal license under the Air Pollution Act to deal with carbon emissions. Unfortunately though, the Air Pollution Rules already drafted by the EMA are yet to be passed by Parliament. Despite the efforts and accomplishments noted previously, little else is being done nationally to mitigate and adapt to climate change and its impacts. Locally, in Tobago, NGOs spearhead much of the action (directly and indirectly) towards this end. The Buccoo Reef Trust (BRT) and Environment Tobago (ET) engage in public education exercises, collaborate on projects with international organizations, and facilitate scientific and technical research activities and studies. Although BRT focuses particularly on the Buccoo Reef and its need for management and conservation, its main directive is to address the threats facing Tobago's marine environment. Environment Tobago often features an environmental article in Tobagos weekly newspaper where various environmental concerns of local relevance are addressed. ET is also well-known on the island for its grassroots connections and approach to environmental issues.

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The National Environmental Management Agency (NEMA) Tobago recently implemented a comprehensive early warning system within the South-West area to assist in disaster preparedness and response efforts. Mr. Alex Browne, Public Relations and Training Officer for NEMA Tobago, indicated despite that there is no comprehensive disaster management plan for the island, an area-wide plan for South-West Tobago is in progress. To date, no risk or vulnerability assessments have been conducted nor any hazard mapping done for the area. Mr. Browne emphasized NEMAs public education efforts but admitted that climate change is not a prominent concern of communities in this area. Typically, information on flooding, hurricanes and earthquakes is requested by the stakeholders as climate change impacts are not regarded as immediately relevant. Attempts to raise the awareness and sensitivity to this global issue are incorporated into NEMAs public outreach and education programs.

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BIODIVERSITY & LIVELIHOODS IN SOUTH-WEST TOBAGO: An Intricate Relationship Climate change impacts invariably result in a loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity has both intrinsic and anthropocentric (economic, aesthetic or recreational) values. The biodiversity of marine and coastal environments of Caribbean SIDS is a vital resource for socio-economic development. They encompass diverse ecosystems and habitats, which perform a number of functions and services (Figure 6). The marine environment is also threatened by physical alterations of the coastal zone, including destruction of habitats vital to maintaining ecosystem health (Plates 1 & 2).

Plate 1 Construction Works on Coast

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Wetland flora

Plate 2 Residential Development on fringes of Coastal Wetland Some Caribbean territories such as Jamaica and Saint Lucia have begun to develop national programs of action to protect the marine environment from land-based activities. Coral reefs in particular are one of the most important and extensive ecosystems in SIDS. When considered in conjunction with associated mangrove, sea grass and beach systems, their importance cannot be overstated. Locally, tourism is intricately dependent to the islands rich biodiversity. Data from the World Trade and Travel Council revealed that in 2003 tourism and related activities were the major contributor to Tobagos economy3.

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Climate regulation Food & Fibre

Water supply
Ecosystem

Recreational opportunities
Services

Water purification

Flood regulation

Coastal protection

Figure 6 Wetland Services Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005 (Adapted by author) Tobago typifies the Caribbean SIDS and the contradictory duality of the tourism sector that drives the economy while deteriorating the natural resources it depends on. The most renowned ecosystems in South-West Tobago make up the Buccoo Reef/Bon Accord Lagoon Complex. This marine complex has been one of the nations major tourist attractions for over half a century. The Buccoo Reef is known internationally for its beauty and the biological diversity of the species that dwell within its structures. Coral reefs are highly sensitive ecosystems that develop only under specific conditions; even the slightest disturbance in these conditions can have drastic repercussions. Since 1973, the Buccoo Reef has been designated a Restricted Area. However, it was not until July 2005 that the Buccoo Reef/Bon Accord Lagoon Complex was declared as a Ramsar site4 making it a wetland of international importance. Within its five biological zones, the Buccoo Reef supports 70 species of fishes and 37 coral species. The Lagoon, which consists primarily of red mangrove stands, provides habitat to aquatic animals such as oysters, sponges and tunicates. The associated sea grass beds are a nursery for juveniles of commercially

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important marine species such as mollusks and fish. In addition, the reef and lagoon complex is a feeding, and nesting ground for many land and sea birds including brown pelicans, terns and gulls.5 Since the 1930s local communities at Bon Accord and Buccoo have directly exploited the resources by spear fishing, and diving for conchs, lobsters and sea eggs. By the early 1960s these activities were superseded by tourism-related activities for example boat tours and curio items.6 Over the years the Reef has suffered repeated damage from both natural and anthropogenic sources. The effects of abuse and misuse of land in the coastal zone quickly reach these coastal ecosystems: i. Improper use of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers overload the estuarine system with toxic chemicals. ii. Agricultural practices of clear felling and slash and burn increase siltation and reduce the ability of mangroves to filter runoff as well as, dredging and coastal development activities for hotel and marina construction and other economic development projects (Plates 3a, 3b, 4a, & 4b). iii. Increasing densities of accommodations for hotels and higher concentrations of buildings require comparable adjustment in wastewater runoff (drainage systems) and solid waste management facilities. Improperly treated solid waste entering the sensitive marine ecosystems has and continues to result in irreversible damage.

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Plates 3a & 3b Evidence of Human Abuse within Coastal Wetland

Plate 4a Plate 4b

View of construction works taken from within mangrove Floating Jetty erected at end of boardwalk built through mangrove stand

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By far, the persistent malpractices by locals and tourists alike cause the most sustained impacts to the reef system: i. Glass-bottomed boat tour-operators drop anchor directly on the reef flat damaging coral, despite the anchoring buoys placed by the Department of Marine Resources and Fisheries. ii. Oil and waste from vessels have been dumped into the water and there have been incidents of wreckage and vessels running aground on the reef. iii. Tourists are still guilty of reef-walking and souvenir hunting although discouraged by tour operators and local officials. iv. Local fishermen and divers ignore legislation prohibiting the practices of fishing and hunting within the demarcated limits of the Buccoo Reef.

The South-West coast is inundated with several beaches, which are popular sites for bathing, snorkeling, parasailing, jet skiing and scuba diving activities (Figure 7). As such there is a concentration of tourism service providers located within the area.

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Key
Fishing Swimming/Bathing Yachting, Pleasure Boats Wind Surfing, Jet skiing

Figure 7

Aerial Depicting Competing Activities within Study Area

There have been a number of international multilateral agreements aimed at better addressing the entwined issues linking development and the environment to which Trinidad and Tobago is a signatory (Table 3).

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TABLE 3

International Agreements Relevant to Development of South-West Tobago

(green biodiversity; pink sustainable development; blue climate change)

Treaty/Convention & Date opened for signing Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) Feb 02, 1971 Notable Highlights Number of Parties1 146 (2005) Date Signed by T&T N/A Date Ratified by T&T 21.04.93

Established in Ramsar, Iran Came into force 21.12.75 Dealt with conservation and wise use of all wetlands Only global intergovernmental convention addressing interactions between water and ecosystems 3 pillars: 1. Wise use of wetlands 2. Special attention to internationally important wetlands 3. International co-operation One of the most important international marine environmental conventions Designed to minimize pollution of the seas Held in Vancouver, Canada International conference held on urbanization Addressed problems related to urban areas Led to establishment of UN Centre for Human Settlements (1978) and adoption of Global Strategy for Shelter to the year 2000 Defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources Replaced four treaties from initial meeting in Geneva Designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production halogenated hydrocarbons (HCFCs, CFCs) Four Amendments to the Protocol the London Amendment (1990), the Copenhagen Amendment (1992), the Montreal Amendment (1997) and the Beijing Amendment (1999).

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships (MARPOL 73/78) Feb 17, 1973 United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat I) 1976

136 (2005)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) Dec 10, 1982

155

N/A

N/A

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal Protocol) Sep 16, 1987

191 (2007) 186 179 159 135

N/A

28.08.892

10.06.99 10.06.99 10.06.99 29.10.03

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Treaty/Convention & Date opened for signing Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention) Mar 22, 1989 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED; Rio Conference; Earth Summit) Jun 3 -14, 1992

Notable Highlights

Number of Parties1 170

Date Signed by T&T N/A

Date Ratified by T&T N/A

Designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries Also to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of wastes Held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Highest profile international environmental conference ever Discussed issues of development and the environment Evolution of Agenda 21 as the central agreement and guiding document to tackle the worlds ecological and economic problems Spawned additional documents: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Earth Charter), the Convention on Biodiversity, Forest Principles, and the Framework Convention on Climate Change Led to creation of Commission for Sustainable Development by UN General Assembly Produced at Earth Summit Key document regarding sustainable development 3 main goals: 1. conservation of biodiversity 2. sustainable use of its components 3. fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources Includes Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Produced at Earth Summit Aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse gases in order to combat global warming Principal update is the Kyoto Protocol with objective of reducing greenhouse gases Opened for signature on 11 December 1997 Entered into force on 16 February 2005

172(?)

N/A

N/A

Convention on Biodiversity (Biodiversity Convention) Jun 5, 1992

190

11.06.92

01.08.96

143 192

N/A 11.06.92

05.10.003 24.06.94

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) May 9, 1992

175 (2007)

07.01.99

28.01.99

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Treaty/Convention & Date opened for signing United Nations International Conference on Population and Development

Notable Highlights

Number of Parties1

Date Signed by T&T N/A

Date Ratified by T&T N/A

N/A Held in Cairo, Egypt First UN population conference document to officially recognize the interrelationship among population, (ICPD; Cairo Conference) environmental protection, and development, in contrast to the 1994 previously narrow focus on demographics Global Conference on the 51(?) Held in Barbados Sustainable Development of First global conference on sustainable Small Island Developing development and the implementation States (SIDS) of Agenda 21 SIDS Program of Action (SIDS POA) April 1994 developed as a key global strategy geared towards the implementation of Agenda 21 United Nations Conference on N/A Held in Istanbul, Turkey Human Settlements (Habitat International conference held on II) urbanization Large major UN conference of the Jun 3 -14, 1996 1990s Notable for inviting the participation of representatives of local governments and grassroots organizations Led to adoption of Habitat Agenda 2 global themes addressed: 1. adequate shelter for all 2. sustainable cities World Summit on Sustainable N/A Held in Johannesburg Development (WSSD) Specific concerns and issues relating to SIDS continued to occupy a Aug 2002 prominent place in the global agenda on sustainable development Mauritius International As a follow up to WSSD, the UN N/A Meeting (SIDS + 10) General Assembly adopted Resolution A/57/262 which called for Jan 10 14, 2005 a full and comprehensive review of the implementation of the SIDS POA It provided an opportunity for Caribbean SIDS to analyze their experiences in the implementation of the BPOA and other international sustainable development agreements. It facilitated the identification of new priority issues and individual and collective actions to deal with them 1 In some instances, not all parties are signatories. N/A Not Available
2

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Ascended

Ascended to 11.09.03

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LAND USE PLANNING: The Implications for Sustainable Development The apparent dichotomy between development and the environment is in actuality a symbiotic relationship that must be allowed to regain its equilibrium. On the one hand, environmental issues have a direct impact on development and on the other; efficient economic growth (development) can foster better environmental management practices. In theory this appears to be quite attainable but in practice the over-riding influences of capital gain and political power often exacerbate the already wanting situation. To fully examine this complex issue, an understanding of the institutional environment, as regards planning, in Tobago is imperative. Special circumstances prevail and influence the decisions that may or may not determine actions that are taken in respect to planning and development on the island. Within the national physical planning context, Tobago is identified in the National Physical Development Plan (NPDP)7 as one of ten planning regions in country. Two sectors targeted to play important roles in national economic strategy of diversification are agriculture and tourism. Tobagos agricultural sector is to be revitalized concurrently with the continued aggressive promotion and marketing of Tobago as a premier international tourist destination. Tobago has three levels of development influences: 1. National level: Tobago is included in Governments national policies and strategies (Tobago is marketed by TIDCO for tourism). 2. Regional level: Concerns of the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) including community development, development. agriculture, physical resource planning, social and economic

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3. Investment decisions made at both public and private level vary markedly from sector to sector. The legislative context presents certain challenges with the overlapping framework created by the Town and Country Planning Act and the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) Act. Although the THA Act makes provision for the Assembly to make decisions on the use of land in Tobago, the Town and Country Planning Division (T&CPD) retains power to act on the behalf of the Minister who has the final say with regard to all applications for land development. In theory then, there is devolution of power to the THA but in reality development applications and projects for Tobago are decided and finalized in Trinidad. To date, there are no statutory physical development plans for Tobago. However, in 1991 a draft Tobago Regional Physical Development Plan was prepared to detail the spatial development strategy of the National Plan at the regional level. This plan designated the South-West for significant expansion of agriculture and fishing, resort development and housing, [as well as] provision [for] industrial expansion8. Since the 1990s, there has been much evidence of capital investment in resort, housing and more recently industrial development projects. However similar inputs into the primary sectors are yet to materialize. The level and intensity of built development in South-West Tobago exacerbates planning related issues thereby intensifying the apparent dichotomy between tourism and natural resources management. The South-West of Tobago because of its rich and diverse natural resources and its gentler, more accommodating topography lends itself to the thrust of built development which has occurred in the recent past (Figure 8). However, the fragile surrounding and nearby coastal resources are left

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Figure 8

Elevations within Study Area

vulnerable to the direct and indirect impacts from the increasing tourism traffic and erratic pattern of built environment. The underpinning principle of physical planning - to ensure public health and safety is grossly compromised by the rapid rate of urbanization typical in Caribbean SIDS. The critical and most immediate problems facing developing cities are the health impacts of urban pollution.9 It is the limited land resource of Caribbean islands and the fragility of their natural resource base that augments the problems associated with rapid urbanization and result in deterioration of the environment. Often, as is the case in South-West Tobago, the urban nodes experience rapid demographic growth which outpaces the capacity of supporting physical, social and environmental infrastructure and the capital investment to ensure currency of those systems. The result is de-capitalized urbanization.10,11

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Easily posing the greatest concern in South-West Tobago, waste management is not limited to disposing of litter and presents special difficulties. Sewage and the growing percentage of hazardous and toxic wastes also form part of the problem. The quality of solid wastes has changed over the last two decades from the dense organic wastes associated with agriculture to less biodegradable wastes produced by industry. It is obvious that this issue is a compounded one with different types of wastes each requiring special handling and disposal treatment. Although South-West Tobago is partially serviced by a central sewerage system, this and other types of rudimentary systems are often plagued by malfunction and disrepair. As such, risk of polluting ground water supply and surface water courses is heightened eventually presenting threats to public health and other resources.

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Conclusion: TOWARDS VISION 2020: MITIGATION & ADAPTATION In the past, built development has resulted in problems of improper disposal of untreated sewage as happened when sewage plants at Milford Court, Bon Accord and Coral Gardens, Buccoo malfunctioned. Hoteliers have also been guilty of inadequate waste treatment facilities which led to pollution of nearby bays and the cutting or clearing of mangroves for development often resulting in increased amounts of freshwater entering the marine environment. Today, the thrust is towards sustainable tourism12 practices. The international competition within the industry is driven by greening standards such as Green Globe and Blue Flag. Within the region, many territories such as Jamaica, St. Lucia, and Barbados are leading the achievements in this arena. In SouthWest Tobago, it appears that the States emphasis is on developing mass tourism even though the area seems better suited to tourism of an eco-tourism or heritage type. The State (THA and Central Government) is determined to continue and encourage the popular thrust of resort tourism supported by a fragile and already damaged natural resources base. Little concern for the carrying capacity and threshold levels of these natural resources is displayed by the State and related agencies. Efforts to establish a Buccoo Reef Management System continue to be retarded despite the long-operating Management Committee. Sporadic species inventories and status reports conducted and issued by the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) and other independent bodies are used merely as reference materials with little implementation of suggested management approaches. Meanwhile other stakeholders like the tour operators, dive shops and related activities, yacht industry, traditional users, and most importantly the fishers (both game and commercial) continue their daily use of the natural resources outside a legal framework for management of the Buccoo Reef/Bon Accord Lagoon Complex. There are at least eleven relevant pieces of legislation governing use and conservation

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of the area, including the Environmental Management Act of 1995 and the National Parks and Wildlife Bills of 1997, however, limited resources (particularly human), lack of inter-agency co-operation, and absence of one explicit governing legislation for management of the marine park facilitate the continued unsustainable use and degradation of these natural resources. Land is one of the most critical resources in any country. The management of land is an important requirement for sustainable development. Many of the issues that affect land development and management impact on economic, financial and environmental sustainability at the national and community levels. The growth of population and of the economy in recent decades has meant that the natural environment is coming under increasing pressure from human activities. The impact of these activities is accelerating, and their deleterious effects are to be found from forest ridge to coral reef. Although Tobagos land resources hold more potential to contribute to economic growth and development than currently expressed, resource-user conflicts and inadequate practices result in poor use of the land. Despite the efforts of the various agencies and government ministries, more needs to be done. The causes of environmental degradation are as many and varied as its manifestations. There are many determinants of the countries environmental status13, but population factors and inadequate property rights, combined with lack of enforcement of existing regulations, are the main causes of environmental degradation in the Caribbean. Tobago is no different. Its natural environment is also characterized by the fragility and small size of ecosystems, and by the high level of inter-connectivity among these ecosystems and their natural functions. This means that activities occurring in one area can have negative environmental impacts on surrounding ecosystems. This is particularly true for environmental changes occurring in upper watershed areas, which can impact negatively on all ecosystems in the lower watershed and coastal

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zones. At the same time, political and administrative factors increase Tobagos susceptibility to risks associated with the impacts of natural disasters. It is clear that vulnerability to climate change impacts raises serious concerns within South-West Tobago. These impacts present various stakeholders, public and private, with an opportunity to develop and implement a comprehensive, sustainable approach to the stewardship of precious resources.

References

1 2

Global Environment Facility GEF and Small Island Developing States, (Washington D.C. 2005) Cox, J. and Embree, C. Sustainable Development in the Caribbean, (1990). 3 46 percent went towards the islands Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 51 percent towards employment. 4 The Ramsar Convention also known as the Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. It was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975, and it is the only global environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem. 5 Caribbean Conservation Association. Management of the Buccoo Reef/Bon Accord Lagoon Complex Trinidad and Tobago. (1994). 6 Department of Natural Resources and the Environment Report. 7 The NPDP became statutory in 1984 to guide national development through to 2000. 8 GoTT/OAS. Planning for Sustainable Development: South-West Tobago Development Strategy. (1996). 9 These impacts constitute the brown agenda and include inadequate water, sanitation, drainage, and solid waste services, poor urban and industrial waste management, and air pollution. 10 This is a phenomenon of urban form where antiquated infrastructural systems are overburdened by exponential population increase thus ultimately having short- and long-term negative impacts on natural resources. 11 Mycoo, M. An Overview of Caribbean urbanisation (1997). 12 Sustainable Tourism is a positive approach intended to reduce the tensions and friction created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, visitors, the environment and the host communities. It is an approach that involves working for the long-term viability and quality of both natural and human resources. It is not antigrowth but it acknowledges that there are limits to growth. 13 Population growth and density, urban population growth, per capita income, inequitable income and land distribution, number of unemployed, land use practices and tenure systems, demand for housing, especially by squatters, sectorial output growth, price-tax-subsidy and natural resource management policies, governments' regulatory, legislative and enforcement capacity, degree of environmental consciousness, and other.