The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Pelletising and Sintering in the ferroalloy and ironmaking industry

T C Kruger and J D Steenkamp

PELLETISATION OF FERROMANGANESE ORE WITH PARTICLE SIZES LESS THAN 4MM AN INTRODUCTION T C Kruger and J D Steenkamp Exxro
Abstract Ferromanganese is produced in submerged arc furnaces (SAF) which require a permeable burden for the uniform flow of reduction gases for smooth furnace operation. The burden usually comprises a combination of lumpy ore, sinter and sintered pellets or briquettes. From a technical perspective pellets are preferred due to their higher porosity, uniform size and uniform shape. During mining and beneficiation of manganese-bearing ores, up to 30 per cent of the beneficiated ore produced is -3mm material (fines)4. Feeding fines into the SAF reduces the burden permeability with associated negative effects on production and safety. Fines have to be screened from the beneficiated ore and discarded or treated downstream to produce a feed material suitable for SAF operations. One method for downstream treatment is pelletisation of fines. This paper introduces the concept that pelletisation is a suitable downstream treatment of manganese-bearing ore fines as long as the aim pellet porosity of zero per cent is achieved by adding a binder or a significant amount of -250 micron ore. Initial results indicate that pellets produced from +250 micron to 1.4mm particles and pellets produced from 1.4mm to 4.0mm particles were stronger than pellets produced from 250 micron particles. The pellets produced conform to the requirements published for feed material for sinter operations but not for those published for SAF operations. Further work is required to produce pellets suitable for SAF operations. 1 Introduction

Ferromanganese is produced through carbothermic reduction of the ferromanganese ore burden in a submerged arc furnace (SAF). The SAF requires a permeable burden for the uniform flow of reduction gases to ensure smooth furnace operation. The burden for submerged arc furnaces comprises a combination of lumpy ore, sinter and sintered pellets or briquettes1. Pellets are preferred in the furnaces due to their higher porosity, uniform size and uniform shape3. During mining and beneficiation of the manganese-bearing ores up to 30 per cent of the beneficiated ore produced is -3mm material (fines)4. These fines are not suitable as SAF feedstock as fines in the burden reduces the burden permeability and gives rise to operational difficulties. Fines have to be screened from the beneficiated ore and ______________________________________________________________________ Page 1

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dumped. Large fines dumps are common both at mines and at smelter plants as fines are also generated during transportation and subsequent handling operations. Treating the fines to produce a feedstock for a SAF makes sense both from an economic and environmental perspective. Processes were developed to utilise fines and one of these processes is pelletisation. This paper gives an overview of the factors relevant to pelletisation in general and the pelletisation of manganese ore fines specifically and then reports on initial pelletisation test work conducted on -4mm manganese ore fines. 2 2.1 Overview of factors relevant to pelletisation Principles of pelletisation

Pelletisation is the process of transforming fine particles into larger particles by the introduction of external forces. It is a value-adding step in many processes involving fine materials11 and is used in the pharmaceutical, agricultural, food and mining industries. D. Keirens6 describe three stages of pelletisation: 1. Wetting and nucleation; followed by 2. Consolidation and growth; followed by 3. Breakage and attrition. Figure 1.a) is a schematic presentation of the wetting stage and Figure 1.b) of nucleation. In the wetting stage a binder liquid is added to the feed. In the nucleation stage individual wet particles stick together to form nuclei. a) b)

Figure 1: a) Wetting and b) Nucleation6 Figure 2 is a schematic presentation of the consolidation stage. In the consolidation stage nuclei are joined by more fines through collision and further sticking together to form a micro pellet.

Figure 2: Consolidation Phase6 ______________________________________________________________________ Page 2

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Figure 3 is a schematic presentation of the growth stage. In the growth stage two micro pellets - surrounded by liquid films - are brought into contact with each other by the action of the pelletisation equipment. The surface tension of the liquid is reduced and the micro pellets combine to form a seed pellet. The seed pellets then capture dry and wet particles until the desired pellet size is obtained. At the same time the pellet porosity decreases due to the continual impact of the pellet against the wall of the equipment and against other pellets.

Figure 3: Growth stage6 Figure 4 is a schematic presentation of the breaking stage which is followed by the attrition stage (not indicated). Pellets break when they have reached equilibrium size and the binding force holding the particles together can no longer maintain the load. Small segments of the pellet break off and the surface of the pellet is smoothened by attrition of the sharp edges.

Figure 4: Breakage stage6 The growth rate of pellets during the growth stage is controlled by two properties: plasticity of the green pellet and the viscosity of the superficial water layer. Plastic deformation in green pellets increases the contact surface area during collision. Increased surface area assists with implantation of new particles inside the green pellet body and therefore increases the growth rate. Plasticity (and therefore plastic deformation) in green pellets is controlled by moisture content. The minimum plasticity required for green pellet growth defines the minimum moisture content required for pelletisation. The minimum moisture content value is material specific. When the actual plasticity of the green pellet is higher than the minimum plasticity required by the specific material the pellet growth rate will increase. At the same time the binder liquid is squeezed to the pellet surface. The viscosity11 of the binder liquid influences the rate at which the binder liquid is squeezed to the pellet surface. The viscosity of the binder liquid has to be low enough for colliding pellets to combine within the time available during collision but if the viscosity is too low the binder liquid on the pellet surfaces combine rapidly giving rise to uncontrolled growth. Viscosity of binder liquid is changed by changes in: Binder dosage; ______________________________________________________________________ Page 3

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2.2

Temperature; Material properties of the binder such as swelling, particle size and degree of thixotropy (the property of certain gels of becoming fluid when shaken and then becoming semi-solid again); and Process parameters such as mixing efficiency, contact time and water quality. Different pelletisation processes

Table 1 summarises the different pelletisation processes and indicates the main examples and gives a brief description of each. Table 1: Different pelletisation processes12 Process Pressure Main examples Briquetting, compaction, tableting. Description Dry process in which little or no binder is used. Pellet diameters are in excess of 25mm. Processes are associated with high capital and operational costs. Wet process in which binder is used. Bonds created through liquid bridges or chemical reactions. Processes are associated with low capital costs. Wet process in which a melting component or binder and moisture is used. A premixed cake, paste or dough feed is used which is formed by a die into specific cylindrical shapes. Sintering/solidification/coagulation processes in which pellet size and permeability plays an important role.

Tumbling

Drum, disc, cone and pin agglomerator.

Extrusion

Screw and gear pelletiser as well as pellet mills.

Thermal

Sintering, prilling, pastillating and flaking processes

2.3

Use of binders

Binders accomplish two important functions in pelletisation11, namely: 1. The binder makes the moist ore plastic which ensures that it grow pellets at a controlled rate into the required size; and 2. During drying and sintering, the binder holds the particles in the pellets together while the water is removed and continues to bind them together until the pellets is heated sufficiently to sinter the grains. Selecting the correct type of binder and the correct dosage is important when producing quality pellets. Types of binders (and in some instances their typical dosage) include: Bentonite (a natural clay with the ability to swell more than five times its normal volume when placed in water); Cement (typically 5 per cent by mass); Lime (typically 5 per cent by mass); ______________________________________________________________________ Page 4

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Calcium chloride; Silicate or fluorosilicate of sodium; and Cane molasses (typically 3 per cent by mass).

Relatively non-plastic minerals such as manganese ore can be made sufficiently plastic by adding binders such as bentonite, cane molasses or lignin9. 2.4 Characterisation of pellets

Pellets are characterised by quantifying the: 1. Pellet size distribution; 2. Pellet shape; 3. Pellet hardness; 4. Pellet solubility in a liquid i.e. slag; 5. Pellet dispersability in a liquid i.e. slag; 6. Binder addition requirements; 7. Pellet impact strength; 8. Pellet abrasion strength; 9. Pellet attrition index; 10. Pellet compression strength; 11. Pellet reducibility; and 12. Pellet porosity. From pellet impact strength (5) to pellet porosity (12) are characteristics that give an indication of the resistance of pellets to disintegration in material handling systems or due to thermal shock when fed into a hot furnace. Each of these tests is described in more detail below. To ensure that pellets do not disintegrate in material handling systems or due to thermal shock when fed into a hot furnace the following tests are used to characterise pellets: Impact strength Abrasion strength Attrition index Compression strength Reducibility; and Porosity. Each of these tests is described in more detail below. Impact strength (drop strength): The impact strength of a pellet represents its ability to survive multiple drops in material handling systems e.g. those experienced at belt conveyor transfer points. It is determined by repeatedly dropping a pellet onto an iron surface from a fixed height until the pellet fractures or chips. The impact strength is quantified as the number of drops that a pellet survived before fracture. A typical value for impact strength of green pellets is between 5 and 20 drops5. High drop numbers is an indication of high plastic deformation and low drop numbers of low plastic deformation ______________________________________________________________________ Page 5

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caused by the binder having absorbed all moisture added with no moisture available for the pelletisation process. Abrasion strength: The abrasion strength of a pellet represents its ability to resist wear by other pellets as well as other objects in material handling systems i.e. particles banging against the sidewalls of a steel storage bin. International standards14,15,16 exists which could be used to quantify the abrasion strength of a pellet. In the ASTM14 tumbler test, pellets are subjected to tumbling in a rotary device for a specified time. The abrasion strength is then expressed as a tumble index indicating the mass per cent fines generated or as a reduction in size of the pellets. Attrition index: The attrition index of a pellet represents its ability to resist wear caused by other pellets in material handling systems i.e. particles rubbing against each other whilst being transported on a belt conveyor. The attrition index of a pellet is quantified by placing pellets on a sieve and vibrating the sieve with a sieve shaker for five minutes. The attrition index is then expressed as the mass per cent of material passing through the screen. Compression strength (crushing strength): The compression strength of a pellet represents its ability to resist compressive forces without breaking i.e. the forces which the pellets on the bottom of a full one ton bulk bag would experience. The compression strength of a pellet is determined by placing it between two steel plates and evenly applying a measured pressure until the pellet fractures. The compression strength is then expressed as the applied pressure in Newton. International standards17,18,19,20 exists which could be used to quantify the compression strength of a pellet. Reducibility: The reducibility of a pellet represents its ability to be reduced. The reducibility of a pellet is determined by subjecting the pellet to thermal conditions under reduced pressure. The reducibility is then expressed as the degree of deformation and changes in metallurgical end characteristics. International standards21,22 exists which could be used to quantify the reducibility of a pellet. Porosity: The porosity of a pellet represents the amount of empty space within the pellet. The porosity of a pellet is determined by standard testing methodologies. The porosity is then expressed as a per cent. The porosity of a pellet contributes to its crushing strength as well as the rate at which the pellet would disperse in a liquid i.e. slag. The porosity of a pellet is controlled during the consolidation process by controlling process variables such as binder liquid viscosity, porosity of the feed, moisture content, retention time and pelletisation equipment settings. 2.5 Equipment used for pelletisation

When selecting equipment for pelletisation the starting point should be defining the characteristics of the product required12. The pellet physical requirements as defined in will point to a certain type of equipment. The following types of equipment are used for the pelletisation of ores: 1. Disc pelletiser3,5,8,11,12; ______________________________________________________________________ Page 6

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Drum pelletiser4,6,12; Extruder9,12; Pin agglomerator12; Briquette making machines2,12; Sintering7,12; and High-intensity mixers.

The first three types are most common and are described in more detail below. Disc pelletiser: A disc of fixed diameter and lip height is rotated at variable speed and elevation. When feed material and water is introduced seed pellets form near the centre of the disc. As the pellets grow in size they move from the centre of the disc to the rim where they overflow. The pellets are produced continuously and have a very narrow size distribution. No external classification of the pellets is required. Drum pelletisers: A drum with fixed diameter is rotated around a horizontal axis. Three or more rods are fitted parallel to the axis and act as flights to aid in lifting and tumbling the charge. The rotation speed and inclination of the drum are variable. The pellets are produced continuously but discharged is not based on size as is the case with disc pelletisers. The pellets therefore have to be classified externally. Sieving is the typical technique used and results in attrition losses. Extruder: Pliable, premixed material is subjected to forces pressing it through a die plate to form pellets. The forces are created by various means, including single screw extruders, gear pelletisers, basket type extruders, and pellet mills, and range from low to high depending on the type of extruder chosen. The pellets are produced continuously and have a very narrow size distribution. Therefore no external classification of the pellets is required. An extruder will typically produce a medium density product and have the capacity to handle sticky and high-viscosity products, but in most instances curing or post-drying is required. 2.6 Case studies from literature

In Table 2 various case studies from literature on the production of pellets from ferromanganese ore are summarised. This then concludes the section on the overview of the factors relevant to pelletisation. In the next section the results of test work conducted on South African manganese ore fines are reported.

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Table 2: Summary of case studies on pelletisation of manganese ore fines published in literature Mexico 2 Purpose of Study Material Pelletised Particle Sizes Pelletisation of manganese ore fines Manganese ore fines and off gas dust Ore: 6 mm Dust: not specified Brazil (INCOMI)3 Commercial pelletising of INCOMI fines Manganese ore fines in the form of filter cake 200micron (45% 43micron) Brazil (University of Sao Paulo)4 Effect of bentonite on the physical properties of pellets Manganese ore Manganese ore fines (Amap) fines (Urucum) -830micron India (Visvesvaraya regional college of Engineering)5 Technology of producing pellets from manganese ore fines Manganese ore fines +320 micron: 0.53%; +200 micron: 3.38% +100 micron: 12.92%; +60 micron: 20.44% +44 micron: 2.35%; 44 micron: 60.37% Disc pelletiser producing 10 15 mm diameter pellets Bentonite 0 1.5% (1% optimum)

Equipment / Process Binder and quantity

Briquettes of 14cm3 size Molasses 5.7%

4 Step disc pelletiser Bentonite 0.19%

Grangcold process (disc pelletiser) Bentonite 0%, Bentonite 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% 0.75% and 1% respectively respectively (0.75 % (0.5 % bentonite bentonite optimum) optimum) 14% 17% 9% 11% water water 20 days at room temperature

Moisture and quantity Curing / Drying

No moisture added 16 hours at room temperature

14 to 15% McKee straight grate system at 270280 C

9 to 14% 4 hours at 150 C

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Mexico 2

Brazil (INCOMI)3 for 6 minutes Same McKee straight grate system, different zone, 550570 C for 4 minutes 0.46m, drop number 7

Brazil (University of Sao Paulo)4

India (Visvesvaraya regional college of Engineering)5 1100 C 1200 C, for 15 to 120 minutes

Firing

No firing prior to use

At 900 C, process and time not specified

Testing green Drop Tests

0.9m

Cold crushing strength Testing after drying Drop Tests Cold crushing strength Testing after firing Drop Tests Cold crushing

15N

18.5 to 23N

0.5 0.85m height 1 4 drop numbers (0.75% bentonite optimum) 5N average (0.5% bentonite optimum)

1.2 1.7m height 9 19 drop numbers (0.5% bentonite optimum) 10 70N (0.5% bentonite optimum)

0.45m Drop number 5 to 10

18N to 45 N (dependent on the rotation duration)

22meter 45N

20N average (no bentonite optimum)

30 75N (0.5% bentonite optimum)

250N average (no bentonite

500 1300N (0% bentonite

Drop numbers >25 680 700N

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Mexico 2 strength Tumble index Comments

Brazil (INCOMI)3

Brazil (University of Sao Paulo)4 optimum) optimum)

India (Visvesvaraya regional college of Engineering)5

Wider size distribution of feed materials yields higher pellet strength. This was achieved by mixing the ore with off gas dust in a ratio of 2:1.

+6mm = 90%; +515micron = 92% The first commercial plant in the world to successfully produce pellets from manganese ores. Bentonite increased the drop test values (to 30) and the dry compression values by 100%.

Notes were made of the effect of particle sizes on the results obtained: In general, the smaller particles performed better than the larger particles; Larger particles required more water for pelletising; and Larger particles are more suitable to bentonite but have on average lower strengths.

Increasing the bentonite content improved pellet properties (commercial limit: 1.5 mass per cent). Slip of material indicated the optimum moisture content. Pellets opening due to centrifugal forces indicated insufficient moisture content. Particle size distribution was the dominating factor for good strength. Large contact surfaces (small particle sizes) and capillary forces were required for high wet and dry strength and required less moisture resulting in green pellets with lower porosity and moisture content produced in shorter time intervals.

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3 3.1

Pelletisation of South African manganese ore fines Aim

The aim of this study was to produce pellets from South African manganese ore fines with sufficient strength to be used in all major processing units i.e. in sintering and SAF operations. 3.2 Experimental design

Pellet porosity was used as design control variable and literature was used as reference for aim porosity. Misra et al.5 found that a porosity of 40 to 60 per cent was acceptable, whilst Nascimento et al.8 alluded that a porosity of less than 30 per cent was desirable. It was thus decided to aim for the more stringent requirement i.e. less than 30 per cent. From literature it was concluded that controlling pellet porosity by controlling the content of very fine material in the mix resulted in high strength pellets. Venugopal et al.4 found that the strength increased as the feed became finer. Misra et al.5 specified that 60% below 50 microns is required to pelletise successfully. Keirens6 suggested that smaller particle sizes result in stronger pellets. Results from Nascimento et al.8 suggest that courser fractions reduced pellet strength. Litzinger et al.10 suggest that only material smaller than 150 microns should be pelletised and Dwarapudi11 reported that 74micron material was optimum when pelletising chrome ore. Based on the conclusion that controlling pellet porosity by controlling the content of very fine material in the mix resulted in high strength pellets and the results in Table 2 it was decided to use bentonite as a binder. From an economical point of view the bentonite content had to be restricted to 2 per cent by weight and 250micron material should be used to make up the difference. Based on the methods used by authors as summarised in Table 2 it was decided to characterise pellets by measuring their compression strength and impact strength. As reference values the following results were obtained from literature for each type of test: Compression strength of green pellet: ranging from 0.5-0.8 kg per pellet7 to 1.5-5 kg per pellet4,5; resulting in an aim of 5 kg per pellet; Compression strength of dried pellet: ranging from 20 kg per pellet (briquette)2 to 15 kg per pellet4 while Arturo et al.2 specify a minimum of 20kg per pellet resulting in an aim of 20kg per pellet. Impact strength: Misra et al.5 reported that 5 drops for green pellets from a height of 450mm was considered good and that they concluded their drop test after 20 drops even if the pellet did not fractured or chipped. The aim of this study was to achieve a minimum of 5 drops for a green pellet and 20 drops for a dried pellet.

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3.3

Method

Manganese ore fines were sourced from a South African deposit. A size distribution of a representative sample of the fines was obtained using an Endecotts EFL2000/2 200/300mm sieve shaker and sieve set. The results are reported in Table 3. Based on this size distribution the remainder of the sample was screened into three distinct batches of material using the same equipment; Sample 1 consisted of material smaller than 4mm which represented fines screened from ore at the mines prior to transportation and at smelter plants prior to processing. Sample 2 consisted of material smaller than 1400 microns; and Sample 3 consisted of material smaller than 250 microns. Next the bulk porosity of the ore was measured using the method of water volume displacement as described by Keirens15. The results are reported in Table 4. The amount of bentonite binder to be added was based on the screen analyses and bulk porosity of the fines as well as the properties of commercially available bentonite. The bentonite requirement was calculated as follows: Equation 1: Calculation of the per cent bentonite to add to mixture

Where: b = P = SVb = m =

bentonite in grams aim porosity in ml Swelling Volume of bentonite = 22-26 (ml/2g)23 mass of material to be pelletised in grams

Using the swelling volume and the measured porosity sufficient binder was added to reduce the aim porosity to 0 per cent. The calculated bentonite content of each pelletising mix was thus calculated as: Sample 1 0.53 mass per cent; Sample 2 0.57 mass per cent; and Sample 3 0.55 mass per cent. A five kilogram sample of each size fraction was collected and the required mass of bentonite for each sample was weighed and bagged separately. Sample 1, together with its bentonite, was placed in the Eirich RV02 high intensity mixer and mixed for 60 seconds to ensure even distribution of the bentonite. The mixed sample was then transferred in a steel bowl to a 1.2m diameter Radicon disc pelletiser. The disc pelletiser was set at an angle of 35and a rotation speed of 75 revolutions per minute. Pellets were ______________________________________________________________________ Page 12

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produced by adding small amounts of material and spraying water as required. The pellet diameter was controlled between 10 and 12.5mm. The process was repeated for sample 2 and sample 3. The compression strength was determined by crushing 30 balls of each sample in an Instron Technologies crushing strength machine, model 1011 and calculating the average value for each sample. The results are reported in Table 5. The impact strength was determined by dropping 30 balls of each sample from a height of 450mm and counting the number of drops before fracture. The average value was calculated for each sample. The results are reported in Table 6. 4 Results and discussion Table 3 Manganese ore screen analyses % Passed through Average Std Dev Min 92.23 12.51 41.44 88.9 13.45 34.60 85.59 15.19 25.20 65.50 13.07 16.84 28.50 5.97 8.07 12.78 2.61 4.11 0.00 0.00 0.00

Manganese ore +2000 +1400 +1000 +600 +250 +106 106

Max 98.82 96.24 94.48 76.09 36.56 16.96 0.00

The screen analysis Table 3 indicates that on average 28.5% of the unscreened ore is below 250microns and almost 90% of the ore is smaller than 1400microns. Table 4 Porosity results Manganese Sample Sample 1 (4mm) Sample 2 (1.4mm) Sample 3 (250 m) ml 630.7 688.0 665.1 % 32.2% 33.3% 30.6%

The porosity results in Table 4 indicate that the particle size distribution does not change the porosity of the sample significantly. The results will have to be verified with larger samples and larger particle size variations. Table 5 Compression strength Manganese Sample Sample 1 (4mm) Sample 2 (1.4mm) Sample 3 (250 m) Average 5.7 4.4 1.5 Min 3.7 1.8 0.4 Max 8.3 6.9 2.2 Std Dev 1.3 1.4 0.8

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Table 6 Impact strength Std Dev 2.9 5.2 0.5

Manganese Sample Sample 1 (4mm) Sample 2 (1.4mm) Sample 3 (250 m)

Average 6.1 8.4 1.5

Min 3 2 1

Max 12 17 2

The compression strength results in Table 5 and the drop test results in Table 6 indicate that the strength of the pellets reduced as the size of the particles in the feed reduced. The mechanism responsible for this reduction in strength will be studied further in future. The pellets produced from the -4000 micron particles conform to the requirements published for feed material for sinter operations but not for those published for SAF operations. 5 Conclusion and recommendations

Further work is required to produce pellets suitable for SAF operations and should include: Increasing the size range of particles used to determine the porosity of manganesebearing ore samples; Increasing the -250 micron material content of pellets in increments and determine the effect of the increases on bulk porosity of the pellets produced; Expanding the range of binders; Increasing the range of the quantity of binder added; Using a single, experienced operator to produce all pellets in the test program; Characterising pellets by microscopic analyses to quantify pore sizes and pore distribution, and to verify the nuclei physical composition; Studying the effect of bulk porosity of pellets on the strength of pellets by studying pellets with both high and low strength under a microscope. 6 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the following people for active contributions to the process: Mr. L Lourens, Manager, Technology and IP, Exxaro Resources, Alloystream Mr. A Dippenaar; Kumba Iron Ore, R&D Raw Material Technology Mr A Rakgole, Kumba Iron Ore, R&D Raw Material Technology Dr. A-M Bonthuys, Independent Contractor (Editor, Translator, Proof reader, Writer) Mr B Allison, contractor, Exxaro Resources, Alloystream ______________________________________________________________________ Page 14

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7 1.

References Miyauchi Y et al. 2004. Improvement of high-temperature electric characteristics of manganese ores. Proceedings of the tenth international ferroalloys congress: INFACON X, Cape Town, South Africa. Morales, Arturo M., Luna, Ednardo. Pelletisation of Manganese ore fines and chimney dust products from the nodulising kiln operation. Pelletisation 77, Proceedings 2nd International Symposium, Mexico. Sastry, K.V.S (ed). Mexico City, 1977. Vol. 1, pp. 465-472. Dominguez, E.C. Pelletising of Manganese ore fines at ICOMI, Brazil. Pelletisation 77, Proceedings 2nd International Symposium, Atlanta. Sastry, K.V.S (ed.). New York, 1977. Vol. 1, pp. 463-500. Venugopal, R., Vanangamudi, M., Rao, T.C. Pelletising process and its application to Indian Manganese ore Fines. CEW, Vol. XXII No. 1, pp. 79-83. Misra, V.N., Sinvhal, R.C., Khangaokar, P.R. Pelletization behaviour of Manganese ore fines. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals. August 1973.Vol. 26, pp 24-31. Keirens, D. Granulation, Analyses of size distribution and porosity during consolidation in a batch drum granulator. Individual Inquiry, University of Queensland, October 2000, pp 1 31. Babushkin, N.M., Shamarin, V.A., Lugovykh, I.V. Pelletisation of finely ground manganese concentrates, Stal State scientific technical committee of the council of ministers of the USSR and of the Central Administration of the scientific technical group for ferrous metallurgy, February 1960, STAL Vol. 2, pp 81 86. Nascimento, R.C. Jr., Cappocchio, J.D.T. Recycling of fines of manganese ores. EPD Congress 1995, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 12-16 February 1995, pp. 449-461. Stark, I.A. Extrusion Pelletisation of Iron ore fines, Mining Engineering, June 1959, New York, Vol. 11, p. 601. Litzinger, B.C., Schmelling, U.F.M. Process for transforming fines of iron or manganese into raw material for sintering, United States Patent 4,273,575: Appl. 27 March 1979, Acc. 16 June 1981.

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Dwarapudi, S., Rao, S.M., Murthy, J.V.S.N., Parida, D.D., Raju, K.S. Effect of activated bentonite on properties of green and fired chromite pellets. Ironmaking and Steelmaking Journal, 2008 Vol. 38, pp 308 314. ______________________________________________________________________ Page 15

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Gantner, S. Selection of an pelletisation method. IBA Proceedings 28th Biennial Conference. September 2003, Minneapolis. Veverka, J. A Comparison of binder liquids for limestone pelletizing, Institute for Briquetting and Pelletisation 27th Biennial Conference - November 2001 Providence, Rhode Island. ASTM E 279:1997 Standard Test Method for Determination of Abrasion Resistance of Iron Ore Pellets and Sinter by the Tumbler Test ISO 3271:2007 Iron ores for blast furnace and direct reduction feedstocks Determination of the tumble and abrasion indices ISO 15967:2007 Direct reduced iron Determination of the tumble and abrasion indices of hot briquetted iron (HBI) BSI BS 6599 Method for Determination of Crushing Strength of Iron Ore Pellets E382-97 Standard Test Method for Determination of Crushing Strength of Iron Ore Pellets ASTM D4179 01(2006) Standard Test Method for Single Pellet Crush Strength of Formed Catalyst Shapes ISO 4700:2007 Iron ore pellets for blast furnace and direct reduction feedstocks Determination of the crushing strength BSI BS ISO 4695 Iron ores for blast furnace feedstocks Determination of the reducibility by the rate of reduction index ISO 4695:2007 Iron ores for blast furnace feedstocks Determination of the reducibility by the rate of reduction index Datasheet received from G&W Base & Industrial minerals (Pty.) Ltd, South Africa.

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