Combustion basics: The Fire Triangle / Fire Tetrahedron

Fire Triangle
For many years, it has been widely accepted that the combination of the following three (3) factors contribute to the initiation of a fire: - fuel - a source of ignition/energy/heat - oxygen The combination of all these three (3) factors has therefore led to the widely known Triangle of Combustion. Consequently, when trying to put out a fire, we strive to remove at least one of these three components

Picture 1 Fire triangle

Fire Tetrahedron

Further research over the years revealed a fourth necessary component of fire, the chemical chain reaction. The Fire Triangle was consequently transformed to the Fire Tetrahedron. Put it simply, a Tetrahedron is a solid pyramid with four plane faces (from the Greek words tesseris edres), each one representative of the four necessary elements. In short, a fire begins by an external ingition source which is usually in the form of a flame or spark. With its turn, the external ignition source heats the fuel under the presence of oxygen. As both fuel and oxygen are heated, molecular activity increases. If properly heated, a selfsustaining chemical reaction is developed . The consequent chemical reaction will then escalate at a point where the external ignition source is no longer necessary for the propagation of the fire. Once ignition has occurred, it will continue until: - all the available fuel has been consumed or - the fuel and/or oxygen is removed or - the temperature is reduced by cooling or - the number of excited molecules is reduced and the chain reaction is broken

Picture 2 Fire tetrahedron Although simplistic in nature, presented diagrams are in fact a good example of how to actually extinguish a fire in the real world. For example, we can create a barrier using foam in order to reduce/eliminate the fueling of fire and therefore deprive the fire from one of its necessary elements (oxygen). By applying water, we can also reduce the temperature below the ignition temperature. Finally, by using a Halon extinguisher, we can create an inert gas barrier which will interfere with the chemical chain reaction.

Related Standards and Codes

There are various international standards referring to fire protection. Most widely used standards nowadays are National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards. However, reference can also be made to other US standards (like ANSI standards or Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) standards) or European standards (ISO and DIN standards). Leading commercial insurance

companies have also developed standards of their own (for example Factory Mutual) and their requirements may sometimes be stricter than those of international standards.

Understanding power factor

A motor always consumes active power, which is converted into mechanical action. Active power is expressed in Watt and is usually represented by the letter P. In some textbooks, active power can also be referred to as true or real power. Reactive power is also required for the magnetisation of the motor, but this does not produce any action. Reactive power is expressed in VAR (Volt Ampere Reactive) and is usually represented by the letter Q. Reactive power is power stored in and discharged by electrical equipments like inductive motors, transformers and solenoids. If both active and reactive power are combined together, they yield the apparent power S. In other words, the apparent power is the vector sum of the active and the reactive power. Apparent power is expressed in VA. (please refer to the graph below)

Figure 1 Active, Reactive and Apparent power vectors

Definition of power factor

The ratio between the active power and the reactive power is known as the power factor, and is often designated as cos. A typical value for power factor ranges between 0.7-0.9: the lower value is typically valid for small motors, whereas the bigger value for larger motors. In general, power factor (PF) can be expressed with the following formula: PF = P / S ..(1) where, P = Magnitude of active (true or real) power S = Magnitude of apparent power The reactive power required by inductive loads increases the amounts of apparent power in the distribution system. Increasing of the value of reactive and apparent power will cause the power factor to drop.

Importance of power factor

The value of power factor is important for electrical systems because:

An overall power factor value less than 1 demonstrates that the electricity supplier has to provide more generating capacity than actually required Voltage waveform distortion and overheating in the cables causes current waveform distortion, thus contributing to reduced power factor. Low power factor is very inefficient and some public power utilities may charge extra when the power factor value drops below 0.95.

Leading and Lagging Power Factors

Power factors are usually referred to as leading or lagging so as to indicate the sign of the phase angle. Inductive loads like transformers and motors consumes reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads like capacitor banks typically produce reactive power with current phase leading the voltage.

Squirrel cage induction motors

Perhaps the most well-known type of electric motor in use nowadays is the three-phase squirrel cage induction motor. It typically consists of two (2) main components: the stator and the rotor. As their name implies, the stator part is stationary, whereas the rotor part is rotating. The stator produces the rotating magnetic field compared to the rotor, which transforms this type of energy into movement, i.e. mechanical energy. Please refer to Figure 1 (D-end stands for motor driven end,

i.e the equipment driven by the motor, e.g. a pump, is located at that side, whereas N-end stands for motor non-driven end)

Figure 1 Electric motor structure

How an electric motor works

To explain how an electric motor operates, one must first note that the stator is connected to the three-phase power supply. The current which is applied at the stator windings produces a rotating magnetic force field, which by its turn creates current also at the rotor of the motor. As a result, a magnetic field is also created at the rotor. The interaction between these two magnetic fields (i.e.

from the stator and from the rotor) yields the turning torque, which is the cause that makes the rotor shaft rotate.
Motor rotation speed and motor slip

Due to various losses inherent to the motors nature, the speed of the motor is always approximately 1 to 3 % lower compared to the magnetic field synchronous speed. This difference is usually referred to as motor slip (s). Slip is given by the following formula: s = (n1 n) / n1. (1), where: n1=synchronous speed n= asynchronous speed As a result, this type of motors is usually known as asynchronous motors. However, it is to be noted that permanent magnet motors do not produce any slip at all (permanent magnet motors will not be discussed at this article) The synchronous speed (n), expressed in revolutions per minute (or rpm) is given by the following formula: n = (120 * f)/ p . (2), where: f = motor supply frequency (in Hz) and p = number of motor poles (even number)
Electric motor efficiency

As expected, the energy conversion at a motor is not loss-free. Several losses occur, being among others the result of resistance losses, ventilation losses, friction losses etc. Consequently, the motor efficiency (n) is expressed from the following formula: n = P2 / P1 . (3),where P2 = motor shaft power (in W) P1 = applied electric power (in W) P2 is mentioned at the motors name plate.

Insulation class

Insulation class refers to the insulation material of the motors windings. Several insulation classes, namely B, F and H, exist, in accordance with IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) standards. A letter corresponding to the temperature, which is the upper limit for the insulation application area, characterizes each insulation class. Insulation class B corresponds to a maximum winding temperature of 130C (ambient temperature 40C + temperature increase 80C + temperature margin 10C) Insulation class F corresponds to a maximum winding temperature of 155C (ambient temperature 40C + temperature increase 105C + temperature margin 10C) Insulation class H corresponds to a maximum winding temperature of 180C (ambient temperature 40C + temperature increase 125C + temperature margin 15C)
Protection class

A motors protection class is stated with the letters IP (IP stands for Ingress Protection) followed by two digits, the first of which indicates the degree of protection against contact and penetration of solid objects, whereas the second states the motors degree of protection against water. This classification is in accordance with IEC 60034-5 standard. For more details about IP protection designation, please refer to Enggyclopedia article about the Ingress Protection Enclosures.
Cooling method

Cooling methods is accordance with IEC 60034-6 can tell how a motor is cooled. The cooling method is designated with the letters IC (IC stands for International Cooling) followed by a series of digits, representing the cooling type (e.g. self-ventilated, forced cooling etc) and the cooling mode of operation (e.g. surface cooling, liquid cooling etc). Please refer to Figure 2, highlighting the most common methods of motor cooling.

Figure 2 Common methods of electric motor cooling

Steam generation fundamentals

The process of boiling water to make steam is a familiar phenomenon. Thermodynamically speaking, the heat energy used results in a change of phase from liquid to gaseous state, i.e. from water to steam. A steam generating system has to provide a continuous and uninterrupted heat source for this conversion. The simplest steam generating equipment used to carry out this conversion is a kettle type boiler for heating a specific quantity of water. As a result of the applied heat, the water temperature increases. Eventually, for a given presssure, the boiling (saturation) temperature is reached and bubbles begin to form. As heat continues to be applied, the temperature remains unchanged and steam begins to be created, escaping the water surface. At this point all the heat energy coming into the system is used for vaporization of water and not for increase in temperature. If the steam is continuously removed out of the vessel, the temperature will remain unaltered until all the water has evaporated. In order to guarantee the continuous conversion of water to steam, all we have to do is provide a regulated supply of water to equal the amount of steam being produced and removed out of the vessel. For a given pressure, steam heated above the saturation temperature is called superheated steam, whereas water cooled below the saturation temperature is called subcooled water. If the boiling water is a closed system, then after converting all the water to steam, new heat energy coming into the system is used for increasing steam temperature i.e. superheating the saturated steam.
Production of high pressure steam

Technical and economic considerations indicate that the most efficient and econominc way of producing high pressure (HP) steam is to heat relatively small diameter tubes containing a continuous flow of water. Two inherently different boiling systems are used in order to accomplish this task: - The first system uses a steam drum or a fixed steam-water separation point and - The second system that does not use a steam drum, referred to as once-through steam generator (OTSG).
Steam Drum

Perhaps the most widely used system is that of the steam drum. In this system, the drum serves as the point of separation of steam from water. Subcooled water enters the tube to which heat is

applied. As the water flows across the tube, it is heated to the boiling point. Consequently, bubbles are formed and wet steam is generated. In most boilers, a steam-water mixture leaves the tube and enters the steam drum. The remaining water is then mixed with the makeup (replacement) water, returned back to the heated tube and the process is repeated.
Once Through Steam Generator (OTSG)

Without the use of a steam drum, subcooled water also enters the heated tube and gets converted to steam along the flow path (lenght of tube). The point where water turns into steam depends on the water flow rate (boiler load) and heat input rate. With close control of both flow rate and heat input rate, we can make sure that all of the water is evaporated withing the tube and only steam leaves the tube. Therefore, there is no need for having a steam drum. Figure-1 presents a schematic view of steam generators with steam drum and without drum (OTSG).

Figure1 - Schematic for steam generator with and without steam drum (OTSG)

At very high pressures, a point is reached where water no longer exhibits boiling behaviour. Above this pressure (approximately 221 bar or 3200 psi), the water temperature keeps increasing with added heat. Boilers designed to operate above this critical pressure are referred to as supercritical boilers. Drums are no longer required at supercritical boilers: these boilers operate effectively n the once-through principle.

Sample Problem Pump power calculations

Problem Statement

Estimate the shaft power and motor power requirement to pump 200,000 kg/hr of water available at 250C and atmospheric pressure from a storage tank. The rated differential head requirement is 30 m. Assume the mechanical efficiency of the pump to be 70%. Assume the motor efficiency to be 90%.
Solution

The motor power required to run the pump as specified in the sample problem statement, is calculated by first determining the theoretical power requirement and then dividing this requirement by pump efficiency and motor efficiency.
Step1

The first step is to determine the important physical properties of water at given conditions. The only important physical property for solving this problem is the mass density of water. Using EnggCyclopedias Liquid Density Calculator, water density at 250C =994.72 kg/m3 Using water density, the mass flow rate is converted to volumetric flow rate. Volumetric flow = 200,000 / 994.72 = 201.06 m3/hr Also the differential pressure is determined using differential head as, P = gh = 994.72 9.81 30/105 = 2.93 bar
Step2

The next step is to determine the theoretical power requirement which is essentially the product of volumetric flow (Q) and differential pressure (P). Power requirement = Q P = 201.06/3600 m3/s 2.93 105 N/m2 Theoretical power requirement = 16350 Watt = 16.35 kW

Step3

Pump shaft power requirement = Theoretical power requirement / pump efficiency. For a pump that has been already purchased or has been ordered for manufacturing, the efficiency can be determined using the pump performance curves provided by pump manufacturer. Here the problem statement has specified pump efficiency to be 70%. Hence, pump shaft power requirement = 16.35 kW / 0.7 = 23.36 kW Similarly, motor power requirement = Pump shaft power requirement / motor efficiency Similar to pump efficiency, electric motor efficiency for motors already purchased or ordered, can be provided by the manufacturer of motor. However for purpose of this sample problem the efficiency is to be taken as 90% as per problem statement. Motor power requirement = 23.36 / 0.9 = 25.95 kW = 25.95 1.3596 HP = 35.28 HP Electric motors are available for following standard Horsepower ratings.
1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50

60 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 3000 3500 4000

Hence in order to have satisfy the minimum power requirement, the motor to be purchased has to have power rating of 40 HP or higher.

Sample Problem Pump sizing calculations

Sample Problem Statement -

Estimate the pump differential pressure, shaft power and motor power requirement to pump 200,000 kg/hr of water. The water stream is available from a storage tank which operates at atmospheric pressure and 250C. Minimum liquid level in the storage tank above pump suction nozzle is kept as 3m. Suction line is 6 in size and 10m long. The discharge from pump is to be sent to another vessel with a top connection for water inlet. The maximum height for the 6 discharge line above the pump discharge nozzle is 12m. The discharge vessel operates at a pressure of 3 barg. There is no control valve in the discharge line. Discharge line to be assumed 100m long considering all the fittings and valves. Assume pump efficiency to be close to 70% and motor efficiency to be close to 90%. Solution This sample problem is solved in following 3 basic steps. Various calculators from EnggCyclopedia are used for solving this sample problem. Step 1. First step of solving this sample problem requires determination of the important physical properties of given fluid (water) at given temperature and pressure conditions. Using EnggCyclopedias Liquid Density Calculator, water density at 250C =994.72 kg/m3

Using EnggCyclopedias Liquid Viscosity Calculator, water viscosity at 250C =0.90 cP

Using EnggCyclopedias Vapor Pressure Calculator, water vapor pressure at 250C =0.032 bara

Step 2. Second step to solve this sample problem is to calculate various pressure drop values in the suction side. Line pressure drop is to be calculated using EnggCyclopedias pipe pressure drop calculator. For help regarding the use of this calculator, refer to solved example for line sizing. The line pressure drop for discharge line is also to be calculated in the same way. In the present case, the pressure drop for 6 suction and discharge lines is around 5 bar/km. For 10m suction line the pressure drop becomes 0.05 bar and for 100m discharge line, it becomes 0.5 bar.

For suction line strainer, pressure drop can be calculated using EnggCyclopedias Strainer pressure drop calculator. For this example, the strainer pressure drop is around 0.09 bar.

Step 3. All these inputs should now be entered in EnggCyclopedias Pumps sizing calculator as the final step of problem solving. In the present example only the difference between heights of liquid level and pump suction/discharge nozzles is considered instead of considering the absolute heights. Hence the pump suction and discharge nozzles are considered as reference levels on suction and discharge sides respectively. Hence, the heights of these nozzles are considered as zero. The following image presents the calculation performed along with all the inputs and outputs.

observed from the solved sample problem, the required differential pressure is 4.52 bar. Pump shaft power and motor power requirements are 36.1 and 40.1 kW respectively. NPSHa and suction pressure values are also available for checking the suction line adequacy. A high NPSHa value (11.5m) indicates that the pump suction line and height of the liquid on suction side are adequate to run the pump.

Liquid density

This is a sample of the liquid density calculator. To access the working calculator, please sign up for free membership trial. The application presented here can be used to calculate liquid phase densities of various organic and inorganic substances at a specified temperature. For any sunstance the temperature must be within an applicable range displayed upon the selection of liquid. The densities given here are in kg/m3 and temperatures are in Kelvin (K). An easy way of browsing this list is to know the type of substance you are looking for. In a descending order this list presents Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Cycloalkanes, Aromatics, Alcohols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones, Organic Acids, Esters, Amines, Amides, Nitriles, Organic Sulphides, Haloalkanes, Haloaromatics and a small group of inorganic compounds at the end. Select Liquid from the list:
CO2 Carbon dioxide CS2 Carbon disulphide HF Hydrogen fluoride HCl Hydrogen Chloride HBr Hydrogen bromide HCN Hydrogen cyanide H2S Hydrogen sulphide SO2 Sulphur dioxide SO3 Sulphur trioxide H2O Water

Minimum applicable temperature = Maximum applicable temperature = Calculate the liquid density at temperature = Liquid density =

K K K kg/m3

Also refer to EnggCyclopedias gas density calculator.

Explosive Levels of Gases Upper and Lower Limits

Fire Triangle
The widely known Fire Triangle shows the three necessary components required to support combustion: Fuel, Oxygen and Ignition source. All three elements must be present in order to support combustion. What the triangle does not show is that both fuel and oxygen have to be mixed in the relevant proportion in order to burn.

Picture 1 Fire Triangle A combustible mixture can only be produced within a limited band of gas/air concentration. This band is unique for each gas and vapor and is characterised by an upper level, characterised as the Upper Explosive Level (UEL) and a lower level, known as Lower Explosive Level (LEL). These values are also sometimes referred to as the lower and upper flammability limits (LFL and UFL respectively). At concentration levels below the LEL, there is not enough fuel (gas) to initiate an explosion and the gas/air mixture is poor. At concentration levels above UEL, there is not enough oxygen and the gas/air mixture is rich.

The flammable range falls between the limits of the LEL and UEL for every specific gas or mixture of gases. An increase in pressure, temperature or oxygen content will usually broaden the flammability range.

Typical flammability levels of some gases

Fuel Methane Butane Propane Ethanol Gasoline (100 Octane) Isopropyl Alcochol Ethyl Ether Xylene Toluene Hydrogen Acetylene Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) (% volume in air) 5.0 1.6 2.1 3.3 1.4 2.0 1.9 0.9 1.0 4.0 2.5 Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) (% volume in air) 15.0 8.4 9.6 19.0 7.8 12.7 36.0 7.0 7.1 75.0 85.0

It is self-evident that for safety reasons, use of any gas detection systems will have to be set so as to detect levels from zero percent of gas concentration up to the LEL. By the time this concentration is reached, shut-down procedures or facility evacuation should have been put in place. However, this will typically take place at a concentration usually less than 50% of the LEL so that adequate safety margin and time is provided. Special attention needs to be taken at enclosed or not properly ventilated spaces/enclosures. At such places, a concentration higher than the UEL is possible to occur.Therefore, extreme vigilence and attention is required at times of inspection of such spaces, since merely the opening of a door or a hatch will force air to the inspected enclosure which could dilute the gases to a hazardous, combustible mixture.

Safety Integrity Levels (SIL)

Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD)

SIL deals with the safety of any product-equipment consisting of an E/E/PES (Electrical/Electronic/Programmable Electronic System) system. SIL is a quantifiable measure of the E/E/PES of a product, testing if the product is able to carry out its intended safety functionoperation when called to do so. This is where the term Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD) comes in. There are four (4) levels of SIL rating (please refer to the table below). The higher the SIL rating the smaller the PFD of the equipment and therefore the safer the equipment. A number of methods for determining SIL requirements (e.g. risk graph, hazardous event severity matrix etc) is provided at standards IEC 61508 and IEC 61511.

Safety Integrity Levels from standard IEC 61508-1

Safety Demand Mode of Operation (average Integrity Level probability of failure to perform design (SIL) function on demand PFD) 4 10-5 to 10-4 3 10-4 to 10-3 2 10-3 to 10-2 1 10-2 to 10-1 Continuous / High demand Mode of Operation (probability of dangerous failure per hour) 10-9 to 10-8 10-8 to 10-7 10-7 to 10-6 10-6 to 10-5

Equipment designed/produced before the introduction of SIL rating system may receive, when tested, a low or no SIL rating. In order to overcome this problem, there are various techniques that can be recommended, always in consultation with the Owner and the Manufacturer of the equipment. Such techniques include among others the following: frequent proof testing or combining systems with different types of technologies in order to eliminate common failure modes.