Anthropology 1001 Notes

9/5/2012 6:51:00 AM

Gregor mendal (1822-1884) In 1866 his results from his study was published o P: plants were derived from round and wrinkle o F1: round & round o F2 : round 75%, wrinkled 25% o F3: round (100%) round (75%) round (25%) wrinkled (100%) Principle of segregation : genes occur in pairs in an individual. In the production of sex cells, the pair of genes separated. Gene: segment of DNA that codes for protein. Allele: alternative form of the gene Punnett square: in genetics, a type of grid used to show the gametes of each parent and their possible offspring. Genotype: Homozygote: having 2 copies of the same allele Heterozygote: having 1 copy of different allele Dominate allele: expressed phenotypically in both homozygote and heterozygote. Recessing allele: expressed phenotypically only in homozygotes. Principles of independent Assortment: the segregation of one pair of gene does not influence the segregation of the other pair of genes. Seed texture Round R wrinkle w Tall T Short S RwTs Homologous chromosomes: pair of the chromosomes with the same sequence of genes.

Chromatids- identical strands of DNA Centromere- constricted portion of the chromosome that hold two chromatids together. Interphase Genes are active Chromosomes duplicate/ replication Mitosis Prophase Metaphase chromosomes align independently from one another Anaphase centromeres Telophase

Results of mitosis 1. Two daughter cells are produced, both with the diploid chromosome number. Diploid- full complement of chromosomes 2. Both daughter cells are genetically identical with each and the parent cell. Ultimate function- production of the daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. Meiosis Sex cells are produced Function production of sex cells for the transmission of chromosomes from the parent to the offspring. Synapsis- pairing of homologous chromosomes crossing over ( recombination) physical exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Meiosis o Prophase 1- synapsis of the homologous chromosomes and crossing over.

o Metaphase 1- homologous chromosomes remain paired, independent alignment of nonhomologous chromosomes o Anaphase 1- centromeres do not divide o Telophase 1 o Prophase 2: o Metaphase 2 nonhomologous chromosomes align independently for one another. o Anaphase2: centromeres divide o Telophase 2 : each cell divided, four cell Results of meiosis Four daughter cells are produced, each daughter cells has the haploid chromosome number. Haploid- one half of the chromosome complement. Each daughter cell is genetically different from one another and from the parent cell.

Mitosis Prophase Metaphase- homologous chromosomes align independently from one another. Anaphase- centromeres divide

Meiosis Prophase I- synapsis; crossing over Metaphase I- homologous chromosomes remain align with one another; non homologous chromosomes align independently from one another. Anaphase I- centromeres do not divide Metaphase II non homologous chromosomes align independently from one another. Anaphase II- centromeres divide

Replication of a chromosome

Occurs during interphase. When a chromosome replicates, two chromatids are produced and held together by a centromere.

DNA is comprised of nucleotides. Nucleotides- consist of phosphoric acid, sugar, and a base 4 bases in DNA adenine A Thymine T Cyosine C Guanine G Replication is semi conservative in that each DNA strand acts as a template (i.e. master strand for copying) for the formation of another strand. Two chromatids are produced; each chromatid consist of one parental strand and a newly synthesized daughter strand. Gene- sequence of nucleotides that is a segment of dna that codes the production of a protein. Protein (polypeptide) is a macromolecule of amino acids that is functional in the body. Amino acid components of a protein; 20 of them

Formation of a protein Two stage process Proteins are synthesized at ribosomes. Ribosomes are in the cytoplasm. Transcription formation of messages RNA (mRNA) RNA four bases, A, G, C, uracil. Bonding pairs- a-u, c-g Codon triplet sequence of nucleotides in DNA or mRNA that spaces ( code for) a particular amino acid. Translation formation of a protein tRNA- carries a single amino acid and a tRNA has an anti codon.

Anti codon- is a triplet sequence of nucleotides that bond temporary a tRNA to a codon.

Consequence in a point mutation No change in the amino acid sequence of a protein; no change in the protein. Neutral (silent) mutation- that is neutral with respect to natural selection. There is a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein; a new protein is formed. The change in the protein is not functionally important, that is the change is neutral with the respect to natural selection. Functionally important. The natural selective advantage and disadvantage is contingent on environmental circumstances. Hemoglobin Alpha 141 amino acid Beta 146 amino acid Chromosomal mutations- the position of a gene on a chromosome may be important in its phenotype expression. If the position of a gene is changed, so too may be its phenotypic effect. Imbalance in chromosome number

Test 2: notes October 23

9/5/2012 6:51:00 AM

Polymorphism- situation where there exists > 2 alleles for a gene, and at least 2 alleles have frequency >1% Polymorphism is due to natural selection acting on genetic variation caused by mutation Interaction between natural selection and mutation Balanced polymorphism- situation where there exists > 2 alleles for a gene, and at least 2 alleles have frequency >1&. Due to heterozygotes having higher fitness than homozygotes. Sickle cell hemoglobin due to one point mutation.( change in one nucleotide), affecting one amino acid in beta chain o Sickle cell allele is polymorphic in some geographical areas (Central Africa) Malaria Malaria caused by parasite transmitted between individuals by mosquito Heterozygotes for sickle cell have lower rate of malarial infection compared to homozygotes for normal hemoglobin Heterozygotes for sickle cell have selective destruction of red blood cells, Uninfected RBC do not sickle; infected RBCs sickle and kill parasites Heterozygotes can conjointly supply oxygen to tissues and suppress parasitic proliferation In malarial environment heterozygotes for sickle cell have natural selective advantage over homozygotes for normal hemoglobin and sickle cell. Alleles for both normal and sickle cell hemoglobin are maintained at high frequencies; this is a balanced polymorphism

Evolution of balanced polymorphism for sickle cell Spread of slash-and-burn agriculture is related to natural selective advantage of sickle cell allele. Other RBC polymorphics and Malaria Thalassemia and G-6PD deficiency - are at polymorphic levels in some pops. Homozygosis for thalassemia results in early death: heterozygotes can survive

 G-6-PD deficiency- individuals are phenotypically normal Conclusion polymorphism of RBC variants and malaria Natural selection is opportunistic. Selections acts of the phenotypic/genotypic variability that exists in a pop Pop differ in their RBC mutations; each RBC variant is selectively advantageous in malarial environment; consequently each variant is perpetuated by natural selection Interaction of natural selection and mutation means that pop may show different adaptations to the same environment stress Human Bio cultural adaptation Lactase- enzyme that allows you to digest lactose, which is a sugar in milk Lactase intolerance- deficiency in lactase o Symptoms; diarrhea, nausea, cramps, gas Humans can digest milk as babies, but most of us lose the ability after weaning Adults in some population are lactose tolerant Pops with long histories of dairying are typically lactase tolerant o Mutation for ability to digest milk as adults would have provided a natural selective advantage variation Our species is polytypic o Polytypism- phenotypically different pop in a species Polytypism is a result of diversity of environments that we inhabit. Our pops diversify because of natural selection, but our pops remain within a single species because of gene flow Race- not a biologically useful grouping of humans

Human

Human Adaptation Adaptation o Evolutionary perspective- result of natural selection Human variation perspecevtive- any beneficial modification that relieves environmental and enhances survival of individuals o Types Behavior Short-term acclimatization (reversible)

 Developmental acclimatization (irreversible) Genetic (result of natural selection) Acclimatization occurs at the level of the individual o Demonstrates the plasticity of human response to environmental stress o All humans are capable of having these responses o Acclimatization can be short term and reversible or developmental and irreversible Skin Pigmentation Pigment is melanin Melanin is produced in melanocytes, which are in epidermis of skin Melanin is packaged into granules called melanosomes Melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes, which are also in epidermis Melanin functions to block UV radiation from penetrating skin and damaging DNA.

Genetic similarities between heavily and lightly individuals All people have about the same number of melanocytes. Compared to lightly melanized individual, heavily melanized individual: o 1. Produces more melanosomes, o 2. Has larger melanosomes, and o 3. Melanosomes are more dispersed in keratinocyte.

Natural selective advantage to variation in skin pigmentation Dark skin pigmentation is adaptive in areas of intense ultraviolet radiation. o Melanin functions to absorb UV radiation. o Reduces likelihood of skin cancer and degradation of folate. Light skin pigmentation id adaptive in areas of low ultraviolet radiation. o Allows sufficient synthesis of vitamin D o Reduces likelihood of rickets. Human adaptation to low temperature environments: body shape Bergmanns rule

o Body mass is higher in areas with lower temperatures. Allens Rule o Length of arms and legs is shorter in areas with lower temperatures.

Human adaptation to low temperature environments: Pops. living in low temperature environments show an extremities adaptation: Higher basal metabolic rate o Efficient vasoconstriction; maintain higher temperature of fingers and toes. Pops. living in high temperature environments show a hypothermic adaptation. Lower basal metabolic rate. Adaptation to low temperature environments Adaptations to low temperature environments by body shape, metabolism, and blood flow are developmental (irreversible) acclimatization. Adaptation to high altitude Hypoxia (i.e, low atmospheric oxygen levels) is a stress of high altitude. Delivery of oxygen to tissues Oxygen transfers between compartments of body by diffusion. Diffusion- movement of gas from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration. Two variables influence rate of diffusion: Concentration difference and, Surface area. Adaptations to high altitude Reversible (short term) acclimatizations o 1. Hyperventilation

function- increase concentration difference of oxygen between lungs and blood. o 2. Increase red blood cell production function- increase number of vehicles for picking up and carrying oxygen o 3. Increase in 2,-3 DPG (diphosphoglycerate) function- 2,3 DPG releases oxygen from hemoglobin, thereby maintaining concentration gradient for diffusion of oxygen from blood to cells. o 4. Increase number of blood vessels function- increase surface area for diffusion of oxygen from blood to cells.

Adaptation to high altitude Developmental (irreversible) acclimatization o Increase in lung capacity o Enlargement of (right ventricle) of heart o Increase circumference of chest. Natural selection is opportunistic Props. Differ in adaptations to high altitude: o Peru- high level of hemoglobin o Himalaya- high rate of respiration o Ethiopia- no difference with sea level residents. Species systematics- study of the relationships among groups of organisms. Taxonomy- system for classifying organisms. Carolus Linnaeus developed the taxonomic scheme that we use. Kingdom= animalia Phylum=chordate Class=mammalia Order=primates Family= hominidae Genes=homo

Species=sapiens Species- binomial name- genus and species Essence was a suite of traits that characterized the taxon. Therefore, specied differ among themselves in their essence. If two or more species share parts of their essences, then those species may be classified the same genus. Correspondingly, each genus has a unique essence. If two or more genera share part of their essence, those genera may be classified in the same family. Consequently classification was based on shared traits and importantly there was no fundamentally difference among the categories Modern biologists regard the species category as being different from the higher categories. Species is the unit of evolution o A species is a true, biological, identifiable group of organisms. The higher categories are not true biological units. The classification of species into higher categories is based on researches opinion about the relationships among species. Therefore, researchers present different taxonomies. Evolutionary implication Linnaeus was a creationist. Taxonomy illustrated the order in nature featured by God. Taxonomy also facilitated communications among biologist. Modern biologist use taxonomy to make evolutionary statements. For example, two species that classified in the same genus are implied to share a close phylogenetic relationship. Phylogenetic= evolutionary lines of descent; ancestor- descendant relationships. Order of primates: Suite traits that characteristics primates 1. prehensile hands and feet

2. nails, not claws 3. increased reliance on vision eyes position at front of skull, providing 3d vision 4. decreased reliance on smell short snout 5. postorbital bar 6. increase sixe of brain 7. give birth to one or two offspring 8. long period of juvenile development. Theories on adaptive significance of traits that characterize primates 1. arboreal theory- early primates were adapting to life in the trees. 2. visual predation theory- early primates were predators of insects. 3. fruit eating theory- early primates forages on fruits. Dental formula Number of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars Always symmetry in number of teeth in left and right halves of maxilla (upper jaw) and of mandible (lower jaw) Dental formula shows only half of the dentition.

Dietary categories Insectivory insects Frugivory- fruit Folivory- foliage (e.g. leaves, vines) Omnivory- varied diet Locomotion Categories of locomotion o (vertical clinging and leaping) o quadrupealism o arm-swinging, brachiation o bipedality social organization polygyny

o noyau- adults are dispersed and do not form a social group. Territory of one male overlaps the territories of several females. o Single male and multiple- male polygyny- there are social groups of males and females. Chimpanzee- two species- pan troglodytes and pan paniscus Found in tropical Africa Chimpanzee diet Diet is frugivory o Principal food is fruit, but chimpanzees also eat leaves, insects, and occasionally hunt small mammals. ( colobus monkeys). Varied locomotion o Arm swinging in trees o Knuckle-walking on the ground o Occasional bipedalism on the ground Only chimpanzees and gorillas are knuckle walkers. Chimpanzees morphology Morphologies o Arms are longer than legs o Broad thorax o Mobile, flexible wrist o Stiff back (few lumber vertebrae) o No tail o Dental formula 2,1,2,3/2,1,2,3 o Y-5 cusp pattern on lower molars Chimpanzees behavior: hunts smaller animals. Social organization is multiple male polygyny multiple male , multiple female troop structure o Mating patterns vary from promiscuity to short term pair bonding Chimpanzees behaviors Males remain in the troop in which they were born, whereas females emigrate from their birth troop.

 Males are territorial and will attack males from other troops. Chimpanzee: Issues Used as a model for understanding earliest human ancestors Culture- evidence of culture is populational differences in tools and behavior and these differences seem to be unrelated to local ecological conditions Gorilla Genus: Gorilla one Species: Gorilla gorilla Gorilla Diet Diet is folivory Gorillas primarily eat vegetation, such as leaves buds and pith Do not eat meat

Gorilla Locomotion Gorilla locomotion is primarily quadrupedal knuckle-walking on the ground Morphology Same as Chimps Marked sexual dimorphism in body size, with males being two times larger than females Prominent sagittal crest Gorilla Behavior Social organization is single-male polygyny, with a single adult male and several adult female and juveniles Single adult male is the silverback. The single adult male in social group is the silverback, indicated by the silver on his back. Gorilla Behavior Both males and females emigrate from their birth troop Not territorial Only two reported instances of tool use

Orangutan Genus: Pongo One species: Pongo Pygmaeus Orangutans found in Indonesia on the island of Sumatra and Borno Orangutan Diet Diet is Frugirvory Orangutan Locomotion

 Slow, cautious climbers in the trees. Arboreally adapted Morphology Same as Gorillas Orangutan Behavior Social organization is noyau, which is dispersed single-male polygyny. Territory of a single male overlaps the territories of several females Social unit is an adult female and her dependent offspring Tool Use Sticks are modified and used to open fruits and to probe for honey or termites Gibbons Genus: Hylobates Gibbons found in rainforests of southeast asia Gibbons Diet Frugivory Gibbon locomotion Brachiation- rapid arm-over-arm swinging in the trees Morphology Same as Chimpanzees Long arms relative to legs Gibbon Behavior Monogamy Territoriality No tool use Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Old World Monkeys) Geographical distribution in Africa and Asia OW Monkeys Arms and legs equal in length Narrow thorax Less mobile wrist More lumbar vertebrae than apes Non-prehensile tail Dental formula: 2,1,2,3/2,1,2,3

Bilophodont cusp pattern on lower molars (4 cusps arranged at the four corners of the tooth, with a crest) Polygynous social organization Generalization-species with a polygynous social organization show sexual dimorphism in both canine tooth size and body size; males larger than females Sexual dimorphism evolves in polygynous species because males compete among themselves for rank in dominance hierarchy(multiple-male polygyny) or for control of a group of females(single-male polygyny)

Large canines and body size are effective in threat display and physical confrontation Locomotion OW monkeys are quadrupedal on the ground and in the trees Two subfamilies of OW monkeys Cercopithecinae Colobines Diet: folivory Anatomical specialization; enlarged complex stomach to digest large amount of leaves Subfamily Cercopithecinae Example Savanna Baboon Social organization is multiple male polygyny Males emigrate from birth troop; females stay in birth troop Separate dominance hierarchies for adult males and females Occasionally kills and eats small mammals and birds Used as a model for early hominin social organization and behavior Subfamily cercopithecine Gelada baboon Social organization is a single- male polygyny o Males emigrate from birth troop; females stay in birth troop. Eats seeds, grass, and roots Some dental anatomies are similar to early hominis Used as a model of early hominin behavior

 colobine

Diet is folivory: specialized diet of mature leaves anatomy: enlarged stomach for digestion of highly folivorous diet monkeys locomotion is quadrupedality arboreal lifestyle social organization

infanticide is practiced by males a male takes over a troop of females by ousting the resident male. New male attempts to kill nursing infants By killing nursing infants of previous male, the adult females no longer lactate and they can resume ovulation. New male can then impregnate the females to have his own offspring. Issue: culture in non humans primate species? Do non human primate species have culture? o Example of Japanese macaque monkey washing sweet potato NEW WORLD MONKEYS Found in Mexico, central and south America Three anatomical differences between new world monkeys and old world monkeys 1.Some new world monkeys have a prehensile tails o Old world monkeys have non prehensile tails 2. New world monkeys have dental formulas of 2,1,3,23,/2,1,3,3, or 2,1,3,2,/2,1,3,2. That is new world monkeys have three premolar teeth in each quadrant of mouth. o Old world monkeys have dental formulas of 2,1,2,3/2,1,2,3 3. New world monkeys have a broad nose. (broad nasal septum)

with one exception, all new world monkeys species are diurnal all old world monkeys and hominoids are dinurnal.

All new world monkeys species are arboreal, with mode of locomotion being either quadrupedalism or arm swinging. In contrast, some catarrhines are arboreal, whereas others are terrestrial. Diet is varied among species Frugivory Folivory Gummivory callitrichids are small, weighing 500 too 600g social organization are varied among species monogamy polygyny polyandry species with a polygynous social organization show sexual dimorphism in body size and canine tooth size; males are larger than females. Some small bodied new world monkeys have a polyandrous social organization. Females are of small body size, and give birth to twins. Mothers need helpers to carry the twins, otherwise her foraging efficiency and ability to avoid predators are compromised. Two adult males assist in carrying the twins. Several males assist in offspring care because they are uncertain about paternity. Primate taxonomy: Tarsiers and streosirhines Tarsiers Small bodied primates species get protein from insects Large bodied primate species get protein from leaves. Locomotion is vertical leaping Morphologies of tarsiers Very large eves

 Legs no longer than arms Non prehensile tail Dry, hairy area around the nose. Behavior Nocturnal o Large eyes are associated with nocturnality Social organization is noyau or monogamy Lemur Madagascar Know this- only lemurs are found on Madagascar; no other living Lorises Africa and southeast Africa Lemurs and lorises Locomotion is principally leaping Leaping: either leaping, or running and leaping some are slow, cautious climbing. Small bodies primates are leapers to cross gaps in forest canopy. Lorises have elongated thoracic and lumbar region; use their body as a bridge to cross gaps in forest. Morphologies Large eyes Legs no longer than arms Moist, hairless area around the nose Relatively smaller brain size than tarsiers and anthropoids Dental formula: 2,1,3,3/2,1,3,3 Toothcomb Non prehensile tail. Toothcomb Only lemurs and lorises Lower incisors and canines are bunched together Toothcomb may be used for grooming and for food procurement. Social organization noyau Most species are nocturnal

Some species of lemurs are diurnal , perhaps because of absence of competition with monkeys.

9/5/2012 6:51:00 AM