i

Chapter 5 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

CONTENTS

5.1 Definition and Units 1
5.1.1 Definition 1
5.1.2 Units 1
5.2 Principles of Atmospheric Pressure Measurement 1
5.2.1 Mercury Barometers 1
5.2.1.1 Principle of Mercury Barometers 1
5.2.1.2 Structure of a Fortin Barometer 2
5.2.1.3 Handling Precautions for Mercury 3
5.2.1.4 Correction of Barometer Readings 3
5.2.2 Aneroid Instruments 4
5.2.2.1 Aneroid Barometers 4
5.2.2.2 Aneroid Barographs 5
5.2.3 Electronic Barometers 6
5.2.3.1 Cylindrical Resonator Barometers 6
5.2.3.2 Electrostatic Capacity Barometers 7
5.2.4 Reduction to Mean Sea Level 7
5.3 Maintenance 9
5.3.1 Maintenance of Mercury Barometers 9
5.3.2 Aneroid Instruments 10
5.3.2.1 Aneroid Barometers 10
5.3.2.2 Aneroid Barographs 10
5.3.3 Electronic Barometers 10
5.3.3.1 Cylindrical Resonators 10
5.3.3.2 Electrostatic Capacity Barometers 10
5.4 Calibration 10
5.4.1 Mercury Barometers 10
5.4.2 Aneroid Barometers 10
5.4.3 Electronic Barometers 10
5.4.3.1 Cylindrical Resonator Barometers 10
5.4.3.2 Electrostatic Capacity Barometers 11
5.5 Repair 11
5.5.1 Mercury Barometers 11
5.5.2 Aneroid Instruments 11

ii
5.5.2.1 Aneroid Barometers 11
5.5.2.2 Aneroid Barographs 11
5.5.3 Electronic Barometers 12
5.6 Transport 12
5.6.1 Mercury Barometers 12
5.6.1.1 Method of Transport 12
5.6.1.2 Precautions for Transport 12
5.6.2 Aneroid Instruments 13
5.7 Installation 13
5.7.1 Mercury Barometers 13
5.7.2 Aneroid Instruments 14
5.7.2.1 Aneroid Barometers 14
5.7.2.2 Aneroid Barographs 14
5.7.3 Electronic Barometers 15
5.8 Practical Training 15
5.8.1 Aneroid Barometers 15
5.8.2 Aneroid Barographs 15
5.8.3 Disassembling and Cleaning a Mercury Barometer 15

1
Chapter 5 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

5.1 Definition and Units
5.1.1 Definition
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of the Earth's atmosphere expressed per unit
area over a given horizontal cross section. It is thus equivalent to the weight of a vertical column of air
above the Earth's surface extending to the outer limits of the atmosphere.

5.1.2 Units
In meteorology, atmospheric pressure is reported in hectopascals (hPa). A unit of 1 hPa is equal to 100
Pa, the pascal being the basic unit under SI (International System of Units) definition, and 1 Pa is equal to 1
newton per square meter (N/m
2
). Additionally, 1 hPa is equal to the previously used unit of 1 mb.
The scales of all barometers used for meteorological purposes should be graduated in hPa. Some
barometers are graduated in units of inHg or mmHg. Under standard conditions, the pressure exerted by a
760-mm-high pure mercury column is 1013.250 hPa, so the conversion factors are represented as follows:
1 hPa = 0.750062 mmHg;
1 mmHg = 1.333224 hPa.
In line with the relationship between inches and millimeters (1 inch = 25.4 mm), the following
conversion coefficients are provided:
1 hPa = 0.029530 inHg;
1 inHg = 33.8639 hPa;
1 mmHg = 0.03937008 inHg.
Pressure data measured with a barometer should ideally be expressed in hectopascals (hPa).

5.2 Principles of Atmospheric Pressure Measurement
5.2.1 Mercury Barometers
5.2.1.1 Principle of Mercury Barometers
When a one-meter-long open-ended glass tube is filled with mercury
and turned upside down into a mercury-filled container, part of the mercury
flows out of the tube into the container. A Torricellian vacuum is then
produced at the top of the tube, and the mercury level stabilizes at a height
of approximately 76 cm from that in the container (see Figure 5.1).
Torricelli's experiment revealed that this height indicates the ambient
atmospheric pressure. A mercury barometer works on the principle that
atmospheric pressure can be ascertained from precise measurement of this
height.

Figure 5.1 Torricellis experiment

2
5.2.1.2 Structure of a Fortin Barometer
As shown in Figure 5.2, a mercury barometer consists of three main parts: a mercury cistern (right), a
glass barometer tube (center) and a scale (left). The bottom of the mercury cistern is a wash-leather bag
(sheepskin), and the mercury level can be changed by rotating an adjustment screw. The barometer tube is
secured to the wash-leather bag in the upper part of the mercury cistern so that atmospheric pressure can be
lead from the point at the bound leather. The tip of an ivory pointer at the top of the mercury cistern
indicates the zero point of the scale. When the mercury level reaches this point, the atmospheric pressure
is read at the top of the mercury column. The precise height of the column is measured on a vernier scale.







The main body has a hanger hook at its top to allow it to be hung from a latch on a hanger plate. The
bottom is secured to the screw bridge with a vertical-axis pivoting link using three screws. Both the
hanger hook and the screw bridge can be rotated when the barometer is set on the hanger plate to allow
verticality checking at all times.
A mica plate is wound inside the brass cylinder to prevent direct contact between the brass and the
hPa
1050
90
80
70
60
40
30
20
10
1000
90
80
60
40
30
20
10
70
950
90
80
70
900
650
70
60
80
90
700
10
20
30
40
5
10
5
10
No.1234
40
30
20
10
0
10
(1)
(4)
(2)
(3)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
Figure 5.2 Fortin barometer structure
(1) Hanger ring (2) Slot (3) Vernier (4) Top of mercury column (5) Knob
(6) Pin-face wrench (7) Attached thermometer (8) Barometer tube (9) Wash-
leather vent (10) Three screws (11) Ivory pointer (12) Glass cylinder (13)
External-thread wooden frame (14) Internal-thread wooden frame (15)
Wash-leather bag (16) Undercover (17) Screw bridge (18) Adjustment screw (19)
Wooden base for leather washer (20) Metal frame (21) Brass cover (22) Mica plate

3
wash-leather bag. The plate serves as a heat insulator as well as preventing contamination, discoloration
and wear.

5.2.1.3 Handling Precautions for Mercury
High-purity distilled refined mercury is used in mercury barometers. As the interface between its
surface after oxidization and the ivory pointer becomes unclear, heavy contamination on the mercury
surface necessitates cleaning. Since mercury is a toxic substance, the following points should be noted in
handling:
(1) Mercury containers must be sealed tightly to prevent leakage and breakage. Do not place mercury in
a metal container as it reacts and amalgamates with almost all metals except iron.
(2) The floor of rooms where mercury is stored or used in large amounts should be shielded and laid with
an impervious covering. It must not be stored together with other chemicals, especially with
ammonia or acetylene.
(3) Mercury has a relatively low boiling point of 357C, and produces dangerous poisonous gas upon
combustion. It must not be stored close to heat sources.
(4) Regular inspections of the room and staff should be carried out when mercury is handled to catch
hazardous levels of mercury concentration. (Environmental regulations on water contamination
affecting personal health set a 0.0005 mg/l limit for the total amount of mercury.)

5.2.1.4 Correction of Barometer Readings
Mercury barometer readings should be corrected to the standard condition, which is defined as a
temperature of 0C with a mercury density of 13.5951 g/cm
3
and a gravity acceleration of 980.665 cm/s
2
.
In actual observation, readings should be corrected for index error, temperature and gravity acceleration
as follows:
(1) Correction for Index Error
Individual mercury barometers are affected by index errors (the difference between the value
indicated by an individual instrument and that of the standard). The index error is found by
comparison with the standard, and the value is stated on a comparison certificate.
(2) Correction for Temperature
Temperature correction involves the adjustment of a barometric reading obtained at a certain
temperature to a value for mercury and graduation temperatures of 0C. The temperature indicated
by the attached thermometer is used for this purpose.
The height of the mercury column varies with temperature even when atmospheric pressure
remains unchanged. The graduation of the barometer is engraved so that the correct pressure is
indicated at a temperature of 0C. When the temperature is above 0C, the graduation expands and
the measurement indication will be smaller than the true value. This temperature effect must be
corrected in regard to these two aspects. Correction for mercury expansion and contraction is much
larger than that for the expansion and contraction of the graduation.
The correction value for temperature Ct is expressed as follows:

4
where H hPa is the barometric reading after index error correction, tC is the temperature indicated by
the attached thermometer, is the volume expansion coefficient of mercury, and is the linear
expansion coefficient of the tube.
There is a small difference in absolute values for correction between temperatures below and above
0C. Those for correction at temperatures above 0C are negative, and those below 0C are positive.
(3) Correction for Gravity
Gravity affects the height of the mercury column. After correction for index error and
temperature, a reading made under local gravity acceleration has to be reduced to give a value under
standard gravity acceleration a process known as correction for gravity.
The gravity value for correction C
g
is derived by:
where g
0
is the standard gravity acceleration, g is the gravity acceleration at the observation point, H is
the barometric reading after index error and temperature correction, and H
0
is the value already
corrected for gravitation.
The gravity acceleration value used in correction for gravity is calculated to five decimal places in
m/s
2
. When the gravity acceleration at the observation point is larger than the standard gravity
acceleration, the gravity value for correction is positive. Otherwise, it is negative.
When a barometer is used for regular observation at a particular location, a synthesis correction
table summarizing the correction values for index error, temperature and gravity should be provided.

5.2.2 Aneroid Instruments
5.2.2.1 Aneroid Barometers
Aneroid barometers have lower accuracy than mercury barometers, but their compact and portable
configuration means that they are easier to handle and use, and are suitable for self-recording.
An aneroid barometer measures the distortion of an evacuated, sealed elastic capsule with changes in
atmospheric pressure. It consists of a barometer capsule, a spring to prevent the capsule from being
crushed by atmospheric pressure, and gears and levers that intensify and transmit small variations.
The elasticity of the barometer capsule varies with temperature, and a bimetallic plate is used for
temperature compensation. When an elastic body is distorted by pressure, it does not return to its exact
original shape even after the pressure is relieved. Due to this characteristic (called hysteresis), errors arise
from sharp changes in atmospheric pressure, and such errors are subject to secular change. To prevent this,
special materials are used for the elastic body, and stacked thin capsules or bellows are adopted in a number
of barometers.
The appearance of an aneroid barometer is shown in Figure 5.3, and its structure is shown in Figure 5.4.
Two barometer capsules facing each other are balanced around the pointer rotation axis. Two gears are
used symmetrically to reduce vibration, and two hair springs are attached to the gears to prevent backlash
from the pointer rotation gear.
Ct H
t
t
=

+
( )
1
C H H H
g g
g
g
= =

0
0
0

5
The hole for adjusting the pointer should be covered with a screw cap if one is available or with thin
paper to keep out dust and insects.
When kept in good condition, an aneroid barometer reading has a difference of about 0.2 hPa from that
of a mercury barometer. Its readings should be adjusted using the relevant correction value, which is
obtained at each observation using a mercury barometer. When recording a measurement, tap the glass
surface lightly and read the value to the nearest 0.1 hPa while paying close attention to parallax error.




5.2.2.2 Aneroid Barographs
The principle of an aneroid barograph is the same as that of an aneroid barometer, except a recording
pen is used instead of an index needle. The structure of an aneroid barograph is shown in Figure 5.5.
The displacement of the barometer capsule (1) caused by changes in atmospheric pressure is transmitted
to the recording pen (4) through the reed (2) and the lever (3). The recording pen (4) moves up and down
on the side of the clock-driven drum (5) to record variations in atmospheric pressure.
The barometer capsule (1) is vacuumed and balanced with atmospheric pressure through an internal
helical spring. As the elastic modulus varies with temperature, temperature changes at the equilibrium
point are corrected using a bimetallic compensator (6) on the mounting part of the barometer capsule to
compensate for the effect of temperature.
The indicator can be adjusted by rotating the indicator adjustment knob (7) in the upper part of the
barometer capsule (1) and by moving the pen arm (8) up and down.








Knob of index
Figure 5.3 Appearance of an aneroid
barometer
Index needle
Index
Barometer capsule
Scale
Index needle
Gear
Bimetallic compensator
Lever Hair spring
Figure 5.4 Mechanism of an
aneroid barometer

6





5.2.3 Electronic Barometers
A stable and continuous power supply is required to measure atmospheric pressure with an electronic
barometer.

5.2.3.1 Cylindrical Resonator Barometers
Cylindrical resonator barometers measure atmospheric pressure by resonating a thin cylinder and
reading changes in resonance frequency caused by variations in atmospheric pressure.
The sensor is a metallic double cylinder with one end closed and the space between the outer and inner
cylinders vacuumed (see Figure 5.6). The natural frequency of the inner cylinder (known as a cylindrical
oscillator) changes with the pressure applied to its inside, and atmospheric pressure can be ascertained by
measuring this frequency.
This cylindrical oscillator is equipped with four piezo-electric elements two for driving and the other
two for detecting the resonance frequency (see Figure 5.7).



Figure 5.6 Cylindrical resonator b
arometer cylinder
Cylinder
case
Vacuum
Resonator
Pressure
intake hole
Piezo-electric element
Detection
elements
Driving
elements
Second
mode
Fourth
mode
Figure 5.7 Resonance mode of de
tection and driving elements
Figure 5.5 Structure of an aneroid barograph
(1) Barometer capsule (2) Reed (3) Lever (4) Recording pen (5) Clock-driven
drum (6) Bimetallic compensator (7) Indicator adjustment knob (8) Pen arm
(9) Pin with ring (10) Holding screw of the clock-driven drum
(11) Gate suspension arm

7
To eliminate the influence of temperature changes, the cylindrical oscillator is provided with a
temperature sensor to allow correction.

5.2.3.2 Electrostatic Capacity Barometers
This type of barometer has a pressure sensor with dimensions of a few millimeters. It consists of a
silicon wafer to detect pressure, a substrate silicon chip and an insulating glass plate (see Figure 5.8). The
silicon wafer to detect pressure is etched to make an electrode and a diaphragm, and a vacuum gap between
the silicon and the glass plate is created.
The substrate silicon chip is also etched to make the other electrode. The electrodes formed by the
silicon wafer and the silicon chip separated by a vacuum gap create a kind of capacitor.
The shape of the diaphragm changes with atmospheric pressure, causing the vacuum gap to expand or
contract. Such deformation causes a change in the electrostatic capacity of the gap and the electrodes; this
slight change is detected as an electric signal and converted to an atmospheric pressure value.
Electrostatic capacity digital barometers feature high precision and long-term stability.


5.2.4 Reduction to Mean Sea Level
To compare the atmospheric pressure value at a certain location to a value at another location, it is
necessary to convert the values to the same referential altitude. The internationally accepted method for
this is to use mean sea level as the reference, and the conversion is referred to as reduction to mean sea
Vacuum gap
Electrostatic
capacity
: large
Atmospheric pressure : small
Atmospheric pressure : Large
Electrostatic
capacity
: small
Silicon substrate
Electrode
Glass substrate
Vacuum gap
Electrode interval
Electrode
Measurement of
electrostatic capacity
Atmospheric pressure
Silicon
diaphragm
Figure 5.8 Pressure sensor of an electrostatic capacity barometer

8
level.
Various methods for this reduction are used in individual countries. For international comparison,
however, methods need to be standardized to ensure data interchangeability. Two basic equations a
hydrostatic equation and a state of ideal gas equation are used in each country. Differences among the
methods used are found only in how gravity acceleration and mean virtual temperatures are calculated.
When the vertical distribution of air temperature and humidity between mean sea level and an
observation point are known, reduction to mean sea level can be made accurately. However, the air
temperature and humidity exactly at the observation point itself are generally known. The atmospheric
pressure at mean sea level is therefore obtained assuming a standard vertical distribution of air temperature
and humidity
Suppose there is a vertical column of air from the observation point to mean sea level. The
relationship between atmospheric pressure P at the observation point in hPa and atmospheric pressure P
0
at
mean sea level in hPa is given by:

where T
v
is the virtual temperature of the vertical air column in K, R is the gas constant of dry air in Jkg
-1
K
-1
,
and Z is the height from mean sea level to the barometer in meters.
Assuming that g is constant and equal to gravity acceleration at the observation point, the mean virtual
temperature is given by:

This produces:

The reduction to the mean sea level value AP is therefore given by:

Now T
Vm
is expressed as T
Vm
273.15 + t
m
+ c
m
(K), where t
m
is the average temperature of the air
column and c
m
is the effect of air humidity. Assuming the lapse rate of air temperature as 0.5C/100m
results in:

ln
P
P R
z
gdz
T
V
0
0
1
=
}
T
Z
z
dz
T
Vm
V
=
}
0
AP P P P
gZ
RT
Vm
= =
|
\

|
.
|

|
\

|
.
|
0
1 exp
P P
gZ
RT
Vm
0
=
|
\

|
.
|
exp

9

where t is the air temperature at the observation
point.
The value of c
m
is statistically determined as a
function of the average air temperature. The
relationship between t
m
and c
m
is graphically shown
in Figure 5.9, and is statistically derived from surface
observation data obtained at eight meteorological
observatories in Japan. This relationship is almost
the same as that in the lower atmosphere under
average conditions in Japan. The value of R is
287.05 Jkg
-1
K
-1
. This formula can be used to
calculate the reduction to mean sea level value AP to
one decimal place as a function of air temperature t
and atmospheric pressure P at the observation point. It is convenient to tabulate these reductions in
advance. Although the air temperature at the observation point t should be that at the height of the
barometer, the value at the observation site is used instead as the difference is negligible. Similarly, g
should be the average value down to mean sea level, but its influence is also negligible.
c
m
= (At
m
+ B) t
m
+ C
t
m
< -30.0 C : c
m
= 0.09
-30.0 s t
m
< 0.0 : A = 0.000489, B = 0.0300, C = 0.550
0.0 s t
m
< 20.0 : A = 0.002850, B = 0.0165, C = 0.550
20.0 s t
m
< 33.8 : A = -0.006933, B = 0.4687, C = -4.580
33.8 s t
m
: c
m
= 3.34


5.3 Maintenance
5.3.1 Maintenance of Mercury Barometers
Maintenance for mercury barometers is carried out in the following ways:
(1) Once a month, brush dust off the outer surface with a soft brush and wipe metal and glass parts with a
soft cloth. Check the barometer for flaws and cracks.
(2) If dirt has accumulated on the mercury level where the mercury comes into contact with the ivory
pointer, turn the adjustment screw as shown in Figure 5.2 to lower the level by approximately 3 mm.
Restore the adjustment screw, and any dirt present will be removed. At this time, refrain from
shaking the main body to remove dirt, as the inside of the glass tube may become soiled above the
mercury level, resulting in unclear readings.
(3) The degree of vacuum present should not be checked unless absolutely necessary.

( )
t t
Z
m
= + 0 005
2
.
Figure 5.9 Relationship between c
m
and t
m

c
m

t
m


10
5.3.2 Aneroid Instruments
5.3.2.1 Aneroid Barometers
Clean the surface or the glass part of an aneroid barometer with a soft cloth, or brush every week (see
Figures 5.3 and 5.4.).

5.3.2.2 Aneroid Barographs
Check aneroid barographs as indicated in Chapter 2: Measurement of Temperature. If there is a
difference of 0.3 hPa or more between an aneroid barograph reading and that of a mercury barometer, turn
the indicator adjustment knob (7) to adjust the indicator as shown in Figure 5.5.

5.3.3 Electronic Barometers
5.3.3.1 Cylindrical Resonators
As humid air in the sensor of a cylindrical resonator barometer results in an error of approximately 0.1
hPa in the pressure reading, replace the desiccant enclosed near the sensor every month.

5.3.3.2 Electrostatic Capacity Barometers
Electrostatic capacity barometers have high levels of performance and stability, and require no daily
maintenance.

5.4 Calibration
5.4.1 Mercury Barometers
In Japan, mercury barometers have not been used since 2007. Until then, they were subjected to
inspection and compared with standard precision mercury barometers at district meteorological
observatories every five years in order to obtain new correction values. At each district meteorological
observatory, three standards were compared to each other every six months to ensure high precision.

5.4.2 Aneroid Barometers
When the reading of an aneroid barometer differs from that of a mercury barometer by 0.3 hPa or more,
adjust the pointer as shown in Figure 5.4.

5.4.3 Electronic Barometers
5.4.3.1 Cylindrical Resonator Barometers
Cylindrical resonator barometers have high levels of precision and stability, and do not require frequent
calibration. However, they should be inspected and compared with standard precision mercury barometers
at regular intervals.
In Japan, when a new cylindrical resonator barometer is installed, the initial correction value should be
obtained by making at least 20 comparisons between the new device and a standard barometer and
calculating the average difference between them. Readings of the cylindrical resonator barometer and
those of a standard barometer at a fixed time every day should be compared to enable correction once a
month.

11

5.4.3.2 Electrostatic Capacity Barometers
Electrostatic capacity barometers also have high levels of precision and stability, and do not require
frequent calibration. However, they should be inspected and compared with standard precision barometers
at regular intervals.
In Japan, when a new electrostatic capacity barometer is installed, the initial correction value should be
obtained by making at least 20 comparisons between the new device and a standard barometer and
calculating the average difference between them.

5.5 Repair
5.5.1 Mercury Barometers
When the difference in observation values increases between mercury and aneroid barometer readings
and the mercury barometer appears to be defective, it should be repaired as follows (see Figure 5.2):
(1) The difference increase is probably caused by an impaired vacuum or loose mounting of the ivory
pointer. If the vacuum is impaired, drain the unit of its mercury and refill it. If the ivory pointer
mounting part is loose, disassemble and screw it tightly.
(2) If the knob (5) used to move the vernier (3) comes loose and causes a large backlash when the
graduation is adjusted, tighten the two nuts on the knob using a special tool (a pin-face wrench) (6).
(3) Do not lubricate the adjustment screw (18) or the knob (5) excessively. Excess oil will spread to melt
paint varnish and cause sticky threads, which will stiffen the screw even more. It will also soak into
the wash-leather bag (15) and the wooden part and contaminate the mercury. If the adjustment screw
(18) is stiff, it is probably bent or the thread is soiled. In such cases, replace the screw or remove and
clean it with a brush and cloth.
(4) When the level of a mercury barometer seems to be improper due to influences such as earthquakes,
loosen the three screws of the vertical-axis pivoting link. Check the level and tighten the screws
again.

5.5.2 Aneroid Instruments
5.5.2.1 Aneroid Barometers
Aneroid barometers are very precise instruments, and cannot be easily dismantled or repaired on site.

5.5.2.2 Aneroid Barographs
Repair aneroid barographs according to the repair instructions in Chapter 2: Measurement of
Temperature. When irregular movements of the pen arm are noticeable, perform repair as follows (see
Figure 5.5):
(1) Pull out the pin with ring (9) and the connecting pin. Clean the pinholes on the barometer capsule (1),
the reed (2) and the lever (3) with volatile oil or benzine and remove old oil. Polish the inside of the
holes with an oil-absorbing toothpick and apply a thin film of high-quality clock oil inside the holes
before assembly.
(2) Feel how the pivots rattle using your hands. Remove one pivot at a time. Clear out old oil and dust.

12
If the pivot is rusty, polish it evenly with a lathe or oilstone and lubricate it with clock oil as outlined
above in (1) before assembly.
(3) The reed (2) must be centered on the crack of the lever (3). If it is not, check the pin and the crack for
distortion and repair any defective parts before reassembly.
(4) To repair the clock-driven drum (5), refer to the relevant section in Chapter 2: Measurement of
Temperature.

5.5.3 Electronic Barometers
Cylindrical resonator and electrostatic capacity barometers mainly consist of electronic components, and
rarely have mechanical parts. It is therefore rarely possible to repair such devices on site.

5.6 Transport
5.6.1 Mercury Barometers
5.6.1.1 Method of transport
When transporting a mercury barometer, fill the vacuum part with mercury and turn the barometer
upside down to prevent air from entering. This also applies to indoor transport, regardless of distance.
For long-distance transport, use a leather carrying case and keep the barometer in the upside-down position.
(a) Removing a mercury barometer
To remove a mercury barometer from its hanger plate, gently turn the adjustment screw (18) (see
Figure 5.2) until the mercury column reaches the top of the tube. As this may be difficult to do only
by feeling the adjustment screw or listening to its metallic sound, pay careful attention to the mercury
columns movement while rotating the adjustment screw. If the cistern has an air vent, it must be
closed tightly at this stage.
After turning the adjustment screw, loosen the three screws of the vertical-axis pivoting link and
remove the screw in the upper part of the hanger plate. Hold the main body firmly with both hands
and remove it from the hanger plate.
(b) Turning the mercury barometer upside down
After removing the mercury barometer from the hanger plate, tilt it slowly and turn it upside down.
(c) Storing the mercury barometer in a leather carrying case
Check the leather carrying case to ensure that the barometer will not fall out, that the shoulder belt is
not worn, and that the cap can be tightened securely. After these checks, carefully put the barometer
(as turned upside down in step (b)) into its case. When the mercury cistern is about to enter the case,
grab the adjustment screw securely with one hand and lift up the case with the other hand so that the top
of the mercury barometer reaches the end of it.
After putting the barometer into the case, pad the area around the mercury cistern with cushioning
material for support.

5.6.1.2 Precautions for transport
If the temperature of the barometer rises during transport, the mercury will expand and may break the
glass tube or leak out. To prevent this, loosen the adjustment screw (18) by one or two turns (see Figure

13
5.2) in advance.
Carry the leather case over the shoulder and do not swing it.
For long-time transport by rail or boat, place the case upright in a safe place so that the barometer is
always upside down. If it is impossible to keep the case upright, be careful not to allow it to tilt more than
30 degrees. For temporary placement during transport, ensure it is stable so that it does not fall down
accidentally.
Air transport of mercury and associated instruments is regulated by the International Air Transport
Association (IATA).

5.6.2 Aneroid Instruments
Generally, aneroid instruments have a measuring range from 900 hPa to 1,050 hPa. This type of
barometer should not be transported by air, as barometer capsules may break when the measurement range
is exceeded.
For details on the transportation of aneroid barograph clock-driven drums, refer to Chapter 2:
Measurement of Temperature.

5.7 Installation
5.7.1 Mercury Barometers
(1) Checking a Mercury Barometer
After taking the barometer out of its leather carrying case, check it for damage, distortion and
mercury leakage . After confirming that there are no problems, tighten the adjustment screw (18)
(Figure 5.2) until it stops and all air is removed.
(2) Returning the Mercury Barometer to its Vertical Setting
After removing the air by tightening the adjustment screw (18), hold the barometer with both hands
and turn it slowly back to a vertical setting. Then, turn the vernier knob (5) and check that it is not too
stiff or too loose.
(3) Testing for the Presence of Gas in the Barometer Tube
Holding the barometer firmly with one hand, tap the brass cover (21) of the mercury cistern with
the fingers of the other hand a few times and loosen the adjustment screw (18) a little. When the top
of the mercury column (4) appears in the upper part of the slot (2), tighten the screw by half a turn so
that the top of the mercury column (4) is slightly hidden in the upper part of the slot (2). Tilt the
barometer slowly holding it with both hands. At an angle of about 30 degrees, the mercury will reach
the top of the barometer tube (8) and emit a clicking sound. If the click is sharp and metallic, the
mercury column has reached the top without coming up against any gas. When performing this test,
the operator should be aware of the risk of breaking the barometer tube by tilting the unit too quickly.
(4) Checking the Attached Thermometer
Check the attached thermometer (7) for breakage or disconnection of the mercury column.
(5) Checking the Hanger Plate
Check the integrity of the upper and lower milky white glass, the hanger hook, the vertical-axis
pivoting link and the wall hanger hook of the hanger plate. Check the latch screw and the three

14
vertical-axis pivoting link screws to ensure they are not distorted or missing.
(6) Installing a Mercury Barometer
Mercury barometers must be installed as close to the vertical as possible to minimize reading errors.
Before installation, remove the attached thermometer and the latch screw and loosen the centripetal
screw. With the glass cylinder (12) filled with mercury, stand the barometer upright and insert the
adjustment screw (18) into the center of the vertical-axis pivoting link.
Next, hang the hanger ring (1) from the hanger hook and attach the screw of the hanger hook.
Using the three screws, secure the vertical-axis pivoting link to keep it in an upright position.
Turn the adjustment screw (18) slowly until the mercury level in the cistern is 1 mm below the
ivory pointer. Do not lower the mercury level abruptly, as the air inside the brass cover (21) is
compressed and will leak through the wash-leather bag to the mercury level, causing bubbles in the
mercury tube (8). Make sure that no bubbles appear in the upper part of the barometer tube (8) during
this process. If the wash-leather bag is too hard, the mercury level may not go down smoothly when
the screw is loosened. In such cases, pay close attention to any sudden fall in the mercury level. If
the level does not go down spontaneously, tap the adjustment screw (18) from below with a finger.
After installing the barometer, re-attach the thermometer. Leave the unit as is for at least a day for
conditioning at room temperature.

5.7.2 Aneroid Instruments
5.7.2.1 Aneroid Barometers
(1) Pre-installation Inspection
Before installing a barometer, check it for glass breakage. Make sure that the index (Figure
5.3) moves smoothly and can stop at any point. Shake the barometer slightly and listen to its internal
sound to check for loose screws and nuts.
(2) Pre-installation Adjustment
Rotate the indicator adjustment knob to set the indicator to atmospheric pressure measured with a
mercury barometer on site.
(3) Installing an Aneroid Barometer
The barometer should be installed in a barometer room. If this is not possible, place it away from
direct sunlight and extreme temperature changes. The unit should also be positioned in a place free
from vibration and strong impacts. When installing a barometer on a pillar or a wall, secure it tightly
with wood screws to prevent it from falling.
A barometer specifically intended for horizontal installation should be used in its accessory case or
wooden box for protection.

5.7.2.2 Aneroid Barographs
(1) Pre-installation Inspection
Before installing an aneroid barograph, check the main body (Figure 5.5) and the clock-driven
drum (5) for breakage, distortion, loose or missing screws and other disorders. If there are no
problems, attach the clock-driven drum (5) to the main body. With the pin with ring (9) removed,

15
make sure that the tip of the recording pen (4) aligns with the graduation line for time (curvature) on
the recording chart. Make sure that the pen pressure is appropriate.
Insert the pin with ring (9) into the lever (3) and the reed (2). Turn the indicator adjustment knob
(7) to adjust the reading to atmospheric pressure measured with a mercury barometer on site. At this
time, apply slight vibration to ensure that the pen tip stays at the same point.
Finally, wind the spring of the clock-driven drum and check that it operates properly.
(2) Pre-installation Adjustment
Avoid changing the magnification by mistake on site, as this will necessitate re-inspection. Also
be careful not to change the temperature correction bimetallic mounting position, as this will affect
precision.
If the tip of the recording pen (4) does not align with the graduation line for time on the recording
chart, the clock-driven drum may be offset. Correct it with reference to Chapter 2: Measurement of
Temperature.
(3) Installation of the Aneroid Barograph
As a general rule, aneroid barographs should be positioned on a solid desk or table in a barometer
room. Lay a rubber sheet or similar cushioning under the barograph to absorb any vibration from the
building.

5.7.3 Electronic Barometers
Cylindrical resonator and electrostatic capacity barometers should be used according to the operating
instructions. Since they contain precise electronic parts and circuits, they should be installed away from
humidity, direct sunlight and vibration.

5.8 Practical Training
5.8.1 Aneroid Barometers
It is not necessary to perform aneroid barometer repair at the station. For practice here, open the cover
and check the mechanism. Observe the barometer capsules, gears, lever and hair springs (see Figures 5.3
and 5.4).

5.8.2 Aneroid Barographs
Examine the aneroid barograph to understand its mechanism for maintenance. An aneroid barograph
consists of a barometer capsule, a clock-driven drum and a pen system. The indicator can be adjusted by
rotating the pointer adjustment knob. Repair the clock-driven drum with reference to the repair
instructions in Chapter 2: Measurement of Temperature. It is advisable not to shift the pen arm or the
bimetallic compensator.

5.8.3 Disassembling and Cleaning a Mercury Barometer
(1) Preparation and Precautions
This section covers the practice of disassembling and cleaning a Fortin barometer. Cleaning
should ideally be carried out on a fine, dry day as high-temperature air with high humidity contains

16
more dust. Cleaning should be performed slowly and steadily.
The barometer must be turned upside down for disassembly and cleaning work in the same way as
for transportation. With the barometer in a vertical setting, tighten the adjustment screw (Figure 5.2
(18)) and fill the glass tube with mercury.
When the mercury comes into contact with the top of the glass tube, it will emit a metallic click.
This sound should be kept in mind to check for the entry of air bubbles after cleaning.
After filling the glass tube with mercury, remove the barometer from the hanger plate and turn it
upside down.
Ensure that cleaning tools are free of oil, moisture and acid to prevent amalgamation.
During disassembly and cleaning, it is important to remember the feeling of the screws tightness
so that the components can be reassembled as they were before.
The items required for disassembly and cleaning are listed in the attached table.
(2) Disassembling the Mercury Cistern
In the same way as for barometer transportation, turn the unit upside down after the mercury
reaches the top of the glass tube. Install it in a repair
frame (Figure 5.10). It is advisable to pack the
barometer with a polyethylene bag from the scale to the
barometer tube. While pressing the brass cylinder, turn
the screw under the cover (Figure 5.11 (b)) to the left to
remove it.
Pick up the wash-leather bag to check for mercury
leakage. If mercury is leaking, press the wooden base
screw bridge with a finger, turn the barometer back to the
vertical setting and run the leaking mercury into a beaker.
This leaked mercury will be amalgamated, and must not
be mixed with that in the cistern.
Pressing the upper part of the three screws (Figure
5.11 (d)) with one hand, turn the brass cylinder (Figure
5.11 (c)) to the left to remove it. If the screw is stiff,
tighten it slightly and apply a small amount of oil or tap it
lightly before loosening it again.
Tap the wash-leather bag to remove the mercury, and
turn the boxwood (Figure 5.12) to which the bag is attached counterclockwise. If the screw is stiff,
tighten it with a thickish hemp thread (Figures 5.13 (a), (b)) with the other end wrapped around your
hand (Figure 5.13 (c)) and turn the boxwood counterclockwise with the thread. This should be done
carefully to avoid leakage from the mercury-filled glass cylinder (Figure 5.12).
(3) Draining Mercury from the Mercury Cistern
Syringe a small amount of mercury into a beaker being careful to avoid splashing. Insert a finger
into the mercury cistern to feel for the opening of the tube (Figure 5.14 ). Plug the opening with a
finger to prevent mercury from escaping, and bear in mind that excess force will break the tapered part
Figure 5.10 Repair frame
and polyethylene tub
Repair frame
Polyethylene tub

17
of the tube. While plugging the opening of the tube with the middle finger, lift the barometer with the
other hand and pour the mercury into a beaker slowly without spilling any outside it. After pouring
all the mercury, turn the barometer upside down as before and unplug the opening of the glass tube.
(4) Disassembling the Mercury Cistern Glass Cylinder
Loosen and remove the three screws (Figure 5.15 (a)) one by one while feeling their tightness for
future reference. Next, remove the brass metal frame, the boxwood and the glass cylinder (Figure
5.16).
It is advisable to mark the screws and holes to prevent mismatching during reassembly. The glass
tube seam and gasket positions should also be marked to prevent mercury leakage after reassembly.
The leather gaskets of the upper and lower parts of the glass tube should not be removed. If they
become heavily soiled, however, remove and soften them well. Pinch each gasket with a pair of
tweezers and immerse it in a beaker filled with filtered mercury to adsorb dirt, then attach the gaskets
during reassembly.
(5) Filtering Mercury and Cleaning Components
To filter mercury, pour it through a strainer over a beaker covered with thick paper (cross-grained
paper) (see Figure 5.17).
First, filter the mercury with a coarse strainer, then again with a fine one. Repeat twice or more
until no dust remains. Since this process takes a long time, filtering work should be started as soon as
the mercury is drained into the beaker.
Wipe the glass cylinder using cleaning paper moistened with alcohol while being careful not to rub
off the marks. Taking care not to damage the glass cylinder, scrape off excess dirt with a cutter then
polish the surface using a toothbrush and toothpaste. Wipe the glass cylinder sufficiently to remove
moisture.
Wipe the boxwood part (Figure 5.16) and the inside of the wash-leather bag (Figure 5.12) with
cleaning paper. Then, fill the bag up to about 1/3 with single-filtered mercury, hold the bag with one
hand to prevent the mercury from splashing, and rub it with the other hand to allow the mercury to
adsorb the dirt. Repeat this process until no dirt remains in the bag.
Filter the contaminated mercury repeatedly it until it is clean.
Gently wipe dust off the ivory pointer using a brush and paper taking care not to move or damage
the pointer, as this will affect the level of index error. Wipe dust off the wooden frame and glass tube
using a brush and cleaning paper.
ome barometers contain mica plates (Figure 5.2 (22)) inside the brass cover (Figure 5.2 (21)).
Remove these plates carefully and wipe off dust with cleaning paper or a brush.
Bubbles often cling to the inlet of the glass tube. Remove them by inserting a well-dried iron wire,
a needle or a similar object.
(6) Assembling the Mercury Cistern Glass Cylinder
Reassemble the glass cylinder in the reverse order of disassembly. Before reassembly, wipe any
dust off with clean paper or brush very carefully.
Holding the upper and lower parts of the glass tube, assemble it to the main body. Be careful not
to mix up the upper and lower ends and their orientation or leave fingerprints. While the gasket is off,

18
soften and wash it well with mercury before setting it into the groove.
Place the boxwood (Figure 5.16) on the main body and cover it with the brass metal frame (Figure
5.16), paying careful attention to the marks and gaskets.
Attach the three screws (Figure 5.16) in their original positions. Tighten them while rotating the
main body and adjusting their balance in relation to each other. Unbalanced tightening may result in
mercury leakage or glass tube breakage.
To clean the assembled mercury cistern (Figure 5.15), pour mercury through the clearance of the
wooden base while filtering so that the mercury adsorbs dirt. To drain the mercury, plug the tube
opening (Figure 5.15 (b)) with a fingertip covered with a fingerstall and turn the main body upside
down. If this is done when the mercury is concave at the opening of the tube, bubbles will enter the
tube. To prevent this, heat the tubes main body with a dryer to allow the mercury to expand before
plugging the opening.
(7) Filling with Mercury
Pour filtered mercury into the mercury cistern while filtering it again through a fine strainer. Keep
the mercury covered (Figure 5.17) to prevent dust from entering.
The mercury will be concave at the opening of the finger-plugged tube. If it is poured while this
concavity remains, air bubbles will appear at the top of the tube when the barometer is turned back to
its vertical setting, thereby deteriorating the degree of vacuum. Expand the mercury by heating it
with a drier until it becomes convex at the opening of the tube. As this convexity is hardly visible
from above, it must be viewed carefully from other angles.
When the mercury becomes convex at the tube opening, filter and pour it again until the liquid rises
with surface tension just before overflowing. Add refined mercury if required.
(8) Assembling the Mercury Cistern
Wipe any dust off the wash-leather bag and secure the wooden frame tightly to avoid spillage of the
rising mercury. Make sure that the gaskets are properly attached inside the wooden frame.
Push the screw bridge wood of the wash-leather bag into the mercury cistern with a fingertip to
ensure that no mercury is leaking from the mercury cistern glass cylinder or the wooden frame (Figure
5.12). Stop any leakage by tightening the three screws of the brass metal frame. If mercury is still
leaking, disassemble the gasket and soften it again.
Take care not to break the screws of the brass cylinder when tightening them. If a screw has been
amalgamated due to mercury leakage, contact the relevant service personnel for repair.
Tighten the adjustment screw to complete the assembly of the glass cylinder.
At this stage, remove the polyethylene bag attached to the barometer.
(9) Cleaning the Graduation Protective Glass Tube
If a mercury barometer is left for an extended period without use, the graduation protective glass tube
(Figure 5.18 (b)) may become so soiled that the vernier cannot be read clearly. The tube should be
cleaned when the mercury cistern is checked.
To prevent the entry of bubbles, tighten the adjustment screw and turn the barometer back to its
vertical setting. Loosen the adjustment screw by two or three turns.
Loosen the glass catch ring-holding screw (Figure 5.18 (a)) under the graduation protective glass

19
tube to bring it down together with the protective tube. Remove the latch-holding screw (Figure 5.18
(c)) when it comes out of the graduation protective glass tube. The metal hanger fixture should now
come off.
The graduation protective glass tube will also come off. Clean the inside with paper and lightly
dust off the graduation and vernier. If there is any amalgamation on the graduation, the instrument
should be repaired by service personnel.
After cleaning the glass tube, attach the latch-holding screw. Lift the protective tube catch ring
slightly and tighten the holding screw. Assemble the glass tube with enough clearance to allow
rattling in order to accommodate expansion.
(10) Inspecting the Barometer
After disassembling, cleaning and reassembling the barometer, check the outer tube for mercury
drops. Stand the barometer upside down and leave it overnight to check for mercury leakage. If any
leakage is found, readjust the screws.
If there is no leakage, turn the barometer back to its vertical setting and inspect the degree of
vacuum. This can be judged by listening for a metallic click when the mercury comes into contact
with the top of the glass tube. When this sound is heard in the same way as before disassembly, the
degree of vacuum is satisfactory.
If two barometers are available, compare their index errors before cleaning. Compare them again
after cleaning to ensure that there is no change in the index error.















20







Tools for practice
Figure 5.11
Mercury cistern
Figure 5.12 Boxwood
with wash-leather bag
Figure 5.13 Method of turning
the boxwood if the screw is stiff
Figure 5.14 Pouring
mercury into a beaker
(b) Tightening
with thread
Figure 5.15 Glass cylinder
(c) Turning the
boxwood counter
clockwise with
thread

(b) Tube opening
(a) Adjustment screw
(b) Screw under
cover
(c) Brass
cylinder
(d) Screw

21








Tube opening
Strainer
(c) Latch-holding
screw
(b) Graduation
protective
glass tube
(a) Glass catch
Ring-holding screw
Figure 5.16 Parts of a mercury
cistern glass cylinder

22
ATTACHED TABLE

Tool and supplies for disassembly and cleaning of a mercury barometer
Tools or supplies
Number of tools or
supplies
Purpose
Repair frame 1 set Setting barometer upside down
Beaker 4 Pouring mercury from barometer
Mercury strainer 1 coarse, 1 fine Filtering barometer mercury
Squirter 1 Syringing mercury into a beaker
Tweezers 1 pair Pinching gaskets
Cutter 1 Scraping off excess dirt on glass cylinder
Drier 1 Heating barometer tube to prevent air-bubble entry
Soft brush and cloth 1 of each Cleaning barometer metal and glass parts
Tool for adjustment of 3
screws
1 Attaching 3 screws in original positions
Dust pan 1 Picking up splashed mercury
Polyethylene tub 1 Setting under repair frame and gathering leaked
mercury
Well-dried iron wire 1 Removing air bubbles by insertion into glass tube
Alcohol 500 cc Wiping glass cylinder with moistened paper
Toothbrush and
toothpaste
1 Polishing glass cylinder surface
Cleaning paper
(fluff-free)
100 sheets Wiping glass cylinder, ivory pointer, etc.
Cross-grained paper
(thick paper)
1 sheet Supporting strainer and covering beaker
Polyethylene bag 10 sheets Storing dust
Refined mercury 2 kg Adding to mercury cistern if required
Leather gaskets (attached
to the glass cylinder)
2 sheets Spare
Gaskets (attached to the
wash-leather bag)
1 sheet Spare