1.1 EXPRESINGS Sugestion / Advices Do you think I ought to call the police?

lice? I advice you to talk with your lawyer. I recommend that you cancel your appointment. I think you better start looking for a new job. What do you advice I pack for the trip?

1.2 Expresings Request / Memohon Please,open the door ! May I borrow your book? Sit down,please !

1.3 Expresings Complaint / Mengeluh I want to complaint about these shoes . Im sorry to say this,but this roomis very dirty . I wish you wouldnt bother us .

1.4 Expresings Possibilities / kemungkinan Is it possible to see Mount Merbabu from here? Theres a good possibility . What possibility is there that theyre still alive?

1.5 Expresings Capabilities / Kesanggupan

I ready to clean this house .

I can break your window and hot wire you car .

I can buy the this luxuriant house .

1.6 Expresings Admit / Pengakuan I admit I was wrong . Youre right and I was wrong . It was my own fault .

1.7 Expresings Promises / Perjanjian . Make me a promise,wont you? I promise you that ill try to be on time next time . I swear that my love is only for you!

1.8 Expresings Blaming / Mistakes It serves you right . I told you but you wouldnt listen . Perhaps thatll teach you a lesson . Its no use crying over spilt milk .

1.9 Expresings Accusing / Tuduhan You have to be responsible for this! Its all because of you ! You are behind all this !

1.10 Expresings Curiousity / Keingintahuan I wonder if can fly to that cloud . I wast just wondering how to do it . I wonder at her rudeness . I wonder how he can come here after what happened .

1.11 Expresings Regret / Penyesalan .

I regret because tearing your book .

Im sorry that you felt insulted .

I regret because have solved your glass.

NARRATIVE TEXT

Narrative is a writing that tell a story. The story can be imaginary or based on a real incident.

Communicative purpose To entertain the reader. Types of narrative text Short story (general,adventurous,humorous,imaginary,fantasy),folklore,legend,fable,myth . The organization of a narrative text The narrative text can have as many paragraphs as you want. However, it has mainly 3 parts,which are the orientation,sequence of events/ complications and the resolution.

Orientation Present the settings of your story and introduce the characters involved . Complications The story continues here, which is the body. Usually, there will be an event, or a Sequence of events / complications that lead the characters into a complication ( some from of conflict that disrupts the normal event). Tension starts to build up to a climax and this draws anticipation in the reader . Resulotion The story starts to get resolved and everything usually comes to a happy end. Sometimes, there may be a surprising twist of events that the reader hardly expects, while at the other times, the resolution is left for the reader to decide.

EXAMPLE : The Hare and The Tortoise

One morning, Hare hopped down to the lake, to rest in the warm sunshine. Other animals were already there. Fox was lying on the rocks, cleaning her soft sandy coat, and Tortoise was munching the sweet grass near the waters edge. Hare stopped and watched them for a while. Soon Fox yawned and drifted off to sleep, but Tortoise carried on waddling around slowly, her little pink tongue pulling in each mouthful of grass. Hare flicked his long ears and hopped over to her. Tortoise stopped chewing, and stared up at him. You look funny when you eat, laughed Hare. Your feet are short and stumpy, and you move so slowly. No wonder you spend so much time eating it takes you forever to get enough grass. Tortoise just stared at him, and then started chewing again. Hare was annoyed. He wanted everyone to talk to him. He drummed one of his big feet on the ground. Im the fastest animal, he shouted. When I run at full speed, no-one can beat me. He looked across at Fox, who was awake again and watching carefully. I challenge anyone to a race, said Hare, flicking his ears proudly. No one answered. Then Tortoise swallowed her mouthful of grass. I accept, she said. Even if you are as fast as the wind, I can still beat you in a race. Hare laughed loudly. I accept the challenge, he said. Tortoise suggested that Fox should choose when they would race, where they would start and the finish point. Fox thought it was all very amusing, and suggested the day after tomorrow as race day. When the time came, the Hare and the Tortoise lined up at the flat rock, which was Foxs designated starting point. He told them they should go round the edge of the lake and the first one past the old fallen tree would be declared the winner. The race began. Hare bounded off at top speed and soon rounded a bend and was out of sight. Tortoise moved at a slow, steady pace never stopping to rest or eat. Running by the side of the lake, Hare felt the warm sun on his back and slowed a little. Then he stopped. Umm, he said, stretching. Itll take Tortoise forever to catch up. Ive got time for a nap. And he burrowed into the grass and dozed off. Tortoise plodded and shuffled on, round the bend, past the sleeping Hare and on towards the finish point. By now the sun was low over the lake and evening was coming. Hare stirred as he felt the temperature drop, then remembering the race, he leaped up and hopped off again. In the distance he saw Fox and the other animals gathered near the fallen tree finish point. Good. Theyre waiting to cheer me when I win, he laughed as he ran. Then he saw Tortoise on a grassy mound right next to the tree. Fox was talking to her. Hare bounded up as quickly as he could. He couldnt believe he had lost. Fox nodded to him and asked everyone to be quiet. Then he congratulated Tortoise on winning the race. Tortoise was tired, and drifted off to sleep.

Some of the other animals crowded round Hare to ask him what happened. He should have won, shouldnt he? His legs were much longer than tortoises and hed won other races in the past. Hare was angry with himself and felt very silly.

EXPLANATION TEXT

Explanation is a non-narrative text type which gives straightforward information. They explain process, example; Why volcano eruption occurs, How and why something works or How something is being carried out, How to prevent bone fracture during old age.

Communicative purpose To enable the reader to understand the processs that is being explained.

Types of explanation text Reports about natural phenomena, text book, article on scientific inventions,documentaries films.

The organization of an explanation text An explanation text can have as many paragraphs as you want. However, it has mainly 2 parts, which are the general statement and explanation.

General statement Begin the topic with a general statement about the subject is going to be explained. Explanation The supporting paragraphs are known as explanation sequence. The explanation statements are in chronological order to illustrate how or why the subject came into existence or how it works.

EXAMPLE:

The effects of acid soil

Soils with a pH of less than 7.0 are acid. The lower the pH, the more acid the soil. When soil pH falls below 5.5, plant growth is affected. Crop yields decrease, reducing productivity Soils provide water and nutrients for plant growth and development. Essential plant nutrients include phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium and sulfur. Plants require other elements such as molybdenum, in smaller quantities. Some elements eg aluminium and manganese, are toxic to plants. Nutrients become available to plants when they are dissolved in water. Plants are able to take up phosphate, nitrate, potassium and sulfate ions in solution. The solubility of nitients changes with pH. In acid soils (low pH), molybdenum becomes less soluble and aluminium becomes more soluble. Therefore, plant growth may be affected by either a deficiency of molybdenum or too much aluminium. Both crop and pasture plants are affected by acid soils. there may be a range of symptoms. Crops and pastures may be poorly established resulting in patchy and uneven growth. Plant leaves may go yellow and die at the tips. The root system of the plant may be stunted. Crops may yield less. Plants vary in their sensitivity to low pH. Canola and lucerne are very sensitive to acid soils so do not grow well. Lupins and triticale are tolerant to soils of low pH so they still perform well. Land can become unproductive if acid soil is left untreated. Incorporating lime into the soil raises the pH. Therefore, liming soil can reverse the effects of acid soil on plants and return a paddock to productivity

DISCUSSION TEXT

Discussion text explores both sides of an issue. The writer tries to present the pros and cons of an issue or the advantages and disadvantages of a particular issue to allow the reader to reach a logical conclusion. The writer should always try to give an impersonal and balanced view in Discussion text.

Communicative purpose To present arguments/ opinions/ information from different points of view.

Types of discussion text Discussion text consists of 4 main parts, which are issue, argument for, argument against, and conclusion.

Isuue Introduces topic and preview the arguments that rest of paragraphs expand upon. Arguments for Arguments for is a positive or in agreement with the issue. Each statement stage consists of a point and elaboration. A point is made and elaborated. In other words, the writer discusses each point, giving a detailed information or evidence to support the point. Arguments against Arguments against is a negative or disagreement" with the issue. Each argument stage consists of a point and elaboration. A point is made and elaborated. In other words, the writer discusses each point giving a detailed information or evidence to support the point. Conclusion or recommendation The closing is a brief summing up of the issue explored or the writer offers his own opinion.

EXAMPLE:

The advantages and Disadvantages of Distance Learning A few years ago, distance learning was seen as an inferior way but nowadays even famous and established traditional colleges and universities are providing distance learning courses and it is generally considered a way to improve ones life. However, people still argue whether distance learning give more advantage or disadvantage. Some of them who see the benefit of distance learning will say that distance learning needs no commuting. Of course it saves money and time that students would take. Furthermore, distance learning can be done at any students convenience. Mostly of the classes of distance learning are asynchronous. It means that students do not have to attend a lecture at a fixed particular time and place. Students can review the assignments and do their homework during off-hours or from home. Additionally, distance learning gives more accessibility. No one can deny it. People with limited mobility may encounter the problem when they take traditional class. With the online class system, the problem is absent. Despite the many advantages, the other people will see that distance learning is costly and needs complex technology. To attend online learning, student must have a computer with possibly access to the internet. Admitted or not, such technology devices are not always available for common students. Another disadvantage of distance learning is that it does not provide immediate feedback. Unlikely traditional classroom, students have to wait for the feedback and comment until the instructor has review the works and sent response to them. Most of the time students will study alone. Distance learners may feel isolated or miss that social physical interaction that comes with attending a traditional classroom Regarding the individuals learning style, some students are able to learn when there is a live interaction between them and the available of accompanying teacher while others dont really need it. So before deciding a choice of attending distance learning or not, each student needs to do a fair analysis regarding the kind of person he/she is.

3.1 Passive Voice

Ada dua bentuk voice dalam bahasa Inggris, active voice dan passive voice. Active voice menunjukkan apa yang dilakukan oleh subjek, contoh:

The secretary wrote a letter (Sekretaris menulis sebuah surat)

Passive voice menunjukkan apa yang dilakukan terhadap subjek. Contoh:

The letter was written by the secretary (Surat ditulis oleh sekreatir)

Bentuk Kalimat pasif dibuat dengan kata kerja to be dan kata kerja bentuk ke-3. Berikut beberapa tenses bahasa Inggris utama yang digunakan dalam passive voice. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TENSE The simple present tense The present continous tense The present perfect tense The simple past tense The past continous tense The past perfect tense The simple future tense The future continous tense AKTIF V1(V+S/es) Am/is/are+Ving Have/has+V3 V2 Was/were+Ving Had+V3 Shall/will+V1 Shall/will be+Ving PASIF Am/is/are+V3 Am/is/are being+V3 Have/has been+V3 Was/were+V3 Was/were being+V3 Had been +V3 Shall/will be+V3 Shall/will be being+V3

EXAMPLE:
Tenses Subject Verb to be Verb III

Simple present: Present continuous: Simple past: Past continuous: Present perfect: Past perfect: Future: Future continuous: Present conditional: Past conditional:

Flowers are Flowers are being Flowers were Flowers were being Flowers have been Flowers had been Flowers will be Flowers will be being Flowers would be Flowers would have been

planted every year planted now. planted last year planted last summer. planted here for 10 years. planted until last year. planted next year. planted during the summer. planted if we had seeds. planted if we had had seeds.

Berdasarkan keenam poin di atas maka passive voice mengikuti pola sebagai berikut: Subject + be + Verb3 + by + Object + modifier
Pola active dan passive voice pada tiap tensis

a. Jika active voice dalam simple present tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah is, am atau are. Contoh:

Active : He meets them everyday. Passive : They are met by him everyday. Active : She waters this plant every two days. Passive : This plant is watered by her every two days.

b. Jika active voice dalam simple past tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah was atau were Contoh:

Active : He met them yesterday Passive : They were met by him yesterday Active : She watered this plant this morning Passive : This plant was watered by her this morning

c. Jika active voice dalam present perfect tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary has atau have, sehingga menjadi has been atau have been Contoh:

Active : He has met them

Passive : They have been met by him Active : She has watered this plant for 5 minutes. Passive : This plant has been watered by her for 5 minutes.

d. Jika active voice dalam past perfect tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary had, sehingga menjadi had been Contoh:

Active : He had met them before I came. Passive : They had been met by him before I came. Active : She had watered this plant for 5 minutes when I got here Passive : This plant had been watered by her for 5 minutes when I got here

e. Jika active voice dalam simple future tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah be Contoh:

Active : He will meet them tomorrow. Passive : They will be met by him tomorrow. Active : She will water this plant this afternoon. Passive : This plant will be watered by her this afternoon. Active : The farmers are going to harvest the crops next week Passive : The crops are going to be harvested by the farmers next week.

f. Jika active voice dalam future perfect tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary will have, sehingga menjadi will have been Contoh:

Active : He will have met them before I get there tomorrow. Passive : They will have been met by him before I get there tomorrow. Active : She will have watered this plant before I get here this afternoon. Passive : This plant will have been watered by her before I get here this afternoon.

g. Jika active voice dalam past future perfect tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary would have, sehingga menjadi would have been. Contoh:

Active : He would have met them. Passive : They would have been met by him. Active : She would have watered this plant. Passive : This plant would have been watered by her.

h. Jika active voice dalam present continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah (is, am atau are) + being. Contoh:

Active : He is meeting them now. Passive : They are being met by him now. Active : She is watering this plant now. Passive : This plant is being watered by her now.

i. Jika active voice dalam past continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah (was atau were) + being. Contoh:

Active : He was meeting them. Passive : They were being met by him. Active : She was watering this plant. Passive : This plant was being watered by her.

j. Jika active voice dalam perfect continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah (has/have) been + being. Contoh:

Active : He has been meeting them. Passive : They have been being met by him. Active : She has been watering this plant. Passive : This plant has been being watered by her.

k. Jika active voice dalam past perfect continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah had been + being. Contoh:

Active : He had been meeting them. Passive : They had been being met by him. Active : She had been watering this plant. Passive : This plant had been being watered by her.

l. Jika active voice dalam future continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah will be + being. Contoh:

Active : He will be meeting them. Passive : They will be being met by him.

Active : She will be watering this plant. Passive : This plant will be being watered by her.

m. Jika active voice dalam past future continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah would be + being. Contoh:

Active : He would be meeting them. Passive : They would be being met by him. Active : She would be watering this plant. Passive : This plant would be being watered by her.

n. Jika active voice dalam future perfect continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah will have been + being. Contoh:

Active : He will have been meeting them. Passive : They will have been being met by him. Active : She will have been watering this plant. Passive : This plant will have been being watered by her.

o. Jika active voice dalam past future perfect continuous tense, maka be passive voice-nya adalah would have been + being. Contoh:

Active : He would be meeting them. Passive : They would be being met by him. Active : She would be watering this plant. Passive : This plant would be being watered by her.

By Untuk menyatakan apa penyebab sebuah tindakan pasif, kita bisa menggunakan by. Contoh:

This photo was taken by my friend. I was given this by my brother.

Seringkali tidak diperlukan untuk menyatakan penyebab tindakan pasif, khususnya jika dipahami dengan jelas atau tidak relevan. Sebagai contoh:

The meeting was cancelled (pertemuan itu dibatalkan). (Informasi penting yang ingin disampaikan adalah pembatalan pertemuan, bukan siapa yang membatalkannya.)

These boots were made in Italy (sepatu-sepatu boot ini dibuat di Italia). (Informasi yang penting dalam kalimat ini adalah bahwa sepatu-sepatu tersebut dibuat di Italia, bukan siapa yang membuatnya).

Born Ketika berbicara tentang kelahiran orang tertentu atau suatu peristiwa, kita menggunakan bentuk pasif to be born. Contoh:

I was born in Iran. The twins were born just last year.

Get Get bisa digunakan menggantikan to be pada situasi dimana sesuatu terjadi. Contoh: - Our flight got cancelled = Our flight was cancelled. - I got paid today = I was paid today. Get tidak bisa digunakan pada situasi-situasi umum dan apabila bersama dengan kata kerja yang menyatakan keadaan (bukan tindakan). Contoh: - He is liked by a lot of people. Benar - He gets liked by a lot of people. Tidak benar - She is known to be a hard-working employee. Benar - She gets known to be a hard-working employee.- Tidak benar Get digunakan lebih sering dalam bahasa Inggris informal.

Use of Passive
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. Example: My bike was stolen. In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows: Example: A mistake was made. In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

 Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) Example: A letter was written. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive
Subject Active: Rita Simple Present Passive: A letter Active: Rita Simple Past Passive: A letter Active: Rita Present Perfect Passive: A letter Active: Rita Future I Passive: A letter Active: Rita Hilfsverben Passive: A letter Tense Verb writes is written wrote was written has written has been written will write will be written can write can be written Object a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita.

Examples of Passive :
Subject Active: Rita Present Progressive Passive: A letter Active: Rita Past Progressive Passive: A letter Active: Rita Past Perfect Passive: A letter Active: Rita Future II Passive: A letter Active: Rita Conditional I Passive: A letter Active: Rita Conditional II Passive: A letter Tense Verb is writing is being written was writing was being written had written had been written will have written will have been written would write would be written would have written would have been written Object a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita. a letter. by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject Rita A letter I Verb Wrote was written was written Object 1 a letter to me a letter Object 2 to me. by Rita. by Rita.

Active: Passive: Passive: .

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. Thats why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive. Example: They build houses. Houses are built. Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive. Example: he says it is said

3.2 Adjective clause

Adjective Clause dinamakan juga RELATIVE CLAUSE yaitu Clause (anak kalimat) yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adjective yang menerangkan keadaan noun atau pronoun. Untuk lebih jelasnya penjelasan mengenai Adjective Clause, perhatikan penjelasan di bawah ini: Contoh:

I have read the book (that) you just mentioned. Main Clause: I have read the book. Subordinate Clause: (that) you just mentioned.

Anak kalimat menerangkan kata benda the book, disebut dengan Adjective Clause

The lesson (that) she is learning is very difficult.

Main Clause: The lesson is very difficult. Subordinate Clause: (that) she is learning. Berdasarkan pada the Antecedent yang ditunjuk oleh introductory words (kata-kata pendahulunya), Adjective Clause dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 2 macam, yaitu: 1. Relative Pronoun

Kata Ganti Orang Kata Penghubung yang digunakan adalah : Who, Whom, Whose, That Fungsi : a. Subjek: - He paid the money to the man who / that had done the work b. Objek Kata Kerja: - He paid the man whom/that he had hired. c. Objek Kata Depan: - He paid the man from whom he had borrowed the money. d. Kata Ganti Kepunyaan: - This is the girl whose picture you saw.

Benda, Binatang Kata Penghubung yang digunakan adalah: Which, that Fungsi: a. Subjek: - Here is a book which/that describes animals. b. Objek Kata Kerja: - The chair which/that he broke is being repaired. c. Objek Kata Depan: - She was wearing the coat for which she had paid $2,00.

2. Relative Adverbs

Waktu Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: when

- This is the year when the Olympic Games are held.

Tempat Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: where - Here is the house where I live.

Alasan Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: when - Give me one good reason why you did that.

1. Relative Pronoun Yaitu Adjective Clause dengan memakai kata penghubung Relative Pronoun.

The boy is called Bob. He gave me a present. o The boy who gave me a present is called Bob. atau o The boy who is called Bob gave me a present.

Beberapa contoh Adjective Clause lainnya:

The boy whose radio was stolen is a student. The girl whom I gave a special reward is a bright student. The bike which I borrowed last week was sold.

2. Relative Adverb Pelajaran tentang ini dibahas lebih lengkap pada Relative Clause. Hal-hal yang perlu ditambahkan di sini, yaitu:

Kata Why (yang menunjukkan alasan) yang menjadi Adverb penghubung, mungkin (kadang-kadang) dapat digantikan dengan that atau kadang-kadang dapat dihilangkan dalam kalimat. - The reason (that) I came should be obvious to you. - The reason (why) I came should be obvious to you. - The reason I came should be obvious to you.

When atau Where Bering dapat Baling ditukarkan dengan Preposition yang menunjukkan tempat (a preposition of Place) ditambah dengan Which. - The small town in which (= where) I was born has grown to a large metropolis. - The day on which (= when) they were to leave finally arrived.

Kadang-kadang that dapat menggantikan where atau when.

The day that (or when, on which) the trial was to take place was a stormy one.

Please suggest a good place that (or where) we can meet

Beberapa Hal Penting yang Berkaitan dengan Adjective Clause

Perubahan dari Adjective Clause menjadi Adjective Phrase.

o o o

Adjective Clause dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase yang menjelaskan noun tanpa ada perubahan arti kalimat. Hanya Adjective Clause yang mempunyai subjek pronoun: who, which atau that yang dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase. Adjective Clause dengan subjek: whom tidak dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase. Perhatikan Contoh berikut: a. Adjective Clause * The girl who is sitting next to me is Lisa. ==> The boy is playing the piano is Bent. b. Adjective Phrase * The girl sitting next to me is Lisa. ==> The boy playing the piano is Bent.

Cara mengubah Adjective Clause menjadi Adjective Phrase. (1) Subjek pronoun dan verb be dihilangkan. * Adjective Clause: The man who is talking to Taylor is from Japan. * Adjective Phrase: The man talking to Taylor is from Japan. * Adjective Clause: The ideas which are presented in that book are interesting. * Adjective Phrase: The ideas presented in that book are interesting. * Adjective Clause: Ali is the man who is responsible for preparing the budget. * Adjective Phrase: Ali is the man responsible for preparing the budget. * Adjective Clause: The books that are on the shelf are mine. * Adjective Phrase: The books on the shelf are mine. (2) Jika tidak ada verb be dalam Adjective Clause, seringkali subjek pronoun dapat dihilangkan dan mengubah kata kerja dalam Clause itu menjadi bentuk -ing. * Adjective Clause: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters. * Adjective Phrase: English has an alphabet consisting of 26 letters. * Adjective Clause: Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome. * Adjective Phrase: Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.

Seringkali Adjective Clause digunakan dalam pola: noun + of which. Pola ini terutama digunakan untuk tulisan bahasa Inggris resmi (formal written English). Dalam pola ini biasanya Adjective Clause menerangkan "sesuatu".

* We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay. o We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay. o We toured a 300-year-old house. The exterior of the house consisted of logs cemented with clay. o We toured a 300-year-old house, the exterior of which consisted of logs cemented with lay.

Adjective Clause sering digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kuantitas dengan of. Ungkapan kuantitas mendahului pronoun, dan hanya whom, which, dan whose yang digunakan dalam pola ini. Ungkapan kuantitas dengan "of" antara lain: some of, none of, both of, one of, many of, two of, all of, each of, most of, dll. * There are 20 students in my class. Most of them are from the Outside Java. --> There are 20 students in my class, most of whom are from the Outside Java. * He gave several reasons. Only a few of them were valid. --> He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

Tanda Baca pada Adjective Clauses Pedoman umum dalam Tanda Baca pada Adjective Clauses yaitu:
o o

Jangan menggunakan tanda koma bila Adjective Clause diperlukan untuk mengidentifikasi noun yang dijelaskan olehnya. Gunakanlah tanda koma bila Adjective Clause hanya berfungsi untuk memberi informasi tambahan dan tidak dimaksudkan untuk mengidentifikasi noun yang dijelaskan olehnya. Henry whose wife works at a bank came to my house yesterday. Alex, whose wife works at a bank, came to my house yesterday.

Keterangan: Contoh pertama menggambarkan bahwa Henry memiliki lebih dari 1 istri. Pada kalimat tersebut pembicara ingin mengindentifikasikan istrinya yang bekerja di Bank, bukan yang lainnya. Sedangkan pada kalimat kedua, kita sudah jelas, kalau Alex memiliki hanya 1 orang istri. Frase yang berada di antara koma hanya memberikan keterangan tambahan saja. Tanpa frase tersebut pun orang lain sudah mengetahuinya kalau istrinya Alex memang bekerja di sebuah Bank karena memang istrinya cuma 1 itu. Perhatikan contoh berikut ini untuk lebih jelasnya dalam penggunaan tanda koma dalam Adjective Clause.

Soekarno, who is the first President of Republic of Indonesia, could deliver speech well.

Perbedaan antara Adjective Clause dan Noun Clause Karena adanya kesamaan dalam beberapa kata pendahulunya, maka kadang-kadang antara Noun Clause dan Adjective Clause sering membingungkan. Ada 2 macam perbedaan yang penting antara dua jenis Clause tersebut: perhatikan contoh berikut ini:

Adjective Clause biasanya didahului oleh noun atau pronoun yang diterangkan. Adjective Clause
o

I know the house where he lives.

(where he lives mempunyai antecedent the house, yang merupakan objek dari kata know) Noun Clause
o

I know where he lives.

(where he lives adalah objek dari kata know) Preposisi yang mendahului introductory word adalah milik Adjective Clause dan bukan milik Noun Clause. Adjective Clause

The woman to whom he has been giving money is a poor relative of his.

(Adjective Clause dimulai dengan to yang merupakan bentuk a prepositional phrase dengan whom dalam Adjective Clause itu. Dan To dapat diletakkan di bagian belakang Adjective Clause. The woman, whom he has been giving money to, is a poor relative of his).

Noun Clause

He gives money to whoever needs it. (The Noun Clause dimulai dengan whoever, seluruh Noun Clause itu adalah objek dari to, yang tidak dapat dipindah letaknya. Dan juga -ever- merupakan bentuk yang hanya bergandeng (mengikuti) dengan Noun Clause.

Adjective clause Clause ini digunakan untuk memberi keterangan, identitas, dan informasi lain kepada katabenda(Ante ce de nt). Dalam struktur Adjective Clause ditandai dengan Relative Pronoun, yaitu: who, whom, whose, which, when, where, why, dan that.

Who digunakan untuk orang dalam posisi subjek (human as subject). Whom digunakan untuk orang dalam posisi objek (human as object). Whose digunakan untuk kepemilikan Which digunakan untuk benda, baik dalam posisi subjek atau objek (non-human as subject/object). That digunakan sebagai subtitusi who, whom, atau which. digunakan untuk kepemilikan. When digunakan untuk waktu. Why digunakan untuk sebab. Contoh : My English teacher is the manwho Is standing near the pillar. The housewher e I live is being rdwvated. Adjective clause dibagi menjadi dua macam, yaitu: 1. Important (defining) adjective clause, yaitu adjective clause yang merupakan informasi penting bagiante ce de nt. 2. Unimportant (undefining) adjective clause, yaitu adjective clause yang merupakan informasi yang tidak penting bagiante ce de nt . Contoh : Important Bob's brother that (who) lives in New York is an actor. Meaning

Bob has more than one brother. Unimportant Bob's brother,who lives in New York is an actor. Meaning Bob has only one brother. Catatan : Dalam important adjective clause, relative pronoun, seperti: who, whom, which dapat digantikan dengant ha t; sedangkan dalam unimportant adjective clause tidak

Adjective: bentuk -ed/-ing

Banyak adjective yang bisa berakhiran dengan -ed atau -ing. Contoh: - Im excited about tomorrow. - This is an exciting book. Apabila adjective berakhiran dengan -ed, maka adjective tersebut menunjukkan perasaan tentang sesuatu. Contoh:

Im interested in modern art. (Ini merupakan perasaan pribadi si pembicara) I was really bored yesterday.

Apabila adjective berakhiran dengan -ing, maka adjective tersebut menunjukkan perasaan yang dihasilkan sesuatu. Contoh:

Modern art is interesting. (Modern art tidak bisa merasakan, tetapi membuat pembicara (I) merasa tertarik). The news was shocking. (The news memberikan kita perasaan shocking/kag.

3.3 Conditional Sentence

Conditional (Kalimat Pengandaian) menjelaskan bahwa sebuah kegiatan bertentangan dengan kegiatan yang lain. Conditional yang paling umum adalah Real Conditonal dan Unreal Conditonal, kadang-kadang disebut juga if-clauses. Real Conditional (sering juga disebut juga dengan Conditional Tipe I) yang menggambarkan tentang mengandai-andai sesuai dengan fakta. Unreal Conditional (sering juga disebut sebagai Conditional Tipe menggambarkan tentang pengandaian yang tidak nyata atau berimajinasi. II) yang

Ada juga Conditional yang ke-3 yang sering disebut dengan Conditional Tipe III, digunakan sebagai penyesalan yang terjadi di masa lampau dan zero conditional, digunakan untuk mengekspresikan sesuatu yang sudah pasti benar. Catatan: Jika klausa "if" diletakkan di awal kalimat, kita harus menggunakan koma. Sebaliknya jika klausa "if" berada di belakang, maka tidak perlu ada koma Zero Conditional Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan kebenaran umum. Tense yang digunakan biasanya Present Simple Tense Rumus (Klausa IF) If you heat water to 100C, Atau (Induk Kalimat) Water boils Contoh: If you drop an apple, it falls. = An apple falls, if you drop it. If you don't do your homework, I will be disappointed. = I will be disappointed, if you don't do your homework. (Klausa IF) if you heat it to 100C, (Induk Kalimat) it boils.

Catatan: Pada tipe ini, if sering digantikan dengan "when" Conditional I Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan pengandaian yang dibuat berdasarkan fakta di masa sekarang atau masa yang akan datang dan pengandaian ini bisa saja terjadi. Klausa if biasanya dalam bentuk Present Simple Tense. Rumus (Klausa IF) If I see you tomorrow, If+simple present,future tense(S+Will/shall) Atau (Induk Kalimat) I will buy you a drink (Klausa IF) if I see you tomorrow. (Induk Kalimat) I will buy you a drink.

Kita sering menggunakan unless yang artinya 'jika... tidak.

Rumus (Klausa IF) Unless you hand in your homework, Artinya If you don't hand in your homework, Atau (Induk Kalimat) I won't mark your homework Artinya I won't mark your homework if you don't hand it in. (Klausa IF) unless you hand it in. I won't mark it. (Induk Kalimat) I won't mark it.

Catatan: Kita tidak pernah menggunakan will, atau won't dalam Klausa IF. Contoh: If I have time today, I will phone my friend. = I will phone my friend, if I have time today. If I go to England, I will buy some Cheddar cheese. = I will buy some Cheddar cheese, if I go to England.

Conditional Tipe II Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan situasi yang tidak nyata di masa sekarang atau masa yang akan datang. Tipe ini digunakan untuk mengekspresikan sebuah harapan. Tenses yang digunakan dalam klausa IF adalah Past Simple Tense. Rumus (Klausa IF) If I won the lottery, If+simple past,past future tense(S+would/should) (Induk Kalimat) I would buy a new house.

Atau (Induk Kalimat) I would buy a new house (Klausa IF) if I won the lottery.

Catatan: Jangan gunakan would atau wouldn't dalam Klausa IF. Contoh: If I were you, I wouldn't do that. = I wouldn't do that, if I were you. If I had more time, I would do more on my websites. = I would do more on my websites, if I had more time.

Conditional Tipe III Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan sebuah kondisi di masa yang lampau yang tidak mungkin akan terjadi lagi. Sering digunakan untuk mengkritik atau penyesalan. Tenses yang digunakan dalam Klausa IF adalah Past Perfect Tense. Rumus (Klausa IF) If I had worked harder, If I had worked harder, If I had worked harder, If+past perfect,past future perfect(s+would/had+have+V3) Atau (Induk Kalimat) I would have passed my exam I could have passed my exam I should have passed my exam (Klausa IF) if I had worked harder. if I had worked harder. if I had worked harder. (Induk Kalimat) I would have passed my exam. I could have passed my exam. I should have passed my exam.

Catatan: Jangan gunakan would have atau wouldn't have, dll dalam Klausa IF. Contoh: If I hadn't helped you, you would have failed. = You would have failed, if I hadn't helped you. If it had been sunny, we could have gone out. = We could have gone out, if it had been.

BENTUK UMUM adjective clause : MAIN CLAUSE + IF CLAUSE DI MANA : Main clause selalu mempunyai modal auxiliary If clause selalu berupa : simple present, simple past, atau past perfect 1. conditional sentences type 1 : true in the present or future S + MODAL V1 + V1 . . IF + S + V1 ATAU TO BE V1 FACT : Mengubah kata if dengan on condition that, provided, atau unless

contoh : conditional : I may study in university if i graduate from senior high school fact : i may study in university on condition that i graduate from senior high school 2. conditional sentences type 2 : untrue in the present S + MODAL V2 + V2 . . IF + S + V2 ATAU TO BE V2 FACT : 1. Ubah kata if menjadi because 2. Ubah tense menjadi simple present dan hilangkan modal 3. Ubah kalimat negatif menjadi positif dan sebaliknya contoh : conditional : I might study in university if i graduated from senior high school fact : I don't study in university because i don't graduate from senior high school

3. conditional sentences type 3 : untrue in the past S + MODAL V2 + HAVE + V3 . . IF + S + HAD + V3 ATAU HAD BEEN FACT : 1. Ubah kata if menjadi because 2. Ubah tense menjadi simple present dan hilangkan modal 3. Ubah kalimat negatif menjadi positif dan sebaliknya contoh : conditional : I might have studied in university if i had graduated from senior high school fact : I didn't study in university because i didn't graduate from senior high school

3.4 Causative Verb - get / have / let / make

Causative verb menunjukkan bahwa seseorang/sesuatu secara tidak langsung bertanggung jawab terhadap sebuah tindakan. Subjek tidak melakukan tindakan itu sendiri, tetapi justru menyebabkan seseorang/sesuatu yang lain melakukannya. Contoh: - Yesterday I had my hair cut. Pembicara pada kalimat diatas tidak memotong sendiri rambutnya, tetapi justru membuat orang lain melakukannya - Saya menyebabkan mereka memotong rambut saya.

Have Have merupakan causative verb yang umum. Ketimbang melakukan sesuatu dengan diri kita sendiri, kita menyuruh orang yang lain untuk melakukannya. Bentuknya sebagai berikut: Kata kerja to have + objek + past participle (verb 3). Contoh: - I had my jacket cleaned yesterday. - Did you have your computer fixed? Terkadang kita menggunakan have sebagai causative verb ketika kita ingin melakukan tindakan oleh diri kita sendiri. Contoh: - When will the report be ready? Ill do it by tomorrow morning. >> - When will the report be ready? Ill have it done by tomorrow morning. Dengan menggunakan causative, kalimat ke-dua diatas mengalihkan perhatian dari pelaku tindakan, dan lebih memberikan perhatian kepada tindakan yang sedang dilakukan. Ini kedengaran sopan dan profesional. Construction Chart: Use 1 Subject + Have + Person + Base Form of Verb Examples: They had John arrive early. She had her children cook dinner for her. Construction Chart: Use 2 Subject + Have + Object + Past Participle Examples: I had my hair cut last Saturday. She had the car washed at the weekend.

Get Get sering digunakan ketimbang have. Contoh:

I got my computer fixed - I had my computer fixed. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama. I got my jacket cleaned. - I had my jacket cleaned. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.

Causative verbs sering digunakan bersama dengan pengalaman-pengalaman negatif. Pada situasi-situasi ini lebih umum menggunakan have. Contoh:

I had my wallet stolen. (Saya sebenarnya tidak menyebabkan dompet saya dicuri - seseorang mencuri dompet saya dariku) She had her window smashed.

Let Let digunakan untuk membolehkan seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah let + orang + verb. Contoh:

John let me drive his new car. Will your parents let you go to the party? I dont know if my boss will let me take the day off.

Make Make digunakan untuk memaksa seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah make + orang + verb. Contoh:

My teacher made me apologize for what I had said. Did somebody make you wear that ugly hat? She made her children do their homework.

Construction Chart Subject + Make + Person + Base Form of Verb Examples: Peter made her do her homework. The teacher made the students stay after class.

3.5 UNREAL PAST

The past tense is sometimes used in English to refer to an 'unreal' situation. So, although the tense is the past, we are usually talking about the present, e.g. in a Type 2 conditional sentence: If an elephant and a mousefell in love, they would have many problems. Althoughfell is in the past tense, we are talking about a hypothetical situation that might exist now or at any time, but we arenot referring to the past. We call this use the unreal past. Other situations where this occurs are: after other words and expressions like'if ' (supposing, if only, what if); after the verb'to wish'; after the expression'I'd rather.. ' Expressions like'if'

The following expressions can be used to introduce hypothetical situations: - supposing, if only, what if. They are followed by a past tense to indicate that the condition they introduce is unreal:

 Supposing an elephant and a mousefell in love? (= but we know this is unlikely or impossible) What if wepainted the room purple? (= that would be very surprising) If only I had more money. (= but I haven't). These expressions can also introduce hypothetical situations in the past and then they are followed by the past perfect. Examples: If only I hadn't kissed the frog (= I did and it was a mistake because he turned into a horrible prince, but I can't change it now.) What if the elephant had trodden on the mouse? (She didn't, but we can imagine the result!) Supposing I had given that man my money! (I didn't, so I've still got my money now.) The verb to wish The verb to wish is followed by an 'unreal' past tense when we want to talk about situations in the present that we are not happy about but cannot change: I wish Ihad more money (=but I haven't) She wishes shewas beautiful (= but she's not) We wish wecould come to your party (but we can't) When we want to talk about situations in the past that we are not happy about or actions that we regret, we use the verb to wish followed by the past perfect: I wish I hadn't said that (= but I did) He wishes he hadn't bought the car (= but he did buy it.) I wish I had taken that job in New York (= but I didn't, so I'm stuck in Bristol)

NOTE: When we want to talk about situations we are not happy about and where we want someone else to change them, we use to wish followed by would + infinitive: I wish he would stop smoking. (= I don't like it, I wanthim to change it) I wish you would go away. (= I don't want you here, I wantyou to take some action) I wish you wouldn't squeeze the toothpaste from the middle! (= I want you to change your habits.)

I'd ratherand it's time These two expressions are also followed by an unreal past. The verb is in the past tense, but the situation is in the present. When we want to talk about a course of action we would prefer someone else to take, we useI' d rather + past tense: I'd rather youwent He'd rather you called the police I'd rather youdi dn't hunt elephants. NOTE: the stress can be important in these sentences, to show what our preference is: I'd ratheryou went = not me, I'd rather youwent = don't stay He'd ratheryou called the police = he doesn't want to He'd rather you called thepo lice = not the ambulance service Similarly, when we want to say thatnow is a suitable moment to do something, either for ourselves or for someone else, we use it's time + past tense: It's (high) time Iwent. It's time youpaid that bill.

:: Unreal Tenses and Subjunctives ::

Part 1 It's time

1 It's time, It's high time These are followed by past simple or continuous, though the time referred to is unreal. It's time we left. It's high time I was/were going.

Was or were

As in conditional sentences, were can be used for all persons of be, though was is more common in everyday speech.

Wishes

1 Present These are wishes where you want to change a present state. I wish I had a motorbike. (I don't have one now.) I wish you weren't leaving. (You are leaving.) I wish I was going on holiday with you. (I am not going.)

2 Would and could If the verb is an event verb, the reference is to the future. We use would or could after wish. Would here means 'decided to'. I wish you would leave. I wish I could come on holiday with you next year. The use with would is often used to describe an annoying habit. I wish you wouldn't make such a mess.

3 Past These are wishes referring to a past event, which cannot be changed. I wish I hadn't eaten so much. 4 Hope Wishes about simple future events are expressed with hope. I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow. I hope he'll stop talking soon!

I'd rather/I prefer (followed by a clause) 1 I'd rather is followed by past tenses in the same way as wishes about the present. It expresses a personal preference about actions. I'd rather you didn't smoke in here. I'd sooner works in the same way. Both I'd rather and I'd sooner are used with normal tenses when comparing nouns or phrases. I'd rather be a sailor than a soldier. (present) I'd rather have lived in Ancient Greece than Ancient Rome. (past)

2 I'd prefer can be used as part of a conditional sentence. Note that 'prefer' in this type of sentence has an object 'it'. I'd prefer it if you didn't go. I'd prefer is not followed by an unreal tense. I'd prefer tea to coffee. I'd prefer you not to go. Part 2

As if, As though 1 Real and unreal The tense here depends on whether the comparison is true or unreal. He acts as if he were in charge. (He isn't in charge.) He acts as if he is in charge. (He is in charge.) The difference is clearer with obviously unreal comparisons. You look as if you had just seen a ghost! In everyday speech, there is often no obvious difference made. 2 Present and past reference are both possible. I feel as if I were flying. (I'm not.) I feel as if an express train had hit me. (It didn't.)

Suppose and imagine 1 Understood conditions The conditional part of these sentences is often understood but not stated. Imagine we won the pools!(Imagine what we would do if...) Suppose someone told you that I was a spy! (What would you say?) As with conditional sentences, if the event referred to is a real possibility, rather than imaginary, a present tense is possible: Suppose it starts raining, what'll we do? 2 Present or past Present and past reference are both possible. Imagine we'd never met! Suppose we went to Wales for a change.

Formal Subjunctives 1 Insisting, demanding etc.

After verbs such as demand, insist, suggest, require which involve an implied obligation, the subjunctive may be used in formal style. This has only one form, that of the infinitive, and there is no third person -s, or past form. The verb be has be for all forms.

They demanded that he leave at once.

The same applies after expressions such as it is necessary/essential/important that... It is essential that you arrive before six. 2 Less formal usage Less formally, should can be used, and colloquially no tense change is made, or an infinitive construction is used. They demanded that he should leave. They demanded that he left. (informal) It is essential for you to arrive before.

3.6 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH
You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways: by repeating the words spoken (direct speech) by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).

Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between inverted commas ("....") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation Examples: She says "What time will you be home?" She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! " "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone. John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used. She said, "I saw him." She said that she had seen him. a. 'That' may be omitted: She told him that she was happy. She told him she was happy.

b. 'Say' and 'tell':

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object: He said that he was tired. Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):

He told me that he was tired. 'Talk' and 'speak' are used: - to describe the action of communicating: He talked to us. She was speaking on the telephone. - with 'about' to refer to what was said: He talked (to us) about his parents.

REPORTED SPEECH HOPES, INTENTIONS, PROMISES

When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive: "I'll pay you the money tomorrow." He promised to pay me the money the next day. He promised that he would pay me the money the next day. Other verbs used in this pattern include: hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear. Examples: a. "I'll be back by lunchtime." He promised to be back by lunchtime. He promised that he would be back by lunchtime.

b. "We should arrive in London before nightfall."

They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall. They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.

c. "Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"

He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe. He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.

REPORTED SPEECH ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS

1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a toclause. Examples: He told me to go away. The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause. (The indirect object is the person spoken to.) Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, forbid. Examples: a. The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!". The doctor told me to stop smoking. b. "Get out of the car!" said the policeman. The policeman ordered him to get out of the car. c. "Could you please be quiet," she said. She asked me to be quiet. d. The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move!" The man with the gun warned us not to move. (See also section on Verbs followed by infinitive and Verbs followed by gerund) 2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask + for + object: Examples:

a. "Can I have an apple?", she asked. She asked for an apple. b. "Can I have the newspaper, please?" He asked for the newspaper. c. "May I have a glass of water?" he said. He asked for a glass of water. d. "Sugar, please." She asked for the sugar. e. "Could I have three kilos of onions?" He asked for three kilos of onions. 3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these clauses: She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?" She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the car. OR She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car. Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose. Examples: a. "It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother. My mother suggested I see the dentist. b. The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush". The dentist recommended that I should use a different toothbrush. c. My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting." My manager proposed that we examine the budget carefully at the meeting. d. "Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said. She suggested that I sleep overnight at her house. Notes: Suggest can also be followed by a gerund: I suggested postponing the visit to the dentist.

REPORTED SPEECH QUESTIONS

1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did': "Where does Peter live?" She asked him where Peter lived. 2. Yes / no questions: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether + clause: a. "Do you speak English?" He asked me if I spoke English. b. "Are you British or American?" He asked me whether I was British or American. c. "Is it raining?" She asked if it was raining. d. "Have you got a computer?" He wanted to know whether I had a computer. e. "Can you type?" She asked if I could type. f. "Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had come by train. g. "Have you been to Bristol before?" She asked if I had been to Bristol before. 3. Question words: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change. Examples: a. "What is your name?" he asked me. He asked me what my name was.

b. "How old is your mother?", he asked. He asked how old her mother was. c. The mouse said to the elephant, "Where do you live?" The mouse asked the elephant where she lived. d. "What time does the train arrive?" she asked. She asked what time the train arrived. e. "When can we have dinner?" she asked. She asked when they could have dinner. f. The elephant said to the mouse, "Why are you so small?" The elephant asked the mouse why she was so small.

REPORTED SPEECH SUMMARY OF REPORTING VERBS

Note that some reporting verbs may appear in more than one of the following groups. 1. Verbs followed by 'if' or 'whether' + clause: ask say know see remember

2. Verbs followed by a that-clause: add doubt reply admit estimate report agree explain reveal announce fear say answer feel state argue insist suggest boast mention suppose claim observe tell comment persuade think complain propose understand confirm remark warn consider remember deny repeat 3. Verbs followed by either a that-clause or a to-infinitive: decide promise expect swear guarantee threaten hope 4. Verbs followed by a that-clause containing should (but note that it may be omitted, leaving a subject + zero-infinitive): advise insist recommend beg prefer request demand propose suggest 5. Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word: decide imagine see describe know suggest discover learn teach discuss realise tell explain remember think forget reveal understand guess say wonder 6. Verbs followed by object + to-infinitive

advise ask beg command

forbid instruct invite

teach tell warn

REPORTED SPEECH TENSE CHANGES

Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech: She said, "I am tired." She said that she was tired. The changes are shown below:

Simple present "I always drink coffee", she said Present continuous "I am reading a book", he explained. Simple past "Bill arrived on Saturday", he said. Present perfect "I have been to Spain", he told me. Past perfect "I had just turned out the light," he explained. Present perfect continuous They complained, "We have been waiting for hours". Past continuous "We were living in Paris", they told me. Future "I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said
Future continuous

Simple past She said that she always drank coffee. Past continuous He explained that he was reading a book Past perfect He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday Past perfect He told me that he had been to Spain Past perfect He explained that he had just turned out the light. Past perfect continuous They complained that they had been waiting for hours. Past perfect continuous They told me that they had been living in Paris. Present conditional He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Conditional continuous

She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday".

She said that she would be using the car next Friday.

NOTE:

1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement was about something that is still true, e.g. He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one. We explained that it is very difficult to find our house. 2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g. We explained that it could be difficult to find our house. She said that she might bring a friend to the party.

Indirect Speech adalah kalimat tak langsung, yaitu kalimat yang dikatakan olehh orang lain (mungkin di tempat dan waktu yang berbeda) berdasarkan apa yang dikatakan langsung oleh penutur pertama. Indirect Speech disebut juga reported speech atau quoted speech. 1. Dalam indirect speech, the past continuous tense yang digunakan dengan when clause tidak mengalami perubahan. 2. Dalam British English, penulisan tanda kutip menggunakan tanda kutip satu ( ), sedangkan dalam American English, penulisannya menggunakan tanda kutip dua ( ). 3. should yang digunakan dengan I dan We (British) mempunyai arti akan bukan sebaliknya. should berubah menjadi would dalam indirect speech. Contoh: a) He said, I should be happy. He said that he would be happy b) He said, I shall be happy. He said that he would be happy 4. Untuk suatu pernyataan yang benar secara universal. Kita dapat menggunakan the simple present tense da dalam noun clause. Contoh: a) He said that the sun rises in the east. b) He said that the sun rose in the east. 5. Jika introductory verb atau kata kerja dalam klausa utama dalam bentuk the simple present, the present perfect atau the dimple future tense, maka dalam indirect speech tidak mengalami perubahan. Contoh: a) He says that he is trying to work carefully. b) She has said that she will never be late again. CONTOH: Direct Speech Indirect Speech 1) He said, I work Hard. He said (that) he worked hard 2) He said (that)he was working hardHe said, I am working hard. 3) He said, I will work hard. He said (that) He would work hard 4) He said (that) he had been working hardHe said, I was working hard. 5) He said, I worked hard. He said (that) he had worked hard 6) He said (that) he had worked hardHe said, I have worked hard. 7) He said (that) he was going toHe said, I am going to work hard. work hard 8) He said, I can work hard. He said (that) he could work hard

9) He said, I may work hard. He said (that) he might work hard He said (that). Perhatikan perubahan kata keterangan waktu dan kata kerja di dalam Indirect Speech Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Now Then, at that moment (pada waktu itu)(sekarang) Today (hari That thay (hari itu)ini) The day before,Yesterday (Kemarin) the previous day (sehari sebelumnya) TheLast night (semalam) night before, the previous night (semalam sebelumnya) Last week the week before, the previous week (seminggu sebelumnya)(minggu lalu) Two Two days before (dua hari sebelumnya)days ago (dua hari lalu) A a week before, the previous week (semingguweek ago (seminggu lalu) sebelumnya) A month before, theA month ago (sebulan lalu) previous month (sebulan sebelumnya) aA year ago (setahun lalu) year before, the previous year (setahun sebelumnya) Tomorrow the following day, the next day (hari berikutnya)(besok)

Contoh: 1. He asked wheter (or not) I had stayedHe asked, Did you stay here? there He said (that) he had2. He said, I was sick two days ago. been sick two days before/earlier 3. He said, I will work tomorrow. He said (that) he would the following/next day 4. He said, I He said (that) he had arrived the day before/thearrived yesterday. previous day He said (that) he5. He said, I was there last week. had been there the week before.

1.Comamand/request Here are some other examples Direct Indirect a . Mrs. Candra said to vita, Dont worry Mrs. Candra told Vita not to worry about it . about it! b . Mrs. Budiman said to the children,Be Mrs.Budiman ordered the children to be quiet. quiet! c .Mr. Candra said to Vito, Dont be lazy! Mr. Candra advised Vito not to be lazy . 2. question .

Here are some other examples Direct a. vita askedare you a journalist? b. rosa asked Rio ,could i borrow your english book ? Indirect Vita asked if/whether i was a journslist. Rosa asked Rio if/whether she could borrow his English book

c.the receptionist asked how do you spell your name ?

The reseceptionist asked how i spelt my name

3.statement

Here are some other examples Direct a.Mr.candra said i worked hardy yesterday b.Lina said i studied hard last night. Indirect Mr.candra said that he had worked hard the day before. Lina said that she had studied hard the night before .