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Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and communications technologies. Maxwell's equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current including the difficult-to-calculate atomic level charges and currents in materials. The "macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary fields that can sidestep having to know these 'atomic' sized charges and currents. Maxwell's equations are named after the Scottish physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, since in an early form they are all found in a four-part paper, "On Physical Lines of Force", which he published between 1861 and 1862. The mathematical form of the Lorentz force law also appeared in this paper. It is often useful to write Maxwell's equations in other forms; these representations are still formally termed "Maxwell's equations". A relativistic formulation in terms of covariant field tensors is used in special relativity, while in quantum mechanics, a version based on the electric and magnetic potentials is preferred. While Maxwell's equations are consistent within special and general relativity, there are some quantum mechanical situations in which Maxwell's equations are significantly inaccurate: including extremely strong fields (see EulerHeisenberg Lagrangian) and extremely short distances (see vacuum polarization). Moreover, various phenomena occur in the world even though Maxwell's equations predicts them to be impossible, such as "nonclassical light" and quantum entanglement of electromagnetic fields (see quantum optics). Finally, any phenomenon involving individual photons, such as the photoelectric effect, Planck's law, the DuaneHunt law, single-photon light detectors, etc., would be difficult or impossible to explain if Maxwell's equations were exactly true, as Maxwell's equations do not involve photons. Maxwell's equations are usually an extremely accurate approximation to the more accurate theory of quantum electrodynamics.
Conceptual description
Conceptually, Maxwell's equations describe how electric charges and electric currents act as sources for the electric and magnetic fields. Further, it describes how a time varying electric field generates a time varying magnetic field and vice versa. (See below for a mathematical description of these laws.) Of the four equations, two of them, Gauss's law and Gauss's law for magnetism, describe how the fields emanate from charges. (For the magnetic field there is no magnetic charge and therefore magnetic fields lines neither begin nor end anywhere.) The other two equations describe how the fields 'circulate' around their respective sources; the magnetic field 'circulates' around electric currents and time varying electric field in Ampre's law with Maxwell's correction, while the electric field 'circulates' around time varying magnetic fields in Faraday's law.
Gauss's law
Gauss's law describes the relationship between an electric field and the electric charges that cause it: The electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges. In the field line description, electric field lines begin only at positive electric charges and end only at negative electric charges. 'Counting' the number of field lines in a closed surface, therefore, yields the total charge enclosed by that surface. More technically, it relates the electric flux through any hypothetical closed "Gaussian surface" to the enclosed electric charge.
Maxwell's equations
Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.
Faraday's law
Faraday's law describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field.[1] This aspect of electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby wire. (Note: there are two closely related equations which are called Faraday's law. The form used in Maxwell's equations is always valid but more restrictive than that originally formulated by Michael Faraday.)
In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in our electrical power grids. Artist's rendition; sizes are not to scale.
An Wang's magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampre's law. Each core stores one bit of data.
Maxwell's equations The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents,[3] exactly matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics.
Integral form
Name Gauss's law "Microscopic" equations "Macroscopic" equations
MaxwellFaraday equation (Faraday's law of induction) Ampre's circuital law (with Maxwell's correction)
Maxwell's equations
Differential form
Name Gauss's law Gauss's law for magnetism MaxwellFaraday equation (Faraday's law of induction) Ampre's circuital law (with Maxwell's correction) "Microscopic" equations "Macroscopic" equations
0 0
permittivity of free space, also called the electric constant, a universal constant permeability of free space, also called the magnetic constant, a universal constant
farads per meter henries per meter, or newtons per ampere squared
Charges and currents Qf(V) Q(V) net free electric charge within the three-dimensional volume V (not including bound charge) coulombs
net electric charge within the three-dimensional volume V (including both free and bound coulombs charge) free charge density (not including bound charge) total charge density (including both free and bound charge) free current density (not including bound current) coulombs per cubic meter coulombs per cubic meter amperes per square meter
f Jf
Maxwell's equations
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total current density (including both free and bound current) Line and surface integrals amperes per square meter
and d
is any surface, and is its boundary curve. The surface is fixed (unchanging in time). differential vector element of path length tangential to the path/curve line integral of the electric field along the boundary of a surface ( is always a closed curve). line integral of the magnetic field over the closed boundary of the surface meters joules per coulomb
tesla-meters
and
is any three-dimensional volume, and is its boundary surface. The volume is fixed (unchanging in time). differential vector element of surface area S, with infinitesimally small magnitude and direction normal to surface (also denoted by A rather than S, but this conflicts with the magnetic potential) square meters
dS
the electric flux (surface integral of the electric field) through the (closed) surface (the joule-meter per coulomb boundary of the volume ) the magnetic flux (surface integral of the magnetic B-field) through the (closed) surface (the boundary of the volume ) flux of electric displacement field through the (closed) surface (the boundary of the volume ) net free electrical current passing through the surface (not including bound current) tesla meters-squared or webers
coulombs
amperes
net electrical current passing through the surface (including both free and bound current)
amperes
Relations between free, bound, and total charge and current density:
Substituting all these equations into the "macroscopic" Maxwell's equations gives the "microscopic" equations. Both the differential and integral forms are useful. The integral forms can often be used to simply and directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents. On the other hand, the differential forms are a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis.[9]
Maxwell's equations
These equations lead directly to E and B satisfying the wave equation for which the solutions are linear combinations of plane waves traveling at the speed of light,
In addition, E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other and the direction of wave propagation, and are in phase with each other. A sinusoidal plane wave is one special solution of these equations. In fact, Maxwell's equations explain how these waves can physically propagate through space. The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law. In turn, that electric field creates a changing magnetic field through Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law. This perpetual cycle allows these waves, now known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space at velocity c.
Maxwell's equations
Constitutive relations
In order to apply 'Maxwell's macroscopic equations', it is necessary to specify the relations between displacement field D and E, and the magnetic H-field H and B. These equations specify the response of bound charge and current to the applied fields and are called constitutive relations. For real-world materials, the constitutive relations are rarely simple, except approximately, see the main article for a fuller description. The definitions (not constitutive relations) of the auxiliary fields are:
where P is the polarization field and M is the magnetization field which are defined in terms of microscopic bound charges and bound current respectively. The macroscopic forms of Maxwell's equations for different materials are presented below. In each case, Faraday's law of induction and Gauss's law for magnetism are always the same.
The currents and charges are free, not total (expected since there are no bound charges nor currents);
Gauss's law: Ampre's circuital law:
where is the permittivity and the permeability of the material. For homogeneous materials, and are constant throughout the material, for inhomogeneous they depend on location within the material (and perhaps time). For isotropic materials, and are independent of the directions of the applied fields to the material, for anisotropic they are tensors (incorporating directional dependence of the medium). Materials are generally dispersive, so and depend on the frequency of any incident EM waves. The vacuum permittivity and permeability are replaced by those of the material, the charges and currents are free (not total);
Gauss's law: Ampre's circuital law:
In the case of non-linear materials (see for example nonlinear optics), D and P are not proportional to E, similarly B is not proportional to H or M.
One result of Gaussian units is that the magnetic field B has the same units as the electric field E in SI units this doesn't happen (since for EM waves in vacuum, |E| = c|B|), making dimensional analysis of the equations different. See SI and Gaussian units for how to convert between them.
Maxwell's equations
History
Relation between electricity, magnetism, and the speed of light
The relation between electricity, magnetism, and the speed of light can be summarized by the modern equation:
The left-hand side is the speed of light, and the right-hand side is a quantity related to the equations governing electricity and magnetism. Although the right-hand side has units of velocity, it can be inferred from measurements of electric and magnetic forces, which involve no physical velocities. Therefore, establishing this relationship provided convincing evidence that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon. The discovery of this relationship started in 1855, when Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch determined that there was a quantity related to electricity and magnetism, "the ratio of the absolute electromagnetic unit of charge to the absolute electrostatic unit of charge" (in modern language, the value ), and determined that it should have units of velocity. They then measured this ratio by an experiment which involved charging and discharging a Leyden jar and measuring the magnetic force from the discharge current, and found a value 3107108m/s,[13] remarkably close to the speed of light, which had recently been measured at 314108m/s by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848 and at 298108m/s by Lon Foucault in 1850.[13] However, Weber and Kohlrausch did not make the connection to the speed of light.[13] Towards the end of 1861 while working on part III of his paper On Physical Lines of Force, Maxwell travelled from Scotland to London and looked up Weber and Kohlrausch's results. He converted them into a format which was compatible with his own writings, and in doing so he established the connection to the speed of light and concluded that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.[14]
Maxwell's equations that the potentials must propagate at the speed of light like the fields, unlike the concept of instantaneous action-at-a-distance like the then conception of gravitational potential.[16] Modern analysis of, for example, radio antennas, makes full use of Maxwell's vector and scalar potentials to separate the variables, a common technique used in formulating the solutions of differential equations. However, the potentials can be introduced by algebraic manipulation of the four fundamental equations.
10
Maxwell's equations
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It is later clarified in his concept of a sea of molecular vortices that appears in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force. Within that context, H represented pure vorticity (spin), whereas B was a weighted vorticity that was weighted for the density of the vortex sea. Maxwell considered magnetic permeability to be a measure of the density of the vortex sea. Hence the relationship, 1. Magnetic induction current causes a magnetic current density B = H was essentially a rotational analogy to the linear electric current relationship, 2. Electric convection current J = v where is electric charge density. B was seen as a kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their axial planes, with H being the circumferential velocity of the vortices. With representing vortex density, it follows that the product of with vorticity H leads to the magnetic field denoted as B.
Figure of Maxwell's molecular vortex model. For a uniform magnetic field, the field lines point outward from the display screen, as can be observed from the black dots in the middle of the hexagons. The vortex of each hexagonal molecule rotates counter-clockwise. The small green circles are clockwise rotating particles sandwiching between the molecular vortices.
The electric current equation can be viewed as a convective current of electric charge that involves linear motion. By analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current involving spin. There is no linear motion in the inductive current along the direction of the B vector. The magnetic inductive current represents lines of force. In particular, it represents lines of inverse square law force. The extension of the above considerations confirms that where B is to H, and where J is to , then it necessarily follows from Gauss's law and from the equation of continuity of charge that E is to D. i.e. B parallels with E, whereas H parallels with D.
Maxwell's equations
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(A) The law of total currents (B) The equation of magnetic force (C) Ampre's circuital law (D) Electromotive force created by convection, induction, and by static electricity. (This is in effect the Lorentz force) (E) The electric elasticity equation (F) Ohm's law (G) Gauss's law (H) Equation of continuity or
Notation H is the magnetizing field, which Maxwell called the magnetic intensity. J is the current density (withJtot being the total current including displacement current).[23] D is the displacement field (called the electric displacement by Maxwell). is the free charge density (called the quantity of free electricity by Maxwell). A is the magnetic potential (called the angular impulse by Maxwell). E is called the electromotive force by Maxwell. The term electromotive force is nowadays used for voltage, but it is clear from the context that Maxwell's meaning corresponded more to the modern term electric field. is the electric potential (which Maxwell also called electric potential). is the electrical conductivity (Maxwell called the inverse of conductivity the specific resistance, what is now called the resistivity). It is interesting to note the v H term that appears in equation D. Equation D is therefore effectively the Lorentz force, similarly to equation (77) of his 1861 paper (see above). When Maxwell derives the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1865 paper, he uses equation D to cater for electromagnetic induction rather than Faraday's law of induction which is used in modern textbooks. (Faraday's law itself does not appear among his equations.) However, Maxwell drops the v H term from equation D when he is deriving the electromagnetic wave equation, as he considers the situation only from the rest frame.
Maxwell's equations one under which Maxwell's equations were invariant. Poincar (1900) analyzed the coordination of moving clocks by exchanging light signals. He also established the mathematical group property of the Lorentz transformation (Poincar 1905). Sometimes this transformation is called the FitzGeraldLorentz transformation or even the FitzGeraldLorentzEinstein transformation. Albert Einstein dismissed the notion of the aether as an unnecessary one, and he concluded that Maxwell's equations predicted the existence of a fixed speed of light, independent of the velocity of the observer. Hence, he used the Maxwell's equations as the starting point for his Special Theory of Relativity. In doing so, he established that the FitzGeraldLorentz transformation is valid for all matter and space, and not just Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's equations played a key role in Einstein's groundbreaking scientific paper on special relativity (1905). For example, in the opening paragraph of his paper, he began his theory by noting that a description of an electric conductor moving with respect to a magnet must generate a consistent set of fields regardless of whether the force is calculated in the rest frame of the magnet or that of the conductor.[26] The general theory of relativity has also has a close relationship with Maxwell's equations. For example, Theodor Kaluza and Oskar Klein in the 1920s showed that Maxwell's equations could be derived by extending general relativity into five physical dimensions. This strategy of using additional dimensions to unify different forces remains an active area of research in physics.
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Maxwell's equations as the system's initial condition does.[38][39] Although it is possible to simply ignore the two Gauss's laws in a numerical algorithm (apart from the initial conditions), the imperfect precision of the calculations can lead to ever-increasing violations of those laws. By introducing dummy variables characterizing these violations, the four equations become not overdetermined after all. The resulting formulation can lead to more accurate algorithms that take all four laws into account.[40]
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identities
identities
where
is the D'Alembert operator. Following are the reasons for using such formulations: Potential formulation approach: In advanced classical mechanics it is often useful, and in quantum mechanics frequently essential, to express Maxwell's equations in a potential formulation involving the electric potential (also called scalar potential) , and the magnetic potential A, (also called vector potential). These are defined such that:
Many different choices of A and are consistent with a given E and B, making these choices physically equivalent a flexibility known as gauge freedom. Suitable choice of A and can simplify these equations, or can adapt them to suit a particular situation. Manifestly covariant (tensor) approach: Maxwell's equations are exactly consistent with special relativityi.e., if they are valid in one inertial reference frame, then they are automatically valid in every other inertial reference frame. In fact, Maxwell's equations were crucial in the historical development of special relativity. However, in the usual formulation Maxwell's equations, their consistency with special relativity is not obvious; it can only be proven by a laborious calculation that involves a seemingly miraculous cancellation of different terms.
Maxwell's equations For example, consider a conductor moving in the field of a magnet.[41] In the frame of the magnet, that conductor experiences a magnetic force. But in the frame of a conductor moving relative to the magnet, the conductor experiences a force due to an electric field. The motion is exactly consistent in these two different reference frames, but it mathematically arises in quite different ways. For this reason and others, it is often useful to rewrite Maxwell's equations in a way that is "manifestly covariant"i.e. obviously consistent with special relativity, even with just a glance at the equationsusing covariant and contravariant four-vectors and tensors. This can be done using the EM tensor F, or the 4-potential A, with the 4-current J see covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism. Differential forms approach: Gauss's law for magnetism and the FaradayMaxwell law can be grouped together since the equations are homogeneous, and be seen as geometric identities expressing the field F (a 2-form), which can be derived from the 4-potential A. Gauss's law for electricity and the AmpereMaxwell law could be seen as the dynamical equations of motion of the fields, obtained via the Lagrangian principle of least action, from the "interaction term" A J (introduced through gauge covariant derivatives), coupling the field to matter. For the field formulation of Maxwell's equations in terms of a principle of extremal action, see electromagnetic tensor. Often, the time derivative in the FaradayMaxwell equation motivates calling this equation "dynamical", which is somewhat misleading in the sense of the preceding analysis. This is rather an artifact of breaking relativistic covariance by choosing a preferred time direction. To have physical degrees of freedom propagated by these field equations, one must include a kinetic term F *F for A; and take into account the non-physical degrees of freedom which can be removed by gauge transformation A A' = A d. See also gauge fixing and FaddeevPopov ghosts. Geometric algebra summarizes the entire content of Maxwell's equations into a single equation, using the RiemannSilberstein multivector F and the four-current J.
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Notes
[1] J.D. Jackson, "Maxwell's Equations" video glossary entry (http:/ / videoglossary. lbl. gov/ 2009/ maxwells-equations/ ) [2] Principles of physics: a calculus-based text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1DZz341Pp50C& pg=PA809), by R.A. Serway, J.W. Jewett, page 809. [3] The quantity we would now call , with units of velocity, was directly measured before Maxwell's equations, in an 1855 experiment by Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. They charged a leyden jar (a kind of capacitor), and measured the electrostatic force associated with the potential; then, they discharged it while measuring the magnetic force from the current in the discharge wire. Their result was 3107108m/s, remarkably close to the speed of light. See The story of electrical and magnetic measurements: from 500 B.C. to the 1940s, by Joseph F. Keithley, p115 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC& pg=PA115) [4] See magnetic monopole for a discussion of monopole searches. Recently, scientists have discovered that some types of condensed matter, including spin ice and topological insulators, display emergent behavior resembling magnetic monopoles. (See (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 1178868) and (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v461/ n7266/ full/ nature08500. html).) Although these were described in the popular press as the long-awaited discovery of magnetic monopoles, they are only superficially related. A "true" magnetic monopole is something where B0, whereas in these condensed-matter systems, B=0 while only H0. [5] J.D. Jackson. "6.11". Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). ISBN0-471-43132-X. [6] "IEEEGHN: Maxwell's Equations" (http:/ / www. ieeeghn. org/ wiki/ index. php/ Maxwell's_Equations). Ieeeghn.org. . Retrieved 2008-10-19. [7] David J Griffiths (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ isbn/ 013805326X) (Third ed.). Prentice Hall. pp.559562. ISBN0-13-805326-X. . [8] In some bookse.g., in U. Krey and A. Owen's Basic Theoretical Physics (Springer 2007)the term effective charge is used instead of total charge, while free charge is simply called charge. [9] oln, Pavel (2006). Partial differential equations and the finite element method (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-hIG3NZrnd8C& pg=PA273). John Wiley and Sons. p.273. ISBN0-471-72070-4. . [10] See David J. Griffiths (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (third ed.). Prentice Hall. for a good description of how P relates to the bound charge. [11] See David J. Griffiths (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (third ed.). Prentice Hall. for a good description of how M relates to the bound current. [12] Littlejohn, Robert (Fall 2007). "Gaussian, SI and Other Systems of Units in Electromagnetic Theory" (http:/ / bohr. physics. berkeley. edu/ classes/ 221/ 0708/ notes/ emunits. pdf) (PDF). Physics 221A, University of California, Berkeley lecture notes. . Retrieved 2008-05-06.
Maxwell's equations
[13] The story of electrical and magnetic measurements: from 500 B.C. to the 1940s, by Joseph F. Keithley, p115 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC& pg=PA115) [14] "The Dictionary of Scientific Biography", by Charles Coulston Gillispie [15] but are now universally known as Maxwell's equations. However, in 1940 Einstein referred to the equations as Maxwell's equations in "The Fundamentals of Theoretical Physics" published in the Washington periodical Science, May 24, 1940.
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Paul J. Nahin (2002-10-09). Oliver Heaviside: the life, work, and times of an electrical genius of the Victorian age (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=e9wEntQmA0IC& pg=PA111& dq=nahin+ hertz-heaviside+ maxwell-hertz). JHU Press. pp.108112. ISBN978-0-8018-6909-9. .
[16] Jed Z. Buchwald (1994). The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2bDEvvGT1EYC& pg=PA194& dq=maxwell+ faraday+ time-derivative+ vector-potential). University of Chicago Press. p.194. ISBN978-0-226-07888-5. . [17] Myron Evans (2001-10-05). Modern nonlinear optics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=9p0kK6IG94gC& pg=PA240& dq=maxwell-heaviside+ equations). John Wiley and Sons. p.240. ISBN978-0-471-38931-6. . [18] Crease, Robert. The Great Equations: Breakthroughs in Science from Pythagoras to Heisenberg (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IU04tZsVjXkC& lpg=PA133& dq="Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance"& pg=PA133#v=onepage& q="Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance"& f=false), page 133 (2008). [19] Oliver J. Lodge (November 1888). "Sketch of the Electrical Papers in Section A, at the Recent Bath Meeting of the British Association". Electrical Engineer 7: 535. [20] J. R. Lalanne, F. Carmona, and L. Servant (1999-11). Optical spectroscopies of electronic absorption (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=7rWD-TdxKkMC& pg=PA8& dq=maxwell-faraday+ derivative). World Scientific. p.8. ISBN978-981-02-3861-2. . [21] Roger F. Harrington (2003-10-17). Introduction to Electromagnetic Engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZlC2EV8zvX8C& pg=PR7& dq=maxwell-faraday-equation+ law-of-induction). Courier Dover Publications. pp.4956. ISBN978-0-486-43241-0. . [22] page 480. (http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ commons/ 1/ 19/ A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field. pdf) [23] Here it is noted that a quite different quantity, the magnetic polarization, 0M by decision of an international IUPAP commission has been given the same name J. So for the electric current density, a name with small letters, j would be better. But even then the mathematicians would still use the large-letter name J for the corresponding current two-form (see below). [24] http:/ / www. mathematik. tu-darmstadt. de/ ~bruhn/ Original-MAXWELL. htm [25] Experiments like the MichelsonMorley experiment in 1887 showed that the "aether" moved at the same speed as Earth. While other experiments, such as measurements of the aberration of light from the stars, showed that the ether is moving relative to the Earth. [26] "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ www/ ). Fourmilab.ch. . Retrieved 2008-10-19. [27] Peter Monk (2003). Finite Element Methods for Maxwell's Equations (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=zI7Y1jT9pCwC& pg=PA1& dq=electromagnetism+ "boundary+ conditions"). Oxford UK: Oxford University Press. p.1 ff. ISBN0-19-850888-3. . [28] Thomas B. A. Senior & John Leonidas Volakis (1995-03-01). Approximate Boundary Conditions in Electromagnetics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=eOofBpuyuOkC& pg=PA261& dq=electromagnetism+ "boundary+ conditions"). London UK: Institution of Electrical Engineers. p.261 ff. ISBN0-85296-849-3. . [29] T Hagstrom (Bjrn Engquist & Gregory A. Kriegsmann, Eds.) (1997). Computational Wave Propagation (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EdZefkIOR5cC& pg=PA1& dq=electromagnetism+ "boundary+ conditions"). Berlin: Springer. p.1 ff. ISBN0-387-94874-0. . [30] Henning F. Harmuth & Malek G. M. Hussain (1994). Propagation of Electromagnetic Signals (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6_CZBHzfhpMC& pg=PA45& dq=electromagnetism+ "initial+ conditions"). Singapore: World Scientific. p.17. ISBN981-02-1689-0. . [31] David M Cook (2002). The Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bI-ZmZWeyhkC& pg=RA1-PA335& dq=electromagnetism+ infinity+ boundary+ conditions). Mineola NY: Courier Dover Publications. p.335 ff. ISBN0-486-42567-3. . [32] Jean-Michel Lourtioz (2005-05-23). Photonic Crystals: Towards Nanoscale Photonic Devices (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vSszZ2WuG_IC& pg=PA84& dq=electromagnetism+ boundary+ + -element). Berlin: Springer. p.84. ISBN3-540-24431-X. . [33] S. G. Johnson, Notes on Perfectly Matched Layers (http:/ / math. mit. edu/ ~stevenj/ 18. 369/ pml. pdf), online MIT course notes (Aug. 2007). [34] S. F. Mahmoud (1991). Electromagnetic Waveguides: Theory and Applications applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=toehQ7vLwAMC& pg=PA2& dq=Maxwell's+ equations+ waveguides). London UK: Institution of Electrical Engineers. Chapter 2. ISBN0-86341-232-7. . [35] John Leonidas Volakis, Arindam Chatterjee & Leo C. Kempel (1998). Finite element method for electromagnetics : antennas, microwave circuits, and scattering applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=55q7HqnMZCsC& pg=PA79& dq=electromagnetism+ "boundary+ conditions"). New York: Wiley IEEE. p.79 ff. ISBN0-7803-3425-6. . [36] Bernard Friedman (1990). Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Principles-Techniques-Applied-Mathematics-Friedman/ dp/ 0486664449/ ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8& s=books& qisbn=1207010487& sr=1-1). Mineola NY: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-66444-9. . [37] Taflove A & Hagness S C (2005). Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-difference Time-domain Method (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/ 1580538320/ ref=sib_dp_pop_toc?ie=UTF8& p=S008#reader-link). Boston MA: Artech House. Chapters 6 & 7. ISBN1-58053-832-0. .
Maxwell's equations
[38] H Freisthler & G Warnecke (2001). Hyperbolic Problems: Theory, Numerics, Applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XXX_mG0vneMC& pg=PA605#v=onepage& q& f=false). p.605. . [39] J Rosen. "Redundancy and superfluity for electromagnetic fields and potentials". American Journal of Physics 48 (12): 1071. doi:10.1119/1.12289. [40] B Jiang & J Wu & L.A. Povinelli (1996). "The Origin of Spurious Solutions in Computational Electromagnetics". Journal of Computational Physics 125 (1): 104. Bibcode1996JCoPh.125..104J. doi:10.1006/jcph.1996.0082. [41] Albert Einstein (1905) On the electrodynamics of moving bodies
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Maxwell's equations Sadiku, Matthew N. O. (2006). Elements of Electromagnetics (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-530048-3. Schwarz, Melvin (1987). Principles of Electrodynamics. Dover. ISBN0-486-65493-1. Stevens, Charles F. (1995). The Six Core Theories of Modern Physics. MIT Press. ISBN0-262-69188-4. Tipler, Paul; Mosca, Gene (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 2 (6th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN978-1-4292-0133-9. Ulaby, Fawwaz T. (2007). Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics (5th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN0-13-241326-4. I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips (2008). Electromagnetism (2nd ed.). Manchester Physics, John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-471-92712-9. Graduate Jackson, J. D. (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X. Panofsky, Wolfgang K. H.; Phillips, Melba (2005). Classical Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed.). Dover. ISBN978-0-486-43924-2. Older classics Lifshitz, Evgeny; Landau, Lev (1980). The Classical Theory of Fields (4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-2768-9. Lifshitz, Evgeny; Landau, Lev; Pitaevskii, L. P. (1984). Electrodynamics of Continuous Media (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-2634-8. Maxwell, James Clerk (1873). A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Dover. ISBN0-486-60637-6. Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973). Gravitation. W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0344-0. Sets out the equations using differential forms. Computational techniques Chew, W. C.; Jin, J.; Michielssen, E. ; Song, J. (2001). Fast and Efficient Algorithms in Computational Electromagnetics. Artech House. ISBN1-58053-152-0. Harrington, R. F. (1993). Field Computation by Moment Methods. Wiley-IEEE Press. ISBN0-7803-1014-4. Jin, J. (2002). The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics (2nd ed.). Wiley-IEEE Press. ISBN0-471-43818-9. Lounesto, Pertti (1997). Clifford Algebras and Spinors. Cambridge University Press.. ISBN0-521-59916-4. Chapter 8 sets out several variants of the equations using exterior algebra and differential forms. Taflove, Allen; Hagness, Susan C. (2005). Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method (3rd ed.). Artech House. ISBN1-58053-832-0.
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External links
maxwells-equations.com (http://www.maxwells-equations.com) - An intuitive tutorial of Maxwell's equations. Mathematical aspects of Maxwell's equation are discussed on the Dispersive PDE Wiki (http://tosio.math. toronto.edu/wiki/index.php/Main_Page).
Modern treatments
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html), B. Crowell, Fullerton College Lecture series: Relativity and electromagnetism (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/~rfitzp/teaching/jk1/lectures/ node6.html), R. Fitzpatrick, University of Texas at Austin
Maxwell's equations Electromagnetic waves from Maxwell's equations (http://www.physnet.org/modules/pdf_modules/m210.pdf) on Project PHYSNET (http://www.physnet.org). MIT Video Lecture Series (36 x 50 minute lectures) (in .mp4 format) Electricity and Magnetism (http://ocw. mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-02Electricity-and-MagnetismSpring2002/VideoAndCaptions/index.htm) Taught by Professor Walter Lewin.
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Historical
James Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism Vols 1 and 2 (http://www.antiquebooks.net/ readpage.html#maxwell) 1904most readable edition with all correctionsAntique Books Collection suitable for free reading online. Maxwell, J.C., A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism Volume 1 1873 (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/ Posner/books/book.cgi?call=537_M46T_1873_VOL._1) Posner Memorial Collection Carnegie Mellon University Maxwell, J.C., A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism Volume 2 1873 (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/ Posner/books/book.cgi?call=537_M46T_1873_VOL._2) Posner Memorial Collection Carnegie Mellon University On Faraday's Lines of Force 1855/56 (http://blazelabs.com/On Faraday's Lines of Force.pdf) Maxwell's first paper (Part 1 & 2) Compiled by Blaze Labs Research (PDF) On Physical Lines of Force 1861 Maxwell's 1861 paper describing magnetic lines of Force Predecessor to 1873 Treatise Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155, 459512 (1865). (This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.) Catt, Walton and Davidson. "The History of Displacement Current". Wireless World, March 1979. (http://www. electromagnetism.demon.co.uk/z014.htm) Reprint from Dover Publications (ISBN 0-486-60636-8) Full text of 1904 Edition including full text search. (http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#maxwell) A Dynamical Theory Of The Electromagnetic Field 1865 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=5HE_cmxXt2MC&vid=02IWHrbcLC9ECI_wQx&dq=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+Of+ London+Vol+XIII&ie=UTF-8&jtp=531) Maxwell's 1865 paper describing his 20 Equations in 20 Unknowns Predecessor to the 1873 Treatise
Other
Feynman's derivation of Maxwell equations and extra dimensions (http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0106235) Nature Milestones: Photons Milestone 2 (1861) Maxwell's equations (http://www.nature.com/milestones/ milephotons/full/milephotons02.html)
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/