CIVIL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT AND GENERAL QUESTIONS REGARDING CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICE

Basics
Q: What is cement? A: Cement is a fine, soft, powdery substance, made from a mixture of elements found in natural materials such as limestone, clay, sand and/or shale. When cement is mixed with water, it can bind sand and gravel into a hard, solid mass called concrete. Cement is usually grey. White cement is also available, but is usually more expensive. 1. Cement mixed with water, sand and gravel, forms concrete. 2. Cement mixed with water and sand, forms cement plaster. 3. Cement mixed with water, lime and sand, forms mortar. Cement powder is extremely fine; one kilo (2.2lbs) contains over 300 billion grains. The powder is so fine it will pass through a sieve capable of holding water. In India, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is manufactured in three grades, viz. 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade. The numbers indicate the compressive strength obtained after 28 days, when tested as per the stipulated procedure. Apart from OPC, there are several other types of cement, mostly meant for special purposes, e.g. sulphate resistant cement, coloured cement, oil well cement etc. However, there are some generalpurpose cements, the commonest one being Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC). Q: What is natural cement? A: Natural cements are hydraulic cements, produced by mining natural deposits of limestone and clay with a specific chemical composition within a narrow range. When heated in a kiln and ground to a fine powder, a type of cement is produced, which through chemical reactions sets and hardens when mixed with water. The strength and uniformity of natural cements are lower than those of Portland cements; but these are more historically accurate materials for restoration projects, which is their primary application. Natural cements were extensively used in 19th and early 20th century construction in several historic structures. However, with improved technology for producing Portland cements, sales of natural cements began to decline in the late 1800s, stopping entirely by the mid 1970s. Q: How is cement made? A: 1) Limestone, the major ingredient needed for making cement is quarried. Small quantities of sand and clay are required as well. Limestone, sand and clay contain the four essential elements required to make cement: calcium, silicon, aluminium and iron. 2) Boulder-size limestone rocks are transported from the quarry to the cement plant and fed into a crusher, which crushes the boulders into marble-size pieces. 3) The limestone pieces then go through a blender where they are mixed with the other raw materials in the right proportion. 4) Raw materials are then ground to a powder. This is sometimes done with rollers that crush the materials against a rotating platform. 5) This mixture then goes into a huge, extremely hot, rotating furnace to undergo a process called sintering. Sintering means: to cause to become a coherent mass by heating without melting. In other words, the raw materials become partially molten. The raw materials reach about 2700 F (1480C) inside the furnace. This causes chemical and physical changes to the raw materials and they come out of the furnace as large, glassy, red-hot cinders called clinker. 6) This clinker is cooled and ground into a fine grey powder. A small amount of gypsum is added during the final grinding. The finished product is Portland cement. The cement is then stored in silos (large holding tanks) where it awaits distribution. The cement is usually shipped in bulk in purpose-made trucks, by rail or even by barges and ships. Some is bagged for those who want small quantities. Q: What are the different types of Cements? A: Portland cement: Portland cement is made by heating limestone with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination. The resulting hard substance, called clinker, which is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make Ordinary Portland Cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is the basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout. Its most common use is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any

shape desired, and once hardened can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white. Portland cement blends: These are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement manufacturers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from ground components at the concrete mixing plant. Portland Blastfurnace Cement contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace slag, Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as the slag content is increased, the early strength is reduced, while the sulphate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Portland Blastfurnace Cement is used as an economic alternative to Portland sulphateresisting and low-heat cements. Portland Flyash Cement contains up to 30% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows for lower concrete water content, early strength can be maintained. This can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement where good quality, cheap fly ash is available. Portland Pozzolan Cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, in addition to cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these cements are often the most common form in use. Portland Silica Fume Cement is produced by the addition of silica fume to cement, and exceptionally high strength substance. Cements containing 520% silica fume are occasionally produced. However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer. Masonry Cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air-entrainers, retarders, waterproofers and colouring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco Cements. These are designed to produce controlled bonds with masonry blocks. Expansive Cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfoaluminate clinkers) and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage that is normally encountered with hydraulic cements. This allows large floor slabs (up to 60m2) to be prepared without contraction joints. White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin. Coloured cements are used for decorative purposes. Some standards allow the addition of pigments to produce coloured Portland cement. In other standards (e.g. ASTM), pigments are not allowed constituents of Portland cement, and coloured cements are sold as blended hydraulic cements. Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or slag or other pozzolan type minerals, which are finely ground together. Such cements can have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement, particularly due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy for fabrication than ordinary Portland cements. Non-Portland hydraulic cements Pozzolan-lime cements: Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime were the cements used by the Romans, and are found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the Pantheon in Rome). They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as those of Portland cement. Slag-lime cements: Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but is activated by the addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component. Supersulphated cements: These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and small quantities of Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulphates. Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CA in Cement chemist notation) and Mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydrating calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. furnace linings. Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite (Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or

C4A3 in CCN) as a primary phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in low-energy cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialised physical properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and sulphate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced. Energy requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction and the lower amount of limestone (that has to be endothermically decarbonised) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a CO2 emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2 emissions are significantly higher. Natural Cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by burning argillaceous limestone at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the limestone (around 3035%) is so that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have highly variable properties. Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin. Q: How is Portland cement made? A: Materials that contain appropriate amounts of calcium compounds like silica, alumina and iron oxide are crushed, screened and placed in a rotating cement kiln. Ingredients used in this process are typically materials such as limestone, marl, shale, iron ore, clay and fly ash. The kiln resembles a large horizontal pipe with a diameter of 1015ft (34.1m) and a length of 300ft (90m) or more. One end is raised slightly and the raw mix is placed in the high end; as the kiln rotates, the materials move slowly toward the lower end. Flame jets are at the lower end and all the materials in the kiln are heated to high temperatures that range between 2700 and 3000F (1480 and 1650C). This high heat drives off, or calcines, the chemically combined water and carbon dioxide from the raw materials and forms new compounds (tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite). For each ton of material that goes into the feed end of the kiln, two thirds of a ton of clinker comes out the discharge end. This clinker is in the form of marble sized pellets. The clinker is very finely ground to produce Portland cement. A small amount of gypsum is added during the grinding process to control the cements set or rate of hardening. Q: What is Fibre Reinforced Concrete? A: Low Fibre volume composite concrete contains less than 1% fibre. It is used for field applications involving large volumes of concrete. The fibres do not significantly increase the strength of the concrete. Low fibre volume concrete is used for paving roads. High Fibre Volume Concrete: Typically used for thin sheets with cement mortar mix. The fibre volume in this mix ranges from 5% to 15%. High Fibre Volume Composite: The fibre volume in this mix can be as high as 40%. This significantly increases the strength and toughness of the mix. The reinforcement in High Fibre Volume Composite concrete is usually in sheet form. This reinforced concrete type is used in roof and wall panels. Q: What is the difference between cement and concrete? A: Concrete should not be confused with cement because the term cement refers only to the dry powder substance used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Upon the addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture is referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates have been added. Q: What is concrete? A: Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, sand and gravel (stones, crushed rock). The mixture eventually hardens into a stone-like material. Cement and water are the two ingredients that chemically react; the gravel and sand give strength. Q. How was concrete made in the earlier times? A: During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or Opus caementicium) was made from quicklime, pozzolanic ash/pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Concrete Revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed for revolutionary new designs both, in terms of structural complexity and dimension. Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was in effect a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a

rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains, which troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick. Q: How is modern structural concrete different from the earlier form of concrete? A: Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand layering together with the placement of aggregate, which in Roman practice often consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great tensile strength, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension. Q: What does curing concrete mean? A: Curing is one of the most important steps in concrete construction, because proper curing greatly increases concrete strength and durability. Concrete hardens as a result of hydration: the chemical reaction between cement and water. However, hydration occurs only in the presence of water and if the concretes temperature stays within a suitable range. During the curing period-from, five to seven days after placement for conventional concrete, the concrete surface needs to be kept moist to permit the hydration process. New concrete can be wet with soaking hoses, sprinklers or covered with wet burlap, or can be coated with commercially available curing compounds, which seal in moisture. Q: What is Reinforced concrete? A: Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing that is designed and placed in structural members at specific positions to cater for the stress conditions that the member is required to accommodate. Q. What is Prestressed concrete? A: The principle behind Prestressed concrete is that compressive stresses induced by high-strength steel tendons in a concrete member before loads are applied will balance the tensile stresses imposed in the member during service. For example a horizontal beam will tend to sag down. However, if the reinforcement along the bottom of the beam is prestressed, it can counteract this. In pre-tensioned concrete, prestressing is achieved by using steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting; and for post-tensioned concrete, after casting. Q. What are the sought after properties of concrete? A. 1. The concrete mix is extremely workable. It can be placed and consolidated properly. 2. Desired qualities of the hardened concrete are met. For example, resistance to freezing and thawing and deicing chemicals, watertightness (low permeability), wear resistance and strength. 3. Economy. Since the quality depends mainly on the water to cement ratio, the water requirement should be minimised to reduce the cement requirement (and thus reduce the cost). The following steps reduce water and cement requirements: Use the stiffest mix possible Use the largest size aggregate practical for the job Use the optimum ratio of fine to coarse aggregate Q: What is the composition of Concrete A: 11% Cement (usually Portland) 16% Water 6% Air 26% Sand 41% Gravel or crushed stone Q: Descriptive composition of Concrete. A: There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of its main ingredients. The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete will be mixed, delivered and how it will be placed to form the structure. Cement Portland cement is the most widely used cement. It is the basic ingredient in concrete, mortar and plaster. English engineer, Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824; it was named because of its similar colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the Isle of Portland and used extensively in

London architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium and is manufactured by heating limestone (source of calcium) and clay, then grinding this product (clinker) with a source of sulphate (most commonly gypsum). The manufacturing of Portland cement creates about 5% of human CO2 emissions. Water Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it and allows it to flow more easily. Lower amounts of water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or premature failure of the structure. Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bind the individual sand and gravel particles with other components of the concrete to form a solid mass. Reaction Cement chemist notation: C3S + H2O CSH(gel) + CaOH Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O (CaO)(SiO2)(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2 Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O 3(CaO)2(SiO2)4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2 Aggregates Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted. Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative exposed aggregate finish, popular among landscape designers. Reinforcement Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing bars, glass fibre or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads. Chemical admixtures Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. Mineral admixtures and blended cements There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties. These very finegrained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures) or as a replacement to Portland cement (blended cements). A by-product of coal fired electric generating plants, Fly ash is used to partially replace Portland cement (up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS), a by-product of steel production, is used to partially replace Portland cement (up to 80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties. Silica fume is one of the by-products of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticisers for workability. High Reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark grey or black in colour, high

reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is important. Q: What is the moisture content of concrete? A: The moisture content of concrete is viewed from the context of total water content of the fresh concrete mixture and the available moisture content of the hardened concrete. The total water content of a fresh concrete mixture is a function of the total cementitious materials and water cement ratio (w/cm). Typical fresh concrete mixtures vary in cementitious material content in a range of 279 kg/m3 to 415 kg/m3 (470 lb/yd3 to 700 lb/yd3). Water cement ratios typically vary from 0.4 to 0.55. To estimate the available moisture content of hardened concrete one must begin with the total water content of the fresh mixture and define the service condition of the hardened concrete with regard to relative humidity (%). In addition, the water that is chemically bound with the cement in the hydration process must be accounted for. The water bound with the cement is in the range of 0.22 to 0.24 of the cement content. As an example, the moisture content of a concrete mixture with 334 kg/m3 (564 lb/yd3) of cement and a w/c of 0.45 and in a service environment with a 50% relative humidity could be estimated as follows: Total water content: 334kg cement/m3 times 0.45 w/c ~ 150kg water/m3 (564lb cement/yd3 times 0.45 w/c ~ 254lb water/yd3) Chemically bound water at 0.24 w/c: 334kg cement/m3 times 0.24 w/c ~ 80kg water/m3 (564lb cement/yd3 times 0.24 ~ 135lb water/yd3) Moisture content: 150kg water/m3 80kg water/m3times .50 relative humidity ~ 35kg water/m3 (254lb water/yd3 135lb water/yd3 times .50 relative humidity ~ 60lb water/yd3) In reality, the relative humidity of the concrete will only reach 50% at the near surface of the concrete and the moisture gradient with depth will increase toward 100% relative humidity; hence, this method of estimation would typically overstate the quantity of moisture available to leave the concrete due to the initial mixing of water. This is only an estimate of the moisture available to leave the concrete, but it may help in gaining a perspective to the limited amount of water that the concrete can contribute when considering the drying time of hardened concrete.

Relative Humidity Profile

Q: When was concrete first made? A: 500BC Q: What is the purpose of cement in concrete? A: It acts as a primary binder that joins the aggregate into a solid mass. Q: Why does concrete harden? A: The chemical process called cement hydration produces crystals that interlock and bind together. Q: How strong can concrete or cement be (in pounds per square inch (psi))? A: 50,000 Q: How long can concrete last (in years)? A: 50,000 Q: What are Type I/II or Type II/V cements? A: Type I/II and Type II/V cements simply means that the cement complies with the requirements of ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland Cement. It is quite common to find cements that comply with multiple cement designations such as Type I/II and Type II/V.

Q: How is white cement different and why is it used in decorative concrete? A: There are only slight chemical and physical differences between grey Portland cement and white Portland cement. This is due to raw material differences and sometimes, though not always, slight differences in manufacturing. White cement has small amounts of the oxides (particularly iron and manganese) that impart the greyish colour normally associated with Portland cement. Q. What are the decorative finishes that can be applied to concrete surfaces? A: Adding pigment before or after the concrete is placed and using white cement rather than conventional grey cement, using chemical stains or exposing colourful aggregates at the surface may add colour to concrete. Textured finishes can vary from a smooth polish to the roughness of gravel. Geometric patterns can be scored, stamped, rolled, or inlaid into the concrete to resemble stone, brick or tile paving. Other interesting patterns are obtained by using divider strips (commonly redwood) to form panels of various sizes and shapes rectangular, square, circular or diamond. Special techniques are available to make concrete slip-resistant and sparkling. Q: What are the different forms of sulphate in Portland cement and how can we analyse cement for SO3? A: Sulphates in Portland cement can be broadly categorised as: 1. Added sulphates gypsum, hemihydrates, anhydrite, several synthetic forms of sulphates (typically by-products like flue gas desulphurisation materials). Clinker sulphates include arcanite, aphthitalite, calcium langbeinite and thenardite. Although normally reported as SO3 (% by mass) for consistency, sulphur can be found in any combination of forms. Elemental sulphur is almost never found in Portland cement, except in trace amounts. Added sulphates are blended with clinker during the final grinding of the cement, in amounts needed to control early setting properties as well as shrinkage and strength development. The amount needed varies depending on the chemistry and fineness of the cement, but is typically on the order of 5% by mass. The most common form of sulphate added to Portland cement is gypsum, some of which is intentionally dehydrated by the heat of grinding to form hemihydrates, which are more soluble and therefore available to control early hydration reactions. Clinker sulphates form naturally during clinker production. These sulphates tend to volatilise at the temperatures of cement kilns (up to about 1450C) and condense on the outer surface of clinker nodules as alkali sulphates, during the last stage of clinker production (rapid cooling). Again, the amount depends on the chemistry of the raw materials and kiln operating conditions, making the cement somewhat unique. These alkali sulphates also are soluble enough to help control early hydration reactions. Some clinker sulphate is also incorporated into other cement phases. Since cement is unique, chemical analyses are the best method of determining the SO3 content of cements. Typically the total SO3 content is measured (or elemental S measured and converted to SO3) through methods in ASTM C 114 (or AASHTO T 105). XRF analysis is probably the most common technique. Q: What is air-entrained concrete? A: Air-entrained concrete contains billions of microscopic air cells per cubic foot. These air pockets relieve the internal pressure on the concrete by providing tiny chambers for water to expand into when it freezes. Air-entrained concrete is produced through the use of air-entraining Portland cement, or by the introduction of air-entraining agents, under careful engineering supervision. The amount of entrained air is usually between 4% and 7% of the volume of the concrete, but may be varied as required by special conditions. Q: What are recommended mix proportions for good concrete? A: Good concrete can be obtained by using a wide variety of mix proportions if proper mix design procedures are used. The general custom is the rule of 6s: A minimum cement content of 6 bags per cubic yard of concrete A maximum water content of 6 gallons per bag of cement A curing period (keeping concrete moist) a minimum of 6 days An air content of 6% (if concrete will be subject to freezing and thawing)

Q: Will concrete harden under water? A: Portland cement is a hydraulic cement, which means that it sets and hardens due to a chemical reaction with water. Consequently, it will harden under water. Q: What does 28 -day strength mean? A: Concrete hardens and gains strength as it hydrates. The hydration process continues over a long period of time; beginning rapidly and progressively slowing down. To measure the ultimate strength of concrete would require a wait of several years. This would be impractical, so a time period of 28 days was selected, by specification writing authorities, as the age that all concrete should be tested. At this age, a substantial percentage of the hydration has taken place. Q: What is 3,000 pound concrete? A: Concrete that is strong enough to carry a compressive stress of 3,000psi (20.7MPa) at 28 days is 3,000 pound concrete. Concrete may be specified at other strengths as well. Conventional concrete has strengths of 7,000psi or less; concrete with strengths between 7,000 and 14,500psi is considered high-strength concrete. Q: How do you control the strength of concrete? A: The easiest way to add strength is to add cement. The factor that most predominantly influences concrete strength is the water to cement ratio in the cement paste that binds the aggregates together. The higher this ratio is, the weaker the concrete will be and vice versa. Every desirable physical property will be adversely affected by adding more water. Q: What is alkali-silica reactivity (ASR)? A: Alkali-silica reactivity is an expansive reaction between reactive forms of silica in aggregates and potassium and sodium alkalis, mostly from cement, but also from aggregates, pozzolans, admixtures and mixing water. External sources of alkali from soil, deicers and industrial processes can also contribute to ASR. The reaction forms an alkali-silica gel that swells as it draws water from the surrounding cement paste, thereby inducing pressure, expansion and cracking of the aggregate and surrounding paste. This often results in map-pattern cracks, sometimes referred to as alligator pattern cracking. ASR can be avoided through

Proper aggregate selection Use of blended cements Use of proper pozzolanic materials Contaminant-free mixing water

Q. What are Supplementary Cementations Materials (SCM)? A: Supplementary Cementations Materials (SCM) like silica fumes, meta-kaolin, fly ash, slag are the substances which improve the properties of concrete and enhance its durability, by reducing pore size in concrete through better particle distribution and through increased packing density of the concrete. Q: Are there different types of Portland cement? A: Though all Portland cement is basically the same, eight types of cement are manufactured to meet different physical and chemical requirements for specific applications: Type I is a general purpose Portland cement suitable for most uses. Type II is used for structures in water or soil containing moderate amounts of sulphate, or when heat build-up is a concern. Type III cement provides high strength at an early state, usually in a week or less. Type IV moderates heat generated by hydration that is used for massive concrete structures such as dams. Type V cement resists chemical attacks by soil and water high in sulphates. Types IA, IIA and IIIA are cements used to make air-entrained concrete. They have the same properties as types I, II and III, except that they have small quantities of air-entrained materials combined with them. White Portland cement is made from raw materials containing little or no iron or manganese.

Q. Is there any shelf life of cement? A: Cement is a hygroscopic material, meaning that in presence of moisture it undergoes chemical reaction termed as hydration. Therefore cement remains in good condition as long as it does not come in contact with moisture. If cement is more than three months old then it should be tested for its strength before being employed. Q. How fineness of cement affects strength gain? A: Finer cement particles imply more particles in unit weight. This enhances the reaction rate, which in turn will result in faster gain of strength at earlier stages. Q: Why do concrete surfaces flake and spall? A: Concrete surfaces can flake or spall for one or more of the following reasons: In areas subjected to freezing and thawing, the concrete should be air-entrained to resist flaking and scaling of the surface. If air-entrained concrete is not used, there will be subsequent damage to the surface. The water/cement ratio should be as low as possible to improve durability of the surface. Too much water in the mix will produce a weaker, less durable concrete, in turn leading to early flaking and spalling of the surface. The finishing operations should not begin until the water sheen on the surface is gone and excess bleed water on the surface has had a chance to evaporate. If this excess water is worked into the concrete because the finishing operations are begun too soon, the concrete on the surface will have too high a water content and will be weaker and less durable Q: How do you remove stains from concrete? A: Stains can be removed from concrete with dry or mechanical methods, or by wet methods using chemicals or water. Common dry methods include sandblasting, flame cleaning, shotblasting, grinding, scabbing, planning and scouring. Steel-wire brushes should be used with care because they can leave metal particles on the surface that later rust and stain the concrete. Wet methods involve the application of water or specific chemicals according to the nature of the stain. The chemical treatment either dissolves the staining substance so it can be blotted up from the surface of the concrete or bleaches the staining substance so it will not show. To remove bloodstains, for example, wet the stains with water and cover them with a layer of sodium peroxide powder. Let stand for a few minutes, rinse with water and scrub vigorously. Follow with an application of a 5% solution of vinegar to neutralise any remaining sodium peroxide. Q: What is Self-Consolidating concrete (SCC)? A: SCC is a high-performance concrete that can flow easily into tight and constricted spaces without segregating and without requiring vibration. The key to creating SCC, also referred to as selfcompacting, self-levelling, or self-placing concrete, is a mixture that is fluid, but also stable to prevent segregation. To achieve the desired flowability a new generation of superplasticisers based on polycarboxylate ethers works best. Developed in the 1990s, they produce better water reduction and slower slump loss than traditional superplasticisers. The required level of fluidity is greatly influenced by the particular application under consideration. Obviously the most congested structural members demand the highest fluidity. However, element shape, desired surface finish, and travel distance can also determine the required fluidity. Generally, the higher the required flowability of the SCC mix, the higher the amount of fine material needed to produce a stable mixture. However, in some cases, a viscosity-modifying admixture (VMA) can be used instead of, or in combination with, an increased fine content to stabilize the concrete mixture. Q: The size of concrete cube is 150mm x 150mm x 150mm as per Indian Standards. Why? A: Because the shape effect is the least for the 15cm cube and we get a fairly accurate idea of the strength of the concrete as such. Q: How do you protect a concrete surface from aggressive materials like acids? A: Many materials have no effect on concrete. However, there are some aggressive materials, such as most acids, that can have a deteriorating effect on concrete. The first line of defence against chemical

attack is to use quality concrete with maximum chemical resistance, followed by the application of protective treatments to keep corrosive substances from contacting the concrete. Principles and practices that improve the chemical resistance of concrete include using a low water-cement ratio, selecting a suitable cement type (such as sulphate-resistant cement to prevent sulphate attacks), using suitable aggregates, water- and air-entrainment. A large number of chemical formulations are available as sealers and coatings to protect concrete from a variety of environments; detailed recommendations should be requested from manufacturers, formulators or material suppliers. Q: Why does concrete crack? A;Concrete, by nature, shrinks as it hardens. When concrete is placed on supporting soil or around steel reinforcement, the concrete mass is prevented from shrinking. This restraint creates internal forces exceeding the strength of concrete; cracks form to relieve these forces. Q: Does the presence of cracks indicate a structural problem? A: In most instances, the answer is no. Very narrow hairline cracks are aesthetic in nature and do not indicate any structural problem. Cracks that have movement, i.e. where one side of the crack moves relative to the opposite side, should be investigated by a professional engineer. Q: Why does concrete harden? A: Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. Q: What is concrete used for? A: Concrete is used to make pavements, pipe, architectural structures, foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5km3 of concrete is made each yearmore than 1m3 for every person on earth. Q: What are the more popular types of concrete in use? A: Reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete are the most widely used modern kinds of functional concrete extensions. Q: What evidence is there for the long life of concrete? A: The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured that many of them have survived. The Baths of Caracalla is just one example of the longevity of concrete, which allowed the Romans to build this and similar structures across their Empire. Many Roman aqueducts and Roman bridges have masonry cladding to a concrete core, a technique they used in structures such as the Pantheon, the dome of which is concrete. Q: Who discovered concrete? A: The Romans used concrete in their structures but the secret had been lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early 1840s. This version of history has been challenged however, as the Canal du Midi was constructed using concrete in 1670. Q: What is the role of water in concrete mix? A: Combining water with cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it and allows it to flow more easily. Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure. Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bind the individual sand and gravel particles with other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass.

Q: How do aggregates affect the strength of concrete? A: Concrete has a high compressive strength, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing bars, steel fibres, glass fibre or plastic fibre to carry tensile loads. Q. What are the reasons for slow or fast setting of concrete or mortar? A: the rate of setting normally depends on the nature of the cement. It could also be due to extraneous factors not related to the cement. Ambient conditions also play an important role. In hot weather, concrete sets faster, whereas in cold weather, setting is delayed. Some salts, chemicals, clay etc., if inadvertently mixed with the sand, aggregate and water could accelerate or delay the setting of concrete. Q: What do grade numbers indicate? A: The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of cement sand mortar in N/mm2 at 28 days. Q. What is slag? A: Slag is a non-metallic product, essentially consisting glass containing silicates, alumino-silicates of lime and other bases, and is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of pig iron in blast or electric furnaces. Granulated slag is used in the manufacture of Portland Slag Cement (PSC). Q. How is PSC made? A: PSC is made by intergrading clinker, granulated blast furnace slag and gypsum or by blending ground slag with Portland cement. Q. Where can PSC be used? A: Slag cement can be used for all plain and reinforced concrete constructions and mass concreting structures such as dams, reservoirs, swimming pools, river embankments, bridge piers etc. It is used with advantage where low heat of hydration and resistance to alkali-silica reactions are desired; for structures in aggressive environments where chemical and mildly acidic waters are encountered (where the use of OPC is not recommended) and for marine constructions, dykes, wharves, etc where sulphuric water is encountered. In short, PSC can be used wherever OPC is used.

Concrete Construction
Q: What are joints in concrete? Why are they necessary? A: Joints are pre-planned cracks to accommodate the expansion and shrinkage of concrete, caused by changes in moisture and temperature. Although irregular cracks are unsightly and difficult to maintain, they generally do not affect the integrity of the concrete. Cracks in concrete can be controlled and minimised by properly designed joints. There are three types of common joints:

Contraction joints Isolation or expansion joints Construction joints

Q: Why does concrete crack? A: Concrete, like all other materials, will slightly change in volume when it dries out. In typical concrete, this change amounts to about 500 millionths. Translated into dimensions-this is about 1/16" for 10ft (0.4cm in 3m). The reason that contractors put joints in concrete pavements and floors is to allow the concrete to crack in a neat, straight line at the joint when its volume changes. Q: Can it be too hot or too cold to place new concrete? A: Temperature extremes make it difficult to properly cure concrete. On hot days, newly placed concrete losses too much water through evaporation. If the temperature drops too close to freezing, hydration slows to nearly a standstill. Under these conditions, concrete ceases to gain strength and

other desirable properties. In general, the temperature of new concrete should not be allowed to fall below 50F (10C) during the curing period. Q: What precautions must be taken during cold-weather concreting? A: Cold weather concreting is a common and necessary practice; every cold weather application must be considered carefully to accommodate its unique requirements. The current American Concrete Institute definition of cold-weather concreting, as stated in ACI 306 is, a period when for more than 3 successive days the average daily air temperature drops below 5C (40F) and stays below 10C (50F) for more than one-half of any 24 hour period. Rule number ONE is that ALL concrete must be protected from freezing until it has reached a minimum strength of 3.5MPa (500psi), which typically happens within the first 24 hours. In addition, whenever air temperature at the time of concrete placement is below 5C (40F) and freezing temperatures within the first 24 hours after placement are expected, the following general issues should be considered: (1) Adjustment of construction schedule regarding loads imposed on the new concrete structure (2) Placing and curing temperatures to produce quality concrete The exposure of concrete to cold weather will extend the time required for it to gain strength. In structures that will carry large loads at an early age, concrete must be maintained at a minimum of 10C (50F) to accommodate stripping of forms and shoring and to permit loading of the structure. In many cases, achieving the required durability will require a protection period of more than 24 hours. This may not be an issue with residential applications where applied loads are typically small and may be applied in small increments over several days or weeks. In no case should concrete be allowed to freeze during the first 24 hours after it has been placed. Since cement hydration is an exothermic reaction, the concrete mixture produces some heat on its own. Protecting that heat from escaping the system may be all that is required for good concrete quality, while more severe temperatures may require supplemental heat. Q: What precautions do I have to take during hot-weather concreting? A: It is true that hot weather conditions above approximately 25C (77F) can adversely impact the quality of concrete. The precautions that should be taken to assure a quality end product vary depending on the actual conditions during concrete placement and the specific application for which the concrete will be used. In general, if the temperature at the time of concrete placement will exceed 25C (77F), a plan should be developed to negate the effects of high temperatures. The precautions may include some or all of the following: 1) Moisten sub grade, steel reinforcement, and formwork prior to concrete placement 2) Erect temporary windbreaks to limit wind velocities and sunshades to reduce concrete surface temperatures 3) Cool aggregates and mixing water added to the concrete mixture to reduce its initial temperature 4) Use a concrete consistency that allows rapid placement and consolidation 5) Protect the concrete surface during placement with plastic sheeting or evaporation retarders to maintain the initial moisture in the concrete mixture 6) Provide sufficient labour to minimise the time required to place and finish the concrete, as hot weather conditions substantially shorten the time between initial and final set 7) Consider fogging the area above the concrete placement to raise the relative humidity and the satisfy moisture demand of the ambient air. 8) Provide appropriate curing methods as soon as possible after the concrete finishing processes have been completed. 9) In extreme conditions, adjusting the time of concrete placement to take advantage of cooler temperatures, such as early morning or night placement With proper planning and execution concrete can be successfully placed and finished to produce high quality durable concrete at temperatures of 35C (95F) or more. Q: What are the different types of joints and where are they used? A: Isolation/Expansion Joints: Isolation joints are used to relieve flexural stresses due to the vertical movement of slab-on-grade applications that adjoin fixed foundation elements, such as columns, building and machinery foundations etc. Expansion joints are used primarily to relieve stress due to the confinement of a slab. If a slab is placed adjacent to structures on more than one face, an expansion joint should be placed to relieve stress. For example, if a slab were placed between two buildings, an expansion joint should be placed adjacent to the face of at least one of the buildings.

Confinement on three faces would normally be handled by placing expansion joints on all three faces, and confinement on four faces should be isolated on all faces. This allows for thermal expansion and contraction without inducing stress into the system. Contraction (control) joints: Contraction (control) joints are placed to control random cracking and should be placed at 2 times the slab thickness in feet for a maximum aggregate size of less than . For example for a 5 slab with a coarse aggregate the maximum joint spacing would be 10. When the maximum coarse aggregate size is greater than the spacing could be increased to 2 times the thickness. For the prior example this would increase to 13. Applications that require thick slabs of 8" or more and good load transfer across joints, due to heavy loading, should be limited to a 15' contraction joint spacing to ensure aggregate interlock. Construction joints are stopping places in the process of construction. Construction-joint types (a) and (b) are also used as contraction joints. Q: How are exposed-aggregate concrete finishes produced? A: There are three ways of obtaining exposed-aggregate finishes on concrete slabs: seeding a select aggregate into the concrete surface; the monolithic technique where a select aggregate, usually gapgraded, is mixed throughout the batch of concrete and exposing gap-graded aggregates in a special topping course. The process for producing monolithic exposed-aggregate finishes is as follows: 1) Place the concrete containing the chosen aggregate in a normal manner in which you fill the forms with the material and rod the surface with a straight edge (typically a straight 2" X 4" board) with a sawing motion, back and forth across the form from side to side. Then close the surface as usual. 2) Spray the surface with retarder. This can be obtained at any contractors supply house. Retarder does typically contain sugars but the formulations that are designed for use with concrete are strongly recommended for a more consistent performance. The retarder will slow the set characteristics of the discrete surface layer allowing the interior to harden while the exterior remains soft. 3) The third phase is the difficult part. When the concrete has become hard enough to carry your weight without displacing the aggregate the surface is washed with a hose and scrub brush to remove the top layer of cement paste. Care must be taken not to displace the aggregate and not to expose the aggregate too deeply (this can cause the aggregate to lose bond and/or be displaced). Caution: A too long delay in this part of the process can create extreme difficulty in the removal of the top paste layer. The retarder slows the set of the top surface but does not stop it completely. After the desired surface has been achieved the slab should be sealed with a clear sealer and curing compound (also found at your local contractor supply house). Q: We are planning to build a concrete countertop. Can you tell me which type of cement to use for this application? A: The recommendations to use a Type II cement for countertop construction is usually based on the premise that concrete with a Type II cement will have lower shrinkage potential and, therefore, lower cracking potential. While there may be slight variations in shrinkage potential between cements from different manufacturers and between cement types, it is of little practical value to limit the cement type based on this fact. As can be seen in the figure below, the shrinkage potential of a plain concrete mixture (no reinforcement) typically ranges between 600 millionths to 790 millionths. The spread of shrinkage data for concrete mixtures is similar across the cement types. For small dimension projects that have little restraint in service like countertops, cement type is probably not of critical importance. In general, if Type II is available locally in bags, use it; if not, a Type I or Type III cement should give close to the same results. To reduce the potential of cracking, it is of greater importance that the concrete be properly cured. Concrete gains strength under adequate moisture, temperature and time conditions. Maintaining the moisture content of the concrete for curing has the added benefit of extending the time at which drying shrinkage takes place. If the concrete is allowed to begin to dry in the first few days after it has been cast, it shrinks, producing tensile stresses that can cause cracking (if the concrete still has low strength). However, if moisture is maintained, shrinkage takes place after the concrete has developed additional strength. This allows it to better resist the tensile stresses that cause cracking. With this in

mind, it is important to maintain the moisture in the countertop for a period of 7 days to reduce cracking potential, than it is to be overly particular about cement type. Q: We will be placing a 4-foot thick concrete floor in a cooling tower. Can you tell us how much additional curing time will be required due to the thickness? A: Recommendations for actual curing time for mass concrete applications vary from 7 to 21 days (or more), depending on the reinforcement used, the cement and pozzolan or slag content in the concrete mixture and the physical dimensions of the structure (dams, locks etc.). The recommendation for heavily reinforced structures is typically 7 days; for concrete mass structures with Portland cement as the sole cementitious material, the curing period is typically 14 days; and for Portland-pozzolan mixtures, 21 days or more, depending upon the design strength development. Common recommendations for mass concrete applications also include limiting the maximum internal temperature to 70C (160F) and the thermal gradient from the interior to the exterior of the concrete section to 20C (36F) (higher limits are possible with aggregates that have a low coefficient of thermal expansion). Q: I have heard that concrete can be made to a wide variety of strengths. What are typical strength ranges of concrete and where is it appropriate to use them? A: Concrete can be proportioned to meet a wide variety of strength requirements. It is important to note that there is more than one type of strength property used to design concrete projects. The most commonly used design properties are: Flexural strength: used for design of pavements (slab-on-grade) Compressive strength: used for design of foundations, building elements (walls, columns, slabs), bridges (abutments, columns, decks) etc. Flexural Strength Flexural strength increases in direct proportion with compressive strength. This property is used specifically for pavement design. The flexural strengths of interest fall in a range of 3.9MPa (570psi) to 5.1MPa (750psi). These flexural strengths correspond approximately to compressive strengths of 28MPa (4000psi) to 48MPa (7000psi). While concrete can attain much higher flexural strengths, it is not required for pavements and use of higher strengths would have an adverse effect on the economics of the project with little benefit in performance. Compressive Strength The compressive strength of structural concrete begins at 17MPa (2500psi) and can be produced commercially at 138MPa (20,000psi) or more. Residential and light commercial building projects typically use concrete strengths ranging from 17MPa (2500psi) to 34MPa (5000psi). It is important to bear in mind that the lower strength concrete is only appropriate for mild environmental exposures and interiors protected from the elements. Severe environmental exposures (freezing and thawing cycles and deicer chemical exposure) require a minimum strength of 4000psi to assure durability. Local codes commonly provide guidance for the minimum requirements, but in many cases do not address long-term durability issues. Heavy commercial and special structures (high rise buildings, long span bridges, slabs exposed to heavy abrasion etc.) typically require concrete strengths of 28MPa (4000psi) or more. The structural loading, durability requirements, special property requirements (low permeability, high abrasion resistance, etc.) or a combination of these factors control the actual required strength. Concrete design professionals should always be consulted for guidance regarding these structures. Q: What is the best way to store bags of cement on site? A: The primary concern when storing Portland cement is to prevent exposure to moisture. Cement stored in damp air or moisture sets slower and has less strength than cement that is kept dry. Bagged cement stored on a job site should be stacked closely together on pallets to reduce air circulation and to raise the cement above any moisture sources; it should also be covered with tarpaulins or other waterproof covers for further protection from moisture. If possible, cement should be stored inside a structure to further reduce the potential of exposure to moisture, but should never be placed directly next to an exterior wall. The relative humidity within the structure should be reduced as much as possible.

Q: What construction practices can affect the air content of concrete? A: Construction practices have a significant effect on the air content of concrete. These include load volume versus drum capacity, haul time, mixing or agitating speed, total revolutions of the drum before discharge, retempering, pumping and conveyors (any high energy process during placement including large drops), internal vibration, temperature and finishing practices. The materials used in the concrete mixture and the batching process also affects the air content of concrete. Q: What is the effect of high concrete temperature (above 77F) on transporting, placing and finishing concrete, and on hardened concrete properties? A: When the temperature of freshly mixed concrete exceeds 77F (25C) there may be a number of effects on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. One of the effects on fresh concrete properties is accelerated setting, which leads to a shorter time period for transporting the concrete to the job site, and a shorter window for placement, consolidation and finishing of the material. The higher temperature also leads to a higher water demand to maintain the concrete at the specified slump, which can tempt the contractor to add water to retemper the mixture leading to lower than expected compressive strength of the hardened material. In addition mixtures at high temperatures may require higher dosages of air-entraining admixtures to produce the required air content for durability in severe climates. The effect on hardened concrete properties are a high early strength but low ultimate strength compared to mixtures placed with a lower temperature. In addition, if no precautions are taken, there is an increased potential for plastic shrinkage cracking during the finishing operations, and increased potential for cracking due to volume changes caused by drying shrinkage and thermal effects. Q: In the design stage for a new high rise condominium project the architect has suggested the use of aluminium railings for the balconies. I had heard that this material may have some risks for this type of application. Can you provide some guidance on this issue? A: Aluminium is an amphoteric material, meaning it will chemically react with either an acid or an alkali. While Portland cement hydrates, it releases free calcium hydroxide, which is a very strong alkali. The pH of a fresh concrete mix can be more than 13. Consequently, any material that reacts chemically with an alkali should be carefully considered if it is to be embedded in or placed adjacent to fresh concrete. Aluminium posts and flashings are commonly used adjacent to or embedded in concrete that will be dry in service. While there is a reaction between the aluminium and the fresh concrete, the reaction slows or stops as the concrete hardens and dries. In addition, it is common for aluminium to be coated with a protective layer to prevent the alkalinity of the concrete from reaching its surface. When this material is to be used in an exterior application like a balcony, the risks of problems considerably increase for two reasons. First, the concrete is exposed to multiple wet cycles, which transport alkalinity in the concrete to the surface of the aluminium and continually corrodes it. Second, steel reinforced concrete if used as the structural component of the balcony, would produce a galvanic cell (a galvanic cell is created when dissimilar metals, each having a different thermodynamic instability are placed in contact with each other) leading to an accelerated rate of corrosion. In general, placing aluminium in or next to concrete for exterior applications should be avoided due to the increased risk of corrosion and accompanying concrete cracking issues caused by the increased volume of the metal as it corrodes. Note that chloride based accelerators should never be used in concrete that contains any steel reinforcement or metal embeds. Q: What is the method and means for concreting in water logged area? A: Trimmi Pipe Method. Q: What method needs to be adopted for designing Water Retaining structures? A: The reinforced water retaining structures should be based on working stress method of design. Secondly the crack thickness and the width of the crack is also to be watched for. Use of water bars during construction of the same also makes the water retaining structures economical. If the water retaining structures are to be made of steel then the material of the structure is the thing to watched for as the same should be corrosion resistant.

Q: What can be the slump value in the case of following members as per IS recommendations 1. Slab 2. Beam 3. Column 4. Dam A: Slab: 90mm Beam: 80mm Column: 95 mm Dam: 110 130mm Today zero slump concrete (slumpless concrete) is being used in dams Q: Why we need to do PCC? A: PCC is done so as to provide a base for the foundation so as to avoid direct contact with soil. As the grade of concrete of PCC and the foundation are different, it provides material difference for ground bacterial effect on the foundation. Q: Why is the grade of PPC not mentioned or defined as per Indian Standards IS 1489 1991? A: PPC is manufactured by blending a mixture of ordinary Portland cement and pozzolan material such as fly ash, not less than 15 by weight of cement. The fineness of PPC will be greater than OPC. Q: What causes cracks in a building? What is the lasting solution to stop the cracks? A: In walls 1. Shear cracks 2. Settlement cracks These created cracks are overcome by: 1. Filling adhesive materials. 2. Using chicken net or polymer strips if the crack exceeds 2mm In beams 1. Design calculation failure 2. Sagging failure To overcome this cracks, consider the cover space (at bottom level) not exceeding 25mm. Q: When we go for inverted T- beam for slab? A: We provide inverted T-beam in places like portico. the condition is when there is compression in upper zone & tension in bottom zone then we provide inverted T-beam. Q: What is Early-Age Cracking and how can it be checked? A: Early-age cracking can be a significant problem with concrete. Early age, for concrete, is the first seven days starting with final set, which is when the concrete has obtained a benchmark level of stiffness. During this time, concrete undergoes a significant amount of volume change caused by many variables, such as the hydration reaction (chemical shrinkage), water content (drying shrinkage and swelling) and temperature changes (thermal dilation). Volume changes in concrete will drive tensile stress development when they are restrained, which is the case with most concrete. Tensile stresses are forces trying to pull the concrete apart and are opposite from compressive stresses. Cracks develop when the tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength. While concrete is strong in compression, the tensile strength is generally only 10% of the compressive strength. At early ages, this strength is still developing while stresses are generated by volume changes. Controlling the variables that affect volume change can minimise cracking and create a higher quality concrete placement. Q: Are Concrete Floors Loud and Hard on the Feet? A: Yes, concrete is a hard material and wont cushion or give under bare feet. Concrete floors can be loud and produce an echo effect, but not more than ceramic tile, natural stone flooring and some hardwood and bamboo floors.

Q: Are Concrete Floors Cold and Damp? A: Yes, concrete can be cold, but no more so than ceramic tile or natural stone flooring. And yes, concrete floors can transmit moisture vapour if they arent insulated properly or if the slab is built on a poorly drained sub-base. Concrete doesnt have to be cold. Its thermal properties give it the ability to store and radiate heat. By embedding radiant heating cables in concrete floors, for example, you can keep floors toasty warm in the winter and control the temperature level. If the home is built to take advantage of solar radiation entering through windows, concrete floors will absorb the heat from the sun to keep rooms warmer in the winter. In summer and in hot climates, a cooler floor can be an advantage and can actually help lower air-conditioning costs. Q: Can the wire mesh be replaced with fibres? A: The answer depends on the intended purpose of installing wire mesh. If control joint spacing exceeds 30 times the concrete thickness, then wire mesh should be used to hold random cracks together. If not, wire mesh can be omitted and fibre can be used to reduce surface cracking resulting from rapid evaporation (plastic shrinkage cracking) and improve fatigue strength. Q: When does shrinkage cracking happen in concrete? A: Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint is provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls and other boundary conditions) or internally (differential drying shrinkage and reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, a crack will develop. The number and width of shrinkage cracks are influenced by the amount of shrinkage that occurs, the amount of restraint present and the amount and spacing of reinforcement provided. Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within 0 to 2 days of placement, while drying-shrinkage cracks develop over time. Autogenous shrinkage also occurs when the concrete is quite young and results from the volume reduction resulting from the chemical reactions. Q: When does tension cracking happen in concrete? A: Concrete members may be put into tension by applied loads. This is most common in concrete beams where a transversely applied load will put one surface into compression and the opposite surface into tension due to induced bending. The portion of the beam that is in tension may crack. The size and length of cracks depends on the magnitude of the bending moment and the design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point under consideration. Reinforced concrete beams are designed to crack in tension rather than in compression. This is achieved by providing reinforcing steel which yields before failure of the concrete when compression occurs, allowing remediation, repair or if necessary, evacuation. Q: What is Creep? How does it affect the structure? A: Creep is the term used to describe the permanent movement or deformation of a material in order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete, which is subjected to long-duration forces, is prone to creep. Short-duration forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not cause creep. Creep is capable of reducing the amount of cracking in a concrete structure or element, but it also must be controlled. The amount of primary and secondary reinforcing in concrete structures contribute to a reduction in the amount of shrinkage, creep and cracking. Q: How does temperature affect concrete? A: Three factors control the set time, strength gain and overall durability of concrete: time, temperature and moisture. These factors are interdependent on each other. The ideal temperature for concrete is 50oF/10oC. If the temperature is too high, the concrete can dry out prematurely and not reach its desired strength. It can also crack from rapid shrinkage. If the temperature is to low, the concrete set time and strength gain can be reduced and the concrete can be subjected to freezing while water is present and have severe freeze/thaw damage. Q: Why is curing necessary for concrete? A: Concrete develops strength ONLY in the presence of moisture, therefore it is absolutely important that it is kept moist after casting. If concrete is allowed to dry out, it will not develop to the strength it was designed for.

Q: What are the causes of Honeycombing? A: Honeycombing is caused by a number of different reasons: Insufficient compacting or vibrating Segregation of the concrete when it is allowed to free-fall from heights over three feet When the steel reinforcement is too close to the formwork (boxing) When the formwork is not nailed tight and the grout from the concrete leaks out When too stiff a concrete is used without the proper vibrating equipment Q: What will happen if shape of aggregates used in concrete is not rounded/cubical? A: If the shape of aggregates used in concrete is not rounded or cubical, proper interlocking of the aggregate will not occur and the strength of concrete will decrease. If the aggregates are elongated or flaky the strength of concrete will seriously be affected, resulting in porous concrete. Q: What is the importance of water cement ratio A: W/c ratio is very important in making concrete to satisfy the strength and durability criteria. If w/c ratio is more, concrete strength will be reduced due to void formations. The effect of w/c ratio on compressive strength of concrete is as shown in the table below:

Water Cement (w/c) Probable Compressive Strength (%)

0.40 100

0.50 87

0.60 70

0.70 55

0.80 44

Importance of Water-Cement Ratio:

Factors Compressive strength Water permeability Shrinkage Water Bleeding

Low w/c ratio High Low Low Low

High w/c ratio Low High High High

Q: What is segregation? A: Segregation is the separation of coarse aggregate from cement paste. It mainly occurs due to excess water, resulting in the non-cohesiveness of concrete.

Concrete Design and Production

Q: How much cement is needed for a small concrete mixture? A: The actual cement required for concrete is affected by the choice of the maximum coarse aggregate size. As the maximum coarse aggregate size is decreased the cement content must increase to provide the required quantity of cement paste to coat all of the aggregate particles. Example: Assume that the proportions will be made based on parts being 1ft3 (this is convenient since a 94lb bag of cement equals 1ft3 of bulk material). For a " maximum coarse aggregate, the mixture would be 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, 2 parts coarse aggregate and part water. The sum of the parts is 6. In general, the final volume of concrete produced will be approximately twothirds of the sum of all the volumes included in the mixture. Therefore, the approximate volume of this concrete mixture is 4.3ft3. Since there are 27 cubic feet in a cubic yard, we divide 27 by 4.3 giving 6.2 batches for a cubic yard. Plan on making 7 batches to assure that you will have more than enough material at the start of the job. In short, use the mixture indicated for the " aggregate and use 7 bags of cement, 17.5 cubic feet of sand, and 17.5 cubic feet of " coarse aggregate; unless you feel comfortable recalculating for a different size coarse aggregate. The volume calculation for concrete is based on length x width x height to determine the cubic feet of concrete required for the project. EX: 20 * 12 * 0.5 = 120 cubic feet (be sure you always convert all of you measurements into feet units). Divide the obtained quantity by 27 (there are 27 cubic feet in a cubic yard; 120 / 27 = 4.44 cubic yards). A word of caution, an increase in thickness of " would

increase the required concrete by .37 cubic yards. Be sure that you order a little more material than you need. Typically it is impractical to use bagged materials or hand mix concrete if the quantity exceeds one to two cubic yards because bagged materials and hand mixing require you to handle the materials several times. A cubic yard of concrete will weigh almost two tons and handling the material three to four times to transport and mix the material requires considerable labour. Hand mixing two cubic yards of concrete is the equivalent of handling 12 to 16 tons of material. As an alternative, ready mixed concrete can be delivered and simply be unloaded from the truck to its final position using the chute on the truck or in some instances the concrete is discharged into wheelbarrows simplifying the concrete placement. Most ready mixed concrete producers have minimum requirements for yardage and short loads may include additional charges to offset delivery costs. Concrete is sold in increments of 1/4yd, so your concrete order for the preceding example would be 4.5 cubic yards. Again, be sure to order a little more than you need since charges for short loads to correct this kind of mistake can be very expensive. Q: What are the unit weights (densities) of cement and concrete? A: Cement: Cement (finely ground grey or white powder used to bind concrete mixtures) weighs between 830kg/m3 and 1650kg/m3 (52lbs/ft3 and 103lbs/ft3) depending on its handling. The weight of cement that has been pneumatically loaded into a cement silo may be as low as 830kg/m3 (52lbs/ft3), while cement that has been stored for a period of time exposed to vibration may be as heavy as 1650kg/m3 (103lbs/ft3). It is standard practice to consider a 94lb bag of cement to be one cubic foot when freshly packed. Both 500ml beakers contain 500gm of dry powdered cement. On the left, cement was simply poured into the beaker. On the right, cement was slightly vibratedimitating consolidation during transport or packing while stored in a silo. The 20% difference in bulk volume demonstrates the need to measure cement by mass instead of volume for batching concrete. Concrete: Concrete is a mixture of cement, coarse and fine aggregates, water and sometimes supplementary cementing materials and/or chemical admixtures. A normal weight concrete weighs approximately 2400kg/m3 (145lbs/ft3). The unit weight (density) of concrete varies depending on the amount and density of the aggregate, the amount of air that is entrapped or purposely entrained, the water and cement contents, which in turn are influenced by the maximum size of the aggregate. Fresh concrete is measured in a container of known volume to determine density (unit weight). Scale must be sensitive to 0.3% of anticipated mass of sample and container. Size of container varies according to the size of the aggregate, the 7l (0.25ft3) air meter container for up to 25mm (1in) Nominal max. Size aggregate: 14l (0.5ft3) container for aggregates up to 50mm (2in). Container should be calibrated at least annually (ASTM C 1077). Q: On what basis is air content for concrete specified? A: Air content is specified on the basis of 2 variables: maximum coarse aggregate size and exposure environment. AIR CONTENT PERCENT* Severe Exposure** Moderate Exposure+ 9 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 7 6 5 5 4 4 4 3

Nominal Maximum size aggregate mm (in) < 9.5 (3/8) 9.5 (3/8) 12.5 (1/2) 19.0 (3/4) 25.0 (1) 37.5 (1 ) 50 (2) ++ 75 (3) ++

Mid Exposure++ 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1

* Project specifications often allow the air content of the concrete to be within -1 to +2 percentage points of the table target values ** Concrete exposed to wet-freeze-thaw conditions, deicers, or other aggressive agents Concrete exposed to freezing but not continually moist, and not in contact with deicers or aggressive

chemicals Concrete not exposed to freezing conditions, deicers, or aggressive agents. These air contents apply to the total mix, as for the preceding aggregate sizes. However, when testing, aggregates larger than 37.5mm (1in) are removed by handpicking, sieving or air Content is determined on the minus 37.5mm (1in) fraction of mix. (Tolerance on air content as delivered applies to this value.) As the maximum aggregate size for any given concrete mixture increases the amount of paste in the overall mixture decreases, in turn, decreasing the required air content. In a concrete mixture with a maximum " aggregate the required target air content for a severe exposure would be 6%; this would equate to a paste to air content of about 9%, which is the approximate change of volume that water undergoes when it freezes hard. As the aggregate size increases, the quantity of paste decreases, allowing lower air content to maintain the same relationship. If the maximum aggregate size were decreased, the overall paste content would increase and require an increased air content to maintain the 9% air to paste relationship. Depending on the structure, a wide variety of maximum coarse aggregates may apply. Typically aggregates range from 3/8" to 3"; however, in massive structures aggregates up to 6" have been used. The second variable is exposure: extreme, moderate, and mild. For extreme exposures the air content ranges from 7% for 3/8" aggregate to 4% for 3/8" aggregate. Extreme exposure is defined as an environment in which concrete is exposed to freeze-thaw conditions, de-icers, or other aggressive agents. The air content range for moderate exposure is from 6% for 3/8" aggregate to 3% for 3" aggregate. Moderate exposure is defined as an environment in which concrete is exposed to freezing but will not be continually moist, not exposed to water for long periods before freezing and will not be in contact with deicers or aggressive chemicals. The air content range for mild exposure is from 4% for 3/8" aggregate to 1% for 3" aggregate. Mild exposure is defined as an environment in which concrete is not exposed to freezing, deicers or aggressive agents. The quotes are taken from ACI 201.1R, Guide to Durable Concrete. See Table for total target air content for concrete Q: Can we add air-entraining admixture at the jobsite? A: ASTM C 94, Standard Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete, section 7.3 provides a method for field adjustment of air content when the tested value falls outside of the acceptable tolerance range (plus or minus 1.5%). Air entraining admixture may be added to achieve the proper air content, followed by a minimum 30 drum revolutions at mixing speed. At no time are the total revolutions of the drum to exceed 300, for the load in question. Neither ACI 301-99, Specifications for Structural Concrete in Buildings or AASHTO M 157, Standard Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete address this issue. The Canadian Standards Publication A23.1-00, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete Construction, refers to a procedure for field control of air content. Section 18.4.3.4 says that: The air content of the concrete shall, if necessary, be brought up to the specified range by the addition of an air-entraining admixture in the field. Mixing shall follow to ensure proper dispersion. The air content shall be retested. ...the amount of admixture added shall be recorded on the delivery slip. As an added control check, it might be advisable to measure air content at the point of discharge into the forms. This is recommended in Section 2.10 of ACI 212.3R-91, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete. Q: What is meant by saturated surface dry condition of aggregates? A: Saturated Surface Dry describes the condition of the aggregate in which the pores in each particle of the aggregate particle are filled with water and no excess water is on the particle surface. This allows the absorption and the specific gravity of the aggregate to be measured. Moisture content of aggregate is described by four categories: The following are examples of how the moisture content of an aggregate affects the mixture proportioning of concrete: Example 1: If an aggregate had zero moisture content and an absorption value of 2%, then the water added to the concrete mixture would be increased by 2% of the weight of the aggregate to achieve the desired water cement ratio.

Example 2: If an aggregate had a 6% moisture content and an absorption value of 2% then the water for the concrete mixture would be decreased by 6% 2% = 4% times the weight of the aggregate to maintain the desired water cement ratio. Q: How do I design for moisture sensitive floor coverings? A: The choice of slab design for moisture sensitive floor coverings should include the following considerations:

Concrete water-cement ratio Sub-base moisture conditions Mineral and chemical admixtures Concrete curing Concrete drying environment

For slab construction of this type, the water cement ratio should be maintained at 0.4. The sub-base moisture conditions should be considered to determine if a vapour retarder will be required or if granular cushion will be sufficient to resist the entrance of moisture into the slab. A water reducer may be considered for use with a low water-cement ratio concrete to promote workability and to aid in ease of consolidation. The curing practice may be altered to accommodate an early dried condition (three day moist cure). Proper ventilation and low relative humidity environment are recommended for the drying conditions. Moisture related problems are unique with every slab that is placed. First you will need to consider the ground water and drainage conditions for each site. This information will determine if a vapour retarder will be required. In most cases if a vapour retarder is not required, a 28 day air drying of the slab should prove to be adequate as preparation for placement of the floor covering. Should retarder be required, things get a little more complicated. There exist numerous ways to approach this, each with its strengths and weaknesses. A vapour retarder placed below a blotter layer (a layer of sand or granular material used to allow moisture to evacuate the slab from both faces) minimises curling, yet may act as a moisture reservoir to promote higher vapour pressures. A vapour retarder in direct contact with the bottom of the slab does not provide this reservoir, but forces the convenience water from the initial placement to evacuate through the top of the slab only. This may substantially change the water cement ratio in the upper surface of the slab, which in turn may make for a weaker finished floor surface and will increase the shrinkage rates at the upper surface of the slab promoting curling. Some designers have adopted the practice of using the vapour retarder at the bottom contact surface of the slab, a low water cement ratio with water reducers to control the workability of the concrete mixture and a mat of steel in the upper half of the slab to restrain shrinkage and with that to control curling. Q. What are supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and how do they differ from blended cements? A. More than half of ready-mixed concrete contains fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, metakaolin or other pozzolanic materials. These materials are collectively referred to as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). SCMs can be included in concrete, either as an ingredient added at batching, or as a component of blended cement or both (Figure 1). SCMs can be added during batching along with Portland cement. SCMs can also be added to concretes made with blended cements. ASTM C 618 (fly ash and natural pozzolans), C 989 (slag), or C 1240 (silica fume) govern SCMs added directly to concrete, while ASTM C 595 or C 1157 governs blended cements.

Since the benefits of SCMs arise from their physical and chemical characteristics, it might be assumed that similar performance in concrete is achieved, for example, by adding a fly ash at a ready-mixed concrete batch plant or through use of blended cement made with fly ash. Although good concrete performance can be achieved through both techniques, blended cements provide an advantage in that they can be produced with the same quality control techniques as Portland cements, including control of fineness and optimisation of sulphate content. Sulphate optimisation can be particularly important

for some fly ashes with high aluminates contents. Although a rare occurrence, some fly ashes can throw off the sulphate balance in fresh concrete, leading to problems with workability and setting. The quality control of blended cements takes a variable out of the concrete batching process. Q: What is workability of concrete? A: The ease of placing, compacting and finishing of concrete in the desired manner is its workability. Normally the workability is measured through slump; higher the slump, higher the workability. Low slump leads to difficulties in placing of concrete. Therefore it is required to decide the workability based on experience and site conditions.

Concrete Tests
Q: What is Concrete Testing? A: A concrete test is performed to learn more about the properties of a specific sample of concrete. A number of different tests can be performed on concrete both, on a job site and in a laboratory. Because concrete is an important structural element, testing is mandatory in many regions of the world, and construction companies must provide documentation of their testing and results when asked to do so by government representatives. Test results are also kept on file in case a problem develops in the future. There are a dozen different test methods for freshly mixed concrete and at least another dozen tests for hardened concrete, not including test methods unique to organisations like the Army Corps of Engineers, the Federal Highway Administration and state departments of transportation. Q: What are the different types of Concrete Testing? A: One of the most classic concrete tests is a slump test. In a slump test, concrete is tamped into a cone, which is then removed to see how far the concrete sinks or slumps without the support of the cone. Changes in slump height between batches of concrete can indicate a consistency problem. There are also slump requirements for different types of construction; low slump height concrete, for example, cannot be used to build roadways. Thus, the slump concrete test is both a quality control measure and a consistency measure. Other types of concrete test can include laboratory analysis of the components of concrete, to confirm that concrete contains what the manufacturer claims it contains and to learn more about properties, such as durability and permeability. Concrete must meet specific standards, especially for high stress projects like bridges and high-rise buildings, which makes lab testing important to confirm that concrete is safe to use and that it will withstand years of stress. Material testing, in general, is designed to make sure that materials meet quality control standards, comply with any laws and contain the components people claim they contain. If concrete fails a concrete test, it may mean that part of a construction project needs to be redone to remove the faulty concrete or that a batch of concrete needs to be discarded. People have been testing concrete for strength, durability, and workability since Roman times. Curiously, reports about falsification of concrete test results pop up in the news on a regular basis, with construction companies being accused of cutting corners to avoid having to replace work performed with faulty concrete. Reputable companies use third parties to test their concrete so that the results are neutral, ensuring that there will be no doubts about the safety of the concrete in the future. Q: What are the most common tests for fresh concrete? A: Slump, air content, unit weight and compressive strength tests are the most common tests for fresh concrete. Slump is a measure of consistency, or relative ability of the concrete to flow. If the concrete cant flow because the consistency or slump is too low, there are potential problems with proper consolidation. If the concrete wont stop flowing because the slump is too high, there are potential problems with mortar loss through the formwork, excessive formwork pressures, finishing delays and segregation. Air content measures the total air content in a sample of fresh concrete, but does not indicate what the final in-place air content will be, because a certain amount of air is lost in transportation, consolidating, placement and finishing. Three field tests are widely specified: the pressure meter and volumetric method are ASTM standards and the Chace Indicator is an AASHTO procedure. Unit weight measures the weight of a known volume of fresh concrete. Pouring cylinders of fresh concrete and measuring the force needed to break the concrete cylinders at

proscribed intervals as they harden, test compressive strength. According to Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318), as long as no single test is more than 500psi below the design strength and the averages of three consecutive tests equals or exceeds the design strength, then the concrete is acceptable. If the strength tests dont meet these criteria, steps must be taken to raise the average. Q: How is Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC) tested? A: Test Methods SCC is characterised by its unique fresh concrete properties. Therefore, new test methods are being developed to characterise SCC properties. See table for test methods approved or under consideration at ASTM:

Test Method

Description ASTM C1611 Test is performed similar to the conventional slump test (ASTM C143) using the Abrams cone (use of inverted cone possible). However, instead of measuring the slumping distance vertically, the mean spread of the resulting concrete patty is measured horizontally. This number is recorded as the slump flow.

Slump Flow

J-Ring

Column Segregation

Additional information about the mixture can be obtained by measuring the time it takes for the patty to reach 500mm (20in). This is called the T50 value and is a measure of viscosity. A final visual observation of the patty can be compared to an index called the Visual Stability Index, which rates the degree of segregation during the test. Measured characteristic: Filling ability (deformability), viscosity & stability ASTM C1621 The J-Ring consists of a ring of reinforcing bars such that it will fit around the base of a standard slump cone. The slump flow with and without J-Ring is measured and the difference calculated. An index, called the Visual Blocking Index, is available to rate the segregation of the mixture during the test; however, this is not part of the ASTM standard. Measured characteristic: Passing ability ASTM C1610 This test evaluates the static stability of a concrete mixture by quantifying aggregate

segregation. A column is filled with concrete and allowed to sit for a while after placement. The column is then separated into three or four pieces. Each section is removed individually and the concrete from that section is washed over a No. 4 sieve and the retained aggregate weighed. A nonsegregating mix will have a consistent aggregate mass distribution in each section. A segregating mix will have higher concentrations of aggregate in the lower sections. Measured characteristic: Stability
There are many other accepted tests for SCC that have not been standardised within ASTM. The following table summarises some of the more recent or commonly used methods:

Test Method

Description This test evaluates the passing ability of the mixture. Concrete is placed inside the vertical portion of the testing apparatus. A grill placed at the entrance of the horizontal portion simulates reinforcement. Once the concrete has flowed to the resting position, the heights of concrete in the vertical portion (H1) and the end of the horizontal portion (H2) of the apparatus are measured. The ratio H2/H1 is used as a measurement of passing ability. Values of 0.75 and higher are considered acceptable. Measured characteristic: Passing ability (photo courtesy of BASF Construction Chemicals) The V-Funnel consists of a V-shaped apparatus with an opening at the bottom. The time taken to empty the funnel is regarded as a measure of the viscosity of the mixture. Measured characteristic: Viscosity (photo courtesy of BASF Construction Chemicals) The segregation probe test is a quick and easy test that measures the thickness of the mortar layer on the surface. A standard 150mm x 300mm (6in x 12in) cylinder is filled in one lift and allowed to sit for two

L-Box

V-Funnel

Segregation Probe

minutes. A wire ring with a graduated stem is then placed on the top surface of a cylinder and allowed to settle for one minute before the depth of penetration is recorded. Penetration values range from less than 4mm (1/6in) for very stable mixtures to more than 25mm (1in) for highly unstable mixtures. Measured characteristic: Stability
Q: What items should one look for in a fresh concrete test set? A: The ASTM 138 deals with the Test Methods for Density, Yield and Air Content of Concrete The equipment required is 1. Balance 2. Tamping Rod 3. Internal Vibrator 4. Measure - A cylindrical container made of steel or other suitable material 5. Strike off Plate 6. Mallet Q: Why is it important to test concrete? A: Therehas always been, and will always be, a need to test products and materials to prevent disasters. Critical physical parameters must be measured to quantify performance and strength, ensuring our safety and the safety of our environment. Q: Why is the concrete cube tested for weight before compression test? A: The main reason for calculating the weight of concrete block before testing in the compression machine is to check whether the weight is approximately equal to the value, which is calculated by the multiplication of density and volume. This is a way to see approximately whether the concrete being used is correct or not. Now the exact results can be calculated by the concrete compression-testing machine, which will give the strength the block can hold. Mass = density x volume The concrete block should weigh about 8 ~ 8.5kg for a 150*/150*150mm3. If the value does not come as the given value then the concrete mixture is not correct and the compressive testing is of no use, as the concrete being taken cannot be used in building structures. Q: What is the volume of mould in VICAT's Apparatus for cement test as per Indian Standards? A: This test is conducted to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement test.

The volume of mould required is 300gm of cement and 30 by weight or 90gm of water is added to it. These ingredients are mixed thoroughly. Thus the required mould is prepared n then filled to the vivant apparatus. Time interval should be 3 to 4 minutes.

It also consists of a plunger and the settlements are noted. If the penetration is between 5mm and 7mm from the bottom of mould, the water added is correct. Q: Can rebound hammers reliably measure compressive strength? A: Rebound hammers test the surface hardness of concrete, which cannot be converted directly to compressive strength. ASTM C 805-97, Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete, states, because of the inherent uncertainty of estimating strength with a rebound number, the test is not intended as the basis for acceptance or rejection of concrete. There are many factors other than concrete strength that influence rebound hammer test results, including surface smoothness, finish, moisture content, coarse aggregate type and the presence of carbonation. Although rebound hammers can be used to estimate concrete strength, the rebound numbers must be correlated with the compressive strength of moulded specimens or cores taken from

the structure. The procedure used to develop this relationship is described in ACI 228.1R-03, In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength, American Concrete Institute. Q. Why do we need concrete testing? A. Testing of concrete is required to know whether the concrete made is conformable with the required specifications or not. Testing is a party in Quality control system. Q. What is Inspection? A. Inspection is simply a subsystem of the quality plan. It may be employed by the owner to evaluate future acceptance of the work or by contractors and material producers for quality control purposes. It includes visual observations, measurements and field and laboratory testing of activities, components and materials to specified requirements along with the recording and evaluation of much data. Q. What is the significance of inspection and testing in construction? A. Inspection and testing requirements vary based on the specific space and needs of construction and should be tailored to each project. The content of an inspection plan is dependent on the type and complexity of the project, special features informed, quality level desired, building code requirements and the responsibilities of the inspection organisation performing the work. Inspection activities generally fall into on of the categories owners inspection, Quality control inspection, contractor and compliance inspection by third party. Q. What are the field tests for concrete in fort state? A. The most common test is Slump contest meant for workability of concrete. There are several other tests that include test for cement content, w/c ratio, temperature of concrete, density, yield, air content, setting time, compatibility test etc. All tests need not be carried out for every batch of lament. The number of tests will be specified depending upon the intensity. Q. What is the usefulness of Slump test of concrete? A. Slump test of fresh concrete is an indication of the following: If grading of the aggregates is uniform, it will indicate variations of water context pr water/ cement ratio. If the amount of water added to the mix is accurate and surface mixture of fine aggregates is constant, then it will indicate variations in grading or variations in batching of element or aggregates. If the cohesiveness of the mix for a particular workability is most adequate, due to inadequate concrete mix design and batching, the concrete core will collapse or shear off. In general, slump test provides an idea of consistency of concrete batch to batch of concrete. It should be carried out as soon as possible, at about the same time after mixing let us 5/10min. The method of slump test depends upon slump of concrete. For very law slumps compacting factor method, foe low medium slumps- slump core and for very high slumps veer-bee flow method. All these methods are applicable to concrete without admixtures (in general) Q. What are three types of slumps? What does it signify? A. Please include 8.0 content with figures from slump test for quality control Ambuja Tech. Literature (p23) small book. Slump test to be carried out as per IS: 11991999 Q. What are the tolerance limits of work ability for acceptance? A. As per is 4926, the tolerance limits of workabilitySlumps: + - 25mm or + - 1/3 of the specified value whichever is less Compacting factor: + - 0.03 for specified value >- 0.9 + - 0.04 for specified value <- 0.9 >- 0.8 + - 0.05 for specified value < - 0.8 Flow test: Acceptance criteria to be established between supplier (in case of RMC) and purchaser. Q. How do you estimate Cement Content in fresh concrete in forth concrete? A. National council for concrete and building materials (NCB) has developed a simple field test estimate current content in berth concrete. The apparatus contains a wooden box with a 2l plastic beaker in the centre, surrounded by non-conductive materials. It is provided with a lid and provisions for inserting thermometers and stirrers. The test procedure is as follows: Take 1kg of far concrete and pan it into the 2l plastic container. Add 800ml of water and allow to equilibrate to room temperature

and initial temperature is recorded (+1) after stirring the concrete well. Then add 500g/435ml of HCL acid quickly and stir well with a wooden stick to ensure complete dissolution of cement. Due to the exothermic reaction, the temperature of concrete rises to its maximum extent and tends to fall. The beak temperature to the recedes (+2), (T2 T1) gives rise in temp. The cement content in 1kg of fresh concrete may be calculated by using the formula. C = 3 (T1 T 2) + 12.28g/1kg of concrete. Cement content in grams Personal error in this method may be minimised to a greater extent by carrying out reneval mixer with known quantities of cement and known grade of courte. Results +- 10%. This method is applicable for OPC based concrete. Q. What is yield of concrete? Why do we need it? Q. How do you determine setting time of concrete? How does it different from setting time of lement? Q. How do you carry out sampling of beth concrete? What is the minimum frequency to be adopted? Q. What do you understand by Acceptance criteria for concrete? Q. What are compressive strength compliance requirement for different grades of concrete?

Durability
A: Durability is a property of concrete, which determines its life span and how vulnerable the concrete and steel is to atmospheric chemical attacks. Q: How do I prevent my concrete from losing strength and durability? A: After the truck mixes the concrete to the designed workability, you should not request any additional water in the concrete. If you think you will need a very soft (flowing) concrete when casting your structure, this should be brought to the attention of the Readymix sales representative when placing the order. Q: How does rain affect fresh concrete? A: Rainfall during placement of concrete flatwork can present challenges to achieving a quality concrete. Potential outcomes range from no damage to a weakened non-durable surface. Only time will tell at which end of the range your specific situation will fall. Descriptions of a best-case scenario and a worst-case scenario follow: Best case: The concrete is protected as much as possible from the falling rain. After the rain has stopped, the water that has fallen on the surface is allowed to evaporate the same way bleed water must be allowed to evaporate from the original concrete mixture prior to proceeding with finishing operations. To substantially change the water-cement ratio (w/c) of the concrete at the surface of the slab, energy must be added to the system, typically, in the form of troweling passes with excess water on the concrete surface. If the water is allowed to evaporate, the w/c remains reasonably low; since the w/c governs the strength of the concrete, there is no substantial damage to the finished surface. In extreme cases, it is not uncommon to physically remove excess water from the slab surface by dragging a garden hose or a broom across the concrete surface to lower the volume of water that must evaporate. With proper timing and process, the durability of the concrete is not affected. Worst case: The concrete is not protected from the rain; the water is not allowed to evaporate from the slab surface and multiple passes of the floats and trowels used to finish the surface are made with the surface moisture in place. The energy supplied by the finishing operations mixes the excess water into the slab surface creating a high w/c ratio in the near surface of the concrete, reducing its strength and thus its durability. In the worst situation, the damage to the concrete surface is readily apparent since the texture of the surface is easily damaged or removed after the initial curing period. (If the surface is dusty after 14 days of curing, there is likely to be a problem) If the surface strength is only slightly affected, the long term durability of the concrete may be reduced as evidenced by a general loss of the surface mortar (scaling) after the concrete has been through a winter season of freezing and thawing cycles; however, the concrete strength and durability below the surface would not be affected.

In most cases concrete is warranted for one year, which will allow you to assess the potential durability of the concrete surface. In instances similar to this, many contractors are willing to extend the warranty for an additional period of time (an extra year or two) to settle the doubt. Q: Is there an admixture that prevents scaling? A: While there are a number of chemical admixtures and supplementary cementitious materials that can improve the quality of concrete, there is no substitute for quality concrete when the issue is spalling or scaling. The most important factors in achieving durable exterior concrete surfaces are appropriate cement content, air-entraining admixture (to produce the proper air content for the aggregate size), proper placement, consolidation, finishing and curing. Q: What effects do deicers have on concrete? A: Sodium chloride: Sodium chloride has little or no effect on properly air-entrained concrete but will damage plants and corrode metal. Calcium chloride: Calcium chloride in weak solutions has little chemical effect on concrete or vegetation but does corrode metal; however, strong calcium chloride solutions can chemically attack concrete. The reaction is accelerated by high temperature Magnesium chloride: A PCA literature search found three references comparing the effects of magnesium chloride with sodium chloride and other deicers on the scaling resistance of concrete. Unfortunately, the cited studies provide conflicting results. The abstract from a German field study (Leiser 1967) states, concrete surfaces were only slightly affected (by magnesium chloride lye) and that the solution is less harmful than granulated salt. However, two recent studies found magnesium chloride to be more aggressive than sodium chloride. In the first study (Cody 1996), concrete containing dolomite coarse aggregate was cored from five highway pavements. Small blocks were cut from the cores and subjected to wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles in 0.75M and 3.0M solutions of NaCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2. Magnesium chloride was the most destructive deicer, producing severe deterioration under almost all of the experimental conditions. Calcium chloride was the next most destructive salt. Sodium chloride was relatively benign. In the second study (Lee 2000), the researchers again found magnesium chloride to be significantly more aggressive than sodium chloride in wet-dry and freeze-thaw conditions. In both of these studies, the authors concluded that the major cause of deterioration by magnesiumbased deicers was the formation of non-cohesive magnesium silicate hydrates (MSH), produced by the reaction of dissolved magnesium with calcium silicate hydrates of the cement. Because MSH does not form strong bonds with aggregate particles, these phases cause loss of cohesion in Portland cement paste and will promote crumbling. A common finding of the above research is that all deicers can aggravate scaling, emphasising the need for placing high-quality, air-entrained concrete in deicer environments. Urea does not chemically damage concrete, vegetation or metal. Ammonium: Deicers containing ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate should be prohibited because they rapidly attack and disintegrate concrete. Deicers used in low concentrations (2%4% by weight) can cause more surface scaling than higher concentrations or no deicer at all. Q: What causes efflorescence and how can it be avoided? A: Efflorescence is a type of discoloration. It is a deposit, usually white in colour that occasionally develops on the surface of concrete, often just after a structure is completed. Although unattractive, efflorescence is usually harmless. In rare cases excessive efflorescence, within the pores of the material, can cause expansion that may disrupt the surface. Efflorescence is caused by a combination of circumstances: soluble salts in the material, moisture to dissolve the salts and vapour transmission or hydrostatic pressure that moves the solution toward the surface. Water in moist, hardened concrete dissolves soluble salts. This salt-water solution migrates to the surface by vapour transmission or hydraulic pressure where the water evaporates, leaving the salt deposit at the surface. Particularly, temperature, humidity and wind affect efflorescence. In the summer, even after long periods of rain, moisture evaporates so quickly that comparatively small amounts of salt are brought to the surface. Moisture testing to determine the vapour pressure at the slab surface will tell you how much moisture is moving through the slab. A common value of vapour pressure acceptable for moisture sensitive floor coverings is 35lb/1000sqft/24 hours. The Calcium Chloride Vapour Pressure Test is commonly used. Testing of the soils and concrete would identify the source of the soluble salts. A look at the drainage, irrigation systems, accommodation of the building runoff (downspout drops etc.) and ground

waters, may give some valuable clues as to the source of moisture that drives this process These types of problems can be very complex to resolve. One possible strategy would be to install a French drain system, which over time will lower the moisture content of the soil under the slab. With lower moisture content under the slab, the transmission of water through the slab will slow or nearly cease. Without the moisture, the salts are no longer transported to the slab surface and the process should stop. Avoid adding additional water to the system. In general, any wet process cleanup converts the build-up to a solution, which is re-deposited onto the concrete surface to reappear when the concrete dries. In many cases the use of a dry method cleanup will help to reduce or prevent a reoccurrence of efflorescence. Q: What is ettringite and does it or the sulphate in cement contribute to expansion and disintegration of Portland cement concrete? A: Ettringite, calcium sulfoaluminate, is found in all Portland cement concretes and is commonly referenced in petrographic reports. Calcium sulphate sources, such as gypsum are added to Portland cement to prevent rapid setting and improve strength development. Sulphate is also present in supplementary cementitious materials and admixtures. Gypsum and other sulphate compounds react with calcium aluminate in the cement to form ettringite within the first few hours after mixing with water. Essentially, all of the sulphur in the cement is normally consumed to form ettringite within 24 hours. The formation of ettringite results in a volume increase in the fresh, plastic concrete. Due to the concretes plastic condition, this expansion is harmless and unnoticed. If concrete is exposed to water for long periods of time (many years), the ettringite slowly dissolves, reforming in less confined locations. Upon microscopic examination, harmless white needle-like crystals of ettringite can be observed lining air voids. Any form of attack or disintegration of concrete by freeze-thaw action, alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) or other means, accelerates the rate at which ettringite leaves its original location in the paste, to go into solution and recrystallise in larger spaces. Both, water and space must be present for the crystals to form. The space is often provided by cracks that form due to damage caused by frost action, ASR, drying shrinkage or other mechanisms. Ettringite crystals in air voids and cracks are typically 24m in cross section and 2030m long. Under conditions of extreme deterioration, the white ettringite crystals appear to completely fill voids or cracks. However, ettringite, found in its preferred state as large needle-like crystals, should not be interpreted as causing the expansion of deteriorating concrete. Another term used in petrographic reports is Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF). This refers to a condition usually associated with heat-treated concrete. Certain concretes of particular chemical makeup, which have been exposed to temperatures over about 70C (158F) during curing, can undergo expansion and cracking caused by later ettringite formation. This can occur because the high temperature decomposes any initial ettringite formed and holds the sulphate and alumina tightly in the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel of the cement paste. The normal formation of ettringite is thus impeded. In the presence of moisture, sulphate and alumina desorb from the confines of the C-S-H to form ettringite in cooled and hardened concrete. After months or years of desorption, ettringite forms in confined locations within the paste. Since the concrete is rigid and if there are insufficient voids to accommodate the ettringite volume increase, expansion and cracks can occur. In addition, some of the initial ettringite formed before heating may be converted to monosulfoaluminate at high temperatures and upon cooling, revert back to ettringite. Because ettringite takes up more space than monosulfoaluminate from which it forms, the transformation is an expansive reaction. Only extreme cases of DEF result in cracking, and often DEF is associated with other deterioration mechanisms. Air voids can help relieve the stress by providing a location for the delayed ettringite to form. Finally, some petrographers or concrete technologists use the term secondary ettringite to refer to both DEF and harmless ettringite found lining voids (often listed under secondary deposits in petrographic reports). Q: Can water cause deterioration of concrete? A: Generally, the combination of water and favourable temperatures increases the strength of concrete throughout its life cycle. However, water also can act as the transport system for nearly all mechanisms aggressive to concrete. Some examples are:

Porous, water-saturated concrete that does not have adequate strength and entrained air is prone to scaling, which is a deterioration mechanism caused by freezing of water in concrete Water can carry aggressive chemicals into the concrete surface such as acids, sulphates or chlorides Concrete that contains alkali-reactive aggregates is subject to deleterious expansion from water Water that passes over the surface of concrete with a high velocity can erode the surface over time

Exposure to water is typically beneficial to concrete, but there are circumstances in which it can also contribute to the deterioration of concrete. Service environment conditions are key to determining whether water will have beneficial or deleterious effects. Q: How do you diagnose damage from alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in a concrete structure? A: The diagnosis of ASR in a concrete structure requires a combination of recognition of the visual symptoms of ASR, appropriate testing to verify the presence of ASR gel and deterioration of the concrete in the structure. Typical visual symptoms include unusual expansion of the concrete evidenced by longitudinal cracks, map cracking (random cracking pattern), closed joints, spalled surfaces, displacement of adjacent structural components, pop-outs, efflorescence and/or discoloration (darkened or blotchy areas). If site inspections reveal one or more of these visual symptoms, it may be appropriate to sample and test the concrete to verify the presence of ASR gel. In addition, the source of any other deterioration mechanisms should be noted and the structure should be evaluated for soundness. Appropriate testing can be performed using one of the following methods:

Petrographic Analysis (ASTM C 856 or AASHTO T 299) Uranyl-Acetate Treatment (discussed in the Annex to ASTM C 856 or AASHTO T 299) Los Alamos Staining Method (Powers 1999)

Q: Can lightweight concrete be used for bridge construction? A: Lightweight concrete can be and has been used for bridge construction for decades. There are many examples of lightweight concrete bridge constructions in different environments:

The upper deck of the Oakland Bay Bridge constructed in 1936 (still in service) William Preston Lane, Jr. Bridge, Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, constructed in 1952 (still in service)

Of course any concrete mixture considered for a specific application should always be evaluated for the service environment in which it will be placed. Concrete used in bridge constructions in regions that have severe weather typically require low permeability, to provide protection for the steel reinforcement in the structure as the use of deicing chemicals increases the risk of corrosion of any steel reinforcement. Corrosion of the steel is a primary concern for the long-term durability of this type of structure. Low permeability and high strength are closely related concrete properties; as strength increases permeability decreases. Concrete strengths used in bridges typically equal or exceed 5000psi and some bridge specifications require permeability testing using the Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, ASTM C1202. These minimum precautions should be implemented regardless of the type of concrete being considered. In summary, lightweight concrete that has been properly tested to assure that it provides the required properties for the specific structure in question can be used for bridge construction. Q: How do you protect a concrete surface from aggressive materials like acids? A: Many materials have no effect on concrete. However, there are some aggressive materials, such as most acids that can have a deteriorating effect on concrete. The first line of defence against chemical attack is to use quality concrete with maximum chemical resistance, followed by the application of protective treatments to keep corrosive substances from contacting the concrete. Principles and practices that improve the chemical resistance of concrete include using a low water-cement ratio,

selecting a suitable cement type (such as sulphate-resistant cement to prevent sulphate attack), using suitable aggregates, water and air-entrainment. A large number of chemical formulations are available, as sealers and coatings, to protect concrete from a variety of environments; detailed recommendations should be requested from manufacturers, formulators or material suppliers. Q. How does blended cement affect durability? A: Pozzolan combines with lime and alkalis in the cement and when water is mixed forms compounds which contribute to strength, impermeability and sulphate resistance It also contributes to workability, reduced bleeding and controls destructive expansion from alkali-aggregate reaction; the leaching of free lime is also reduced. Q: Can concrete surfaces scratch or crack? A: Concrete surfaces share many characteristics of other stone surfaces like marble or limestone and require similar care. They are very durable, but NOT indestructible. The surface can chip or crack if struck by a heavy object. The use of hot pads and cutting boards is recommended to protect the surface from extreme temperature changes and scratches. Concrete may experience small hairline cracks or crazing (similar to that which occurs on the surfaces of porcelain objects) that will not affect its strength or durability. Use of sealants makes the concrete surface stain resistant, but not stain proof. Prompt cleanup of spills, particularly acids such as citrus juice and wine, and the periodic application of a light coat of wax are required. Concretes natural tendency to acquire a patina or personality over time, is seen by many as a desirable characteristic.

Environment Impact
Q: What are the environmental and social impacts of cement industries? A: Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after returning them to nature or recultivating them has closed them down.

Climate

Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both, directly through the production of carbon dioxide when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide and indirectly through the use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced from fossil fuels. The cement industry produces about 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel. The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900kg of CO2 for every 1000kg of cement produced. Newly developed cement types from Novacem and Eco-cement can absorb carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening. Fuels and raw materials A cement plant consumes 36GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels and, to a lesser extent, natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value and burns to give ash-containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.

Local impacts

Producing cement has significant positive and negative impacts at a local level. On the positive side, the cement industry may create employment and business opportunities for local people, particularly in remote locations in developing countries where there are few other opportunities for economic

development. Negative impacts include disturbance to the landscape, dust and noise and disruption to local biodiversity from quarrying limestone (the raw material for cement). Q: Is precast concrete a green building material? A: Precast concrete contributes to green building practices in significant ways. The low water-cement ratios possible with precast concrete are -0.360.38, which mean it can be extremely durable. The thermal mass of concrete allows shifting of heating and cooling loads in a structure to help reduce mechanical-system requirements. Because precast concrete is factory-made, there is little waste created in the plant (most plants employ exact-batching technologies) and it reduces construction waste and debris on site, reducing construction IAQ concerns. The load-carrying capacities, optimised cross sections and long spans possible with precast concrete members help eliminate redundant members and concrete readily accommodates recycled content. Q: Is precast concrete energy-efficient? A: The thermal mass of precast concrete absorbs and releases heat slowly, shifting air conditioning and heating loads to allow smaller, more efficient heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Insulation is often used in architectural panels and sandwich wall panels to increase thermal efficiency, with continuous insulation (ci) in walls being possible. The resulting savings are significant up to 25% on heating and cooling costs. Q: Does precast concrete contain recycled materials? A: Precast concretes fresh and in-place performance can improve when several common industrial byproducts are added. Fly ash, slag and silica fume, which would otherwise go to landfills, can be incorporated into concrete as supplementary materials. These by-products can also reduce the amount of cement that is used in concrete. Reinforcement is typically made from recycled steel. (Steel is one of the most recycled building materials and can be reused repeatedly) Insulation and connections within the precast concrete also contain recycled content. Q: Can precast concrete members be reused? A: Precast concrete members are unique in that they are individually engineered products that can be disassembled. Designers can easily plan future additions to buildings, because the precast concrete components can be rearranged. Once removed, precast concrete members may be reused in other applications. Precast concrete is also friendly to downcycling, in which building materials are broken down, because it comes apart with a minimum amount of energy and retains its original qualities. An example of downcycling would be the use of crushed precast concrete as aggregate in new concrete or as base materials for roads, sidewalks, or concrete slabs. Q: How does precast concrete contribute to LEED-NC rating points? A: Precast concrete: Minimally disrupts the site (area and time) Reduces damage to drainage paths and natural habitats Increases open area when multi-level parking structures are used Reduces the heat-island effect because of concrete's light colour Improves energy efficiency and thermal comfort Reuses and recycles formwork, keeping materials out of the landfill Uses recyclable concrete and steel Can be reused or recycled Can use waste and recycled materials such as slag, fly ash and silica fume Is generally made from materials that are extracted and manufactured regionally Does not off-gas and does not need to be sealed or painted Q: What LEED-NC points does precast concrete contribute toward? A: Precast concrete and other materials contribute to LEED points by providing performance and properties that are measured by the LEED program. At this time, PCI endorses potential precast concrete contributions for up to 20 LEED points (see LEED Project Checklist) and possibly more, depending on the project.

Q: How can precast concrete reduce the heat-island effect described in the LEED Sustainable Sites credit (SSc7.1)? A: Sustainable Sites credit 7.1 is intended to reduce heat islands, meaning the thermal gradient difference between developed and undeveloped areas. The heat-island effect is partially attributed to the dark surfaces of roofing and paving and the additional heat in developed areas increases HVAC loads and contributes to the creation of smog. Reducing heat islands minimises impact on microclimate and human and wildlife habitat. Precast concrete parking structures that place at least 50% of the spaces under cover (for example, underground, under a building, or under a deck or roof) can reduce this effect. Any roof used to shade or cover parking must have a solar reflective index (SRI or albedo) of at least 29. In addition, highalbedo vertical precast concrete wall surfaces reduce the heat-island effect. Q: How can precast concrete contribute to Innovation and Design in LEED? A: Projects earn Innovation and Design credits when they demonstrate exemplary performance in a recognised LEED credit area, or bring new approaches and technologies such as carbon-fibre reinforcing that reduce weight and embedded energy and advance sustainable design. Because of its significant contributions to LEED and its inherent green characteristics, precast concrete offers an excellent platform on which creative project teams can base their sustainable design plans. Q: How does precast concrete contribute to the underlying sustainability concept of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle? A: By reducing the amount of materials and the toxicity of waste materials Precast concrete can be designed to optimise (lessen) the amount of concrete used in a structure or element As one example, the use of carbon-fibre reinforcement or insulation can reduce: Amount of concrete needed in a precast concrete panel Weight of a precast concrete panel Transportation cost of precast concrete panel Amount of energy used to erect a precast concrete panel Precast concrete generates low amounts of waste with low toxicity 2% of the concrete at a precast plant is waste 95% of the waste is used to manufacture new panels By reusing products and containers and repairing what can be reused Precast concrete panels can be reused when buildings are expanded or dismantled Concrete pieces from demolished structures can be reused to protect shorelines Wood or fibreglass formwork used to make precast concrete products is generally reused 40 or more times Concrete and steel have practically unlimited service lives By recycling as much as possible, including buying products with recycled content Industrial wastes (fly ash, slag and silica fume) can be used as partial replacements for cement Wood and steel forms are recycled when they become worn or obsolete Virtually, all reinforcing steel is made from recycled steel Insulation contains partially recycled material Concrete in most urban areas is recycled as fill or road base Q: What steps are precast operations taking toward sustainability? A: PCI Producer Members meet local and state ordinances and emissions requirements. Initiatives within the industry include: Use of local materials in all mixtures; local aggregate resources Water reclamation and recycling Reducing cement requirements by lowering watercement ratios Admixtures such as hardening accelerators to eliminate applied heat in curing Use of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) for quicker placement, no vibration and reduced surface defects Use of environmentally friendly thin brick in place of conventional brick in precast concrete systems Carbon-fibre reinforcement that allows lighter and larger concrete sections with less embedded energy and no corrosion

Use of supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) to reduce cement consumption; participation in Cool Climate Concrete Enclosed sandblasting facilities with 100% process-waste control Standardising wood form parts for multiple reuse; recycling discarded forms into mulch or fuel Recycling all scrap steel and reinforcement Reducing and reusing product packaging received in facilities Q: What is being done about CO2 emissions during the cement-manufacturing process? A: Since 1975, the cement industry has reduced CO2 emissions by 33%. Today, cement production accounts for less than 1.5% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, well below other sources such as electric generation plants for heating and cooling the homes and buildings we live in (33%) and transportation (27%). In 2000, the cement industry created a new way to measure CO2 emissions. Recently introduced guidelines will allow for greater use of limestone as a raw material in cement, ultimately reducing CO2 by more than 2.5 million tons per year. By the year 2020, plans call for further reduction of CO2 emissions to 10% below the 1990 baseline through investments in equipment, improvements in formulations and development of new applications for cements and concretes that improve energy efficiency and durability. Q: What is Self-Cleaning Concrete A: Self-cleaning buildings and pollution-reducing roadways: These may sound like futuristic ideas, but they are realities of some of todays concrete. Recently introduced formulations of cement are able to neutralise pollution. Harmful smog can be turned into harmless compounds and washed away. Anything made out of concrete is a potential application, because these cements are used in the same manner as regular Portland cements. These products provide value through unique architectural and environmental performance capabilities. Proprietary technology (based on particles of titanium dioxide) is what makes this cement special capable of breaking down smog or other pollution that has attached itself to the concrete substrate, in a process known as photocatalysis. Q: What steps are being taken to make concrete environment friendly? A: Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a byproduct of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount of quarrying and landfill space required and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the amount of cement required to produce a solid concrete. Q: What is concrete recycling? A: It is a method of disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits. Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks. Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete based waste. Recycling concrete provides environmental benefits, conserving landfill space and use as aggregate reduces the need for gravel mining. Q: How does concrete contribute to Urban heat A: Concrete and asphalt are the primary contributors to what is known as the Urban heat island effect. Using light-coloured concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature. A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large

percentage of solar heat and contributes to the warming of cities. By paving with light coloured concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-coloured concrete, communities can lower their average temperature. Many U.S. cities show that pavement comprise approximately 30-40% of their surface area. This directly impacts the temperature of the city, as demonstrated by the urban heat island effect. In addition to decreasing the overall temperature of parking lots and large paved areas by paving with light-coloured concrete, there are supplemental benefits. One example is 1030% improved night time visibility. The potential of energy saving within an area is also high. With lower temperatures, the demand for air conditioning decreases, saving vast amounts of energy. Atlanta has tried to mitigate the heat-island effect. City officials noted that when using heat-reflecting concrete, their average city temperature decreased by 6F. New York City offers another example. The Design Trust for Public Space in New York City found that by slightly raising the albedo value in their city, beneficial effects such as energy savings could be achieved. It was concluded that this could be accomplished by the replacement of black asphalt with light-coloured concrete. Q: Does concrete create air pollution? A: Building demolition and natural disasters such as earthquakes often release a large amount of concrete dust into the local atmosphere. Concrete dust was concluded to be the major source of dangerous air pollution following the Great Hanshin earthquake. Q: Does concrete have any effect on the health of the people in the building? The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns. Natural radioactive elements (K, U and Th) can be present in various concentrations in concrete dwellings, depending on the source of the raw materials used. Toxic substances may also be added to the mixture for making concrete by unscrupulous makers. Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may cause serious health concerns depending also on what had been incorporated in the concrete. Q: How much CO2 is associated with the manufacture of cement? A: For each tonne of cement produced by BCA member companies 822kg (0.822t) of CO2 emissions are released. About 40% of these emissions come from fuel combustion at cement manufacturing operations and 60% originate from the manufacturing process that converts limestone (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO), the primary precursor to cement. It is chemically impossible to convert CaCO3 to CaO and then cement clinker, without generating CO2. Additionally, indirect CO2 during the transport of raw materials, fuels and products, as well as electricity generation, would account for around 7% of the total emissions from cement manufacture. In 2002, global cement production was responsible for around 3.8% of man-made CO2 emissions. In 2004, the UK (and Crown dependencies) cement industry produced 1.74% of UK CO2 emissions (source: data from the BCA and National GHG Inventory). Q: Is concrete combustible? A: No. Concrete is an inert inorganic conglomerate. It does not burn, melt, warp, lose structural strength or drip molten material in a fire. Q: How does concrete compare to steel in fire? A: It is known that structural steel begins to soften around 425C and loses about half of its strength at 650C. This is why steel is stress-relieved in this temperature range. But even a 50% loss of strength is still insufficient, by itself, to explain the World Trade Centre collapse. It was noted above that the wind load controlled the design allowables. The World Trade Center, on this low-wind day, was likely not stressed more than a third of the design allowable, which is roughly one-fifth of the yield strength of the steel. Even with its strength halved, the steel could still support two to three times the stresses imposed by a 650C fire. The additional problem was distortion of the steel in the fire. The temperature of the fire was not uniform everywhere and the temperature on the outside of the box columns was clearly lower than on the side facing the fire. The temperature along the 18m-long joists was certainly not uniform. Given the thermal expansion of steel, a 150C temperature difference from one location to another will

produce yield-level residual stresses. This produced distortions in the slender structural steel, which resulted in buckling failures. Thus, the failure of the steel was due to two factors: loss of strength due to the temperature of the fire and loss of structural integrity due to distortion of the steel from the non-uniform temperatures in the fire. Q: What is the effect of concrete on acoustics? A: The issue of sound insulation and acoustic performance of homes has grown in importance, primarily due to the growing demand from government for increased density of urban dwellings. The number of complaints about noise has risen due both to this closer proximity and the new demands placed on housing (e.g. entertainment systems). For this reason, the UK Building Regulations Part E now requires improved sound insulation. In general, increasing the mass of a wall or floor improves the sound insulation of a room; hence concrete and masonry offer a good barrier to airborne sounds, while impact sound is easily controlled with appropriate floor and ceiling finishes. A range of 'Robust Details' (RD) for both masonry and concrete walls and concrete floors have been agreed by the Building Regulations Advisory Committee. These offer approved construction choices for both party walls and separating floors and include aspects of the external wall in controlling sound between dwellings. Good acoustic properties can also be achieved for multi-occupancy residences using a range of concrete options. One example is tunnel form construction (in which the walls, floors and ceilings are made from cast in-situ concrete using specialist reusable formwork) that was used for a residential block at the University of East Anglia. Two separating floors in the new block, consisting of 250mm of concrete with a stuck-down carpet and no ceiling finish beneath, were tested. They both exceeded the regulations by more than 5dB for both airborne and impact sound insulation and therefore met the levels required by Robust Details. Concrete walls provide a buffer between: Outdoor noise and the indoor environment in a building. Road noise and residential areas with a sound barrier. Indoor noise between adjoining apartments or other spaces as a separating wall. A study in America reported in the PCA bulletin No. 15434 proved that: "...The greater mass of concrete walls can reduce sound penetrating through a wall by over 80% compared with wood or steel frame construction. Although some sound will penetrate the windows, a concrete building can be two-thirds quieter than a wood or steel frame building. Concrete panels also provide effective sound barriers separating buildings from highways or industrial areas from residential areas..."

Standards and Codes

Q: What are the Standardised Tests of Concrete? A: ASTM C-143 Slump Test ASTM C-39 Compressive Strength Test ASTM C-78 Flexural Strength Test Q: What is the ASTM C-39 test for concrete? A: ASTM C-39 Standard Test Method Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. Procedure: 8.1 If the specimen length to diameter ratio is less than 1.8, correct the result obtained in 8.1 by multiplying by the appropriate correction factor in the following table: L/D 1.75 1.5 1.25 1.00 Factor: 0.98 0.96 0.93 0.87 Q: What are the differences between Codes, Standards and Specifications, and how are they related? A: In the US, construction industry Codes typically refer to model building codes, which are

requirements for safety and performance of structures. These become legal requirements when adopted by state or local authorities. For example, the International Building Code (IBC), which provides minimum requirements to safeguard the public health, safety and general welfare for most non-residential buildings. State and local jurisdictions typically reserve the right to amend the model codes to assure that the requirements for design and construction of buildings are appropriate for the climatic, geographical, geological, political and economic conditions within their jurisdiction. Standards are typically adopted by reference in codes. Standards cover specific details, such as test methods, specifications, practices or design provisions. This allows for simplification of the codes, because technical details for defining specific products, such as Portland cement can be discussed in material specifications such as ASTM C150, Specification for Portland cement or in specific test methods, like ASTM C39, Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens (www.ASTM.org). ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete is an important design standard, which is adopted by the IBC and many other model codes for concrete design and construction provisions. Standards are often developed by consensus-based organisations, such as ASTM International, the American Concrete Institute (ACI), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and many others. Specifications are either material or reference specifications. Reference specifications, such as ACI 301, Specifications for Structural Concrete, are specifically written for use in contract documents (also known as project specifications). Material specifications, such as ASTM C150 are referenced in codes as well as in reference specifications. Thus, Codes, sometimes with local amendments or modifications, become the governing rules by which concrete structures (and other objects) are built. For clarity and conciseness, they refer to standards, including material specifications.

Troubleshooting/Repair

Q: What can I do about moisture problems in a new concrete building? A: Moisture problems can occur in tight concrete buildings without adequate ventilation that havent gone through one or two winter heating seasons to allow water to evaporate from the concrete. Unfortunately, air conditioning isnt a very efficient way to remove the moisture because cool air wont hold as much moisture as warmer air. Thus, turning down the thermostat to cool the building even more isnt likely to help. In fact, it can even make the problem worse by increasing condensation on the cooler surfaces. The air conditioner may also be oversized which prevents it from cycling on frequently enough to remove the moisture. Two steps will help to solve the problem. Use dehumidifiers with air conditioning set at moderate levels (75F) during the first two summers of operation to drop the indoor relative humidity below 80%. Dehumidifiers are a more efficient way of removing moisture than reducing air temperature via air conditioning. Second, ventilate the building as much as possible when heating and air conditioning arent being used. The tighter the building, the harder it is to get rid of excess moisture. Install an air exchanger to provide fresh air when the heating and cooling systems are not operating. Also, use bath and kitchen exhaust fans to remove moisture produced by occupants. Many builders now install ventilation ducts in walk in closets to increase ventilation and decrease moisture problems. If not, keep the closets open while you are experiencing problems. Another solution is to turn on the heating system after the building has been completed for two weeks or so, regardless of the season. During this period ventilation should also be kept high. In a house with forced air, the fan should be on continuously. While its true that external heat drives some moisture further into the concrete (toward the cold side), the heat also reduces relative humidity in the building and allows water near the interior concrete surfaces to evaporate. The obvious downside to this approach is an uncomfortably high temperature in the building while finish work is being done, or delayed use of the building if heating is turned on after completion but before occupancy. Condensation problems are often made worse when vinyl or other impermeable wall coverings are placed over the concrete at an early age. Evidence of moisture problems will be visible under the wall covering. Always discourage the use of impermeable wall coverings in hot and humid climates (such as on the Gulf coast). To help prevent this problem in moderate climates, delay applying the wall covering until the building has gone through two winters with the heating on and two summers with indoor relative humidity less than 80%. Q: What causes concrete to crack? A: Unexpected cracking of concrete is a frequent cause of complaints. Cracking can be the result of

one or a combination of factors, such as drying shrinkage, thermal contraction, restraint (external or internal) to shortening, subgrade settlement, and applied loads. Cracking can be significantly reduced when the causes are taken into account and preventative steps are utilised. Crazing is a pattern of fine cracks that do not penetrate much below the surface and are usually a cosmetic problem only. They are barely visible, except when the concrete is drying after the surface has been wet. Plastic Shrinkage Cracking: When water evaporates from the surface of freshly placed concrete faster than it is replaced by bleed water, the surface concrete shrinks. Due to the restraint provided by the concrete below the drying surface layer, tensile stresses develop in the weak, stiffening plastic concrete, resulting in shallow cracks of varying depth. These cracks are often fairly wide at the surface. Drying Shrinkage: Because almost all concrete is mixed with more water than is needed to hydrate the cement, much of the remaining water evaporates, causing the concrete to shrink. Restraint to shrinkage, provided by the subgrade, reinforcement or another part of the structure, causes tensile stresses to develop in the hardened concrete. Restraint to drying shrinkage is the most common cause of concrete cracking. In many applications, drying shrinkage cracking is inevitable. Therefore, contraction (control) joints are placed in concrete to predetermine the location of drying shrinkage cracks. D-cracking is a form of freeze-thaw deterioration that has been observed in some pavements after three or more years of service. Due to the natural accumulation of water in the base and subbase of pavements, the aggregate may eventually become saturated. Then with freezing and thawing cycles, cracking of the concrete starts in the saturated aggregate at the bottom of the slab and progresses upward until it reaches the wearing surface. D-cracking usually starts near pavement joints. Alkali-aggregate reaction: Alkali-aggregate reactivity is a type of concrete deterioration that occurs when the active mineral constituents of some aggregates react with the alkali hydroxides in the concrete. Alkali-aggregate reactivity occurs in two formsalkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkalicarbonate reaction (ACR). Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling joints or displacement of different portions of a structure. Thermal cracks: Temperature rise (especially significant in mass concrete) results from the heat of hydration of cementitious materials. As the interior concrete increases in temperature and expands, the surface concrete may be cooling and contracting. This causes tensile stresses that may result in thermal cracks at the surface if the temperature differential between the surface and centre is too great. The width and depth of cracks depends upon the temperature differential, physical properties of the concrete and the reinforcing steel. Loss of support beneath concrete structures, usually caused by settling or washout of soils and subbase materials, can cause a variety of problems in concrete structures, from cracking and performance problems to structural failure. Loss of support can also occur during construction due to inadequate formwork support or premature removal of forms. Corrosion: Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metals is one of the leading causes of deterioration of concrete. When steel corrodes, the resulting rust occupies a greater volume than steel. The expansion creates tensile stresses in the concrete, which can eventually cause cracking and spalling. Cracking in concrete can be reduced significantly or eliminated by observing the following practices: 1. Use proper subgrade preparation, including uniform support and proper subbase material at adequate moisture content. 2. Minimise the mix water content by maximising the size and amount of coarse aggregate and use low-shrinkage aggregate. 3. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit overly wet consistencies. 4. Avoid calcium chloride admixtures. 5. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic through use of spray-applied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid plastic-shrinkage cracks. 6. Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the slab thickness. 7. Provide isolation joints to prevent restraint from adjoining elements of a structure. 8. Prevent extreme changes in temperature. 9. To minimise cracking on top of vapour barriers, use a 100mm (4in) thick layer of slightly damp, compactable, drainable fill, choked off with fine-grade material. If concrete must be placed directly on polyethylene sheet or other vapour barriers, use a mix with low water content.

10. Properly place, consolidate, finish and cure the concrete. 11. Avoid using excessive amounts of cementitious materials. 12. Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture to reduce drying shrinkage, which may reduce shrinkage cracking. 13. Consider using synthetic fibres to help control plastic shrinkage cracks. Q: Does muriatic acid darken concrete? A: Calcium hydroxide deposits may lighten the colour of concrete that is cured with water present on the surface. The calcium hydroxide is water soluble, but when exposed to air its converted to insoluble calcium carbonate. If an acid wash removes the calcium carbonate deposits, the darker underlying concrete will be exposed. The colour difference will be especially noticeable if hard troweling darkened the concrete surface or if a calcium chloride admixture was used in the concrete. This kind of surface discoloration is discussed in PCA Research Department Bulletin RX203, Surface Discoloration of Concrete Flatwork. Treating the entire sidewalk with muriatic acid might enable you to match the darker coloured area where the stain was removed. However, some experimentation would be needed to develop a procedure that minimises colour variations. More information can be found in the Research Department Bulletin RX203. Q: How can I remove graffiti from concrete? A: Many products are suitable for removing spray-paints and felt-tip markings from concrete surfaces. These products are generally effective for removing crayon, chalk, and lipstick also. The manufacturers directions should always be followed. If satisfactory results are not obtained with the first remover tested, a second or third attempt with other products should be made. A single product may not remove multiple types of stains. Several proprietary chemical strippers are available, many of which contain a citrus-based solvent, methylene chloride or potassium hydroxide. Citrus-based solvents are the least aggressive and may not work on certain paints, but they are the safest to use and often have less stringent disposal requirements. For best results, allow products based on potassium hydroxide to soak into the concrete surface for several hours before rinsing. These products also require a subsequent application of an acid neutraliser. Abrasive cleaning can remove graffiti, but it will also remove the outer layer of concrete, making it more vulnerable to weathering. The cleaned area may also look different from the rest of the surface. After removal of the graffiti or before a structure is used, a graffiti barrier coating or sealer should be applied. The surface treatment should keep graffiti out of the concrete pores and on the surface for easy removal. Q: How can I repair a pitted concrete platform surface? A: The two most important issues are (1) the preparation of the slab to achieve an effective bond and (2) choosing a repair material that is compatible with the service condition or climate. Resurfacing Concrete Floors,IS144 is a good resource for the preparation of the slab surface. In general, the slab surface must be clean, hard and all unsound material must be removed. This will typically require high pressure water blasting (3000psi or more), sandblasting or shot blasting. The slab surface may be dry or damp but not wet prior to placing the repair material. For a thin application, curing is most critical to produce a durable surface. You can use traditional concrete or mortar for the repair down to a thickness of about 1in or a thin specialty topping for thinner sections. Q: What causes random concrete cracks and can they be avoided? A: Random cracks in concrete slabs are most frequently caused by one of the following mechanisms: Settlement of the soils supporting the concrete slab Restraint of horizontal movement due to fixed foundation elements Overloading, applying a load larger than what the slab was designed to support Restrained drying shrinkage of the slab Settlement cracking takes place when the soils or fill beneath the slab have not been adequately compacted to provide a consistent level of support for the slab to limit the bending stresses, which crack the concrete. Settlement can be controlled with consistent preparation (compaction) of the base supporting the slab.

Slabs placed against fixed foundation elements (frost foundations, light standards etc.) produce cracks caused by bending forces, as the slab moves on the surface while the fixed foundation does not. Placing isolation joint material between the slab and the fixed foundation to allow the elements to move independently controls this mechanism, thus limiting the bending stresses and subsequent cracking. Overload cracking is easily controlled with proper thickness design of the slab considering the largest load that may be applied to its surface. Cracks due to restrained drying shrinkage are caused by the tensile stresses that build in the matrix of the slab as the concrete gives up moisture over time and is prevented from shrinking by the soils beneath it. The most common strategy for dealing with this type of random cracking is to provide closely spaced contraction joints (weakened planes) to predetermine where the concrete should crack. Smooth dowels and dowel plates are another common material used to provide good structural performance at working contraction joints; used more often with slabs greater than 150mm (6in) in thickness that will receive substantial loads the dowels provide load transfer across working contraction joints. Slabs with properly spaced contraction joints should typically limit the occurrence of random cracks to no more than 3% of the panels in the slab. Keep in mind that a crack is not a failure of the concrete, but rather the normal behaviour of the material. It is also common to use steel reinforcement in a slab to hold cracks tightly to assure good structural performance. Tight joints provide good load transfer and maintain equal elevation across cracks, which is the measure of the structural performance of any slab. It should be recognised that the use of steel reinforcement may actually increase the potential for random cracks to occur, because the cracks are held tightly and thus do not allow for the full relaxation of tensile stresses in the slab. Q: What causes early stiffening and what is the difference between false set and flash set? A: Early stiffening is a premature loss of workability or plasticity of cement paste, mortar or concrete. This includes both false and flash set. False set (plaster set) is evidenced by a significant loss of plasticity without the evolution of much heat shortly after mixing. From a placing and handling standpoint, false set tendencies in cement cause no difficulty if the concrete is simply mixed for a longer period of time or remixed without additional water before being transported or placed. False set occurs when too much gypsum dehydrates in the cement mill forming too much plaster (some plaster in the cement is desirable). This leads to stiffening due to the rapid reformation of secondary gypsum with interlocking needle-like crystals. Additional mixing without water breaks up these crystals to restore workability. Ettringite precipitation can also contribute to false set. Flash set (quick set) is evidenced by a rapid and early loss of workability in paste, mortar or concrete. It is usually accompanied by the evolution of considerable heat, resulting primarily from the rapid reaction of aluminates. If the proper amount or form of calcium sulphate is not available to control the calcium aluminate hydration, rapid stiffening takes place. Flash set cannot be dispelled, nor can the plasticity be regained by further mixing without the addition of water. Proper stiffening results from the careful balance of the sulphate and aluminate compounds, as well as the temperature and fineness of the materials (which control the chemical reaction rates). A balance among the ions in plastic concrete is necessary to prevent early stiffening. The tendency for early stiffening may therefore be attributed not only to individual cementitious materials, but also to interactions between the various cementitious materials and chemical admixtures. For example, some Class C fly ashes contain significant amounts of aluminate phases and may disturb the balance because the cement sulphates may not be sufficient to account for them, leading to early stiffening. Some chemical admixtures, particularly Type A water reducers, may also disturb the ion balance with the same result. Cements are tested for early stiffening using ASTM C451 (paste method) (AASHTO T 186), and ASTM C359 (mortar method) (AASHTO T 185), which use the penetration techniques of the Vicat apparatus. However, these tests do not address all of the mixing, placing, temperature and field conditions that can cause early stiffening. To detect early stiffening caused by interactions between concrete ingredients, the use of conduction calorimetry has been suggested. Q: When you find lot of cracks on the completed apartment wall, how will you arrest them? A: Use filling adhesive materials. Use stitching and grouting method to heal cracks.

Q: How can you tell if youre getting the amount of concrete youre paying for? A: The real indicator is the yield, or the actual volume produced based on the actual batch quantities of cement, water and aggregates. The unit weight test can be used to determine the yield of a sample of the ready mixed concrete as delivered. Its a simple calculation that requires the unit weight of all materials batched. The total weight information may be shown on the delivery ticket or the producer can provide it. Many concrete producers actually over yield by about 0.5% to make sure they arent short-changing their customers. But other producers may not even realise that a mix designed for 1yd3 might only produce 26.5ft3 or 98% of what they designed.

Q: What is blended cement? A: Blended cement is obtained by either intergrinding pozzolanic material or slag with clinker along with Gypsum or by blending ground pozzolana or slag with Portland cement. They are also termed as composite cements. Q: What is setting of cement? A: When water is mixed with cement, the paste so formed remains pliable and plastic for a short time. During this period it is possible to disturb the paste and remit it without any deleterious effects. As the reaction between water and cement continues, the paste loses its plasticity. This early period in the hardening of cement is referred to as the setting of cement. Q: What is initial and final setting time of cement? A: Initial set is when the cement paste loses its plasticity and stiffens considerably. Final set is the point when the paste hardens and can sustain some minor load. Both are arbitrary points and are determined by Vicat needle penetration resistance. Q: What are the different grades of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)? A: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three different grades The classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of cement-sand mortar cubes of face area 50cm2 composed of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of standard sand by weight with a water-cement ratio arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are:

(i) (ii) (iii)

33 grade 43 grade 53 grade

Q: Is there a universal international specification for Portland cement? A: Each country has its own standard for Portland cement, so there is no universal international standard. The United States uses the specification prepared by the American Society for Testing and MaterialsASTM C-150 Standard Specification for Portland cement. There are a few other countries that also have adopted this as their standard, however, there are countless other specifications. Unfortunately, they do not use the same criteria for measuring properties and defining physical characteristics so they are virtually non-translatable. The European Cement Association located in Brussels, Belgium, published a book titled Cement Standards of the World. Q: Are there different types of Portland cement? A: Though all Portland cement is basically the same, eight types of cement are manufactured to meet different physical and chemical requirements for specific applications: Type I is a general purpose Portland cement suitable for most uses. Type II is used for structures in water or soil containing moderate amounts of sulphate, or when heat build-up is a concern. Type III cement provides high strength at an early state, usually in a week or less. Type IV moderates heat generated by hydration that is used for massive concrete structures such as dams.

Type V cement resists chemical attack by soil and water high in sulphates. Types IA, IIA and IIIA, are cements used to make air-entrained concrete. They have the same properties as types I, II and III, except that they have small quantities of air-entrained materials combined with them. White Portland cement is made from raw materials containing little or no iron or manganese, the substances that give conventional cement its grey colour. Q: What are the advantages of using Portland pozzolana cement over OPC? A: Pozzolana combines with lime and alkali in cement when water is added and forms compounds, which contribute to strength, impermeability and sulphate resistance. It also contributes to workability, reduced bleeding and controls destructive expansion from alkali-aggregate reaction. It reduces heat of hydration thereby controlling temperature differentials, which causes thermal strain and resultant cracking n mass concrete structures like dams. Q: Does the shade of cement affect quality? A: No. The quality of cement depends upon the raw materials used and the quality control measures adopted during its manufacture, not on the shade of the cement. The cement gets its colour from the nature and colour of raw materials used, which will vary from factory to factory and may even differ in different batches produced in a factory. Further, the colour of the finished concrete is affected by the colour of the aggregates. Preference for any cement on the basis of colour alone is technically misplaced. Q: Why is the colour of PPC sometimes different from OPC? A: The colour of PPC comes from the colour of the pozzolanic material used. PPC containing fly ash as a pozzolana will invariably be a slightly different colour than OPC. Q: What is the effect of long storage periods on cement? A: Cement, which is in the form of a fine powder, has a tendency to absorb moisture present in the atmosphere. When it absorbs moisture it hydrates, and when subsequently used, does not contribute to the strength development. Jute bags (gunny bags) in which cement is bagged, are neither airtight nor damp-proof and do not prevent absorption of moisture. The quality of cement deteriorates on long storage. Cement bagged in woven polythene bags or paper bags are not likely to deteriorate to the extent mentioned above. The loss of strength also depends on the condition of the godown. It is advisable to use cement within three months of its bagging, or to test the cement for its strength if stored for longer periods. Hence cement bought first should be used first. Q: How should cement be stored? A: Precautions that must be taken in the storage of Portland cement are given below in a series of DONTs.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

Do not store bags in a building or a godown in which the walls, roof and floor are not completely weatherproof. Do not store bags in a new warehouse until the interior has thoroughly dried out. Do not be content with badly fitting windows and doors, make sure they fit properly and ensure that they are kept shut. Do not stack bags against the wall. Similarly, do not pile them on the floor unless it is a dry concrete floor. If not, bags should be stacked on wooden planks or sleepers. Do not forget to pile the bags close together. Do not pile more than 15 bags high and arrange the bags in a header-andstretcher fashion. Do not disturb the stored cement until it is to be taken out for use.

(viii) Do not take out bags from one tier only. Step back two or three tiers. Do not keep dead storage. The principle of first-in first-out should be (ix) followed in removing bags. Do not stack bags on the ground for temporary storage at work site. Pile (x) them on a raised, dry platform and cover with tarpaulin or polythene sheet.
Q: How to identify the time for which the cement was stored before use? A: On the cement bag, week number, month and year of manufacturing are being mentioned and this can be checked before use. Q: How can concrete be damaged? A: Fire, aggregate expansion, seawater, bacterial corrosion, leaching, physical damage and chemical damage (from carbonation, chlorides, sulphates and distilled water) can damage concrete. Q: How long must concrete be kept moist (cured)? A: The period of time needed to properly cure concrete depends upon the type of cement, mixture, proportions, required strength, size and shape of the structure, weather conditions and future exposure conditions. It can range from 3 hours to 3 weeks. Typically, a concrete driveway or sidewalk should be cured for a minimum of 3 days and up to 7 days if possible.

PERVIOUS CONCRETE : A CONCRETE STEP TOWARDS A GREENER EARTH

Vaibhav Babtiwale, Zonal In charge (CS) Ambuja Cements Ltd. Nashik, (Maharashtra) ABSTRACT: At many projects water logging at parking and walkways is the major issue especially during monsoon as pavements and floors are normally impermeable. This results in considerable amount of investment in repairs and providing storm water drain systems, which may get clogged during peak over flow. Besides this there are many other problems that arise due to the above. In such situations it is very important to think about an economical solution which helps in getting rid of all above problems. The best solution to above problem is pervious concrete. 1. WHAT IS PERVIOUS CONCRETE?

Pervious concrete pavement is unique and effective means to address important environmental issues and support green, sustainable growth. By capturing storm water and allowing it to seep into the ground due to its design properties, pervious concrete is instrumental in recharging ground water, reducing storm water runoff. In other words we call it as a RAIN WATER HARVESTING CONCRETE. This pavement technology is helpful in creating more efficient land use by eliminating the need of water retention bodies, costly storm water drainage and repair cost, which otherwise would have been incurred due to water accumulation. In doing so, pervious concrete has the potential to lower overall project costs thus making it more economical.

1.1. a)

Benefits of pervious concrete Environmental benefits Helps in saving precious water which otherwise goes to drains. Helps in keeping earth below wetter, greener and cooler. Recharging ground water level. Replace costly water harvesting systems. Eliminates use of asphalt which normally causes environmental pollution. Use of fly ash thus reducing pollution.

b)

Other benefits Eliminates the need of costly water drainage systems. Rough texture thus avoiding skidding of vehicles. Low maintenance cost. Stronger and durable for light traffic loads. Use of local building material. Lower cost compare to other pavement solution. Conventional construction practices. Use local semi skilled mason or labor.

2. BUILDING MATERIALS FOR PERVIOUS CONCRETE: The basic advantage with this type of concrete is the use of locally available building material like course aggregate, fine aggregate, cement, chemical admixtures etc. Details of building materials used are as tabulated below refer table 1,2 and 3. Table 1. 20 mm aggregates properties: Crushing value 20%, specific gravity 2.75 (other parameters confirming to IS 383 - 1970)

IS Sieve Size 20 16.0 12.5 10 6.3

Cumulative Retained 1 55.85 98.25 100 0

% Cumulative Passing 99 44.15 1.75 0 0

Table 2. Sand properties (specific gravity 2.52 and other parameters confirming to IS 383 1970) In many countries it is also termed as no fines concrete but looking to possibilities of aggregate failure we have used fine aggregate, 5% of Coarse Aggregate quantity. With 5% fine we have conducted 5 trials but got less strength compared to 0% Fines Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate:-

IS Sieve Size 4.75 2.36 1.18 600 mcr

Cumulative Retained 11.5 30.5 56 82.4

% Cumulative Passing 88.5 69.5 44 17.6

300 mcr 150 mcr Pan

95.9 99 100

4.1 1 0

2.1 MIX DESIGN We have conducted Mix Design as per Ambuja Method. Table 4. Mix Proportions A/C ratio 4.0 W/C ratio 0.44

Material Cement Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Water Plasticizer

2.2 Test Results:

Quantity per CUM (Kg) Ratios 384 A/C - 4.0 1459 W/C - 0.44 77 (5%) 169 lits 1% Sikkacem

Following strength results were obtained. Total 14 trials (Including 5 tests of 5% fines) were conducted at Nashik concrete laboratory. Cubes were cured in gunny bags and not in curing tanks so as to create exact site conditions. As such there is no Code available for Pervious Concrete. As per ASTM C 1688, Slump & air Content test are not applicable to pervious Concrete. Fresh dencity has been measured & comes to 2120 Kg/ Cum. (Avg. wt of Cube is 7.15 kg) As per ACI 522 R -06, Drainage rate of Conc. Pavement will vary from 2 to 18 gallons / min/sqft. In our case it comes to 4.5 to 6.0 gallons/min./sqft Table 2.1.1. Compressive Strength with 5% fines

Age (Days) 3 7 28

Wt. of (Kg) 7.95 8.0 8.0

Cubes

Strength (Kg/cm2) 151.2 174.0 234.0

Table 2.1.2. Compressive Strength with no fines

Age (Days) 3 7 28
Table 2.1.3

Wt. of (Kg) 8.10 8.05 8.15

Cubes

Strength (Kg/cm2) 155.5 210.6 308.2

Flexural Strength with no fine aggregate

Material Used Pervious Concrete Without Chicken Mesh Pervious Concrete with Wire Mesh Pervious Concrete with Chain Link

Result 3.52 KN 3.80 KN 5.00 KN

There are chances that porosity of this pavement may get blocked by the passage of time. If it happens same may be cleaned by pressure water jet. It is not recommended for heavy traffic loads. Photographs: Porosity

Wire Mesh

With Wire Mesh

With Chain Link

Actual Slab

Flexural Strength Check

3.0

Cost comparison:

Type of Pavement Kota Stone Shahbadi Stone Kaddapa Stone Ferro Concrete Block Normal Concrete Pervious Concrete

Rate* (Rs./Sqft) 100 110 120 125 80 75

Perviousness Impervious Impervious Impervious Impervious Impervious Pervious

Remarks Drainage Required Drainage Required Drainage Required Drainage Required Drainage Required Drainage not Required

* As per prevailing market rates as in April, 2012 in Nashik, Maharashta. The above table indicates that pervious concrete is not only eco-friendly but also pocket-friendly. Pervious concrete pavement is very economical compare to other pavements. CONCLUSION

Pervious concrete is one of finest solution towards water logging problems especially at parking and walk ways. It also helps in saving precious water. Though the use of such concrete is at very preliminary stage but is expected to increase in future looking to enormous advantages. We used chicken mesh for achieving the tensile strength but after results we conclude that, tensile strength was better with Chain link instead of chicken mesh. Future Scope:- Maximum tensile strength might be achieved by minimizing the spacing between the mesh we have used. Pervious concrete what a concrete step towards a green earth. References: Benefits of Pervious Concrete, Source: www.tadaysconcretetechnology.com Pervious Concrete Wikipedia Pervious Concrete by ACI Report No. 522 R 06 Pervious Concrete by National Readymix Concrete Association (NRMCA) Optimizing The Strength And Permeability Of Pervious Concrete Ryerson University Department Of Civil Engineering Amanda Lidia Alaica. NDMVP final Year Students project on Improving Strength of porous Concrete by Mr. Akshay Mahale, Mr. Chetan Misal, Mr. Yogesh Shejwal & Mr. Vivek Sonje

Process
Self Compacting Concrete : Concrete Solution For Emerging Concrete Application Needs Umesh Soni, Hitesh Barot, Kartik Mehta Ambuja Cements Ltd.
Abstract Concrete is versatile construction material as such the use of concrete for various structures as well as for precast application is increasing day by day. Now we can make Concrete - porous, impermeable, floating (light weight), bendable, with different color and textures, flowing (self compacting) etc. by using appropriate materials and technology based on the application requirements. Today, the challenge to the construction industry is to construct tall structures with thin sections having reinforcement congestion with good quality concrete finish. This attracts to develop the Self Compacting Concrete with local materials, expertise and available resources. This paper broadly covers the concept, need, advantages, materials, mix design approach, testing of self compacting concrete based on the learning from Concrete Experts from Holcim Group Support and conducting the trials at Ambuja Concrete Labs and on construction sites. The basic objective is to transfer the technological learning & creating awareness about SCC through seminars / workshops amongst professionals and to encourage the use of SCC for relevant concrete application. This paper also draws a simple approach to design SCC mix with local materials and thus to encourage the use of SCC. Introduction & Objective A concrete that is able to flow and fill every part and corner of the formwork, even in the presence of dense reinforcement, purely by means of its own weight and without the need for any vibration or other type of compaction is termed as Self Compacting Concrete. Today, along with performance requirements of hardened concrete, there is increased demand of performance requirements of fresh concrete amongst constructors. The principal reason for the same is to achieve the ease of placing in heavily reinforced areas, mitigating the shortage of skilled construction workers, to achieve speed in concrete placement, to place the concrete in complex geometrical shape with dense reinforcement. These performance requirements of fresh concrete can be achieved by using SCC. Traditional concrete may have high workability of concrete at the cost of cohesiveness or better cohesiveness at the cost of workability. SCC addresses both the performance requirement of fresh concrete i.e. workability and cohesiveness. SCC requires a reliable control of materials characteristics, mixing process and transportation. To obtain SCC mixture, the paste content (including mineral additions and the Superplasticizer dosage)

has to be increased and the coarse aggregate content must be reduced. The excess paste should be of minimal quantity to create a lubricating layer around the aggregate particles and reduce the interparticle friction necessary to achieve self-consolidation. The Paste in SCC behaves as the vehicle for the transportation of the aggregates. Minimum paste required in case of SCC is of interest for both economical and material performance reasons. Advantages of SCC application Placing the concrete without compaction Speed in placing the concrete Concrete can be placed even in complex geometric shapes Concreting in congested Reinforced sections Concreting in thin sections Reduced noise level Reduced Energy consumption Reduced numbers of workers during concreting Safer & healthier working environment is obtained High quality of concrete surface finish High strength with better durability SCC Materials It is essential to use the advanced concrete materials like chemical and mineral admixtures over and above basic concrete materials like cement, aggregates and water. It is also very essential to choose the right quality concrete materials to meet the performance requirements, which are described below. Cement : Ordinary Portland Cement / Portland Pozzolana Cement with respect to relevant IS specifications. Coarse Aggregates : Natural/Crushed aggregates with MSA 20 mm, preferably VSI aggregates conforming IS : 383 : 1970 Fine Aggregates : Natural / crushed sand preferably of Zone-II and fineness modulus in the range of 2.6 to 2.8. Chemical Admixtures : High range water reducers preferably polycarboxylate Ether based and Viscosity Modifying Admixture. Mineral Admixtures : Basic mineral admixture fly ash / slag and micro silica, ultrafine slag and metakaolin conforming to relevant IS specifications for high strength SCC. Materials used for Lab. Trials

Material

Characteristics OPC conforming IS 12269 : 1987with specific gravity 3.15 Cement PPC conforming IS 1489 (Part-1) : 1991 with specific gravity 3.0 Coarse VSI aggregates of specific Aggregates gravity 2.70 to 2.75. Fine Zone-II sand of specific gravity Aggregates 2.65 to 2.70 Fly Ash conforming IS 3812 Mineral (Part-1) : 2003 Admixtures Ultrafine Slag (Alccofine 1203) Chemical Superplasticizer (PCE based)

Admixtures with specific gravity 1.01 and (IS 9109 : PH : 8 1999) Viscosity Modifying Admixture (VMA) with specific gravity 1.1 and PH : 6
Table -1 Physical and Chemical properties of Fly Ash

Properties Specific Surface (m2/kg) LOI SiO2 + Fe2O3+Al2O3 SiO2 MgO

Table -2

Results 320 0.8 91.24 56.63 0.61

The High Range Water Reducers is being used to compensate the higher water demand because of high amount of fines. Admixtures that modify the cohesion of SCC without significantly changing its fluidity are called as Viscosity Modifying Admixtures. The VMA is being used to increase the resistance against the segregation. VMA makes the SCC more robust and less sensitive to small variations. The mineral admixtures are used to give particle packing effect and reducing the permeability by secondary hydration. It also helps increased the fluidity and improves rheological properties. Mix Design Approach The recent amendment in IS 456 : 2000 (Annexure-J), Aug-2007, gives the guideline about application of SCC and features of fresh SCC. However, reference for the detail guideline & specification is taken from EFNARC 2005 for Lab. trials. Concrete can be classified as SCC only if it fulfills the three properties of workability Filling Ability Ability of concrete to fill all shapes under its own weight. Passing Ability Ability to flow through tight openings or spaces between steel bars under its own weight. Segregation Resistance The concrete must meet the filling & passing ability requirements with uniform composition throughout the process of transportation & placing. Basic Considerations Mix design with absolute volume consideration Paste Vehicle for the Transport of the Aggregates Volume of the paste > Volume of Aggregates CA to FA Ratio Reduced for Lubrication for fully coating the CA Compatibility of Chemical / Mineral Admixtures with cement is key

Mix Design Rules

Fig. - 1 Powder includes the cement and all mineral admixtures used and paste includes powder, water and chemical admixtures. Mix Design Steps Determine the CA Volume by Optimizing Dry Loose Bulk Density (DLBD) (in case of use of two size aggregates). Take the half weight of DLBD and convert it into volume by using Specific Gravity (SG). Select powder content as per the strength requirements within the guided range in table no. 3

Strength Class (28 days Strength MPa) 25 to 40 40 to 60 60 to 80

Table 3

in

Powder Content (Kg/Cum) 380 to 460 460 to 550 550 to 600

Select water content as per the flow requirement within the guided range in table no.4.

Strength Class (28 days Strength MPa) 25 to 40 40 to 60 60 to 80

Table 4

in

Water Content (Lit./ Cum) 195 to 210 175 to 195 150 to 175

Find out the volume of fine aggregates, since all other ingredients are known. Use Chemical Admixtures as per recommended dosage & flow requirement and take the trial.

Mix proportion obtained with above procedure.

Material Cement Fly Ash Sand < 4.75 mm C.A. < 10 mm 20mm< C.A.>10mm Water Total Super Plasticizer VMA
Table 5

Specific Batch Weight Volume Gravity (Kg/m3) Litre 450 2.78 198 100 2.68 887 331 200 2.7 1 600 175 2412 5.5 0.825 296 175 1000 5 0.825

Comparison of mix proportion between SCC and Conventional Concrete

Fig.-2

SCC Mix Check for Mix design Rules

Powder (kg/m3) 380 to 600 3 Water (Lit. / m ) 150 to 210 Coarse Aggregates 270 to 360 (Lit. / m3) FA / Total Aggregates 0.48 to 0.55 (by weight) Paste (Lit. / m3) 300 to 380 Water Powder Ratio 0.85 to 1.1 (by volume)
Table-6

550 175 296 0.52 378 0.88

Tests on SCC The performance of SCC in fresh state is very critical. It is very essential to test the concrete for classifying its performance as self compacting concrete for checking their filling ability, passing ability and segregation resistance. Slump-flow, V-funnel, U Box, L Box and J ring test is used to check the performance of SCC in fresh state. The typical recommended range to classify concrete as SCC is given in the table below.

Test Slump Flow

Property

Unit mm

Typical Range Min. Max. 650 800 12 30 +3

Filling Ability Filling V Funnel Ability Passing U Box Ability V Funnel at Segregation T5 Resistance
Table-7

Second 6 mm 0

Second 0

Slump Flow Test : This is the test for measuring the filling ability of SCC. The concrete is filled in the traditional slump cone without any compaction and flow of concrete is measured as the diameter of the circular concrete flow in mm as shown in figure given below.

Fig. - 3 The time required to achieve 500 mm flow should be < 5 seconds. V Funnel Test :

Fig. - 4 The V-funnel test is used to assess viscosity and filling ability of SCC and this test enabled recording flow time (V Funnel). The funnel is filled with 12 Litre of concrete and the time required to empty the V Funnel is measured in seconds. U Box Test :

Fig. - 5

U Box test is used to measured the passing ability of concrete through obstructions. The concrete flows from one compartment of the U Box to another compartment through the obstructions. The difference in level of concrete in both the compartments is measured in mm. Typical acceptance criteria for SCC are slump flow from 600 to 750 mm, V funnel time from 6 to 12 sec. and U Box height difference (H) 30 mm maximum. SCC Trials in Laboratory The SCC Trials were conducted in the laboratory for concrete grade M55 and concrete grade M65 separately. The mix for both the grades of concrete is as given below.

Material

Mix Proportion (M55 Grade)

Mix Proportion (M65 Grade) 450 75 40 825 850 175 5.5 0.90

PPC (with 20% Fly 450 Ash) kg. Fly Ash (kg.) 100 Ultrafine Slag (Alccofine 1203) kg. Coarse Aggregates 825 (kg.) Fine Aggregates 860 (kg.) Water (Lit.) 180 Super Plasticizer 5.25 (kg.) VMA (kg.) 0.90
Table-8

Concrete mix was prepared in the laboratory in 50 litres batch and mixed in an open twin shaft mixer. The mixing sequence followed is as given below. First add fine and course aggregates Add about 50% of water Add powder (cement + mineral admixtures) Add balance water with chemical admixtures Ensure proper mixing. Slump-flow, V-funnel and U Box tests were carried out to measure the performance of fresh concrete for filling ability, passing ability and segregation resistance. This mixture exhibited good deformability, without blocking, and enough viscosity in terms of resistance to segregation. The cubes were cast to measure the performance of hardened concrete in terms of compressive strength at 1, 3, 7 & 28 days.

Test Results of Fresh Concrete Slump Flow (mm) 650 to 720 V Funnel Time (Sec.) 8 to 12 U Box (mm) 10 to 25 Compressive Strength (MPa) Age of Concrete M55 M65

1 Day 3 Days 7 Days 28 Days

Table-9

18 36 48 65

27 42 57 76

Troubleshooting After successful laboratory & field trials, the SCC may be used for actual field application. It is observed that, while using the SCC in field, one may face issues during application due to various reasons. The table given below suggests the modification in the mix for troubleshooting.

Test

Possible Effect Cause

Remedy

Slump Water Flow on Content lower side Viscosity SP Blockage than too high specified VMA range V Funnel Water Results on Content lower side Viscosity SP Segregation than too low VMA specified Fines range
Table-10 Challenges for SCC Application SCC is balanced product in terms of workability and cohesiveness and also having added advantages of improved durability and good quality finish. However, the challenges in SCC application are as give below. Sensitive Product Admixture Compatibility (use of one or more chemical / mineral admixtures) Stringent Quality Control Controlling Shrinkage Increased Formwork Cost due to possibly High Formwork Pressure Effect on Hardened Properties Modulus of Elasticity Increased Material Cost (Chemical / Mineral Admixtures) Efficient Curing Conclusion In conclusion, self-consolidating concrete is an exciting technology that has found many successful applications. The new generation of polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers has taken SCC a giant step forward. As stated earlier, SCC is a sensitive product and it is very essential that enough nos. of laboratory trials have to be taken. It is suggested to take field trials. Overall cost of SCC may be slightly higher compared to same grade of conventional concrete mainly due to cost of chemical admixtures. However, partly the additional cost is compensated by reducing the cost of compaction and achieving speed during construction. SCC meets the upcoming challenges of handling the concrete in fresh state, specifically for certain application stated earlier. Use of SCC may also be encouraged for exposed concrete structures,

where the cost of finishing application can be eliminated. SCC is also very suitable product for precast application to achieve speed & better finish. SCC meets the four essential specification of concrete i.e. workability, strength, durability and aesthetic appearance. We strongly believe that educating manufacturers and contractors is the essential step in expanding the reach of extremely promising technology for the future needs of the society. Acknowledgements & References The European Guidelines for Self Compacting Concrete (Specification, Production & Use), May-2005. Technical Support from Holcim Group Support Experience. IS 456 : 2000 Amendment No.03, Aug-2007. Relevant IS Specifications for Materials & Testing.

Mr. Umesh Soni is currently working with Ambuja Cements Ltd. as Customer Support Head (Gujarat & South Terminals). He is having total experience of 22 years in the field of Construction and Concrete Technology. He has extensively worked on HVFA Concrete, SCC and High Performance Concrete.

Mr. Hitesh Barot is currently working with Ambuja Cements Ltd. as Manager (Customer Support). He is having total experience of 15 years. He has conducted the Laboratories trials for SCC and High Performance Concrete.

Mr. Kartik Mehta is currently working with Ambuja Cements Ltd. as Manager (Customer Support). He is having total experience of 19 years. He has conducted the Laboratories trials for SCC and High Performance Concrete.