The Basic Elements of Theatre Script/Text, Scenario, Plan: This is the starting point of the theatrical performance.

The element most often considered as the domain of the playwright in theatre. The playwrights script is the text by which theatre is created. It can be simplistic, as in the 16th century, with the scenarios used by the acting troupes of the Commedia dell arte, or it can be elaborate, such as the works of William Shakespeare. The script, scenario, or plan is what the director uses as a blue print to build a production from. The Process: This is the coordination of the creative efforts usually headed up in theatre by the director. It is the pure process by which the playwrights work is brought to realization by the director, actors, designers, technicians, dancers, musicians, and any other collaborators that come together on the script, scenario, or plan. This is the works in progress stage. The Product: This is the end result of the process of work involved. The final product that results from all of the labors coming together to complete the finished work of script, scenario, and plan, in union with all of the collaborators in the process to create the final product. This is what the audience will witness as they sit in the theatre and view the work. The Audience: Theatre requires an audience. For all of the arts public is essential. The physical presence of an audience can change a performance, inspire actors, and create expectations. Theatre is a living breathing art form. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it apart from modern day films and television.

Let us now look to the person who is responsible for the starting point of the theatrical event. The initial creator of the script, scenario, or plan, as outlined above. This person is the playwright. A playwright works in that branch of literature dealing with the writing and producing of plays for the theatre. The literary composition that is written specifically for the stage in play format by the playwright. The Playwright What is a playwright? According to the American Heritage Dictionary, One who writes plays. The poets eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,

Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth To heaven; And, as imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poets pen Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name. THESEUS In A Midsummer Nights Dream (William Shakespeare) How plays are written at any given time depends on many factors: the intended audience and purpose; the playwrights current views about the human condition, and how the playwright perceives the truth around him. A playwright must understand and know the established artistic and theatrical conventions of the theatre. A playwright must appreciate the working procedures, materials, and technical aspects of a production. Because the script is the starting point of the theatrical production, the process through which it comes into being is of primary importance. There are many ways to write a play. Sometimes a playwright starts with an idea. Another playwright may begin with a single character in mind. Some playwrights base their work on spectacle. Plays can be tightly structured or episodic. Regardless of the original inspiration, the work of the playwright is not just to set forth an idea, to create characters, or tell a story. A playwright recreates and restates the human experiences and the universal mirror of mankind. The script is the heart of the theatrical event. It must be respected. Steps of the Playwrights Work Playwriting and creating drama for each playwright is distinctively different. Plays can develop out of any combination of starting points and patterns. The processes by which drama is created for each playwright can be varied in the steps used to create the text. Below is a simple list in a progressive order, but order can change depending on each playwrights characteristic style and preferences for writing. The basic steps involved in the development of drama include: 1. Coming up with Thought/Theme/Ideas to be expressed through the work. 2. Determine the Genre and Style of the work 3. Outlining Basic Action of the work and Creating Plot. 4. Establish the Structure of the Play and Overall Framework 5. The Development of Characters presented in the work. 6. The Creation of Dialogue and the Language of the Characters. 7. Creating Music: This can involve the Rhythm of the Language or actual Music Composition and the Lyrics of the songs.

8.

Establishing Spectacle: The visual and Environmental elements of the work. 9. Research of Subject Matter and Relevant issues presented in the play.

Elements of Drama Most successful playwrights follow the theories of playwriting and drama that were established over two thousand years ago by a man named Aristotle. In his works the PoeticsAristotle outlined the six elements of drama in his critical analysis of the classical Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex written by the Greek playwright, Sophocles, in the fifth century B.C. The six elements as they are outlined involve: Thought, Theme, Ideas; Action or Plot; Characters; Language; Music; and Spectacle.

1. Thought/Theme/Ideas What the play means as opposed to what happens (the plot). Sometimes the theme is clearly stated in the title. It may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the playwrights voice. Or it may be the theme is less obvious and emerges only after some study or thought. The abstract issues and feelings that grow out of the dramatic action. 2. Action/Plot The events of a play; the story as opposed to the theme; what happens rather than what it means. The plot must have some sort of unity and clarity by setting up a pattern by which each action initiating the next rather than standing alone without connection to what came before it or what follows. In the plot of a play, characters are involved in conflict that has a pattern of movement. The action and movement in the play begins from the initial entanglement, through rising action, climax, and falling action to resolution. 3. Characters These are the people presented in the play that are involved in the perusing plot. Each character should have their own distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic background, and language. 4. Language The word choices made by the playwright and the enunciation of the actors of the language. Language and dialog delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along, provides exposition, defines the distinct characters. Each playwright can create their own specific style in relationship to language choices they use in establishing character and dialogue.

5. Music Music can encompass the rhythm of dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects of the melody and music compositions as with musical theatre. Each theatrical presentation delivers music, rhythm and melody in its own distinctive manner. Music is not a part of every play. But, music can be included to mean all sounds in a production. Music can expand to all sound effects, the actors voices, songs, and instrumental music played as underscore in a play. Music creates patterns and establishes tempo in theatre. In the aspects of the musical the songs are used to push the plot forward and move the story to a higher level of intensity. Composers and lyricist work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes and ideas of the play. Characters wants and desires can be strengthened for the audience through lyrics and music. 6. Spectacle The spectacle in the theatre can involve all of the aspects of scenery, costumes, and special effects in a production. The visual elements of the play created for theatrical event. The qualities determined by the playwright that create the world and atmosphere of the play for the audiences eye.

Further Considerations of the Playwright Above and beyond the elements outlined above the playwright has other major considerations to take into account when writing. The Genre and Form of the play is an important aspect. Some playwrights are pure in the choice of genre for a play. They write strictly tragedy or comedy. Other playwrights tend to mix genre, combining both comedy and tragedy in one piece of dramatic work.

Genre/Form Drama is divided into the categories of tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and tragicomedy. Each of these genre/forms can be further subdivide by style and content. Tragedy Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude. The tragedy is presented in the form of action, not narrative. It will arouse pity and fear in the audience as it witnesses the action. It allows for an arousal of this pity and fear and creates an affect of purgation or catharsis of these strong emotions by the audience. Tragedy is serious by nature in its theme and deals with profound problems. These profound problems are universal when applied to the human experience. In classical tragedy we find a protagonist at the center of the drama that is a great person, usually of upper class birth. He is a good man that can be admired, but he has a tragic flaw, a hamartia, that will be the ultimate cause of his down fall. This tragic flaw can take on many characteristics but it is most often too much pride or hubris. The protagonist always learns, usually too late, the nature of his flaw

and his mistakes that have caused his downfall. He becomes self-aware and accepts the inevitability of his fate and takes full responsibility for his actions. We must have this element of inevitability in tragedy. There must be a cause and effect relationship from the beginning through the middle to the end or final catastrophe. It must be logical in the conclusion of the necessary outcome. Tragedy will involve the audience in the action and create tension and expectation. With the climax and final end the audience will have learned a lesson and will leave the theatre not depressed or sullen, but uplifted and enlightened. Comedy Comedy should have the view of a comic spirit and is physical and energetic. It is tied up in rebirth and renewal, this is the reason most comedy end in weddings, which suggest a union of a couple and the expected birth of children. In comedy there is absence of pain and emotional reactions, as with tragedy, and a replaced use of mans intellect. The behavior of the characters presented in comedy is ludicrous and sometimes absurd and the result in the audience is one of correction of behaviors. This correction of behaviors is the didactic element of comedy that acts as a mirror for society , by which the audience learns dont behave in ludicrous and absurd ways. The types of comedies can vary greatly; there are situation comedies, romantic comedies, sentimental comedies, dark comedies, comedy of manners, and pure farce. The comic devices used by playwrights of comedy are: exaggeration, incongruity, surprise, repetition, wisecracks, and sarcasm. Melodrama Melodrama is drama of disaster and differs from tragedy significantly, in that; forces outside of the protagonist cause all of the significant events of the plot. All of the aspects of related guilt or responsibility of the protagonist are removed. The protagonist is usually a victim of circumstance. He is acted upon by the antagonist or anti-hero and suffers without having to accept responsibility and inevitability of fate. In melodrama we have clearly defined character types with good guys and bad guys identified. Melodrama has a sense of strict moral judgment. All issues presented in the plays are resolved in a well-defined way. The good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished in a means that fits the crime. Tragicomedy Tragicomedy is the most life like of all of the genres. It is non-judgmental and ends with no absolutes. It focuses on character relationships and shows society in a state of continuous flux. There is a mix of comedy and tragedy side by side in these types of plays. Style/Mode/ ism The shaping of dramatic material, setting, or costumes in a specific manner. Each play will have its own unique and distinctive behaviors, dress, and language of the

characters. The style of a playwright is shown in the choices made in the world of the play: the kinds of characters, time periods, settings, language, methods of characterization, use of symbols, and themes.

Dramatic Structure Dramatic structure involves the overall framework or method by which the playwright uses to organize the dramatic material and or action. It is important for playwrights to establish themes but the challenge comes in applying structure to the ideas and inspirations. Understanding basic principals of dramatic structure can be invaluable to the playwright. Most modern plays are structured into acts that can be further divided into scenes. The pattern most often used is a method by where the playwright sets up early on in the beginning scenes all of the necessary conditions and situations out of which the later conditions will develop. Generally the wants and desires of one character will conflict with another character. With this method the playwright establishes a pattern of complication, rising action, climax, and resolution. This is commonly known as cause to effect arrangement of incidents. The basic Characteristics of the cause to effect arrangement are: Clear exposition of situation Careful preparation for future events Unexpected but logical reversals Continuous mounting suspense An obligatory scene Logical resolution Point of Attack The moment of the play at which the main action of the plot begins. This may occur in the first scene, or it may occur after several scenes of exposition. The point of attack is the main action by which all others will arise. It is the point at which the main complication is introduced. Point of attack can sometimes work hand in hand with a plays inciting incident, which is the first incident leading to the rising action of the play. Sometimes the inciting incident is an event that occurred somewhere in the characters past and is revealed to the audience through exposition. Exposition Exposition is important information that the audience needs to know in order to follow the main story line of the play. It is the aspects of the story that the audience may hear about but that they will not witness in actual scenes. It encompasses the past actions of the characters before the plays opening scenes progress. Rising Action Rising action is the section of the plot beginning with the point of attack and/or inciting incident and proceeding forward to the crisis onto the climax. The action of the play

will rise as it set up a situation of increasing intensity and anticipation. These scenes make up the body of the play and usually create a sense of continuous mounting suspense in the audience. The Climax/Crisis All of the earlier scenes and actions in a play will build technically to the highest level of dramatic intensity. This section of the play is generally referred to as the moment of the plays climax. This is the moment where the major dramatic questions rise to the highest level, the mystery hits the unraveling point, and the culprits are revealed. This should be the point of the highest stage of dramatic intensity in the action of the play. The whole combined actions of the play generally lead up to this moment. Resolution/Obligatory Scene The resolution is the moment of the play in which the conflicts are resolved. It is the solution to the conflict in the play, the answer to the mystery, and the clearing up of the final details. This is the scene that answers the questions raised earlier in the play. In this scene the methods and motives are revealed to the audience. Categories of Plot Structure Climatic vs. Episodic Climatic Structure I. Plot begins late in story, closer to the very end or climax II. Covers a short space of time, perhaps a few hours, or at most a few days III. Contains a few solid, extended scenes, such as three acts with each act comprising one long scene IV. Occurs in a restricted locale, one room or one house V. Number of characters is severely limited, usually not more than six or eight VI. Plot in linear and moves in a single line with few subplots or counter plots VII. Line of action proceeds in a cause and effect chain. The characters and events are closely linked in a sequence of logical, almost inevitable development Episodic Structure I. Plot begins relatively early in the story and moves through a series of episodes II. Covers a longer period of time: weeks, months, and sometimes years III. Many short, fragmented scenes; sometimes an alternation of short and long scenes IV. May range over an entire city or even several countries V. Profusion of characters, sometimes several dozen

VI. VII.

Frequently marked by several threads of action, such as two parallel plots, or scenes of comic relief in a serous play Scenes are juxtaposed tone to one another. An event may result from several causes, or no apparent cause, but arises in a network or web of circumstances

Outline of Playwriting Along with the basic understanding of these qualities the playwright must take the aspects of unity into great consideration. At the center of every play there should be unity. Unity in playwriting means harmony among the component parts. Included in the next section of this project is an informative outline that can help a perspective playwright achieve unity in their work. It also aids in the process of starting the initial development of a play and adds credibility to the work. Some of these important aspects and considerations listed in the outline have been covered in some detail thus far, but others should be strongly considered before a playwright puts pen to paper or hands to keys. These important aspects include the following: I. Research and Knowledge of: a. Themes and Subject Matter Explored b. Unity in the Genre/Form and Clarity of Style/Mode of the Intended Work c. Knowledge of the Time Period Presented d. Research of Any other Relevant data presented in the play II. Inspiration: a. Painting/Photo that encapsulates the World of Play b. Metaphor that describes the themes at work in a single sentence c. Any other Relevant Ideas of inspiration III. Concepts: a. Questions you should be able to answer: i. What does the play represent? What is its theme? Why is it important? Why does it deserve to be witnessed? What is the moral? What universal truth does it illustrate? What excites you, the playwright, about the work? What aspects of the drama fires your imagination? What makes you feel zealous and impassioned? What moves you? What about the material gives you a deep feeling of satisfaction? What in the play makes it worthy of an audiences attention? Why is it compelling? IV. Predominant Elements: What is the leading element in your dramatic work? a. Theme- Waiting for Lefty by Clifford Odets is a thesis play directly promoting the theme that the common man will continue to be oppressed until he succeeds in organizing into unions. It is nearly a propaganda play. Character and dialogue serve the theme exclusively. The spectacle

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

is limited to a bare stage. The language is didactic to the point of preachiness. Plot-The Tavern by George M. Cohan is a play in which the predominant element is almost exclusively plot. The action hurls itself relentlessly at the audience. Character is continuously subservient to plot. The theme, crime does not pay, is apparent from the beginning, and the spectacle requires on an upstage door and a winter wind (example of Music) so powerful it drives all the players to the wall. Character-All the plays of Chekhov have the predominant element of character. One could barely choose plot as the secondary element. It is also unlikely that one would choose language, because language in Chekhov is intentionally commonplace. There is Theme in Chekhov, but it is subservient to character, it lays quiet and low in the play and rises gracefully and gently to the surface. Spectacle-Barnum by Mark Bramble and Michael Stewart won a number of prizes in New York, despite the fact that it has no plot, no characters of consequence, and no significant language; its theme, at best, could be stated, A circus causes sweat. The sheer intensity and speed of the spectacle, the unrelenting energy, the nonstop sensation of movement, sound, and color; the surprises, the acrobatic feats, dances, magic, and razzmatazz overwhelmed and gratified audiences. Language-Under the Milk Wood by Dylan Thomas is subtitled A Play for Voices. It is a demonstration of the most miraculous parade of words in the spoken English. It is poetry at its most dazzling. The theme is vague at best. As for plot, it is a patchwork of incidents involving sixty-four characters in a tiny Welch town in the course of a summer day. The characters are sketched, not developed. The predominant element in this play is clearly the most radiant language ever assembled. Spectacle would ruin this work. Mixtures-Most commonly you will find that the majority of plays have mixtures of all of the elements of drama. The examples cited above are plays demonstrating one predominant element almost to the exclusion of the others. Many playwrights tend to utilize a bit of all the elements. One of the greatest exceptions and examples of incredible use of all the elements is the plays of Shakespeare. The reason his plays tower above all others is that he fuses the elements of theme, plot, character, spectacle, and language so magnificently. In Shakespeare we can marvel at the great skill with which these elements have been united. Outlining: Beginning, Middle, and End Beginning: i. Prologue and or start of play with introduction of characters, date, place, time, setting, and exposition and inciting incident introduced

V. a.

b.

c.

ii. Point of attack, introduce primary conflict and central dramatic question Middle: i. Characters pursue objectives and encounter obstacles ii. Answers sought; goals of characters conflict with other characters iii. Characters attempt to overcome obstacles and challenges iv. Characters plan tactics, succeed, fail, attack, retreat, surprise, and are surprised, encounter major reversals and a crisis is reached End: i. Characters engage in final conflict (climax of play) ii. Characters main objective achieved of lost iii. Central dramatic question is answered, theme or ideas of play confirmed. Resolution where order is established

Conclusion Artistic consideration in playwriting requires selection and arrangement. Art is skill acquired by experience, study, and clear observations. Playwrights must consciously set about making choices with a competent plan and creative imagination. Only then than we consider the playwrights work as a viable start to the theatrical process. Before anyone begins to write a play it is important to understand the medium for which you intend on writing. Writing for the stage demands an understanding of two fundamentals: the essence of drama and the nature of theatre. Acting Elements of Acting: The most visible element of the theatre; it seems to personify theatre. Thespis -- considered to be the first actor -- thus the term thespian -- 554 BC. Acting was not really widely a "profession" till the 16th century. It involves sophisticated role-playing and make-believe, pretending, conveyed through doing -- enacting on the stage a vision of life. An impersonation -- usually at the service of a script; though not always a script.

Acting can be considered as a "pure art": the artist and the instrument are the same.Acting consists of: 1. a series of tasks, usually in a situation or context; 2. done usually as someone else; and 3. imaginary -- at least part of it. The actor must discover the essence of character and project that essence to the audience. The Essence of the character has been perceived differently, however, at different times, periods, styles, and cultures, and by different personalities of actors. "The Paradox of the actor" --an essay written by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) -- begins to approach part of the actor's challenge: to appear real, the actor must be artificial. (Wilson, p. 108, tells us that Diderot endorsed more realistic prose dialog rather than verse.) Before this, there was not much of a specifically acknowledged approach to acting. Francois Delsarte (1811-1871) -- devised system of expression that reduced emotions to a series of fixed poses and attitudes, achieved through body and voice -- became methodistic and unworkable, but Wilson notes that the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, founded in 1894 (which your instructor graduated from) was founded on Delsarte principles. The American Mime Theatre, which held some classes at The American Academy, approaches acting in a similar, though certainly not exact, manner. Modern "realistic" acting based much on Stanislavsky (1863-1938). 3 basic ingredients of the actor: 1. native ability (talent) 2. training (including general education) 3. practice Training and Means: Relaxation, Concentration, Imagination, Observation A. voice and body -- must learn control voice and body to express to audience. 1. understand 2. practice 3. discipline

Tensions and blocks must be overcome usually through exercises, improvisations (enacting characters in a situation without planned script or blocking), theatre games (animals, stereotypes, machines, etc.). Also used to arrive at a "neutral state" ("tabula rasa"--blank slate). Many artists believe that to create they must first have a blank slate -- an empty canvas -- on which to place their art. Actors must find various ways to achieve this... Wilson and Goldfarb use the term "centering." B. Imagination and Observation Observe and imagine people in various relationships. The term "affective memory" has often been used to refer to use of the actor's memory to find things in his/her life that are similar to, or could evoke, the emotions required by the character on stage. This would involve emotional memory (remembering feeling from the past), sense memory (remembering sensations), and substitution (mentally replacing the thing / person in the play with something / someone in real life).[discussed below] C. Control and discipline Actors must learn how to develop their powers of concentration.Must be aware at all times of their current situation (being an actor on stage, with an audience out front) and the context of the play (what is the character doing/feeling/etc.)What am I doing? -NOT how am I doing? The Acting Process: A. Analyze the role 1. use the script to help determine all information about the character-- and fabricate what the script does not tell you. The quotation analysis is a valuable tool for the actor: analyzing what the character says and does, and what others say about the character and behave toward the character 2. Define goals of the characters -Determine the character's Objectives -- what character wants for each scene -intention, purpose -- this is really the characters entire justification for being on stage... Often broken down into three "types" of objectives: Objective -- what the character wants for each scene

Super objective -- the "Spine" -- what character wants for the whole play. Also called the through-line. "beats," "units" -- sub-objectives -- changes of mood, intention, subject, etc., in a scene. 3. Character relationships: Robert Cohen in his Acting Power uses the term "relacom," referring to "relationship communication." All communication has at least two dimensions: the content dimension of the message and the relationship dimension of the message. We not only say things, but we say them in particular ways -- and the WAY we say things often tends to develop, clarify, redefine a relationship. This is very important for actors to explore -- thesubtext-- what is UNDER the lines. 4. Function that the role fulfills in the play. Actors need to understand how their character relates to the theme and the action of the play: is the character a protagonist, antagonist, or foil, a major or minor character. 5. Sensitivity to subtext -- not what you say but how you say it--the actions and unspoken thoughts going through the mind of the character -- between the lines -- the underlying emotional motivations for actions (including what character says to others), psychological, emotional, motivations. 6. Role in the overall production B. Psychological and Emotional Preparation Ways of inducing belief in self and character when actor finds difficulty fitting self in situation. The "magic if" -- what would I do if I were that character in that situation. Emotional and sense memory -- "affective memory" and "substitution," sense memory -- clothes, air etc. -- how do they affect your senses? Emotional memory -- remembering action / feelings from own life that resemble character's in play. Substitution -- substituting a real person (mentally) for other actor.

To what extent does the actor "become" the character?

There are different degrees of identification (or detachment) from character -- probably combined -- actor and character, involved and detached... C. Movement, gesture, stage business -- "Obvious and detailed physical movement of performers to reveal character, aid action, or establish mood." Brockett, 440: stage business -- "often prescribed by the script, but may be invented by the actors or the director to clarify or enrich action or characterization." "Business" -- doing actively -- to simulate real life Delsarte -- focused on physical characteristics -- body language (see W&G for brief discussion of Stanislavsky's concept of "psycho-physical action"). Blocking -- "...the arrangement and movements of performers relative to each other as well as to furniture and to the places where they enter and leave the stage." where actors move, how, and facing which directions Gesture -- to help express character. Cheating - opening out / up -- making sure as much of the front of your face and body can be seen by the audience as possible, while still retaining the illusion of normal conversation. Crossing and counter-crossing -- moving from one part of the stage to another, sometimes "countering" another's movements to make the stage picture more balanced. D. Vocal characteristics Actors are armed with a variety of exercises to improve their vocal quality (projection [ability to be heard], tone, inflections, pitch, rate) and their articulation (pronouncing words clearly and accurately). E. "Learning Lines" (Memorization) and line readings -- learning lines suggests more than just memorization -- it suggests learning why, for what purposes, in what circumstances lines are said... semantics refers to the "meaning" of what is said. F. Conservation and build Actors learn that usually "less is more" -- they develop a sense of economy, using their ability to conserve energy and action to build to ever stronger actions. G. "Ensemble" playing -- a sense of wholeness--everyone working together -- working together as a unit toward a common goal, like a well-oiled machine.

Modern "Realistic"Acting: Begun by (attributed to) The Duke of Saxe Meiningen--who ran a theatre troupe in the late 19th century in Germany -- 1870-1890 -- and toured Europe. He emphasized a pictorial style of directing -For acting he emphasized crowd scenes and ensemble. In our modern age -- the industrial age needed to examine the world -- to discover the functions of things and increase our understanding of them. Acting becomes more literal and "representative" of manners and behaviors. Konstantin Stanislavsky: Developed the "system" (now known more popularly as "the method") of acting that emphasizes causality, purpose, and literal interpretation of behaviors... Used Motivational Psychology championed by Sigmund Freud, who made the inner workings of the mind something we could examine and study. In the later 20th century, there have been reinterpretations and rejections of this "method." Two basic schools of thought that actually merge -- most actors will use a combination of both:

Method (Internal) vs. Techniques (External) Technique (External) Discovering ways to convey emotions vocally and physically and project to the audience.Requires an intellectual understandingUses more of an "outside-in" approachDo the action and then the feeling will follow (The James-Lange Theory-- physical actions can lead to emotional reactions)...Emphasis on Body language-The Delsarte System (Olivier felt that the key to a character was the nose or how the character walks) -- I once found the key to a character (Earnest inDesign for Living) in how he held a cigarette--once I discovered that way of holding a cigarette, much of the rest of the character developed. Method (Internal) To help actors discover the emotional truth of the character--works best with "realistic" theatre -- for which it was originally intended.Requires an emotional intelligence and understanding.Uses more of an "inside-out" approach.Think the

thought and the action will follow.The "magic if" -- What would I do if I were that character in that situation? In practice--probably a combination of both of these is best. Most actors will tell you that they veer toward "method" or "technique," but most probably use a combination of both. Representational Vs Presentational Acting: Representational: actors want to make us "believe" they are the character; they "pretend. Presentational: rather than "pretending" they are the character, actors "present" the character to us, almost as if saying, "Hi, this is the actor speaking, and I'm going to present the ideas of this character to you; I don't really believe I'm anything other than myself, but you can believe it if you want." "personality" actors -- even today, many successful actors never play anyone but themselves, but do it very well. On the "representational" side of the aisle, arguably: Dustin Hoffman, Meryl Streep, Robert DeNiro, Samuel L. Jackson On the "presentational side," arguably again: Paul Newman, Denzel Washington; Does anyone ever believe that Bruce Willis plays anything other than himself, but does it really well? A critic (witty Dorothy Parker) said of Katherine Hepburn in the 1930's that "she runs the gamut of emotions from A to B." John Wayne -- never tried to be anything else...but they are successful because they help us to believe the story... A "revolt" against Stanislavsky's "method" acting: Brecht's "Alienation-effect" asks actors to "present" their characters to the audience and specifically NOT to get involved. The Director: Directing is still a relatively new phenomenon late 19th, early 20th century -- and still developing. Began to become more prominent during the Industrial Age and before (Romanticism). Now the director is the dominant figure in theatrical production History of Directing: Product of Industrial Age and Realism.

Some of the director's functions done earlier by other personnel: Ancient Greek: The "choregus" (head of the chorus) often directed / coordinated song and movement. Playwrights probably staged the plays, and probably cast them. We know too little to understand if they "unified" the production. Roman: a wealthy citizen organized, but we still do not know to what extent they "unified." Medieval: the "master of secrets" a special effects expert (and there were many special effects in the medieval theatre). "Keeper of the register" - the "register" was a master copy of the script a "guild" (group of craftsmen) could hold on to the register and pass it on from generation to generation. All were primarily managerial skill, rather than artistic With the rise of professional acting companies (during and after Shakespeares time (15-1600s) came the "actor / manager". Molire (Jean Baptiste Poquelin) a producer, director, writer. David Garrick actor/manager of the Drury Lane Theatre in London (from 17471776) , which still exists today. His innovations:
o o o o

No audience members on stage (had been the practice for wealthier, higher status folks to be on stage during the performance). "Natural" style of acting (though to us it would probably still seem stilted). Importance of scene design. Considered a director in his day, but term would not have been used (even today in Great Britain, the term "producer" is used instead)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (c. 1796-1807) [pronounced Gerrt'-uh] Weimar Classicism very strict, distrusted others talents. Richard Wagner (1813-1883) [pronounced Vahg'-ner]-- theorist and composer wrote operas that were fantastic, mythical, and patriotic ran the Bayreuth Theatre [pronounced "Bye'-roit"] (1876-1883) (which still exists, run by Wagners descendants, and until a few years ago did does nothing but Wagners operas).
o o o

He wanted total control over the production, and focused on illusionistic theatre. An important factor in the development of realism, also, but his operas were not at all realistic

George II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (1826-1914) -- from 1870-1890, his theatrical troupe toured Europe -- known for unifying the productions.
o o o

Specialized in historical dramas. Emphasized historical accuracy and realism (particularly in costumes and settings). Emphasized a pictorial style focus and composition and was particularly renowned for his crowd scenes and "ensemble."

Andr Antoine (1858-1943) Thtre Libre (Free Theatre), Paris, founded 1886. Fourth-wall realismreal beef onstage for slaughterhouse. Otto Brahm (1856-1912) the Freie Bhne (Free Stage) in Germany. J.T. Grein (1862-1935) -- Independent Theatre, London. Constantin Stanislavsky (1863-1938) Moscow Art Theatre, 1898. With Vladimir Nemerovich-Danchenko (1858-1943) as co-founder. Edward Gordon Craig after 1020 a designer wanted "uber-marionettes" so that he could control variables and unpredictability of actors never realized. Vsevolod Meyerhold (1874-1940) a dictatorial style. THUS by 1900, the term "director" was in wide-spread use and the primacy of director became clear directors placed themselves at the center of production David Belasco American producer and playwright also. Did popular plays sensory spectacle (real food) an eclectic approach he used all approaches. Max Reinhart (1873-1943) German authoritarian, eclectic. Tyrone Guthrie (1900-1971) Canadian eclectic in 1956 did Troilus updated to be set in England just before WWI. Elia Kazan (1909- ) Group Theatre in the 30s mentor, critic, therapist of actor used Stanislavskys "inner" "psychological realism" Streetcar, Salesman. (New controversy regarding his 1999 Oscar for lifetime achievement because he named names to HUAC.) After World War II, the term "auteur director" developed. New eclectics Jerzy Grotowski (1933-1999), Peter Brook, Richard Schechner

No real theories yet about these new directors or the changing face of director in modern theatre. The Modern Theatre Director: Functions: Artistic and Managerial

Decides on interpretation of script Casts actors Works with other theatre artists in designing the production Rehearses actors Coordinates all elements into a finished performance

A new question has developed: should directors be "interpretive" rather than "creative" artists? To interpret the script or fashion their own work of art, using the script as a basis? value: ability to focus the production danger: concept may distort script or diffuse attention (many think Peter Brook is this last kind) Still evolving Directors skills: In the past, a manager or theatre owner organized everything, but not really "artistic" unity. Greek and Medieval a businessman or civic or religious leader goal was efficiency, not artistic unity Organization

Human relations with designers, actors, etc. Decision-making with a willingness to change. Professional business manager, publicity director, etc., to all who do individual jobs. Non-professional director often does it all.

Artistic Functions 1. Script selection

Professional directors either approve of scripts or are "matched"by the producer(s).

But most try to do the things they like best. Non-professionals do what they like, usually doing what they dislike might ruin the production. Idea and spectacle are the most common elements to excite directors. Must learn to know what you do best, and improve on others choose plays you can do well The "master metaphor" or "directorial concept" a concept or directorial image To sort out the random ideas into a pattern of sorts draw connections, give theatrical life to those that seem possible. Concept implies rational and thoughtful. Image implies picturemaking. Perhaps a combination of both, depending on director, is best. Wilson, in The Theatre Experience, 6th edition, 138, suggests using the following as ideas/ jumping-off points: Period Central / controlling image / metaphor Concept / purpose: o Alan Schneider called it the "directional conception." o Zelda Fichandler of the Arena Stage refers to the Russian term, "zamissel," or pervading thought. (Example: Oedipus as a mystery--- perhaps?) Harold Clurman (1901-1980) critic and director look for the "spine" of the play the "throughline" -- the "main action" -- a general action that "motivates the play" the fundamental drama or conflict. Stanislavsky referred to the superobjective.

2. Analysis of the scriptto help director "understand" the play to make directors consciousness capable of staging the play. a. Depends on your point of view about directing: (This following is from Cameron and Gillespie): The worshipful vs. heretical approach to the script: On a continuum -- Worshipful approach: Directors job is NOT to create theatre, but to cause the script / play to create exciting theatre. Can become boring and empty (letting the text do the work), or it can thrill us with the brilliance of getting the texts strong points across.

-- Heretical approach: Directors job is to interpret the text in order to make a theatrical entity of the entire production for the audience. --to make good theatre exciting. --directors responsibility is to the MEANING of the performance, of which the script is only a part. Historical precedent: classic plays becoming opera, "Bowdlerizing" (or click here) a play -- refers to deleting or changing parts of a script, removing socially "unacceptable" or sexually "offensive" parts of the script (from Thomas Bowdler, who published the "Family Shakespeare," with sexual innuendo and reference left out, and turning sad endings into happy ones). Can lead to offensive or meaningless productions, or innovative and truly exciting ones.

Analysis and interpretation of the script would also include. b. The pattern of the play its major elements -- structure.

How do the characters function in the play? What are the demands on the actor? What are the technical demands / requirements? -- sound, lights, costume, sets? The context of the play (often this is a factor) Biography of the playwrights life Playwrights canon of work (other stuff) Period play written Period play takes place Critical response to play and earlier productions Old plays are often updated, new plays often need a different combination of techniques.

Tone and impact of the play

The plays intended effects directors ideas can be placed on them. Relative importance of elements Which elements are the most important? Pick elements that the script gives theatrical life to.

Spectacle and sound can be most clearly manipulated can add to play. Character, idea, story usually integral to the play itself. Director interprets and helps actors achieve characterization clearly. If a play of poetic language, must pay attention to. If play of character directed as play of plot, has long stretches where nothing seems to be happening, boring (Three Sisters).

Environment of play: "Given circumstances" what are the necessary elements? Updating can often make a strong statement or clarify an idea (Julius Caesar in Nazi Germany, Hamlet in Nicaragua, As You Like It in 60s commune [I was in this one!]). Mood of environment is also important )rain, warm summer, hurricane, tension). j. Idea paradoxical While the idea may appeal to directors at first, other values need to be gotten across. Seldom are plays written "about an idea." Other elements shape the production (Cameron &Gillespie: "idea blatant in none, but subtle in all."). Idea needs to be embedded in entire performance when stands out, can ruin performance. 3. Design oversight and inspiration:
o o o o o o

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Production meetings To coordinate managerial efficiency Concept meetings To coordinate artistic elements Director helps to get ideas across to designers, without restricting with interpretations. (H, P, &L, 237: Hal Prince, very famous director / producer, said: The worst thing that can happen is to get back from artists exactly what you ask for." Director brings all different interpretations of different designers into a single focus. Unity and Variety variety within unity sought. Ground Plan we'll discuss under the heading of Design.

4. Coach Actors

Stanislavskys influence has led to collaboration between director and actors. That can lead to dependency. Actors and directors should be aware not to let actor be too controlled. Collaboration coaching. Advises, inspires, encourages. Helps actor see other dimensions. Both actor and director are engaged in mutual creative enterprise. From Cameron & Gillespie: Actor-Director relationship can be seen in a number of ways: The director as parent --authoritarian Guru --visionary Therapist ---"trust me" Seducer --emotional attachment Victim --cajoler Playground Director --fun and creative Green Thumb --lets growlittle planning Lump --vague Amalgam of above is probably best Preparation and adaptability necessary Less actor coaching as performance approaches

5. Staging the play Where should actors / characters go so that the focus in the right place? Focus arrangement of stage picture so as to direct audiences attention to the appropriate character, object, or event. (H, P, &L: 244). Blocking where actors go on stage. Remember stage positions and body positions. Called "blocking" because early directors conveyed staging instructions by drawing a grid on stage floor and labeling each stage position, or "block." (H,P,&L: 248). Stage business: -- detailed handling of props, specific actions such as answering telephones or turning on a lamp. Visual composition and picturization.

Physical movement of characters onstage. Movement, pace, rhythm. Visual punctuation marks, emphasis, motivations, relationships all conveyed through movement, pace, rhythm [Edwin Wilson, The Theater Experience, 7 th edition, (McGraw-Hill, 1998), 146-147)] Body language, symbolic values (If Richard II starts high, moves slowly to earth) H,P,&L, 244: Achieving focus

By body position the actor who is most "full front" will have the focus. By stage area central areas have most focus. By level actor on highest level. By plane farthest downstage. By triangulation actor at apex of a triangle. By contrast actor who is apart from group (sitting, while rest of cast is standing). By movement moving actor will have more focus.{Top of Page}

From late 19th century, the proscenium, "picture-frame" (box set, fourth-wall realism) have exploited stages potential for displaying pictures. Not as easy on thrust or arena. Mood and rhythm can be conveyed through movement: angular, round movements, jerky / smooth, etc. Progression the rate at which things happen -- speed and emotional intensity and energy. Setting up of rhythms. Managerial (Director as Manager): Scheduling Casting American Director Alan Schneider said "style is casting" casting is half the work.

Rehearsals 1. Read-through Read through play, actors and director discuss character and vision of the play, discuss play, show designs. 2. General rehearsals rehearse in parts scenes with particular characters "French scene" -- entrance or exit of a character Scenes -- between "curtains" or blackouts (Remember: many contemporary stages do not have or do not use curtains).

3. Run-throughs -- of acts or the whole play -- sections. 4. Technical rehearsals . 5. Dress rehearsals -- like an actual performance, sometimes for an "audience" (of selected invited people). 6. Previews (also called tryouts)-- usually primarily for the professional theatre -- so the director and actors can work out some of the rough spots before opening it officially -- often previews are out of town before coming to New York. (We at this campus usually have a preview performance for reviewers to come to). 7. Opening night -- in most professional theatre, the director's job is then over .. usually goes on to another job, and the Stage Manager takes over any directing responsibilities, such as "brush up rehearsals."

The Design Team: Background: Stage Design was not always considered essential. Costumes and mask-making are quite old. Sound is a brand-new technology.

Lighting - may go back to the Renaissance - with gaslight in the 1800's, lighting came into its own Designers are more vulnerable to shifts in technology Designers are both artists and artisans (craftspersons).

Brief History of Design:

Greek - scenic devices used - masks and costumes - the "machina"- for the "deus ex machina" - but little is known of designers. Medieval theatre - scenic elements and costume important - often a "master of secrets" (usually machinists, guildsmen) - some intricate effects - such as the Hellmouth - but little concept of artistic unity Renaissance - theatre buildings constructed for the first time since theRoman Empire - single-point perspective in Italy -- designer becomes essential Sabastiano Serlio (16th century) - 3-dimensional scenery Joseph Furttenbach (17th century) - quick scene changes,painted drops, and flats Elizabethan - Inigo Jones (274) brought Italianate staging ideas to England - by the 17th century (1600's), design was a high art and designers considered as artists. Costumes - still little regard for artistic unity, though could be lavish -- often actors supplied own costume. 1750-1900 - costume becomes more specific, along with scenery and lighting. David Garrick hired Phillippe de Loutherbourg - a scenic designer -- to unify with representations of real places. The Romantic era brought much more specificity, and led the way for realism, though Romantic theatre was not at all realistic. With the use of Gaslight in 1830 in Philadelphia and by mid 19th though Romantic theatre was not at all realistic. In the 20th century, with electric light, from painting to architecture, from two- to three- dimensional cubes, from realism to symbolism and "selective realism," arena stages in the 1950's (though they appeared much earlier in the medieval period), thrust stages in the 60's, stage design has become more diverse - but still attempts to unify a production.

{Top of Page} Chapter 5 -- Set and Costume Design Functions of Design: Scene Design

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Help set the tone and style of the production Establish the locale and period in which the play takes place Develop a design concept consistent with the director's concept Provide a central image or metaphor, where appropriate Ensure that scenery is coordinated with other production elements Solve design problems

( **the following is from Cameron and Gillespie... 1. help tell the story 2. provide mood, color, emphasis 3. enhance concept 4. create environment in which actors can create convincing life 5. be aesthetically pleasing on their own ) Establishing tone, style, and mood: 1. Tragedy vs. Comedy (Julius Caesar's Rome must look and feel very different from the Rome of A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum) Plus subtleties of environmental mood 2. Level of Abstraction -- "natural" or "stylized" -- "realistic" or "nonrealistic?" 3. historical period If updating, retain mood of original What does the audience think it looks like? (Cowboy hats of the 1940's movies were not realistic, but audiences probably thought they were. "Realistic" concepts change: new images of the past are grittier - Lion in Winter and The Three Musketeers in 1976 were very dirty-looking). 4. Geographical location Quality of light, is the sound coming from inside or out? What is the essence? 5. Socio-economic circumstances How do clothes and light and dealing with sets differ in characters' socio-economic circumstances? How important is it to differentiate? (In O'Neill's Desire Under the Elms, class is essential; in Maeterlinck's impressionistic dramas, it is not.)

6. Aesthetic effect Even intentional ugliness can be beautiful - ugliness beautifully arrived at.

Factors of Design: Physical Aspects of Scene Design: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Line Mass Composition Texture Color

Designers at Work: 1. Scene Designer - must consider: 1. number of settings (one "unit set" which is designed to remain the same throughout the production [with minor changes in background, set props, etc.], but which can represent various locales; or different sets to be changed during the production) 2. shape and size of the house - sight-lines 3. how scenery will be shifted Rigged to "fly" from the fly loft, elevators,turntables, tracks and wheels Materials of set designers: Traditional "flats" (107)- 1 x 3 " wood frame covered with muslin (a rough cotton fabric) and then painted - can look like walls or other solid structures, yet very lightweight. Platforms and parallels (collapsible platforms) are also common (note: see images when you click on "flats" above...) Wood, plastic, and metal, etc. are becoming more widespread. Cyclorama - U-shaped back of stage, for sky or background. 1. special effects scrims -- our production of The Night of the Iguana used a number of scrims )

"flying" set pieces from the "fly-loft" "wagons," "treadmills" 2. historical accuracy, if necessary 3. budget and schedule The Process of Set Design:

Renderings - loose free-hand drawings of early impressions. Ground-plan - a bird's eye view. Three-dimensional models Thumb-nail sketches Elevations (scale drawings). Instructions for building.

Technical director oversees construction. The scene designer also often does the Properties (Props) that are not part of the regular scenery, handled by actors (canes, furniture [handled], letters, etc.) Props are usually: Designed and built or bought or rented stolen -- ! :) :)

The Costume Designer Costume Designer's Objectives: 1. Help establish tone and style of the production 2, Indicate the historical period of a play and the local in which it is set 3. Indicate the nature of individual characters or groups in a play: their stations in life, their occupations, their personalities

4. Show relationships among characters: separate major characters from minor ones, contrast one group with another 5. Meet the needs of individual performers: make it possible for an actor or actress to move freely in a costume; allow a performer to dance or engage in a sword fight, for instance; when necessary, allow performers to change quickly from one costume to another [I was playing Joey in the musical Pal Joey, and in the first part of the first act, my costume changes were so quick that I had to wear THREE costumes at the same time; each one got taken off to reveal the other ones as the act went on...] 6. Be consistent with the production as a whole, especially with the other visual elements costumes are often rented or bought ("pulling costumes"), built from scratch , or rebuilt, or borrowed. -clothes must be "right" for the character. -comfortable to actor (within reason) and usable. -aesthetically pleasing - can make a big difference to actor's character. Designer must analyze: Given circumstances - sex, age, health, social class, focal importance Shape - silhouette (outline) pleasing. Movement of costume. Texture and draping. Enhancement or suppression of body lines (different periods have different styles: pushed up bosoms of the French Empire, flattened bosoms of the 1920's, codpieces in medieval and Elizabethan, togas in Rome). Individual actors - long necks, skinny arms, etc. Costume shop foreperson executes the designs. Costume designer's resources: 1. Line, shape, and silhouette 2. Color 3. fabric 4. Accessories

Makeup, hairstyles, and masks-- all related to costumes. Chapter 6 -- Lighting and Sound Design The Lighting Designer Lighting not an important factor in design till 1830's with limelight, but even then needed sharper control Electricity was the key to imitate natural effects to enhance: change shape, mood and tone Now high-tech, computerized Objectives of Stage Lighting 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Provide visibility -- let the performers and other elements be seen Help establish time and place Help create mood and tone Reinforce the style of the production Provide focus onstage and create visual compositions Establish rhythm of visual movement

Lighting instruments - the term used to refer to the units that deliver the light (including the housing and the light bulb, or lamp). The lighting designer can influence only five things in lighting: Color, direction/distribution, intensity, form, movement 1. color - changed by using gels -- colored pieces of plastic (heat resistant - the only color light that will get through is the color of the gel) mixing of colors -- warm lights (amber, straw, gold) with cool colors (blue, bluegreen, lavender) can produce depth and naturalness 2. direction / distribution - can be up to 150 lights in a production 3. intensity - brightness -- controlling the amount of current to instrument "dimmers" control that amount

4. form -- the shape of the light 5. movement -- alterations in the other factors will give impression of movement this would also include the movement of a "follow-spot" (powerful spotlight as that swivel and shine on different places). fades, cross-fades,blackouts can suggest movement and form

Instruments: a. spotlights: ellipsoidal reflectors - long distances, sharp and clear b. fresnels (pronounced "fruh-nel'" - named after Frenchman Fresnel who designed a "step lens" - the lens had less and more even mass, so it would heat evenly, avoiding the problem of regular convex lenses heating unevenly and thus cracking - "fill" light diffused, to "wash" or "blend." c. striplights, footlights: footlights used very little these days, but strip lights used to add "fill" light. d. flood lights: no lens, no color - for a "flood" of light Sound Design Sound design has always been used in some way (rolling cannonballs for sound of thunder), but with modern technology, more precise sounds are possible. Reproduction -- the use of motivated (called for by the script) and environmental (help create more illusion of reality) sounds (135) includes sound effects... Reinforcement -- the use of amplification Modern practice of "mic'ing", sound effects, background music - further technology (some discussed on 138) and expertise may increase sound capabilities, as it appears to be one of the hardest to control. A History of Stage Lighting Lighting cues seem to have been written into Greek plays - the festivals played from sunup to sunset, and many of the lines refer to times of day.

The sun was the first major source of lighting instrument, and clouds were the first dimmer (!). The Romans moved pageants into the Great Halls. 1545: Sabastiano Serlio -- colored light liquids in bottles (red wine, saffron (yellow), ammonium chloride in a copper vessel (blue). Brightly-polished barber basin and a round bottle as a lens 3 qualities of light: distribution, intensity, color 1550: Leone de Somi - full illumination for happy scenes, but tragedy much darker (candles, crude oil lamps, torches, and cressets (hanging lamps). Stagehands walked around and snipped wicks, the audience was lit Candles were of tallow and fat 1573: Inigo Jones (or click here) (English - stage designer) returns from Italy with knowledge of the Proscenium Arch and footlights, and comes up with ideas for masques 1580: Teatro Olimpico is the first permanent theatre in Italy 1618: Teatro Farnese (see illustration in text) in Parma - the first theatre with a permanent proscenium arch and curtains 1628: Joseph Furstenbach Footlights (floats) and sidelights 1638: Nicola Sabbatini - writes book on theatre - suggests system of dimmers lowering metal cylinders over the candles Giacomo da Vignola - ideal lighting angle is along the diagonal of a cube (1930's - Stanley McCandless writes it in book) 17th century (1600's) Paris - many chandeliers Gas becomes used 1783: Candles ruled the day till the invention in 1783 in France of the kerosene lamp with adjustable wick

Followed closely with a glass chimney - could make individual float lights Used for 100 years 1791: Illuminating gas produced in quantity - William Murdock - each building could produce its own However, gas required constant attention and wasn't easy to control 1803: Limelight Invented by Henry Drummond - heating a piece of lime with a flame of oxygen and hydrogen (for a followspot or to indicate sunlight). A green-ish tint. Was used as the first spotlight in Paris Opera houses 1845: Drury Lane Theatre is the first to use gas in England) 1809: Electric Arc -- discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (or here)-- took 90 years to be fully accepted. 1816: First fully gaslighted theatre -- Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia Greater control of and more brightness (colorsilk cloth or woven cotton). Increased heat and many fires caused, and had gas smell and green-ish tint. 1878-1898: Henry Irving (and click here) (England) initiated lighting rehearsals, transparent lacquers of colored class to limelight with electricity to incandescents, footlights of different colors and broken into sections, and wanted to dim the house lights Electricity! 1841: First incandescent lamp patent - Edison - not practical 1846: The first electric carbon arcs used as spotlights at the Paris opera - inefficient -- not a serious threat to limelight 1879: The Jablachkoff candle - the first useful lightbulb - "electric candle" - used at Paris Hippodrome - a carbon arc (invented 40-50 years earlier, but limelight was too ingrained, even well into the 1920's. The first practical electric spotlight

1881: Savoy Theatre in England - the first completely electric theatre 1882: A big push - electric theatre at the exposition in Munich, Germany -- with a saltwater dimmer to control the new power source - went like wildfire... As technology develops and advances at a more rapid rate, so did development of more effective lighting equipment Edison - first practical lightbulb Incandescent to tungsten -halogen lamps Lacquer to gels. Electric lighting went from the marquee to the outer lobby to the inner lobby to the house to the stage