.

'
..
In the whole of human history it is unlikely that any
ings have been the subject of so much controversy as the
Bible, the Koran and various sacred books of other reli-
gions. Religious thinkers often present them as the source
of absolute and infallible truth.
Some people turn to religion when they search after ab-
solute, infallible truth, but what is religion? What views of
religion are to be found among believers and non-belie-
vers?
This Dictionary is designed to help the reader find out
about the role of religion in the history of mankind, about
the world religions (Christiantty, Buddhism and Islam),
about religions peculiar to specijic peoples such as
Judaism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Shintoism. The Dic-
tionary contains over 2,400 entries. Readers can glean in-
formation from it about the link between religion and
beliefs (e.g. magic, totemism, animism), about
the evolution of religious-idealist theories and about the
present-<lay theological and religious-cum-philosophical
movements.
1.01111 PROGRESS PUBLISHERS
I;>BN 5-01-000455-0


-
'----A Dictionary ---,
for Believers
and Nonbelievers
I- Inl
PtV,IU ~ s fl BlISHI RS
'vl,)s .. ,)W
Transla! din' \hl Jut! 111m
CJlosapt>llJlJl lIeB{"p\lOtJUU,
Hu J"lAllio;:O.1f Jl3N"t
.. AJlm U Iru In "'/11 19K."
I'n,11sh n . ' lin 1'1.1 ,l'''iS I' t:" .. JoIQ
Mc'/}(/ "I/(- 'f
(0l0000000- .9.
01-4(0I } SI

ISBN 5--01 ' ,(11)0 .5.5, 0
I
!
PREFACE.
Thi dil'lion,uy 11. Ih, Iuil II nar:' vor \ k llndal k 1\ J II
.. (:holarsl'nnlh lSI.:R .. lilruun $.Ii '1eJ
for all thu\c who tre !Oterc cl.: n or working un (jUl' .. ns n"II" II' i I\' n
approach 10 mall ell of iiglon, fh..:: didinn'lIY \. imu"l /' HI n"
,!OJ il indudl: a wide nl-l()1 erms k( serve II fen the '!'Iodern allam
mcnl, If philmnpny .. n I 1; lUI d SClcnl:C Ih . Malltlsl scm:'"
1010 .. Iilin" of
[n: ::-. arc arranged !O alphJhClic I vrdl'r, Inu' rl 10 \I, IfI..!!> II C J
'JI In ilalics 10 indiOl1" Ih.1 cntr: dC\'lllt IJ tJ Ih -, 'h'
l' di'lulnary (f'P n he n"V Lt\\VS (): '" \T Nl .-t.11! II
'II nl.'C ' Il'. lui n.: li\ ... ind aler he I ;t"r1.IL t ltrv J, ... 'c J II
1 Yo lU'h cx. mmc COI'IC pt in ,II I tall), I) of Ihl f, 'I JI \ '
IU;lteJ m Ih, ('hUH: 1 11 .\ ': 'mUll '" It' th Iuli" ( "I,d, r
whil" h- Oalc an: , ) h" ( rego; m aK d. r 11 1 Ide In
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M:ICnl'C

A
AARONITES, of a Iren'
within the Old );(;hi"m
which split <twa)' in the secont' half
of the 1Klh century from the Be.:po-
The name of (hi ... trend was
derived from the name of it ... founder
Andrei (Aaron) Zhukov. U,lIkc thl
Be/pornvtsy. the Aaronitc'i TCC _-
nizcd civil marriages am': d
extreme asceticism.
ARAYA., a covering which the "nan-a
demands that Mosil m worn(
! lQuld wl'ar the conlInI S
their boml The :onc 'ah 1(
sh;.pc of their figUl... and c .......cr.
th .. ir b dy with thl exc.: _. '!1 r:
th"u ace
ABBEY, ' 1) nhablt! d y
a :ommunitv of monks or nuns go"
erned by an obb ' '- r abb...: a
church built nc'lr a building (I -
the Ul orlhl" monks ,. (c h!!
c nmumly of monl s nun- lYIng
in the building 1....::. be:l af- 'Ie
ARBOT tame '01 Ihl c.upcrim of an
al""')(. )1 monks in E uropc
from thr: th 'cnlury :\. D ... .,w rds,
In less S.lI dfl( us' C ...... I!
u! td simply 10 :Jcsignalc a pncst In
the Rl ",an (a/hI 'il Chun'r,
AHDllI, Muhamm:r,d
,.1cologJ:..n, II ading rI nr
mer of Is/am, accturcr at the ""'hr.
em 'ill AT-h;lf Univ !' ;ily. anc (J: md
I,(u!ti ,)1 I gypl from 1899, He spent
'be yeal, iM8'IR8<} in exile, Atxtuh
wrote a frcalisc .)n MonothtJ,m'
in If.'P, C nmcntOlr:_ n Ihl Korafl,
Ind :11 :,,1"5 n the '::fl rm of Mos
lem courts mtl .aw_
ABELARD, 1(;711. 14, I.
Fr"m:h I hc
1nd po' 11 W ':. f' mOilS IS 1
teIch, nd m,-'ill )1 polemIC's, Jk
!.oct nrc h} lh, I )phyand
CUitUf" )' C,J! Jell InliqUi y, Ahe
UI f hllosOflhV ch'u
bv r tlon.:ll' 'I1l J-.:: c_ .:: lC "I
II Uk ':11 II'le dogrr: f "llh wllh
kn.", 1.( Nhlth!( 1, lIv scrv d tl
umlcrmln ,':an I';nn, Ahc
la:1 C l' (lCfe.; j h .. : Ih, SHurr; of
(hri lRmn: I '" l-C!. t.lu
raj mt" "tv 1j w. It g n:: U
SI un Y =-- 0) and
H'I' ,il ( llClmlt . Jm r, "nor
f t..1y )i:;a: ). an :.:It g: lpm
.... I K
<\8EL'TES "lr \'iE I;\NS. 1n _arly
<. :II sit; .. '" \ n ti- persu,J,
1m . r 1( fT.", J' (Je n 'd . .n
rlm of, 1C - 'on' n 11-.111:.n
lC Bihl, 'Of\! \he W 1Il Ithough
h' W .. m"rnt d, arc jing to he he
It f- of the \Ix Ilc n 11n", j
'ha" IOWIn[ thl" ....xamplc uf
AI- Ihr.;; Ah_ iles Ie k hUI
heir rnal ri.;; 's were nol consum
n:}te (Jr c --II "r,lnp Ie
scc Yo" "JI dopl young btly and
gu won wLuld m:..kt: a .. uw 10 :ltc.-
In Ihr.;; r lurn a mal lagt of the samc
kind.
ARlIII1HAM1\I\ (Highc" Doc
tnnc ), St!c I npltaka,
- - -- ------....;
6 ABlL'"IION

ABLUTION, rite of ritual dcan<;,ing
with water of various parts of the
!'xxl\' hcforc the execution of some
saer-cd acl (reading prayers, entering
a house of worship. taking part in a
religious cekhration etc.) practised
by the adherenls of Judaism. Islam
and a numhcr of Christian sects. In
many religion .. there exists the rile of
wa<;,hing a dead persun in order to
carry out ritual cleansing he fore hu-
rial. In a numher of Christi,tn move-
ments, for example. among Advell-
(ists, the rite ()f washing feet is prac-
tised, which can be traced back to
the story in the New Tellamell! to
the drcct that Jeslls Glrist had
washed the feet of his disciples. The
sources of these rites arc 10 tx: found
in ancient conception!'. regarding the
power of water
. the Bihlical patriarch
hy Jews, Christians and
(in hlam he is kml\w as
He is regarded as the
of the Hebrew people
..his. . .son Isaac) and of the
pcoplt:$ (through his son
Rcligiou:-; traditions link to the
, .. f Abraham the start of belief
one God, the eom"lusion of a con
or covenant with Gnd. strf':ng'
by the rite of circumcisiel1.
legend. ... concerning Ahraham
hi!'. famil y (for example. the
of the of Isaac) reflect
conc.cpts t hat can evi
be traced back 1,""1 ,he cult of
15 a uibal deity,
a sect of .n
emerged withtn lhev
Church in the 18th
out from the leach
the Ahrahamit co;
... 10 he follower\
oripaaI faith", i.c.
- - - --
the ant'ienl kwish he fore
the rite of rifl""1""ci.\/tm was ad()ph::d.
Thl' Ahrahamitl'S like the Jews. hc-
lieved in nne (,\"I(j, in tht immnrlality
uf the ohserved a:o; sacred the
Sahhath day, and did nnt cat pork
etc. From ihe Old Tt'Jtamcflt they
only atcepled the Tl:n Command
ments. (Oecalnguc) and from the
NfW Tn/amt'flt the Paternnster.
They rejected the Chustian dogma:-o
(If the Trirlit\', the idea of (,(xl made
flesh (regarding Christ mcrely as a
piolls man), (,hri<;,lian sacramentJ
and (hut for practical reasons
thty haptilcd their children and
married in church). In order to
undermine the sect the Ahrahamites
were deported to the horderlands. of
the Austrian Empire, in accordance
with an edict or, mulgated by the
Kaiser of Austria, Jm _ h IT (1741
1790)_ Soon afterwards the sect
broke up.
AHU-L-'ALI\ l.I"'1\ ARRI (073
10.57 tlr 1058), Ar _bian poet nd
thinker from the town ..
r
M mal In-
"Iu'man (Syria). UIS ..;nllectiun ... f
)(M ns. '"Lu7umiyyaf' {Ohligation c-f
the ('ompulsnry) him inter.
nalu nal recognition and al.'ioo a col-
ICC ion of Ietter.'io on the suhject of
forglwncss. "Risalat ul(ihufran",
and a further collection of letters nn
the suhject of "Risalat ul
M Jlaika". n whieh ,( nihc,/cd
traditional tv'oslem conceptions of
life hl:YI nC -'1 grave lOd Ihe idea f
prede<:tmatum. He maintainec! that
the [arth nerg:-j s the csult a
oatur 11 " occ
ACATIUSn S, speCial t hurch ser
VIC...... In t he E'l<;.ter .1 Orthndf'X
Cllllrrh e"n i <l 1ng 01 plnCfD'lJC11,
laudalm'Y '>onrsmd rt ilycrs In hrrt -
our "f Jesus O InSl, Our Lody,
AIlO:,\I'i
,
- -
Mot/ltro! (,od, 'md inls. The se
SCrYl\:cs. 8h.; C :.dul'lt:d
with all worshippers p.utic pating.
AC()ST A, Uricl. Sec Do LOSlo,
Urid.
Al"fS OF mE APm"u:s, TIlE,
one of the Book5 which. logLlhl'r
with the GOJpeM, the of the
Apostle'l. and the of Sc_
Jolin the Divine (an Apoculyp.re),
form the New Teslamerr(. The first
12 chapters of the Acts of the Apost
Ics tell of the preaching of elf s-
tianity by the Apmtlc Pier Hrnong
the Jews. The next 16 chapters ell of
the preaching by the Ap tie Paul
among the heat ben, This all0W5 us to
-.:;ume thai the "\1 the Ap<l<.lles
r:flee cal" aiD n the h.. TV
of ('bristianity, when it wa ... turninr.
a Judaistie . ct inl) a univerli.a/
I ligioo, embracmg m, nv pe ,",.
C'lUrch Iraditu :t ascrihcs the al!' 1-
0: bip the Ac s of the A.y. _ to
$t l 'Jke Vel a omp:.u illV<' analYSIS
)1 Ie contr-nt md k m 'I" 1"1is Book
md .he Grspc. accOHlmg 0
L oke how" thai it came from the..
P'_l of nf authors ! par d
trom "Ie an,..' ler in Ime V !;cvcral
:lc.eld( s. Moreover, 1(, AI t! of the
Apo-tles should Dr- )( regar j( d lS
dn integral work be ongmg I") I
smgle author II tl & urne d
'h t the Ac s of th" Apl.lsde .. w _
W"" Hen after the Epi .'1,: , in the
lod balf of 2'ld century
ADAM (the He brew "",urc -:t ni:-
m, on). Ac..:ording to thc Rib/e, 1 :1(
, r51 man "'0 E mh, re<J:tcd hv (,1
.n his W"I m '" md after '1' own
ikcoe!\S from th. dl: of tht; e- lund.
""he Bihle story of Ad. m c::m be
r,,-ced Nck to the nvth of mcient
Mesopotamia. r'l figure of Adam,
thl. man :Ind rrogenitm or the
human race, has, 10 its turn, been in
co;"ponteJ into/dam.
ADAMITES, I name ror reli
II us which called for a
to the life in patadi!>C cnjoyc<1
by Adam and E.'e, preached the.. di
VlOe of natural f<-clings, advo
ard lakejn( li,S and community of
prt...pi.: y IOtC In the late 14th nd
e:lrly 15th Lent Jr es the teachinlY of
the Adamitc" prr,d 'trough Bulga
ria and BOhCml'l. The s In
Bl I:temia made up the eft wmg
th Taborites. Thclr eachlng.o; we
aimed against explOiI on and vi,
oknc and agaut:' pnvlt,. property_
The V rl 11 k n'" ( hure:l.
orgiln.!.V BOn, I tuat) and
th family.
ADI-BL .,i4. t
Buddha In I __ \Ie II rn t
th uprcme f tur e iJ, nc n
th WI rid. Mm( ,m t Idrntifl( 0
WIth 'V'I, 'Jna.
"m CRANT" {Llf!' W( n. ,
m runlZ "first I ,th Diy
SCTlpture d \,/ Hn; ,0 ,; Ie d n
I;}' If) n eill 1 th ,en
tUft(,. n: 'Ilgir: I f th
(JI mth i Kept III rh Jl Idcn
r nple ('ikh n t tml '..nt
phc" f woo tp n tbe ")WD of
A nnlsar,
AOONAI, c.,. l"Dhwe'l.
ADONIS, IR Ii. s..<il I mythl ogv.
youth 'I" ( m, rkal... 3Uty, a vcg.
tallon Spll t, w'loc.: de.. th an", rc'urn
te' life the decay 01 nature
in w nter lDd ts rt ....ival in spring. He
w S If. t WI hipped in Phoenicia
rnd I)yna. but 10 the 'j:th century B.t
llC c.JIt "f Adonis began to spread,
R
fin-I in Greece and Ihcn, later, in
Rome. Fcsti\\t!s in honour of Adonis
were held in Ihe spring. ('lear traces
llf the innucncc of the cull are i<l he
found in the Gospd narrative {If the
death and resurrection of Jesus.
Christ.
followt'rs of a 'clig-
IOUS trend which cmc-rgl'd ,,;th1n
ProteJlonti.tm in the half of the
19th century in the l!SA. In ho\,k
"Evidence from Scripture and His-
tory of the Second l'oming of Christ,
. '
Aoout the Year 184.1", tht' founder
of tbis trend. William Miller (1782-
184Q), based his calculations as to
thc date of the Second Coming on
references ffllm thc B()Ql.:s of lire
...Prophrt!i (in tht' BiMe). His tcachinp.
taken up mainly "ithin the ranks
that ....as 0-
pri\"Jti(ms the
npm"nl of c,:apitalist pro-
H.'lations in the LiSA. The
nf did not
the Adventists' helid in an im-
1 Second Coming, whi('h they
would usher in the Millen
Christ"s reign of
which wOlJld I a thousand
The Advent "'t moyemcnt late; !'>plit
IDtn a of ,!roup ... The largc"l
of these I!' Ihal ",f thl: SC\"cnth Day
who ....e teachings art'
nn the hclilf that the Second
IS imminent, thaI there will
Day JudC!'nIt.'TII and hat
will over '1': rir.htc IUS
VC.Jrs, T:u; hi, Ituy of
is !'oCt'n .1.... .In .. long
between Chm; and Sara".
cad wilh tht j( ' ....nr\11 01
The nnly p,lt h h. sok.l-
the Ad\'Cnh<:.t faith
deny the immortalitv
drdaring t hat it dit
die body so itS to be
rcsurn:cll'd 10m Ihc day of ('hri .. ,'s
coming. lik (10 c ..trlh i, to
nun Imly as prepar"li!.)n hIT that
d;n-. heRn' thl' I.kmand hiT thl' indi-
\;dual 1\1 a",piH' mIl \m1y In moral
hUI "hI.) hI physic,l) rll.:rftTtitm, hI
'" hieh l:nJ a clxk (If f,'T hcahhv
wa ... inITOt.iu(l'll whil"h in man,-
, .
Tl':<.pcd .. aTC ;11 variam.:l' w;lh medical
Tl'C(lmmcndali{lns. ()h:-.crvalion of
the Ten ('ommantim('1J(s is compul
S(ITY flIT Adventist. ... in particular, the
fourth t\mlmandmcnl which dc-
mandsthat man ohser ....: the Sohbolh
a day of rest. Thl' Adventists are
also re4uir.:d to nmtrihutt' a lilhe or
tenth part of their income to their
Church. The authority of the
"prnphctes!'>" Elk" Gould While,
w'w".c work<;. arc venerated on a par
with thc Biblr is an'epted withcmt
qUl:!'>1 on. The Scve"1th Day Adven
ti .... engage in lve missilmalY
Wl rk dnu ;11_ ..:on .... tantly expanding,
their publi-;hing They run
hundreds of hl\S,-ltats and clinics In
which they propag. te their tidings
of salvation". All hdp" the
('hurch of the Sevent 1 Day Ad"'en,
(foumJc_ 10 186:\ 0 swell the
mk. o! S membns ng
11 _r1v thret:: million, fl:u..; m3jorey

we In A nt lel and Afr e
gnd of 'he w .. 10 Ile
'An ::nl ( rcc..:e LaIC
wite" (lftcn confusl d
him with thl mvthnlngic'al eponym
(dnc\. :01) 11 the (reck he.,1 the
Acolian<;.
A(:'S( l l. \PIl S_ 1C g ..: of hClI"nr.
nt )man hI! Greek
c(luntr'l"pLtrt hclApillS,
>\o[SIR. TilE in Soc mdina\lan m}'i!:

l,logv Ihe prinl Iptl \ o(ls. The WOf
l
:
also u..!:j Sllml limes 10 dl n'"' ':
- '-
1\( iRARII\:-' <LI.I S
--'
glKl'i in Poemral. The prinl.ipal
indude Oili/l, n,or. lIu"II'" Ikim-
dall (the (If BifrO!Ot the
raintmw hclween 1h;;lVcn and
Parth), t.f poetry), Vid;tr
(g.{K.l of Ihe fm 's), l"orM:ti husto-
dian of Ihc truth), uf
hunting). Fn'}S, Idun;. (goddeli.s of
youth), S:.ga (goddrss of tegrnds).
,\GA KIIAN. the: he: .:ditary title of
the head orlhc Shi'ile Ismaili;
AGAPE, (a) a (ireek w(lTd or "In .....
u ....ed hy the Hihtical wril('f!> 10 lVrlll..!
Ihc !'>ensual a\o:;oci'llions of he .Ii-
nary (ircek noun "eros il!> lSC": 10
denole the lovc of or the 1m 01
for nne lRoth:' (h a 'om-
munal ) raJ.: ., by thl
... J.rly ( 11 .<.11, n.<.lo comml nl ate Ihc
Sunprr); L 1f $I and thl Ap ;.\.
I llcr thIs C ral..tiCl; W is fOi 11
I-
J
tbe (. lurch
A( (. OR"'AM- NTI) ( tahal n
"", ... r I, a term use(' t., un- .. v th ':;'
Icmpt at renew I thl.; RonrG'!
ul)to/,. Chllr.r. lime- Hlic n'"
Itr dogmJ nr',: II -lS of WI r. hi!"" 1
p:. ntlay nmd" on t- Jnhn
XXIII w j crm 1.1 eX;lI th
l\< .Jr hv II _;;: : 1l: an
C thulle l hure'! ) ITI k. I P rt of
t.le n' Jt 1, dvnamle wor '.,.";1 J.
tII:inr It, liturgy nl.. r e
l1fe aim f \!;gior. menl" was
In m"k Rl'man r Ih Ii man-
Oexibll n: Igu 1 nd II ql ': t >1.- 'j
mow uhllc mt..!ns I: I. Ou('n ...
p 'oplc r,C prc"lC"r mOJlI ,. \J' 1m
nam( nIl war r" ric ') th . lOti
\- 111l.Jn l unc II ncJ - JOdI _ ..
of documen ,ppro\ t-v
1: 1l 1OCII.
A( I'\,j I 1\ uf th n lin j,! r
r;,.J.:I1 'to Ac ..: IT lin' 0
-
lid!> nr the An.cII:nt In ..
the cmill.lI..hment of Hoi'J Fire
possessed of ) J"lufllving force
A(; .... ljS l>FJ (l uin" <1mb lfe \IC.!' \
r ,i.. ('hri'\.l.13n crm
(r'nff who 'l.<u.:rific.:d 'ImM"'f (l C"lP"
atc 111 .... inS. rh' imagc t ml in ..
n c
l
Tlr.;::t ' toteml' n J"I rmclling
rhe Qlvth h ,U!> (hri. .. t. In he
-"po 'o/lpte n,l 1<.0 n some
ly rs and rell, ItlUS c'
Je!>u.. i!> lmc 1I rrma'ulatc
<tntl .. lorl\, lUI . u: rrt;>C
01. '1 t him a!> hi ph' d c. rrVlng
laml"'o m his .. h ul 'rs (thc )r
a g ;Jrhlph d'
Af I( So tTl 'Ilhcr' 1
ill rl.' L!l. 11 1"1_' on an
Afnell tt:. :Jr :J t .. c 4t 01.1
'. 0\.,[ 'nn 01
th t WlI of thl /Jo, gtlj'f. r ..
memh '" n.. i! )wn
f( t 1\ I pal f )11 e rural
h:'::"II." .. ..-I I,
T 1(" ,nc)( h. m a
(,ray fr """
talv r; al )"J'""TI and VIew Ih
rical h .. mm}
In: T,( A,go-. ](
C '! pn lr:_ de
PI It II I I nnwn
Jllw: pn:1l1
WI1,:"1 E re

r 'K
1m, b.
It:'
"
.o\(.R:\lllr\!'I ("' l T'i, : 11 uf r.:
!o!l\lU It and t ',1' x llc J
wllh ':' i.: JI He h '""IC In! 109 ... of
r 11 ults c fl n (.' nan
nur n
1;11 : I rt.1O pc ,pl l.. I{\p-
men \ \-' 01 .. pr an Ultf
I' k. h' .... :"1 thc c: '"IlC r,io;. nt'e of
w I. \(.: d ,I cunllnun ..5. In
1;, II' (."11 f.flS. .hl' {"lllnc',kd "'lIh
l' .1 ,:"I IlltlT r.'. J Il-:: 1"1,0 Jnc
.1.,., .... ,nJ "':]."'" IC Acr:trlan
10 AIII\1SA
"'-------- -
cui,.. rc usualh' wilh an
iJvanccd polyt"hei<;tic panthco,.. in
which the most cclcllratcd dcitic<;
arc thosc worshipped as the palrons
(If farmer!'.. A particularly t)Tllcal fi/?"
UTe venerated lly agrarian peuples IS
that of a deity who dies and rclurm.
to life, wonohip W;IS 10
nucnce the subsequent
of the figure of Christ. In their turn,
the matriarchaJ and clan-linked tlC
liefs inltio .. ic to agrarian cults
shared in part the image of the Vir-
gin Mary.
AHIMSA (Sanskril), the avoidance
of causing pain or harm to living
creatures. A religious ethical prin
ciple charactcri<;lic of Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism. for the ad-
herents of thc<;e religions it is elev
ated to the slatus of a religious duly.
The principle of Ahimsa is hound up
"'ith the teaching of the rrollSmigro,
tum of souls and the reincarnation of
one living creature as another,
AHMADlS, a Moslem "ed named
after fl under. MirJ'.3 Ghulam
Ahmad (UB9-1908), who in 189
wa." proclaimed to he a new
and mahdi and preached a doc1rinc
aimed at reconciling hlam, Chris
lionitv clnd Hj"duism. At the present
lime the sect numocrc; ovcr a million
followers living mainly in Pakistan
and India. The MoslC'm World
League has oUl lawed seCl a! 1
"'trend hoslile til
a title for Jcm religiOUS
a higher Tank.
MUDA., the <; upreme rieil v
and Mo; dottltJ ,
principle that is in \:onslant
with tbe evil deity Angro
AKHHI\R. a "'hi'ile holy tradilion,
The Ihe SlInna. iy, hased
(In thl' a(-Is, deeds ami w(lrtl'\ of MQ..
hllmm('d, whil'h wae supposcd Itl
prn\idc a supplt'ml'nl hI the Koran
S(llulions f(lr sodo-c('(lnomie
and qut:slions, Most of
the in the Akhhar arc similar in
wnlent to thuse (If the Sunni Had;,,,,
Ihe only difkrt:nces hcing in the
names of those who handed them
duwn,
AKlIlJNIlOV Mirza f'atali (IRI2.
IH7S). A/crhaijani materialist phi
losopher and mililant athcist who
openly opposed Islam. He rejected
I he ide a of ('od a!'o I hc first cam,(' of
the world and asserted that Nature
ta; d not tx-cn crealed hy anyone. Na-
ure has heen. is and will be, it exists
)hjctlivcly without the help of any
fon.'c. Nature is its own cause,
rhc works of Akhundov provide 1
nr found and comprehensiv ...
erit :tue of J<:I<tm. His I
nd plllitiClI treali':'e, '-Three Letters
o! the Inl aan Prinre Kamalud,
Daula II thr. Pcrsian Prince Jamal,
ud-Daula ani the L aller s rs
o Them" _mc ot the r- athci!
works to he found n Or ... ,tal lit
cr .. ture
AV. See under name following this
pre'ix.
URANIAN ORTHODOX
( In RCIL TilE IR aul, 'cphalouii
Orth dmc <. hurch fl undcd in 197')
4.1 HERTl'8 MA<.f'IIUS, SI
Cuunl von HolIsladt, e. )),
;l1C II'ICV ,I phil !.(Irhcr,
\Ott se'u "1tiQ. If' ,(- hr- ' 'it. Tlwmoj
1qlllfl O_f, nne of rhe fir<:.t 'heologJc,,1
I.:ommenl ator "nd inlerprclt :' of
An ,lI 'lelian philosophy. He t ri ed '0
AIH';'''II
--
lIdapl the s of Iriflotle II lit
Rllman ( llholic Ie
At.RIC.ENSf:S. followers uf an h ..
lit.ill mo\'c.:mc.:nl in Francl', Italv lnd
Gc-many in Ihe \ !Ih lnd 13tti
,urIC directed agam. the Romon
CUlholir OIllI'CII, Ihat W .. nppoc;c.l
lu Ihe Wnwth of medial val own'
Ont. (Ihe cenlra of Ihe m<Wl:mc.:nl
Wit! an Ihl' own of Alhi (in Ihe
frc 1<:h province Ilf Langue doc),
The Alhigen' "", rCJc!:kd Ihe
trine of a Iriune god. ('hurch ,roc'O-
mellIs, vcneralion of 1e ('ro or
in1ns, and Ihey did nol cknowledgl
Ihe power f the Poe After Ih
Pope had ,ronouncc.:d an 7nOlhemo
thl n, Ih. Alhigcn p
Iheir own Chlll h lannr, I; 11
mdcpt ldt:nl or the Rom n ( Ih u
(hUi 'h Pope "lnoc nl I, un_ le
a nlSaJe e '\ s n
1 m whic't .. ne I " _.r I 1<11
c::: ... Cilt The A , hitd n
supprt;... d me," lor III y th ....
f'lld the Jlh ccntUlY,
ALCHEMY sc fit: tf. id
In the 11 v If 1t (If ml tlV I:
mcrg'd n E v in It: \rd
... nt .lry A >. H \Va' VI I J H d
p'. ')' Ih ... Aral and 1- 11
Jiarv.t1 E lrImc it 0 h.Jvc ]I
;;trcmcly W ollowlRJ!: T lC ,Ill
amou_ he khe Wl'
A/bettus Mo' lI'f, \r old V lIa
nm" lOd R, "(', Ronlfl rhe ulti
nale aIm 111 ll .. hemll nve tig1.
tlons w 0 ,-)lalR e O'\Ophl'
car ,tunc, th II WI uld 11 jlv-.c
Cln. ble t"ll' ml tal
mto g d n liver un; 111 Ji
C '" pn .....ldl lC cv , crn II
vollh n.l .): nn lifl ,"dcfinlle
In Ihl 'our (' of ruil! !'i.t-ll hl1 g
k . c II
c di' 'OV rc m;)ny valu 11,1
!:he 11lC 11 !'ouhslancc Ir... 11 du It: JI
pn .. nY(1tl'd p' ccs If
l1ic 11 ar, r:, Je b- I.l
many hcmlol rtalliort.\ In.;;; r, )-
" cI"h rale J vanllu ",c:lhu(Js
for chc:mi-3l rescare 1 and 50 on.
Al EKS: Strwei. I "T,
IfJ7(}), p lriun.: of MG 'ow n <\11
Rw a II wa horn n
-ow, duc )11 J Ih cow
Lv .. .1m and len gl ClUJld It 1\V
!I Vj()s,. w l R\V v itnll aler ill
t",c "'10 N r 1C O/.'I al ad, mv,
l c w c" C J h, n II
and W,l' M4 'rnp ,:1 Lenlr. . ..:
and (1\ H.)'" 19.:'1 I
All I ;: W 'c! \.I Pal Irch l-" Ih
lin I flh R" (rlh
:ll ( 1Ir. h n Vj, 101 to 190:;
ilmJ I: Ide _ In ()rth Jux
(llUI h f IW! r; e v ,
, E"- ,H, _ of Ih 1;:
'HI 0, oc (,',','-' ..., I:
en P- llurv In
... pa ,. tv" tan MI
c N (Ir t rh- it (] r lIUrv
(Ii B'H Ihlt Ih
() Jl... II: 111m I ... h of
Ih( Pc ::1 rth jm: \.1: 1_
{.urn .. .. rI, J wh II I e
un I thl It"l f thl ( 'lur h
oft r. n n Jndvi. ,cJd
c..f 1C f " '1m I u 1,,2 re g,
(f f ne I, n K nand >mlln
Don L h, tl h allatn d hi m ,I,
I JI lV, "\1, k!:1 slrn d In 11 th
p 1111 11 h' prine dnm
l' c ,:en I 1, or Ih
n c f thl R Y In nd up'
r
{ )m!n L ,'ko'l II hI,:
l, lin : .. r' Int of T
11 d Su, 11 "II "V uvg rl 1. ill
upp J 11\.. c/,Im' of Ih II
';.1n1 In I Nh \\ ;; n J"
tl cl up Cpll II n Jropoli 'tn M:
n KIev
12
NEVSKY I./l,VRA
ALI IKN_A81_TAUB (t'aUph Ali)
the fourth Calipll of the Arab Cali:
phatc ({)6-661 A.D.), one of the
early of Islam. He killed
by of the Kharijite In
accordance with tradition
he revercd the and
of the Prophet Mo-
hammed. The declared him
to be the first Imal1l. Caliph Ali is
venerated a!'. a God by tbe Ismailis
and theA/i-J1aJiy sect.
ALI-ILAHY (AIi-deifiers), a Mos-
lem Shi'ite sect, whose rollowers call
themselves "ahl-i haqq" Men or
Truth. The sect came into being in
the 15th century in Western Iran and
Eastern Turkey. Now its adherents
are to be r(lund in Arghanistan, Iran,
Turkey, Iraq, Syria and the southern
part of the Al.erbaijan Republic of
the USSR. They helieve that Ali is
evcrlasting and inseparable from
God and also in Ali's incarnation in
the prophets from Adam to
Mohammed, in the saints and the
Shi'ite imams, and in the malldi to
come. They deny the existence of
and IIel/. The Ali-llahy be-
lieve in the reincarnation of the soul
(me/cmpsycllOsis). They enact riles
similar to the "loud dlliki" of der-
\'isltcs. The character or tbe
!>eet is conspiratorial and secretive_
ALLAH from Arabic "a1" ""
"ilah" (God) - the name for
the Moslem
lam, God
+
""'y, must Allah, ,!he
KDnIII it is clearly stated that picll'
with rcspcd to God meaDS
dkKC. I&lam provided the idcfktI'
OIl
'I .,- .
C',HClroa or soao 00*+
ALTAR __ _ ____________ ______________
omic that were at work in
the Arab world in the rcriod of tran-
from primitive eummunal so-
ciety tn cia\. ... society. Prior to the
emerp.cncc of h.lam Ihc Aram lived
in seJlaratc tribes. each of which had
its nwn god. When Jlrimilivc society
hrnke down and clas.'" society took
share, the idea of a single gnd
emerged. which in it!i turn paved the
way for the unificati(lR of the diver<;e
tribes in a single state. Allah was
Jlroclaimed the one and only (,od:
he had heen the (jod of the Ouray-
shilc trihe, which had played a major
part in the emergence of Arah !itatc-
hood. In the name of Allah the Mos-
lem religion made sacrosanct the
structure of society on the ex-
ploitation of man by man.
ALLELUIA (Hebrew "Praise the
Lord"). This word is used in Chris-
tian services a refrain in hymn-
singing and addressed to all hypo-
s/a.ffS of the dh.;ne Tri,,;t\I. In Judais-
tic worship Alleluia is an excla-
mation glorifying God.
ALLEN, Ethan (1738-1789), hero uf
the American War of Indcpcndcm:e
and author of the first anti-religious
pamJlhlet in America entitled: "Rea-
son, the Only Orade of Man; Or a
Comrendious System of Natural
Religion" (17S4) in which he denied
the divinity of the authen-
ticity of the Bib/e, rejected the mir-
acles and the f"e\'C/olioll. which he
countered with the laws of Nature
and rational knowledge.
ALL-UNION COUNCIL OF EVAN
GELICAL CHRISTIANS - BAP
the spiritual and organil.a-
tional centre of the Union of E\-an-
gelical that is
elected by a Congress: it is based in
Moscow and supcmscs the work III
the and the pre\-
byters. who arc elected hy
the faithful In the RCJluhlics., at.lmin
istrative and regions Ilf the
USSR. It train<; !itaff using external
cour'iCS in Bihlc studic .. 19(8)
and hac; ils own periudical. the jour-
nal "Bralsky Vestnik" (Fraternal
Messenger) which out once
every two months; it aiM! publishes
the Bible, of con-
cordances and calendars In Russian,
German, Latvian, E<;tonian, Georgi-
an and other languages and it main-
tains contacts with foreign religious
organizations. Delegates of the AII-
Union Council represent the Baptist
faithful of the USSR in international
religious organi7.ations and, together
with other Churches., they support
the peace movement. The AII-Unioa.
Council maintains links with the S&-
viet state that could be termed loyal
and it observes the stipulations laid
down in the legislation concerning
religious wor!ihip. It campaigns
againc;t the organilalton becoming
isolated, and warn!i the faithful
against the danger of "degenerating"
into an exclu.<;ive sect, separating it-
self oIT from all uther Christian
movements. An imrortant feature of
the activity of the All-Union Council
of Evangelical Baptists
is its drive to ensure the unity of the
organil.ation, and to overcome fric-
tion between former Baptis/s and
former members of the Evangelical
Church on the one hand and be-
tween the BaJ'lli.c;ts and the Pen/ecos-
,als on the other.
ALTAR. In the Ancient World this
was the name given to the sacrificial
table erected in "holy places". For
the early Christians it was a table oa
which the Eucharist was prepared
14 >\:\M.I RIC IT TliSA

and admi.ni!>tercd. In Chri!>t!an chur-
il is the part of the churlh in
which the c1crgy and t-oc-
hind which, in Roman Catholic and
some Protestant churches, a reredos
(decorative waU or screen) is found.
In Orthodox churches, the altar is al
ways placed against the eastern wall
of a church, and from the 15th cen-
tury onwards. it has !""ICen separated
from the rest of the building by ico-
nO-flasis
AMAI.RIC nt BENA, Fe. Amaury;
known as Amalric of
Chartres (d. 12(7), the philosopher
who in,>pired the heretical mo\!l,.;
ment of the Amalricians; a free-Ihin-
ker who laught philosophy and theo-
logy at the University of. Paris_
Amalric's ideas arc extant In the
works of orthodox Roman Catholic
theologians who tried to refute hIS
teaching.. Amalric wat. a pan1bl'j:;t,
maiDlaiojns 'hal c,pry1
b
inBi in Ihe
worl4..... was one
1
since
exists is God_ The
as a part of God. Departing from the
Christian idea to the effect that all
men are equal in sin. Amalric con-
sidercd all men [0 be equal, since
they had been created in the likenc'SS
of God. He saw the spirit of God to
be prescnt in those who possessed
. Ignorance he saw as
cultivation as Paradise and
not believe in life hcyond the
Amalric's here.::.y was con
by the Roman Catholic
1210 and in 121S thl Pope
. oncc and fOT
foUowers of the
01 Amalric of Beno, who
to form a separate
_ or the 12th and he
6re 131h centwy_ The
-
Amalriciaos prote!.ted a(!:ainc;t !'>oetal
inequality and feudal Ideology as
n:prcscnled hy Roman ("utllolicism.
Thl")' rejcl"Ied the Church and the
clergy. (he Pope, whom they termed
the "Antichrist", Christian rituals
and sacrmnclliJ. The Amalricians
that. since they were part
of <iod, they were immortal and
thC'rl'in lay the mr-lical character of
their pantluhm. The Amalrieian!i re
jerted asceticism and propagated
man's right to satisfy his desires. The
leaders of the movement (including
six from the University of
Paris) were publiciy hurned by order
(lfthe Churd in 210.
AMATERASL (the literal meaning
of the Japanese name is "she who il-
luminates he sky"), sun godde.'"
cent-II div nity of Ac-
wrding 0 cgend, heT parents, Ito-
nag; and Izanami, the firsl gods who
were specifically male or female,
created in the I'm island and
gcm.:nted a numhcr f elemental
md gods, including
Amatl lSU.
AM80 or AMRON, a raised, usually
platform in Ihe
0: a church, from which the
tures could be read and other parts
of the liturgy conducted.
AMRROSIA, in Greek mythology
the lood .""tf the gods said to be (hc
source of thel! eternal youth and lDl-

AME"I (Irl',m The Hebrew word
mr.tRing vcTily". via Greek
Late Latin). a word used by ChrIS-
tians to cI1ndude ;). prayt"r or
mon, religious texts (Gospels. EpI-
de.), that had been adopted
from the services of the JcW'S. MOS-
J I"
Icm .. 'lY Ame"1 afler reeiling
the uslchat:erufth",A.oran.
AMt:Nllonp IV .-\kMnatnn),
phar doh of Anc .!"1t Egvrt of th
Eighteenth Oyna")" wh ruled nth'
14th cenlury B.C. In n etfort to
hreak lhe pc.lW(: of th" pru j
and the .;: pal memial u: tocrae:y
linked with tht" cult of mm(1n Re
and lota! cult Amcnh ep Iv
banned the t.:ult of ..... mn on ,,;nnfL
c Ilcd the land, "M l('"oglO1. 0 the
Thl ban temples lOd introduc d a
new )I"cial t.:u!: I( the 'lnc g j,
4totl. Our"Tlr; Amenh P s ci -: 1
new C (lltal W3!'. built, Akh "1
(now knl wn 1S Tell cI 'Amal na)
whilt the phal JOh 1-,im II k a
new lame Akhcn.aton (D! L'i )
Aton Y t the firSI ClUCl7.
I
n hi
tl ry to introduce \\01 :p .a '
0 prl \'C J"v_:! M,
til' rm nC"- evol\"f' r JI I rum
thl.; _ "131 shu ture ""f Ar:... : E
and there ha_ be.::"] r: ac!_=IL.
grLunds for It nIT' "Ut hOI th
liml After Amenhl P s th th
priesthood and lht Dobility reverted
teo e'lT ier t.:ull!
AMIDA WOKSIIIP OR Pl. E
l,"ND Bl ;:'"101- SM. o-.! of th
forms . Ja .....'lDe 8e ':film,.. ...
had gn ..... 1 up n 'c 1 1 ntUI)'
fhl laml \...1n be trace", Ck II I.. n'o!
of 1e rr.'m g In Jar"llc"
pant " n "-nu it lu hl (c rn..:
tl .:.c '\an':'1 I :lblul.
m. 111 .fth P J";i;jJ Pt" l
m v.!tu h .Jwcllth." Q:. .=:." In
rljl.tt lUS mcn d" . \ bor.l. Th mmn
{or s:..t 1 r .. I'[ -nling rhi"
m of Buc.Jdhi',m J.tC J.odo
Imd ) and loon ')hin,hu \ True
Pllre L n I ). Th,: C.lnnnl<"aJ dil-
fcrencc.. t'I lween (h( m .Ire not
gJ, .Jt. Tht maID re3\, 'il fl't the 'mn
-
t..:::n, t Amlda BuddhIsm I;C
nl e J to move aw v rum h l:om
plcXl1 and anstor n tur_ )f
prmnu nh liS n J II sc rc 1 for
thl nrm<." th.! wn\'ld
acre ihh or the pca:"ant rna s.
The philosophlol 50ubtle 5
ri oc tic c .... . L.arly Bud
.1 m were 50Up de J. n ",mid.
Bucchl""fl" y "e ,ult I a nil
"-mid. nuddh , bv del. il J lUI
I JI pit1Urcs of pand; "Iell nd
hy il ir.:;.'c pIth (l !oar '.
\\ 11 lnly rc:i or ilyn': , :-:
c re alth n-4 y :!Rtiy
rcl_l I Jd ()I 11 C t
phr f'fl' Jl: "mid 6"mld
.. ttl :-:lpte J ) a,. w th
gll h.. -: :to ":I of'le' JI rl
pI and Ih I v. n r r
Ihl I [; first
t N .;'tr: v
-I\\IIT\BHA .. knl ....or'"
m,
, , h'
e
-
or, -e B .'1 .Sll1th

"-
"

,
.n. J .. r.j t
Ih
r of Suk 1.;.1', fi
,.
'v TCillun .,
tl_ II 1 ,
"I
bill :II'I.dto
li[,
.\l\.IJ\10N e Ih Ii!:!' )1
An( II nL E ,I Rltl,lIv was the
I 0... ..... .. ratc . in he own ,
x:. l!. th f .Iof 'le '.rv..:,t. In
Im'h "C "fItn.-!nf\\,'r.
llpp.. \\llh th, un i..,i J Re and
I]ml: l he .,lth d \mml'n-Rc. thU50
pnmirl.ll god llf
<\:HKnt E:-:vp! Thl the
['I.}( . .d In ,.;nlralintinn or
rand Ih ,I:Ie r .lrength of
the PbJ.f.loh ...
AMlLET, lin to whi,h is al
Iribulld \upcmalur,J1 magical
pt'wcr. the (0 prOlecl its
,.
ANAIIA'"Il"iTS
owner rrum mid'orlunc. diu'A!'.(' and
ocher Reid in amulcl!>,
Iha. can he traced hac.:k In rrimilivc
/rlim;$m aJMJ mallic. is Alill In he
found in rrc5Cnt-day rdisinns
('mrsl''', amal h. ,,,Ii,,o
manl and amall icon!; amunR ('hrill'
(illna) and in so-called every-day
luporalittoftl.
ANABAPIISTS. followers nr It
movement lhal came inlo hcing in
Ihe IMh century in Switl.crland and
(terman), in Ihe courle or the R,,-
Jomtllliotl. They were united in
their to the reudal order
of 1OClOIy. They demanded that
IIIIDbon or the movement undergo
75 CMd IJaptUm after reaching
"'urky, ill order to found a (rcc
a. .. dt .... lch did not accept lolale
inlerwndolll in its afT.if5. The lirst
.ucla Baptilm of adulls took place
ZDric:h in IS2S. The Anabaplisls
..... Dlth other "brulhcn;" and
in kcepi"3 with Ihe spirit
oarIy Christian communiliel'l.
.. the church hierarchy, Ihe
dedarod themselYeIl 10
or> of ,he HporoIiOft
lAd of relqpous
. The)' rc
uthe
cIorivi",
for their
thl' whil'h laid the
fuundatiuns fur thl' "ppeaJllnce nf a
numht'C of sects Ihe
Mt'n"onitt'.r. IInrfmanill":<i (or Mel.
chinrih.'s) and thl' lIulIcrilc5. Al
thl' prer-cnt lime nvcr III,(.X) Hut-
(crill'S lIrc in ('aRad .. and Ihe
northern pltrl uf the linited Siaies
in sclf'('(lIIlainl't,I l'ommuniliC5. The
Mennonite)' arc In lx' found mainly
in the lJnitcd Stall's (approx.
and Canada (appro",
t25,nUn). There IIrc nearly Hkl,OCXl
Mcnnnnill's in European
l'nunlrit,s nnw. In these "free chur-
,hI."!!" thai up nn the basis of
Amlhartism many uf the original
rule! til' nmduci havc heeD re-
viewed and modified.
ANAU)(;Y nt' BEIN(;, the con-
cept ecnl,al to the melhndology of
nt'(1- n"Hn;.v'I. According 10 this
tClll'hing, the crucial feature deter
mining hc:tween ob-
jCl15 or phenomena (regardless of
their nature) u; their similarity
which allegedly subslanliates phil()Soo
ofhical cognillon of God.by
o analugie5. The chlboratlon of lhil
concept by Ruman Catholic idee>
IOBisls was designed 10 hclp diss0ci-
ate the Roman Calholic datil.
from pantheum and negative tboo--
101)'. Ihat denies thc plSUb!lity or
undcrotandins tt
ANC, SJ"()R we IR.'\IIIP
"

ANATIlt:MA (from Ihe (ired word
nll';lning "IIA "("lined thing"), in
('lrnlIlUfI;/\'. the cur!'le
of ,'\C"",mlllllfat;on. regarded u Ihe
ullimalc puni!'.hmenl. II wa.'I. in-
"lilliit'll ill I he ('llum:il of ('halcedon
(4'i1 A.D.), Ihe f"nurlh
(/lwu"iI. Anathema was nhen ur.cd
hv ('hurt:hl's uf varinus denomina-
10 st.-rvc pnlilical ends, a5 a tonI
of rdi,.:inus lerror in the fight agaiR5l
progressive movements.
ANAXA(;OKAS (c. B.c.),
(ired philusnphcr. He was driven
nul of Athens for questioning the e5-
lahlishcd doltmas of religion. He de-
clared thillthe celestial bodies, which
hOld rormerly heen recognized as di-
vine hcings, were material ma5VS
thai had formed withoutlhe ....
linn (If supernatural forces. Along
with and lhe
(sec Alootfsm) he
Icaehing of nalural
efred thai aU
"sceds",lhat is,
particles
ANAXIMANDER
Greek materialist
wu the first 10 come
'he 01 ".rkhe
v;ne forces. and penpIe" in Iiteir I
had evolved froin ( ......... " .Q
Ihey found lhemsetvea Ibadd ..
df)' land, had .... pted ,100 _ ..
and the functions of t ... __
10 suillbe new CIIYU'OIIaII::&
ANAXIMINI8 (e
( matenalilt
"
ANCIP:-"i CBlNI\. RI ':I.1(i10N 01'
.-
pies of this arc provided hy the fu-
sion of felL<;hism and ancestor WI'T-
ship in Tropical Africa); (4) w(lfship
of a guardian spirit of a dcccasl'd
member of a family or clan. Particu-
larly important in ancestor worship
is the idea tbat spirits of ance.. ...tors
remain members of the clan or fam
ily. hut arc more powerful than ordi-
nary people, and that the welfare of
the clan depends on them. This idea
provides the basis for the evolution
of the figure of a venerated tribal
leader into a trihal god. As social
differentiation takes place differen-
tiation of ancestors according to
their status within the social hier
archy also occurs, as a result of
which tribal and clan leaders take
priority. On the basis of ancestor
wOH.hip there later grew up tbe hero
worship characteristic of the reli-
gions of Ancient Greece and
Ancient Rome, and later the wor
sbip of li3.ints in Christianity and
IslllT11.
ANCIENT CHINA, RELIGION Qt.
Religion 0/ Ancient China.
ANCIENT EGYPT, RELIGION OF
See Religion 0/ Ancient Egypt.
ANCIENT GERMANIC PEOPLES,
RELIGION 010" THE. Sec Religion
0/ the Ancient Germanic Pe?ples.
ANCIENT (;REEC E RELIGION
0.'. See Religion of Anc ent Greece.
ANCIENT INDIA, REJ.lGION OF.
See R,Iq;on oj Anc'enl India.
ANCIENT IRAN, RELll.ION OF.
See Rel;gjon of Anc.enl Iron.
ANCIENT ROME, RELIGION Qt.
See ReligllNi of Ancient Rome.
ANCIENT SlAVS, REI.I(;ION m
See Rrligion o/-tncient SlaV!.
AN(;EL". (irel'k Latin
"angelus" meaning '"me'tc;enger"),
according In Christian and
belief!> spiritual, supernatu-
ral created by G(xi, who pos
scsscd rree will and announced the
'will of God" to men. According to
the "ccieMial hierarchy" accepted by
Christians, angels arc divided by
rank into nine choirs constituting
three hierarchies: (1) Seraphim,
Cherubim, and Thrones; (2) Domi
nalions, Virtues, and Powers; (3)
Principalities, Archangels. and
Angels. Reverence of the is a
vestige of earlier veneration of
spirits and one of the legacies c!
polytheism in monotheistic religions.-
ANGLICAN CHURCH, the slate
church in England. It C.lIDC into
being during the Rqormotion in the
1(Jlh century. The Anglican Church
embraces both the Roman Catholic
dogma uf the redeeming pow r l..
the Church and tbe Protestant
teaching of through JX:r.
sonal faith. In its liturgy and orgamz-
atiunal principles the Anglican
Church is nearer to the Roman
Catholic Church than the other
Protestant Churches. The outward
ituals of Romon Catholicism under-
went hardly any reforms in the Ang-
lican Church. It has ",Iso retained
'licroTCllv reminiscent of the Roman
(atholic hierarchy. The head of the
Anglican Chun:h is the King. who
Clppoints the hi.c;hops. The Primlte of
the Anglican Church is the Are
B

:r.hop of Canterbury. Three mO\'Q
mente; are to be found within tht
Anglican Church: High ChurcD, tht
c.oscst to Roman Catholicism; LoW
("hurch, dose to puritanism 81IdpiC'
ANiMISM

iml; Broad Church. the main trend
within the Anglican ('hurch, which
seeks to unite all Chri. ...tian
ments. also formally sep-
arate Anglican Churches in Scot
land (Episcopal Church of Scot
land), Wales, Ireland and the United
States (Protestant Episcopal Church
in the USA), Canada, Au.'1lralia etc.
After 1867, thc Anglkan
while pre.'1erving their inde
pendencc, came together in the
Anglican Communion. The fune
tions of a con!\ultative hody for this
organi/.ation arc carried out by the
so-called Lambeth COIl/erellce.f Th(
Anglican Churches play an active
par' in the Ot'CUmrnicfJl movem",!.
ANe,UJ..CATHOLICISM, .a n_\'e'
ment within Ihe Anglican (hUTCh
whie 1 was., n the 1840s, initiated hv
a 9;1 JUp of Oxk-d theolngians wb ...
the Rom n (athnli'
ebuacter 01 Anglkanrsm an
c lIed the closest p s.sibh ... links w th
Rome. of this movement
in E tgJanc' formed an indepcnden"
grlJUp witbm the Anglican Church.
whicl:J was te. become its nr c ....o
serv tive Wing. r lev have tbClr own
newsp PC"" lnd jour ,als and con
VI,.;. e st.)arale C lie ... lCCS.
Catholics u: :crwte d namlv
.. t the E l1Ji,h aw ocracy.
Anglo-CatholiClsm al'lo has adb-'
en's n the Jnilr,d State'S. At the
Jresenl time o\nJ,t.l CathOlIC ad\
cate doser .elations bc'Ween all
Chnstlan cburc"'cs.
4NGRA MAINl'\..., n Zon lSInUn
1Sn; pcrwmflotlon "Evil. the
de-'/ or ... lnt ')1 legation, the Flth-"
of falsebood,nJushc I' wte ne
and death. Angra Mamyu
:>osite of thUf'Q Ma.r1a. (hl Jil 'v
!.pu'1. Both are born or boundlt
time, howl.vcr while A.hura M; -da IS
eternal, Angra Mainyu
or becomes powerk.'IS. for it al
v.:ays .the pr-"ncipk )f good that L\
VIctOriOUS.
ANIMALS, WOR.')ItIP OF ....
Zoolatry.
ANIMATISM, Ihe nolion "n IJ)-
jlCrsgnal force witbin..Na-
ture, which the laller life and
r 'apes the of men. Animal
ism is a typical fealure of carly (orms
01 religion. With this notion of a
non'pcrsonali,:cd, supcrnaluill
force werc linke':! aU kinds of
sux,ss u( cess rn the hunt, SUl,;
ccs.<; n (as, f, exampll.>, in
the c rc or . Ie Eskimos), S\JC in
battle f \, fr .. cxampl w.th L e Red
nail nr and so L'T1. F-e.oilitv c-f live
ilnd the v Id of frutt and ....
e!1 WI held'to x=ndonthisim.
pc 1'1.. 1 -rI,X \nimati"1l prob Jbly
rer"esen" ")e of e firrt lucmpt
tn n rpre th world a! single
whol It I tl he fou-::: m ' Jvcrse
gu: i :n; nv
ANL\1ISM. 1> .1: rn souls and
pil tr, J1 essential e en .. 1 m al-;
reJlgton. Animistic 1m. are
Spll tr of !.Ieee ne ..... ors, c
souls 11 IlVJng p"oplc the. :>cr
'Somliellion of he oree ( ,,' rc
r 1e spil 5 from "';ture s
par' _ larly and varie-J.
T lC ... rrts of the elem:"lt! ould IlC
hc"lc'Volent, or, on the other
thcy c lid thrcaten the well hcrng
of 'Dank nd. Tllis why small ncTi
fic:s we -.: offcred to tbem, whcn ..
was dCf;. ned necessary. A" bcli.;! in
spir'ts and souls developed there
c'n"'"gCd gcnenlized concepts for
the designation of the SUPCi ualur.tl
properties aunDut:d to .hmg5 (or
A;';i'>lATES
people), such mana, grac.l' .(in
Christianity). Elemcnts of
arc still to be found in the world
religions of today.
ANNATES, in Europe from
the mid-13th century
revenue was paid to the
Papal Cllria. It of the
year's revenue of an ecclesiastical
benefice (hence the name of thc!lc
dues). In some countries, for
example. in Italy. these dues are col-
lected to this day.
ANNUNCIATION, Christian
val, which in the Orthodox Church is
celebrated as one of the Tweh'e
Great Feasts. It celebrated on
March 25 (April 7). It is on
the Biblical legend to the eITect that
the Archangel Gabriel "announced"
to the Virgin Mary the good tidings
that she would bring forth the Son of
God. Regarding this event as one
that was most important in the ac-
complishment of the plan for man-
kind's sah'ation, Orthodox theologi-
ans stress that this day marked the
nn;";n of God's mystical commu
Man. Hence the special
of this festival for the
The celebration of the An-
was established in the
Church as early as the 4th
once the Notil'iry of Christ
to be celebrated as a
feu! . The date of the Annun-
established by counting
mouths from Christmas.
the Annunciation coin-
die sowing. The
to link
work of peas-
lauer
ant to pray on the day of the Annun
ciation.
"ANOINn:o ONE", a person who
has heen anointed \ ... ith uncti(m. In
JlUlui.ml and Christiallity the word
used to denote prophets, high
priests and monarch .... who through
this rite have had their power he
slOwed on them allegedly by God
himself. In the New Testament
is also referred to as the "anointed
one" (Hebrew "Mcssiah").
ANONYMOUS ATHEISTIC
TRA<"IS. of the 17th and
18th centuries which were propa-
gated through Western Europe and
which contained what for those
times was very radical criticism of
religion and the Church. The an-
onymity of these tracts
tated hy the of
to whieh their authors wou d bC suh-
jeC!. Many atheistic works by Pierre
Barle, Voltaire, Didl'rot and others,
were also published anonymously.
but the term "anonymous atheistic
tracts" is used TOr
whose authorship has still not been
established. The most of
these tracts was that entitled "Leg-
end of the Three Deceivers"; the
date of ils composition and its auth-
are still the subject of con-
troversy. In it the founders. of
Judaism, and /slanl, I.e.
Moses, Cilrist and -Mohammed are
all referred to as and the
success of these is
counted f(u by rcferem:e to s
gullibility. The tract also
ideas regarding the impos."ih,hty of
proving the e:tistence of God. the fu
tilily of worship, the human
ship or Holy Scriptures. yet. It doc.s
not provide any common phdOSOphl-
cal basis for ideas. Otber
l\"iIlIROP()j J)(iY
"
ANTIIROPOCENTRISM Ii r("lig'
juus. view of Manl.S Ihe
and (I Ihe
l Anthn)p<..xxntri ... m a<p-;rt.s
there in the world c::)Jo.;e
lIve aim .. and_xpcdil'n
n.:s and 10 Ihis re ...peel it has mu\;h
in common with I{{W/Otr."- The ,Jilt
mate devclopmenl of anthrronoccn
Irio;.m found in JulialIm, ' Chm
(iallil)' and Islam. Natural as
hy Copemjrllf, (illlilw,
Darn'ill and Eim/rill. together wj!1\
philosophy Jc!\troyeJ an
Ihropoccntri .. m hy demonstrating
thai then; is supc:rnalural prin
ciple. in the wor'd lending it a pre
ordalDed purpcsL .. it ntilit
world outl('ok revcaL-d I.he Ci".rjee(i ...c
la\\>"<; of natural evolution. the ,mer
gcnce and development orMan "nJ
society. therehy The ,au
sally precondition,..d ure "f 'bn's
purp("l:ful acti ....ity "nd etplJ:S.ing the
of anthropocentri.: in,
annnymnU$ athei ...tk. tratH, ('n the
(lther hand. such 3," "The ... nf
Christian ... or Ihe SCtlUrgc of Faith"
(La Beatitude des Chrclien$ ou Ie
Acau dc la Foi) or "'The Spirit of
SpinOla" (L'bprit de Mr. Renoit de
SpinoJ"a), draw for thl'ir ideas on the
materi.tIi. ... t philosophical ...y ... of
HobbeJ, Spillola and Lllcilio VOllilli
and the of the ah<wcnamed
tracts eon!\ists of a compilation of te
nels of those thinkers reproduced
word for word. These treatises were
permeated by a spirit of humanist ie,
anti-religious uften lak
ing the form of open athcism: the ar-
guments against all religions (no di<;-
tinetions arc drawn hetween Ihem by
the authors) go hanJ in
hand with hitter, oflen satirical criti
cism of theology. dogma, the <-nurc',
and The Rus.<;ian tract "Mir
ror of Godlessness". dating frrom the
second half of the 18th ,enturv. ,.an
also he numbered aml,ng' t he ,c
anonymous atheistic tra( From
the end (If the 17th cntul), )awards
they t-.ccame in Europe
and plaved their iXlrt In the cmer-
gencemd development of b,urgeoi'

ANSELM. St. (m:n1 :09), An;.'-
bi!\hop of (".lntel bury .,nd m("diaeval
theologian. He tiled 1.0
the main doctrines of
such a!\ the creation l)f Ihe world from
nothing. thc unity and. diversity of the
Trillitv, the immortalitv ,)1 the .,oul
ele. \\-ith rcference to 'the hinan:l.i:
cal struelure "I' the world. '-.1. A.nselm
s?ught h' suh<;,tantiatc his mOl'epl uf
(lod as pnfeclion. He ;tlsl"
attempted 1(1 pnwidl' ontolOJZ:ic,1i
of (;od's i.e. coneiu
SlOns to God's Teal existent:c
stemming from the l'oncept of God as
absolule pcrfcclinn.
.\NTHROPODlC\, the
of Man. The term U ld to denote the
thet1iogieal and Teligi,lu ......cum.phil
o!'iophicli pr0bkm 5tl.:mming from
lhe imp' .$.<:ihililY of the (;un-
:,r "Iielion the idea of a di
urdaineJ world, 'rdcr and the
.. \i"ltn ....e of evil, by al1rihuling ;\11 reo
for di,harmony to
Man, Plc"dic\' eannpt ,'nnee:11 its
,"lwn intrinsi-.: in .. and il
,'\f(Jlve.' to become anthn,podicy:
Man is ShO\\11 to he frce ,.,nly in the
a ... l of his ,hUlCe between
(;oud and Evil.
ANTIlROPOfiEIIIISIS, the process
of Man', and emergence
a SOl.:ial
.\NTHROPOLOG\', the theory of
the origin and evolution of Man. of
22
human race!"., based on the study of
the human body and the natural dif-
ferences between people. The natu-
ral science ()f anthropology t()CIk
shape as an independent discipline
in the 19th century. Frederick EnKCls
defined anthropology as a science
making possihle "the transition from
the morphology and physiology of
man and human races to history".
The findings of emhryology, com-
parative anatomy. paiacoanthropo
logy, geology of the Pleistocene
epoch, archaeology of the Palaeoli-
thic period, the physiology of the
nervous activity of men and
pnmates, the psychology of men and
animals., as interpreted by anthropo-
logists. all hear out the scientific,
materialist view of Man as a natural
and social being.
ANllIROPOU}GY, PHILOSO-
PHICAL, in the broad scnse-8
teaching aoout the nature (essence)
of Man, and, more specifically, a
trend in philosophy that emerged in
the 1920s and attempted to bring
together thc concrete scientific study
of Man (hiology, psychology, ethno-
graphy and sociology) with an un
derstanding of the essence Man
and on that basis to create a fun
damental philowphical scienct
ANTHROPOMORPHISM, the per-
sonification of natural phenomena,
religious and mythological concepts
and figures and the attribution 10
the latter of intrinsically human
cbaraderistics. Anthropomorphism
is an essential feature of religious
belies and mythology. In early reli
gions anthropomorphism is linked
with totnnism (Lbo anthropomor
JlA-jn,ion of totemie anc 101 ,),
MJIUTf (one of whose forms is
IaarIIafuI magic and the Dotion of
n;1 forces as.,uming anthrnfH.lmnr-
phic form), ZOfm1orplli-fm ((m
ex'lmplc. the idea (If men coming
back to life in the furm of animals
and ....icc versa), phytomorphism
(e.g, am(lRg the HereTO people in
Southwest Africa a nolilm of a
mvtholt'lical ancestor -- half tree
half man -- has Orcn transformed
into a notion of an anthropomor-
phic ancestor), thcriomorphism
(the belief, widespread in Tropical
Africa, to the effect tbat the souls
of dead ancestors arc to be found
in the form of li/ard!;, snake!;, frogs
etc. right up until the time when
they arc reincarnated as human
being..,), oflirni,ml. J1Iamoflism, bu-
rial riles. In mythology there are
many examples of the pcr$(,lOifica
tion of natural phenomena (for
example, that of the Sun - usuaUy
a!; a woman, and the Moon
usually as a man). Anthropomorph.
ism pnMded the basis for concepts
of trillal gods in the religions
l:3r1y dal;.<,;ba.,ed societies. Anthr(,
pctmorphism found particularly
vivid exprcs<..ion in the rr/igion of
Alldenf Grr,ce, The gods of Olym-
were perfect physical speci-
mens possessed of all the inlrinsi-
cally human capacities for thoughts
and fccling. ... AnthTOfH.lmorphism is
a typical feature of such world reli
gimls as Christiaflity and Buddhism
where anthroponlOrphic repre
"ntatinns of Clod!; in sculpture and
pamting are widespread.
ANTHROPOPATHY, 'le .uributio
n
o! human thoughts and feelings :,0
JlOlmals, plant!) and other natural
phenomena. The term was first in
troduced in the lale 19th cenlury.
however it is rarely in scientific
1iteralurC!. More is tbe term
cmrhropomorphism that is closely rc-
AN lnrRlCAIJ<"M
-
-
-
lat"d tn it in meaning. Anthrop<,.
pathv is aho used in conjunclion
with such conccpt5 as pt!lloni!ication
or aflimi.fm.
ANTHROPOS()PIIY. a mystic:tl
teaching hased on the that
Man, hy developing the latc,t
pos, .. ii1ilillcs concealed within him,
may achieve p<lwer over NatUi
This is accomplished via mastery of
the method!'> for the development of
the special organ!'> dormant wilhin
Man, capahle of supcrsensolY pc r
ception, and imitation of the "ca
chers of mankind" -Buddha, Zara
tlllulro, Plolo and Christ rc
incarnations of the :sur:cmr,; SplT
l
'
Anthroposophy ook shape 31 'le
beginning of the 21th entury on
the ba .. is of theosophy. Its founder
W;tS Rudolf Steiner (1861197.'))
who kd Iht;; A"lthropo!;ophical So-
CIC y which h 1, d f4 undcd. 0
pite Ihn fact thai lOe lOti-scientific
char c er of ani 11 )po!>OPh) has
been expose_ '!l ,than one oc
\:.lsion, Ihe t 3C 1inr ill has '! fe,
lowe"s tl day. rlC nle national
cen!,.e f4 r 'Inthwp phy w 11.:L ti
s tod: v in Dornal:!'; \wil7f
lana) ,,:rive1.,. pn pa[:ates Ih
n
nvsh
cal delS of 11 ea4'hing. Thl rc
aWl ken inlt.. i,;st shown n anthrop--
s,i)ph) stems from th4 :rf nc 11
spiritual IS lffiicling th' WOE":
and the dimini! 'ting luth it)' ot
traditional re\;j';i('-"'!.
AN"fllIlRIST, III 1
Christian b_ icf h don thl;
lion J. 1m tilt' DiVine thr ant
p.om' of (1Irisl whr wou d lppcal
fo. th final stru 1\ l) ainst le
(hristi. n ( hUR 1 '-x-fure (ne e d o)
Wl rid lOd thl Sec 1d ( minI> :
(hm he >\'ould tlC u. IV 'i- de
feated by (1:11 st ,Dd kstrovca _or
ever. The legend of the Anti<;'1rst
W,lS u!-cd lJy he t 10 fan fC"!&.-
IOU... fan;ltici<;m amon.s th" rna' es
anti to intimltlaii.:----'"ffil m. 'Tnc cge
wa<. cultivatt.:d wil!; rtie Jlar n
I husiasm during I':f::' "lUC wars Ina
(,lnCr natural and SOCial cata
siruphf's. The clergy lsuaUy rerl rre:l
h:.. Indi', duah. who le Je4:!
1
0
c.,mpromi ,,:d in the eve I thl
\:Jithful as Anti(:hri P. )Ic ant
Illinkers useJ t. n,rer tf" lC Pop_
in this way and Ie Old 84fi \'(,,'l" 10
Ru ,ia u cd the h:. n 0 :.nate
p, tn' rc 1 'II 'Iron.
ANTICl ERI( A!. ISM a v II n
VIC' n ,. 1 a SOt.: al mov\:mcr.:
dire 1c:1 ga\O' (he . t "'lSI! 10' of
('''Ie (lUi h 0 a dominant role n
poli I, c 10mlC and cultural hie
(I.. 10 ant ,II TU'al had rn
1 e d ,y the ,bilosoph
th IC .... : World. n medial v I
I rope ntic e llism had be!.:n a
or;-;t J.rl.!"'glt ar; i:: ' thl ide a
oncerr:'- , pre -'n nc of
",. 1.lp wer)\_ tlmr ' I pow f
pTi 1.,. ... (hurc1. <\ ltl'
\ m wac t.. ---n an ,.
liar p3rt I.r V v an al'ltl'
feudal 1',lU-:,_ re olutior. ThiS
found e:'tp,., !'sion in thl c tic ,m bv
h\: think of thc newly l'mcrgl nt
, lUl;e su of rhe {'hurch's noliey
lnd n th< dopl il.n hy s
1m "lts of aws providing for
t"_ 'omptc rli:11 alit'nat" "l of
th (hurch's po sc ion.c;, prima,;!
lande ... property, for the !"E
r

at:. 1 0/ 'hur. h "1n1 State Anile 11
Ii ja] is n(lVl'"nl nt
h.:.: IS nt_ .. eral). , ..... "Te 1\. 1'13
1fC 'JI ,,,. no mtan!- horn(lf.,,;ne,1uS.
cprc - .. ting ditTvenl philo-
politic d and ;;OD
'" .:tior: arc taking par1 in the
c _ le!1 "(TUggle (I Jay. Many befit:

VCTS among the anticlcricalists sec
claicofism as no more than the
suit of the abuse of religion hy real'
tinnarics and they di<;,linguish nc-
tween clericalism and auri
hUling all that i.e; reactionary to
militant clericalism. while placing
religion outside criticism. Anticlcri
cal ism (If hclicvcrs is inc\itahly
limited. lirsl and foremost hecause it
is nol directed against the under-
lying principles of the exploiter so-
ciety thaI engenders clericalism. In
the modern capitalist world a certain
amount ('If work to expose clerical-
ism is tlcing carried (lut hya numher
of groups, organi7.3lions and assm:I'
alions thOlI arc continuing the alheis
tic traditions of the Enlightenment
and nrgani/ations that arc affiliated
tu the World Union oJ Freet/linker.;
and the /rllt'mational Huma/list alld
Ethical Ullion. Antic1cricalism only
assumed a trulv coherenl form aftcr
the emergence of Marx:i!'.m. It is pre
ciscly on a hasis of Marxism-Lenin
ism Ihat Communist and workers
parties arc evoh.ing a _,"cienlifically
suhstantialed programme for Ihe
again<'1 clericalism. Com
munist!. who dn nol sec dericalism
and religion il!'.clf as one and the
same thing. while at the same time
nllt Cflncealing Ihcir athl'islic C0\1(
lions. link Ihe question of !.UTmount
IDS the power of religion and elt.:n
calism wilh the cla<.s struggle rf the
working people, l'lat Is-aIL'-1 upon
10 eliminate all form! of op-
pre.\..t;ion .)1 Ih(" ma'iSes, of whi"h
clericalism is om.;
ANTIDORON (Greek "10 place of 1
C!l pieces of communi, '0 .rn\d
d oul fo Ihe congll:gahon at
of the Litufg)', 10 pbcl,.; "r tht;
the BIJy ,1Od
of Christ"'). Tbi ... practice was
intnlduu'd hy Ihe Western Church
in the 7th century and hy the
('hurch in Ihe l)jh C(nlury. In Ih\;.
ecnturics after the emcrgente
of nil tho"c presenl duro
ing the l-iturbry would lake of Ihe di.
vine gifts.
"ANTI-DfiIlRING". title hy which
Fn'drrick work "Herr Eugen
Diihring's Revolutillll in Science",
puhlished in 187H. was 10 go down
in history. In il critici/ed Ihc
pdly-hollrgcois cdedic of
the German phihlsclphcr Diihring.
hchlre on to providc a corn-
prehcnsive exposition of the threc
c"scntial components of
dialcctiml and hi.l'tori{al material-
i.5111. political economy and scien-
tific communism. Qucstions con-
cerncd with religion and
occupy an imp<lrt<tnt place in this
work. In it is In be found the
definili(1O of the c.s.<;enee of religi(ln:
All religion. howel-v, is nothing
hut the fanta:o.lic reflcction in men's
minds "f those eX\crnal
which eonlrol their daily life. a re-
flection in which the Icrre<,trial
forl'es assume the form of super-
natural forces" (Progress Puhlishcrs
edition, Moscow, 1975, p. 374). En-
gd' shed nn the sm:ial and
epistcmllingil.:al roots oJ religion.
\. 'iliti/c:d Duhring's idea to the:
fl'ct that it is c" .. cntial 10 ""111 (eli'
under socialism, h()ldin! tha'
thiS will ;1' 1 rtlilb1c. mcam, \.
h' plOp It IlI'hiL V "mal 'yrtJom
tnd
a prOlc'lll'ctl\..l!'.e or :ire rTtiiJ.. fl
l.761: I:: 11rels ,h Jemom': 'Jtcd Ih;,;
religton DC" J nol he ap,
VIlli die out nat Jr .Illy as
g'lln!. IOITca'lng CllOlnll (If ndural
dnJ !:''':'ial J'hc book al<;Q
C ,nllins 1n analv IS of (nriHltJnil
ll
a'i ,1 rdis'I'.Jn of laves lnd the up

":-.I"I HRI;-'; rIARlA:"'S
pre.s.o;cd. and examines
concepts of equality. mnr,llity and a
number of (lther is.sucs. EnRels
maintains thai only ..
materialist PTl)Vide the
foundalion fur a
tic view of the world and that any
other approach to the interpreta-
tion of Ihe world inevitahly involves
to idealist philosophy
and religion.
ANTIOCH IAN ORTHODOX
<:nURCH, one of the autoccphaloU!
Orthodox churches. In the l,rd cen
tury it Oceame an independcl1l mL
twpolitan sec embracing Ihl (hns-
lian communities of Arat-;a, Syri.,
Phoenicia. Cilieia and From
the middle of thc 5th ccntUly it has
been hcaded by a 1\, Ih-
preSt. 11 lime il embraces approXi'
mately one milli "':1 Orthodox helie
vcrs, living in Syria. Ihe Lchlnon and
numhf'-r of )Ih ountru s.
Palnarch's Tt.>IQenCl.; " .. n Oama.'iCilS
iyria). Three.; exafdlotes wm<..:
under its jurisdklion- tho<;t: 'Au-
tralia. Mexico and (hill - nd c !!oht
cen diocescs (in Syria. thl Let lOon.
Iraq, Turkey, the llniled Stale !I c.l
HI .7i1). This l"')urCI1
IS a membc oflhc ,vJrld <. 'JUnc'l of
Churches.
ANTIPOPE, 1 hr ,e.)1 1e ?Ian
(athol/c Chun'h u h' kc II"} la
he-n (J nv Ii' fir mti-
JlOpe wa"- 1ippo1)11.<o 'I"
-'\.C I and Ihl,.; l.' '" J. liv V
(IH91449\ anI;" 01 S WI,:.
dc, ncd by thl (UOIlt th
Kom; n \.. thOIlC lun'" 0 havL
lC 1 11 elc 'Id "nd Vi r"
11 .c,.l of Ihl II lioro ers. n C"JI 1
or fal f r" .' es ren JOe j
he'r =.1 llmsdV1 .... while :.1
)th se up thl:. r lWII C )url. .. and
functioned under the patronage cl
various royal houscs.
ANTITRINITARIANS, members of
various Christian scct!t which rl
jected the doctrine clIm;;-,ing the
triunity of God. Amilrinitanamsm
pp..;arcd in Ihc latt 2m] and early
hd centuries, when, ag. insl b- ck
ground of Mruggle l1clwccn vari
ous Irends anll se"I! the ba ... ic (lCM;:
trines of Chri.fliolliry were laking
::.hape. The tenets of Anlit, nilanan
Ism dill not coincide 1,\ilh Ihe
allv acecpted interprdatlon )f he
"'11 jnl'ipl of Christian doclrint;
h..:y ',mly acccpted (,od Ihe l'dher
3S an at-solute God. the
{. er m\.. n -'s of h divine Trinity
.k; 0 b fi es of dif
fr en' kinl1, sub Jinatc to God Ihe
F, ther, BiUer ...)'
th' soingle nal&; )f JL :lS
(.11n_U )r11l lns InstSte j on
divine nltW'1 1m. \.. C )[' his
human ,; lUI F the (flure,", hlS
W;]'- a qu 101 pnm. TV Import
ne': lnd for Ihl r .
of tt.- e 11" 'Inunlty werc suL.
e to 'ierec p : Anti
Oltanilm: :n cmc ..... c J g: In (lurtng
l,le of the RI (ormoflon in
Italy. V.1(- rl; nd, ",e rm ny nd
other ..:ountrll Ple An .. ni:.
lr,. l1dinr th :;,sch S;71 lflPlI I-
lion 10 R.om"" <. lt/IO/ici.fnl ' IIh. r-
,,:11 .n lnll ( lOll,:. Ie a rr'"
n .. rpre lion th 8ih'c
1e c)nc pt \. ori,; I(d Sin, \nd 1:1C
r kn plion 'm nklnd tw (flTL'1
WI.: OIlSC J Ii thl Chureo
h CT<J;I h'Y. m m ,tic m, and
S;tIO. r Ii J.'hlrgr lh(;
intt'" the \.. mmon pc,'pk, for
Ihl .. J )1 properlY,
Ihl arnllillon priv_1If o ....
ilnd .serfdom, s,"'mt limes c::\'en
so fal ,1."'. \lI reJe,:t stalL.: powc:r.
"'-___________ Sc.
-
ANTONY. SL, of the Caves of Kiev
(died 1073), ont' of the f<)Unders ('If
the Kicv-Pcchcry La\Ta (Monastery
(If the Caves). According to kgcnd.
he became a monk on Mount Athos
and then, after returning 10 Russia,
he llhtaincd permission from Izyas
lav, Prince of Kiev, to found a mon-
astery modelled on that on Mount
Athm .. He was later made a saint by
the Rus.c;ian Orthodox Church.
ANti or AN, one of the main gods in
Sumerian and Akkadian mythology.
Anu was the first among Gods, or
the "Father of the Gods", the erc-
of the sky.
ANUBIS, in the religio1l of AllCicnt
Egypt, the god in the form of a jackal
or a y,;ld dog (or tbat of a man with
the head of a jackal or dog). He was
regarded as the patron of the dead
who conducted the dead to judge-
ment and was accorded a promjnC'lt
role in funeral rites.
APHRODITE, in Greek mythology,
the goddess of love and femalr:
beauty. According to one legt""1d
Aphrodite wa.o<, the daughler of Zcm-
and an ocean nymph Dione, and IC
cording to another she first rosc
from the waves of the sea. Aphrodite
vcnerated as the goddess of fer
bc: <;towing ahundanec, eternal
and life to lhe earth, 'S
goddess of mountains md lC
and the goddess of marnages
births. Aphrodite's son, Eros,
ant companion.
tbe &hape 01 a t 'ull. w'lo
in Ancient Egypt In
",,""'Ilmonly held belief
cmbOO.ied thc snul "f
loa ... periods of his
.. fto'Craled as a gr(' at
N c\rcn thl' !'oup:"emc god. Vc!:.! gc
{)( to(cmitm 'Ire to he ohservcd in
the cull of Apis.
APOCAl,\'PSE (frum the (,rc,'k
meaning "revela.
tion"). See R('\'(.'lation of SI. John Ihe

APOCRYPHA. THE (from the
Greek word ".apokryphos" meaning
"()hscurc" or "hidden"), works of re-
ligious content, !:lut not acknow-
ledged hy the Church as sacred,
Snme of these Books are linked with
the Old Testament and others with
the New Tes(amefll. Most of the
from the fin.t group have
heen preserved in
m; inly Greek ones, and there arc
also some translations into
Ancient Armenian and Old
Slave DlC languages. The Apocrypb ..
Il."snclatcd wilh the Old Tcstament
inc lu('e lmong others, the Books c'
Mace Judith, Ecclc,o<,jasticus
(Suacl), tht; of Solomon,
, ohil Baruc'1 -y,.;lh the of
Jcrc-ny. c..:rtain p .. rts of the Book: of
E md the rest of Esther,
Among the DI ad Sea Scrolls \\tce
found fragment; .)f Books from the
Apocrypha hilherto unknown the
BO()k ()f Genesis and the B()ok of
Deuteronomy, The New Testament
A ,'V)Crypha include various gospels
!cc(\unts of , he Ads of thl,..
Apo! tics, epistles, apocalypses
( "elations) whieh had been written
before the New Testament had
declared sacred in lhe 4th centurY
'nd carl)' 5th century and whk h (be
\.. di.:! not include in ''' e
r anol. The word "apocrypha" was
first used in relation lo Ihe works of
vnl;:: part icular c roup of
the ,sties whu rei out keep

their te ,lching se,,'Tcl. Later Lhe lenD
- --
was 'lpplicd tn early ( lll'stian Yr.t
IDgs that were nf'l .ceepleJ a'i n
spircd Scripture ApocyPhal
Bunks with the "'lL'W Tes-
tament are divided inlo he fi
den" Books (withdrawn from usc)
and offu.:ially xrmittc,:l (al-
though not for during o<,eme:: ),
The first of "forhiddcn B(V)ks
was drawn up in the Bynmtine m
pire in the 51h century. Mer-t oftb(m
were known merely as title or be
cause of u<;cd in
works of Christian writers 10 le
2nd, or 4th centuries, that w", ::
direetcd again.;t the Apocryoha.
Fragments of some of Ihe Ap TY'
pha were found on scrolls In
EgvpI (thc and .he Rcve!:-
tion f SI Pc er along with frag
ments 'rom variol!s otl: ROSPCl:
c C). In 946, a whr- c Iibral y of
works by \.. lrstiar.- w
Lind In tht; south n
tht:.... me a GNop c
te SI. ThoJYC!!., .... l. C :ordint,
to SI. Philip, thL Apocrypha of
John ... tc Works w: tlcn in lhl
Middle I.::, It' I 'Jesu child
hood th- Ille of Marv u_ read
w :, 'lCrmlssie:l f-om tbl" <. hun; -,
,"sofal a! thl'j do Dot dep:u om
accepted ... -mao
APOL L() )r PIIOE 81 S. a diVlmty
of Anc e,1 Greec Imhally h", W
reg' rdcd 'So lC )lector I h ,.
herds, md lalt. as Ihe lDVCilor
hce-ke ....illng. oil-m. log lnd the
deilv of apple ')1 harol.. }-- e was Iso
g1.1 JI d the in\'\;. ltnt of le Iyr
mo 1e p I fklC Y lnd musl,-
Later AiXlUo om" 0 be \cnl. lte J
is tb" of pun.l.i1:alion lna 'tell.!
mg.
APOU)(;ETICS, 'le branch f
ology CODe med wltb th- <! CD";;:

and JI.::' , of rclil:iou '
hv means of ltl ument 10
app al 0 me lll. fc.asnr. Ap
J: the. I.. r m,;h of theology tfl n th
c'S... ...cn( ... 1 gi\'l i1 .Iif?on nd i
- lUnc..lll.g h:- fcaturc!'. uf ts
SV' te"ll of s moral pnnc
pjc t! roll mG in pub-
lil; lile fDe "t1ain im of p .. s
is ):11 fc.,d r, liglon agam I mate ia
me! nhel."ot.l. dsm To' liS
end empha 1i:1 upon thl m
or high mural re 011101
, the de loom( n of c JI re or
a soc ill 'J( r without trn rc I'
glon. A slmll"lr C'l C _ (.)
th ql.::: Ih rei' ,< 1('1
t\\ en I nc and eliL n I
tWI en re Igton n j p':!ilosophy. n
'i( r: r bk
:II .... :::1 0 r'OOjs J the e. tnc (
:1. 4. 'l(' IS :ttl" re
d Ie
rofli h-n
" -
,
, .
-
APCux."S, I O'u r
lOC'I r. and phil l<>Clph ,W I) ...
p'IT C (I h- ad\ant ._ n -oN
reli :I c -"p:n 1 r. p 'v
tIC hetll L 11 inC R 1m. n m-
re I; hi "rI moral Jr ne ;pl It
!' I ulnc In their wtlTk' th\ v
,-' C tL kmon tf'lil" that 'hrif'
i",tv ' lot .. conti '!l fro
anCient phil . ry nj sClcne
it hari mm.l In ... mmon Yo tbr
pre mrn ... r. IClal Ii f .hl
be bawn of th '5 W
Ju. ,''!!. Mall'{f (OIC_ c 16_ A )./. f
Ii. n iied C 1 ....) '\.D_>, nJ \thl n
Idied C 11' A. .. ).). "-nolher
trend in e3rly Christian up .. tlf}
wz.r th: t bv T which ;11
J !-: ncompatibility .)f t !lt h
nc. ...mJllm, , ailed upon (tI::
4 'hure)) to c"18lgC lD 1 rewlUlC:
________ ___ _
--
struggle against the learning and cul-
ture of the Ancient World, and pro-
pagated consistent oJC('(icism. The
ideas of the early Christian Ar
oh,
!!,
isIS arc held in high esteem by con
temporary theologians.
APOSTLE BRETHREN or ORDER
01" TilE APOSTLES, adherents of
a Christian sect which took an active
part in the peasant-plebeian movc-
ment in Northern ltaly in the late
13th and early 14th The
Apostle Brethren preached that
euuld only be attained
through the renunciation of
property, a return to social equality
and equal property, in the spirit of
the teachings of the early Christian
Apostles (hence the name of Ihe
sect). At the Second Oecumenical
Coullcil of the Roman Catholic
Church in Lyons (1274), the sect was
condemned as heretical, and its acti-
vities were banned. After it had been
put to rout, tbe adherents of the sect
neverthele!\!; continued to preach
their ideas in severaJ parts of Italy,
France. Spain and Germany up until
the 15th ccntury.
APOSTLES (from the Greek "mess-
engcr'.'), . in the context of early
Chnsilamty Apostles were itinerant
preachers, who moved from one
community to another and lived at
their expense. The Apostles pre-
:he new teaching among non
ChristIans a." well, creating new
Christian communities as they did
so. They addres."ed each other and
the (.1tristian communities with Epi-
stles on various connected
faith and Man's inner spiritual
life. Hence, apparently, the origin of
the which have been
handed down In the New Te.flameni
Later, after the final version of
New Tc:stament had hn'" compiled
ChUfl"h tradit;110 only 3l'l'Ordco
name Apo .. tk .. In Chri .. ('s twelve
discipk .. , Wh(Hll afC mentioned in
the (,'mpd.\" ;md in the .,klf of IIII'
and whum ('hri ... , him\clf
alkgl'dh c'huse hl preach his leach
ing. The majority of thc Apostles arc
figures of ic!!cm,1.
APOSTOI.ATE m THE LAITY.
Sec Laily. layme/l.
APOSTOLIC TRAl>ITION, a col-
lection of religious tenets, which al-
legedly arc the fruit of divine reve-
lation. The aim and purpose of the
Apostolic Tradition was to support
and substantiate the "divinely in
stituted" nature of the Scrip-
tures and al"o to interpret the most
tenets CClntained in them,
whIch had been elahorated long he-
fore the establishment of the Chris-
tian Olliff". With regard to the re-
ligious authority and doctrinal signi-
ficance of the Apostolic Tradition.
the Church sees it as hcing on a
par with the Holy Scriptures. Some
theologians, howcver, rcgard the
Tradition as being even
more important than the Holy
since the final collection
of the "sacred hooks" deter-
mined hy the Apostolic Tradition.
In the Christian Church it is recog-
niled only hy the Orthodox and the
Roman Catholic Clllm:/le.f. The Or-
thodox Church regards the materi-
als from the seven first ()cCl/melli
COllIICil.f and the works of the
Fathers of 'he Churrll (in particular,
those of the first cight centuries) a!;
pOlrt of the Apostolic Trilditi(ln and
likewise mcicnt rituals USI d fur the
c'mouct of service'. Tht; Rom"n
( ,thnlie s add to all this the rcso
io
tic m of the Popes and Ibc>SC

adnptcd at lalcr Occ:umcnical
Cnuncils, after the rir .. ' !.even. The
Pmtr.ftall( Church unly the
Holy Scriptures a .. Ihc fruit nf di-
vine revelation, Ihc Aros,
lolic Tradition merely a'S the fruit nf
human activity. An Apo.,lulic Tradi
tion j" to he found in other reli
gions well, in Islam, for example
the SI/nna is held by legend to be
the same.
APSARASES, in Vedic or Hindu
mythology female spirit" of the
clouds and waters, dwelling mainly
in the heavens hut on earth as well.
According to Vedic texts, the Apsa-
rases were capahle of making mor
tals fall madly in love In the Rig
Veda there is onc wife f
Gandharva. through whom glVc
birth to the first mr'l1 Is Y Ima and
Varni; in later there re
many Apsarascs, wives of lumerou'
Gandharvas, who act as the han::
maidens of [mira and dance before
hi." throne.
ARCHANGEL.."i (( rcek "chid 11
the angels"), allJ:f'is cc jing
to the "celestial hierarchY a<.:c .... 1td
in the Chun;'\. Accorr LOg
10 Orthodox <. hristian tradition,
three archangels arc gIVen names:
Michael,the commander m
the universal war against (;{xj"S
enemies and the angel of
all Gahriel, God'- mf"
cnger who hrought the "gno'" ...
ing."" tn Mary, and R pharl, 'be
angel of healinr.
ARCHBISIIOP, one of thl hlghe t
ranks in the Chnsti; n ( hUl..:t: hlC r
,mhy. Although it '''' h .1-:= l,.t II
bishops trC e1ual and hl\'''' simil. r
{"K)W( r, c rtain "':shnp. lTC IVC") the
ghl uf Upl eml aulhOl ty over the
others and on them IS conferred the
title Archbi..,hop.
ARumlSHOP 01' (;ANTI:R
In:RY, the chief hishop of the
Cllurch. of All
Enwand and the Fir.;( Peer of the
Realm. He L'i. appointed by the
monarch in rC!iponse to rc, .
ommcndation from Parliament. The
official of the Archbishop
of C U1terbury is Lambt:th Palac .
ARCIIOEA<':ON, a deric I (I()!;ition
in the Christian <. hurch: a ric who
1:"s151s the bif/lOp Clu. ng services. In
Ile We-t, the is now a
priest, while in the Ort.'.oom. Olllrclt
he is' II a kacon, Ih' title being
t,"c JeCl Ie the first deacon in tbe
Cdthew J diac.... n bisbop
ARCIIIMANDRITE thl; high: 1
I:! r'r monks n e 'Jrthodw
rJturch or an honorary ilk c '1'
crre j up:: -n the head' of I, rgl "11 .,-
lSlc"C -I e :n also be u -j c; tt:
hr-"l.orarv __ fr- . 1::
scminarit'r, and those .n ch,r/ttl 'lI
r
Ih!:ologtc s.I r.:...... '15.
-\.RCHONTICS, on ! h""' -cnd (0
e found in (,nostlc m A ......:oT(Jlng
. .1 thclI tc, e'ling, lh; t C.if lr_ e j
blCk.o he )f Banlide .. '1
5l'ria, from thc palcr" (un
b' rn fathe') or ur me then;
cman; Ie cre live pt. ccful
[I'e and nvthr-I "'lc:al ('"catuCI S,
IS(l k"lOW 1 U I." forefa
he allL ors. h" lpreme .r
,h, -nl was Iden' With (ilrist .od
e h s w ttl powers., nnO(."'plcs
!J11b Is who crcllcJ a mull1tude
h vcn Tle of \r'
Lon "s,' th, t )1 . hI,: om/siles
wtOic. (.)1 cJc'Tlned and ,e
by the 0(111'1<11 (bristian
,. ARCllrRII:,. ... r
Lburch at the end of the ccnlury
as pagan and c:u:cs.;i\'cJy aUc
goricaL
(GreeK 'scnior
pries'). a general term for the
higher rank!'. of the cler!:!. in the
Chri.,',tian Church hierarchy. In lhl!
Orthodox Church. Archpriest IS a
title of honour given to non-monas-
tic priests.
ARE...'.i, in Greek mythology, the son
of and Hera. Initiallv Arcs was
venerated as a deity of the subter-
ranean world. comparable to a natu-
ral element which might bring pros-
perity or ruin. Later he was wor-
shipped as the dread god of W31
bringing death and destruction in his
path. Ares was depicted as a mighty
warrior wearing a helmet.
ARHAT, in Buddhi.{m this is a per-
son who has altaincd supreme per-
fcc(ion and has come dose to the
state of Nin'ana, a righteous, holy
man. In order to atlain the status ...f
arhat. a man must pass through :l
long path of rcincama(ions that are
the result of his devout bchavJOur
the cs. .. cnlial feature of which s the
o:.upprcssion of passions and interest
in life. In Hillaralla Buddhi:-TI
monks who have n:ached the highest
(fourth) stage of monastic life uc
considerctj arhats.
ARIANISM, a movement ,,",: '110
OmHial1 Church in the 4th, th and
6th centum;. founded bv the pr,e :.
Anus. W1S an !Uempt tl
resolve the c' ,ntradiction
Biblical monotheism and the telch
.. that Chri,.t was divine: adheren"
., this doctrine did not accept one
oflhe fundamental ...fthe of[
ciaI Christian Church: I he c. 'MUb-
- ---
- -
slanti,llily (If (,od the Son (('hri,,)
and (jod th..: Father, thai
ttl he Innlamount to lin ae
n'rtanc..: llf Arius main.
tained that Hnly nne (iud Was evCr.
and inl'ffilhlc. "hile the Son
()f (',xl h.uJ heen l'rl'alt:d not rrom
Ihe di,,;ne esst:ncc hUI nut of noth,
ing. He differed ft(lm man only inso-
far as he was cndowed y,;lh
Thanks to thl' participati(ln
of God the Father in his crcati(ln
and hi .... own aspirations to goodness,
the Son of God occomes divine him
self. That is how the Arians resolved
one of the main prohlem issucs in
Christianity. that of (1od-madeMan,
God lucamate. In 325 A.D. Anus
was ("(1ndemned as a heretic by the
Oe--umcflical Council in Nicaea.
ARIST01LE (184-322 8.( .). philos
opher of Ancicnt (recce an
outstanding scholar in a wide range
of disciplines. Aristotle, who haj
been pupil ("If Plalo' ale'
cnLcu:ed .,is sr'-tem on the
super :n! ible world fill
'!" Aristotlc rccogni1:c(] the
bJcctlvc cxirtc,cc of he mate'lial
w(l'ld anl. rcg:lT led sensations.
Id'3SJlP';'..1IUTPls "5 'h;ri\'cd
real thmgs. The cs.c;cnce of things
Aristotle sought within things Ihem
selves. Matter, howcvcr, '!S )
(lnly II' passIVe pnnciple, which IS
14boldhfa . 10 (he speci.il acme:
f,1 'nciple qJ "[g(O\'", hiIeJh!,i. !,,!rm x
'00\._ aIr olhers is. in his
{Jl;' Vacillati.sm netween maltrial
em ,nJTdeaJiSII! W Ario;lotTes work
wcnl ;13nd In hand WIth vacitfauo
o
)-...:1\\11: n ""taph}':tJ! f
II e ,,-k'\(IW\! dgeJ ml vemenl within
Nat ,Jrc an,l !:1 and po 'mled out
eXhll'nC'e , ..J jiffer,ont kinde; of
motif '1 (cmergrne,;c, d( slrucl" ln,
JZ;TOWI h, decrease, qualit.llivc and
tAl I-\)' os I
-
. - tial Clan 'CIIi hc 'pprc lie j Ihe
link he Wt n OPPOSIIC and the dc
ndc'1ee I quahl ... vc c
upon 'luanlJl ii'''' 0", ,I "( ana'
Ihe (rom pt'SSlfj,Tj,V
to realilY. In his work, Icr elc
ments ()f dialectics tue al n h
found. AI Ihc C.tme lim- Ih_ SOUl :e
of ml,llino .. whtli,h c nf;ug o..Ar
,otlc is S oulsidl 11 "d,
I... 111
whole worTd in purposlJ"lll motion.
(loil is the final lh!,; hll.h
goal of developmcnt c! all 1mrS,
which refcrs 10 as rJ!
Idcch . Summing up- a:c.-hc Old 1C
eve opmenl of the philo<;,ophlCiI
selent"fic and c;ocin-p! Ii' c I idcas
AIlClcnf Cireee ... , Aristotle" 1e I
IremendCllJs in rue ncr.." on II u
St quent cuhural .... 'opmenL An
ollc s tiC' li.1 "nd mftpp 1\;.41
VlC\\l: we w :JIn 1(.. 11 nsop' v or
11 I'IV hc 'S..: 01 stu of
the Middle Ag.: nyc tog.
at Ihey laid the found'iions e
rc1:Llous world outlook, !\ II
II' C lmg of j' now WId '
usc t in thenl I "onceptio, s su '"l
s vitalism or linallSm On the othl ..
1\; n' .t Aristolle s m. '-r: r I
f" U"'V rx"" C 1 }llful
innu upon tll- ( 'e or
pre IIIIU VI( w. n
Araf\ian lOJ ltv mlmc pllil phy
in medial-'lI timl ilnd II 0 In U:
philo phy . thl arc th ... R 'n
fame
.\RIlS 'Xl <\.f'.).
rom Ihl II \\ 1 f 0\ X3ncil In
11: 'taded 1C tl {"lIng ) Ih
I lr ':)n <. !lUI h n crnll g Ih
'onsuh tanli.Jlity ) (od t I 1'1
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c p31.1' en:c ilnd r10ry w of
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f, ,. r.l J Ie hIlt! w v, rl .
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lIim. AI UlO \\ ndl.mned hy thl
( luretl and Y.;" 1\ j r. Jrn Alexan
.. flo hi Ie hIDg . I; m)
f! Jnd nar v ulLwcr ) rl: I rl'1
amnn' c 1.fl TI 1 and trader II Ihe
low. anJ hc...a.m WI lr-ad f r
hcvon th' h jl rlli Ervrt, :t pu
'''1. r n We Ie rr. un t-' _
ARK ( ) al'odin IJ Bih" I
cnd thl I.:r_f: l .11 I. "Ie h and hi
familv and lnlmal sp.; lally
Ie d th'll the y 11 ghl':n' wen
iVld [I n F' 1; In" Or
If. r rJ: Ift"1 Ih . a k I In h
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,
d 10
,
th_t IllV fl '";1 t In r
I
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IOC, 1n !._
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it.1l g 1 ld n II sids .c
t rate ,,",tl... ...I... r .. 1 (] I
I"c \\ I CI OJ c of
taJiwctl. \\ len r ru 31 1\ f 'I n r /.
(i B.C DI.. :;; "'pic ""a IJC
slru\... thr.; A.rk Ih 'ovenant
\\la' lost
\RM:\( DooN. Iht C an
'" hieh. 'e 1'c'ing I, e R H,'/atwn,.(
1'1. "Jill till r. IV'1 (tdf>.). II Ih,
eld J'I .rll th "'I ...
t en " Ihl 111': . Tlh C_lrth ....111
I aK' ) . ;""C 11i.erl olrr.; puunJS f()r
Ihr.; )s.'mmV" n ,h,lt (h( .... ord . .\t-
J2
:\POS"IOIU" {"ltL'RC'11
magcddon" is a distorted version of
the Hchrcw words that can he trans-
lated literally as "mountain district
of Mcgiddo" (in North Palestine)
where in ancient limes many de-
cisive battles took place. as a result
of the geographical selling of this
area. In the teaching of the J('/IO-
\'ah's Hljtn('sses Armageddon is used
as the name for the baILie hctwccn
the forces of Jehovah Mainsl the
forces of Sa/Oil, in the aftermath of
which the whole of mankind except
the Jehovah's Witnesses will perish.
ARMENIAN APOSTOLIC
CHlIRCH, onc of Ihe most ancient
Christian churches. Christiani,)'
penetrated as far as Armenia in the
first centuries A.D. In 301 it was de-
clared the official stale religion. In
the year 303 the cathedral at
miadlin (ncar Yerevan) was built
and later heeame the most import
ant cathedral of the Armenian
Apostolic Church. It is sometimes
known as the Armenian Grigorian
Church in honour of the first
0/ic05 Grigor Partev. In the year 506
the Armenian Apostolic Church
broke with BY/.antium and became
autocephalous. As regards its leach-
ing, it hclong.c; to the monophysitic
branch of Christianity (see
phYJitism). Hence the special
lures of its doctrine. The Armenian
Apmtolic Church is headed by the
chid patriarch or Catholicos of all
who has his scat at Ech-
miadzin. A journal called "Echmiad
zin" is puhli<,hed and the Armenian
Aposiolic Church has its own thel .
logical college. The Catholicate of
CIIicia. the Jerusalem and Constan-
patriarchates and the epar-
organil..ations in the lJnilcd
.... eI. South Amerie&. Europe. Ihl
Middle and Far East all come under
the juri"dictinn of the EchmiadJin
CatholiGllc.
ARl\lINIANS or RF.MON_
STRANTS, fnllowcrs of the Dult"h
reformer. laeohus Arminius (I)(.,().
\(,()C), who rejected Cull'ill's teach-
ing wilh regard 10 prcdc.'itillalioll, re
dCIIIPli()II and Sall"fJlioll. The Armi-
nians taught that milO free
will and can attain himself,
through his personal faith and after
surmounting. through his own per-
sonal will-power, original sin. The
d{lCtrine of the Arminians antiei
pated the ideas of Humanists in the
16th and 17th centuries. Atthc pres-
ent time the Arminians in the
Netherlands numher ahout 5,0CK).
Their teachings havc exerted an ap-
prceiahlc innucnec on somc Met/IQ-
dis(.'i and Boptis/s.
ARNAllLO, Antoine (1612.16Q4),
French philosopher, logician, then--
logian and pnJfe!>sor at the Sorh-
onne, from which hc was expelled
for propagating iOllsellisl7l in the
campaign again!>t the ic.wi/s. He
was an advocate of the rationalism
expounded hy Descartes. In his "La
logiquc ... ou art de penscr" (1662),
written in conjunction with Pierre
Nicole under the innucnce of Pos-
cal, Arnauld defined logic as the
art of correctly u!>ing reason in
natural sciences and
He promoted the lihcration of phil
osophy fmm scholastic modes of
thought.
OF BRESCIA (d;fd
: 1 <i)" nc of rhe leadcrs of tht:
;tnd lnti-Roman Catholu..
dcmoC"rdtic m(,vcmenl in Italy. rep-
rcsentat .ve ll( the burgher here
sv
and a pupil of Pi('fre Ahelard. The
views of Arnold of Brescia con'
I
\
ARTEMIS 3J
tained clements of the Protestant
ideology that was to come: he advo-
cated thc secularil..ation of church
property and that towns he rcleac;cd
from the power of Roman Catholic
hierarchs, and demanded a cheap
church. He was eltecuted 00 the
Pope's orders.
ART AND ATHEISM. The first ap-
pearance of art can be traced back
to ancient timcs. As early as the
Upper Palaeolithic period men
were engaged in arti.<;tic creation, as
is borDe out by the rockpaiotiogs,
small carvings and decorations on
tools and utensils that have been
handed down to us. Although many
images from that epocb were linked
witb magical beliefs and rituals
there is DO reason to accept the
idea that the origin of art was
bound up with magic_ Thc link
tweeD primitive magic and artistic
creation stemmed from the syn
cretie, DoD-differentiated nature of
primitive man's consciousness.
Mao's aesthetic assimilation of the
world around him begao to occur
in the process of labour activity, as
man came to understaod the
properties of the world him
and tbe and
m that wor
the process of creation in
learning to master each object, in
adjusting objects to his purpo5Cs
and in i.mprintiog upoo them
skills and abilitics. Man is the main
subject of art. It was on thLS basis
that man's aesthctic masterang of
reality came into being and art was
the highest form of this mastery.
Thus, art is born io the process of
man's frec creative actiVity. Magic
and religion, on the other band, are
born of primitive man's powerless-
ness in face of phenomena of Na-
}-.IIIII
ture that appear incomprehcnsible
and hostile to him. Consequently,
magic is tbe outcome and rcncction
of man's lack of frecdom. Over a
long historical period art has de-
veloped hand in hand with religion
and has even been incorporated by
the Church into the overall pattern
of religious worship. Yet on the
strength of its humanist nature art
inevitably came into conflict with
religion. The Christian Church, for )(
example, . found unacceptable life- \
affirming, optimistic trends in art. It
always opposed everything that was
linked with a critical attitude to-
wards reality. whicb is wby oopulal:
art was frequeotly condemned by
the Church. As in the popular s.o
also io the professiona1 art of thc
past strong anticlcrical and anti-re
ligious trends were to be observed.
Both West European and also Rug..
sian literature provide splendid
examples of satincal works dealing
with religioo. Art occupics an
portaot place in . cducation
within socialist Acsthetu
. his
outlook.
ARTEMIS, in dasskal mythology.
me daughter of Zeus aDd Leto,ll1d
the twin-sister of Apollo. She was
worshipped as the $oddess of fer
tility. chastity, huntmg. thc Moon
and as the protectress of animals
and as the helper of womeo in la-
bour. The cult of Artemis rctained
vestigial aspects or primitive relig-
ious coocepts (since this goddess
was worshipped in the form of a sbc-
bear) and it was .wxia1ed with the
"
ARVAL RRO'llIl'RS
----
practice of human sacrifice. The
main shrine to Artemis was at Epbe-
sus.
ARVAL BROTHERS ([rom the
Latin "fralres arvalcs" meaning
"brothers of the culLivatcd field"),
the twelve priests in Ancient Rome
who exercised the cult of the god-
dess of tilled land, Tellus Mater
(Molher of the Earth), known alw
as Dca Dia (Bright Goddess). At the
cnd of May the Arval Brothers cel-
ebrated festivals in honour of the
Goddcs,'''i, involving the oITcTing of
sacrifices. a triumphal procession,
the singing of an ancicnt prayer
(hymn), ritual dances and a puhlic
banquet.
ARYA SMIAJ ("Society of Ary-
am;-'), an organil.ation in India pro-
moting religiou.<; reform and educa-
lion. It was founded in 1875 by
Dayananda Saraswati. It atlractcd a
following mainly among the petty-
bourgeois intdlirentsia and prop ..
gated in particular resistance to
British colonial domination and a re-
assertion of India's own heritage and
natinnal cuhure, in particular the
Vedic rcliKiol1 and philosophy. The
50Ciai principles promnted by the
organi/.ation included rejection of
the caste system and for in-
creased rights for women and the
spread of education.
A.C;;CENSIUN, a Christian fC"!ival.
which in the Orthodox Church num-
bers among the Twelvt Great Pea,tts.
II is celebrated on the 40th dayaflcr
EoSIU. The basis for this festival IS
the legend of the Ascension into
Heavcn uf Jesus Chri!'.t, who had
izea from the dead after his CTUl-'
Lion. The sources fpr this festival
Mould be sought in the beliefs of the
ancient Phoenilians, the Jews and
other peoples, wh(lsC g()(h ascended
into Ihe heavl'ns. The ChriMian
Church made use (If these legends tlf
the ascension in order to acccntuate
the di\-;ne nature of Jesus, so as to
convince the faithful that the fact of
the Ascension confirms the pmsi.
hility of resurTectiun for all the righ.
teous after death. Celehration of the
Ascension hy Christians is first reo
cordcd in the 4th and 5th centuries.
The canon for the celehration of this
festival was only e!'.tablished in the
8th and 9th centuries.
ASCETICISM,...!. rcjection --2f life's
comforts and pleasures, an IRternal
supprcssion of natural and
instinct!':. The propagation of asceti-
cism is a typical feature of most reli
gions. In Chri.stian teaching it is re-
garded as the "guiding principle in
the life of the faithful", The social
signifil--ance of the pwpagation of
asceticism lics in its reconciling of
the w(1rking people with the diJlicult
c\lOditions of life pertaining in so-
cidies h3scd (10 exploitation. At thl
prcsent time the clergy, bearing in
mind attitudes prevalent among its
congregations, does nnt directly ad
vocate "flight from the world" or
disdain for the "pleasures of the
nc.;sh" hut instead for 'spiri
tua)" asceticism.
AS(,LEPIUS (Roman counterpart
Acsculapiu!'.), in (ircck mythology,
the of Apollo and the 1I,\'mph
the god of healing. From time
imme..mi -rial Asdcpiu!'. ha.<; hccn rc
gardcd .IS the patmn of physicians
,lnd pharmacisls, Hi ... ("uit wa.c; par-
ticularly widesprcad in
where hi:, r.hrim' was hy SIck
people in r.carch of cure" from aU
over Grecce:
I\SSASSISS
ASHARI Abu'l-
Hasan (873-935), founder of the
Moslcm movement
Kalam. Originally he had advocated
thc Mutazilitc doctrine but later
moved over to the of orthodox
Islam. defended the idea
that the Koran was eternal and di-
vinely and thc idea of prc
destination. At the !'.ame time he up--
held the concept of man's free will
and his responsihility for his actions.
He substantiated the tenets uf ortho
dox Islam not only through rder
ences to the Koran and the HaJith,
but also by means of logical deduc-
tions borrowed from the doctrine of
the Mutazililes.
ASHOKA B.C). n Indian
emperor of the Maurya Dynast)- wh..,
accomplished thc unific:.tion ! 31
most the whole of India in a smgle
state (1rd century B.C). He It
tempted 10 lurn various religious
principles intn stale laws. In the
years of his life he was a patron of
Buddhism, which "e saw as an id, 0-
logical force fal'ilitating the unilic 1-
tion of the state. At the c.,d of
life he became a monk.
ASHURA, thl \.-dminal;on the
mourning period for Shi'ite Mos-
lems, involving prOt'c Wllh
theatrical displays, song.c;,
and self-torture in mcmorv of Ih,
M(Jre'tl Martyr", aJ-j/mai,,', grand-
son of MfJhamn"d and .... of ( a-
liph Ali Ibll-Ab, T alib. It . le cn' 1
day of the month o! Mllhu"am (Ih.
first month of the lunar
Over the ccntullcs relig-
IOUS leaders Ashura 1,0 unlc'lsh
fanaticism by encouraging thr faith-
fulto beat Ihcmsdvc!lO with chains. (0
tbcmselves with swonls and
daggers Clnd SO on, In 4iovicl
Asia, where Shi'iles arc r.till to he
found, self-torture is forbidden by
law.
BUDDHIST CON.
H)R PEACE (AR(:P),
rcliginus organila
lion aiming to mohilile the of
the fullowers of to cam
paign for peace and h.;:
twecn the re?p.I:l'i' ,It was up in
1970 on the Inillatlvc of s
from India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam Ma
I< ysia. the Mongolian Re
public, Nepal, ,he trSSR, Singapore
and Japan. The headquarcrs s n
'Jlan Bator. It. presided 1'1'11"1 bva
(;e..nc. d l \. lfe nee and
live organ is Executive (ounci!.
" General Socct. IV IS r. spon iblc
or implementing the
Ihe AB( P. The.. "Bt P Jubli!Ju s
I Buddhl< s f. P Its
luthOI IS grov.: To rk. Jlt. among
Buddhists, "'JI also I"i\ wor ;

ASMODEl'i. !I" "vii bre
'marr':!,,:e Hi' IS '0 tion!;.d I;: he
T'11mud (a' - n..;:; )1 ciemons), n
,'le ("Id Testamenl n1 n he Ap ...
'_,lha, he r "ne Wi <; I' =d bv he
Jews )m Pe Ian re"gioR!..
h! ',; shin"
pl. of "hashsha!," n, aning hir.h
addict"). iI terrorbt, religtou. urn
fX-litical ordcr\
whi'h :--' )ke awav from thf" '"hl'itc
of e hnaiJu at the end of the.;
lIh c!;.ntury, fhe rcsidence of thr:
As::. ... riDS was tht; mountain fortress
of "Iamut 'n Northwc' l.ran.
te oI :hing sprc :.hrough t: an. Syr.a
and the Lebanon. lJlPiCtll Jcatyre
was thc dcifi .... ,tinn ('If I "Ie imam
Ihl ,.; .dcr llfthe mO\"C'lIc..,nt. l.ca..ters
of the As.aSSlDS : rained the ordinary
"
OF TItE MOTI 1l':R or GOD
-
members of the in a
spirit of fanaticism and bhnd obe-
dience. The Assassins waged fierce
resistance against Seljuk rulers and
the Dusaders. Powerful landowners
made use of the Assassins to do
away with their political opponents.
In the 13th century Mongolian con-
querors and Mamcluke forces put
an end to the activities of the Ascas-

,ms.
ASSUMI'IION OF THE MOTHER
OF GOD, Christian festival which in
the Russian Orthodox Chwch num-
bers among the Twelve Great Feasts.
Il is celebrated on August 15 (28) as
the day of commemoration of the
Motbcr of God, marking the end of
bet earthly life. The Church version
of the assumption of Mary took
shape no earlier than the second half
of the 4th century. In the middle of
tbe 4th century it was still acknow-
ledged that there was no reliable in-
formation about her death. Later
there appeared a work entitled "On
the Assumption of the Mother of
God", which described the last peri-
od of her life and her death. It is
worth noting that this work is very
. to the ancient Syrian legend
the death of the goddess
. This makes it probable that
authors had made use of
particular sourcc. The actual
not instituted before the
In Russia it coin-
festivals to mark
'ain harvest. A num-
from those festivals
ioto the ritual of
'0, e.g. a
the
of festivals
01 God.
_ be explained
.. wn widely
venerated as the 'interceder for tbe
people",
ASSUR or ASHURA, the supreme
god of the Assrr:ian 'Pantheon, pa-
tron of the ASSyrian kings. to whom
features of many deities were at-
tributed. He wields human
is the heavenly judge, the god of war
and god of wi!>dom. He was repre-
sented in the form of a winged solar
disc, from which protrudes the torso
of a warrior shooting with a bow and
arrow.
ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN
RELIGION. See Babylonian religion.
ASTARTE, a goddess of fertility.
love and motherhood worshipped by
the Phoenicians. She was u<,ually
represented in the form of a naked
woman with ram's horns.
ASTRAL CULTS (from the Greek
"ao;tron" meaning "star"). the relig-
ious worship of heavenly luminaries
and phenomena and religious or
magic rituals connected with such
worship, that have been found on va
rying scales in the history of all peo-
ples. Astral cults were particularly
widespread in Ancient Mesopota-
mia, Egypt and India, where temples
served r.imultaneously as observa-
tories, since irrigation agriculture
practised in those regions demanded
close observation of heavenly
bodies, on whose movements
overflow or rivers was chronoiogJ-
caJly dependent. In the Babyl(}l1iall
religion the Moon, the Sun and tbe
five planets visible to the naked.eye
were proclaimed as gods and reD
the names Sin (Moon), ShamQSll
(Sun), Mardulc (Jupiter). I;:;
(Venu,). Nergal (Mars).
(Mercury) and Ninib (SaIUJ'll)'
(Uranu.c; and Neptune were not
known in the ancient times.) Aftl'O-
divination and the uc;e of rdig-.
10US oracles grew up on the basi" of
the astral cults in the religion of Ba-
bylon. The legends of the Star of
Bethlehem and the seven stars in the
Apocalypse are examples of vestiges
of astral cults to be found in Chris-
tianity.
ASTRAL THEORY. See Natwistic
theory.
A.'n ROLOGY, the belief in the in-
fluencc of cclestialluminaries on the
life and destiny of individuals and
peoples; the technique of divining
events from ac;tronomical observa-
tions. It came into being in Ancient
Babylon and Egypt. Astro-
loger,S claimed that it was possible to
predict the destiny of individuals
and the outcome of imminent events
according to tbe position of tbe stars
and otber heavenly bodies and the:;t;
claims attracted wide-scale aUen-
tion. Astrologers enjoyed sueh greal
authority that many emperors and
military commanders only took im-
portant decisions after asking astro-
logers to make their predictions.
The future was'" determined by
means of special charts or horos-
copes. The incomistency of astro-
logy was dcmonlitrated time and
time again by life itscU, for the vast
majority of predictions did not come
true. Yet the rare chance coinciden-
ces between predictions and the
events that followed were enough
for people to continue believing in
them. Many thinkers of the past
spoke out demon-
strating its
discoveriC$ dealt it the death-blow.
firs{ and foremost the teachings or
Copemiau. Despite the fact tbat the
nonsense or astrological predictiom
has long since been demonstrated, at
tbe pre.or,ent time they are enjoying
renewed popularity. Astroqy is eD-
joying a new lease or lire in t'Fie We5l
in the cooten of a resurgence or
mysticism there. Horoscopes are
wnstantiy appearing in the p1"ess.,
astrological societies flourish and
special magazines on tbe 5ubjed are
published.
A..'ITRUC, JtaD (1684-1766). one of
the founders of Biblical criticism and
the r.o-ca\led documentary hypo
t.hesis with regard tothe origins or the
Old Tes(QJ71mt.ln 1753, be published
anonymously in Brussc:ls bis book CD-
titled "Conjectures on the OnglDat
Memoirs \\'b.ich Moses Appears to
Have Used to Compose tht Book ,)f
Genesis"'. In it be drew attention to al
least 12 sources for the rlfst Book o!
the Bible, in particular two sources
which differed from each otheT inso
far as different names ror God were
used in the two - namely, Elohim and
JehOl'oh. The suppositions made b)
Astruc were to bear fruit most rapidly
and they enabled subsequent gener-
ations of scholars 10 demonc;trlltc tbe
human rather than divme origin o( the:
Bible
"ATEISTICHNA TRIBUNA", 0:
journal published in Bulgaria by the
Georgi Kirkov Society for the Pro-
pagation of Scientiftc Knowledge. II
has been published since 1974 ill
Sona (until lQ81 it was puhlished b)
the National Council, the Soft<!
Fatherland Front Committee and
the Sofia Centre ror a Socialisl Wa)
of Life and Culture). It analyses J
broad range of issues regarding the
theory and bistory of atbcism an(
religion, and practicaJ metbods fOl
work in atheist education.
Alll/\NASIUS OF AI F'<ANIlRIA
ATHANASJUS OF ALEXANDRIA
(c. 296-313 A.D.), one (,f the Fa-
of the Church. Being a vigor-
ous opponent of Arianism, he ela-
borated the mystical teaching of
"consubslantiality" of God the
Father and God the Son. which was
later incorporated into the Nicene
Ctud. In keeping with Ncoplatonic
tradition. Athanasius defended the
concept of God as omnipotent, of
the fundamental difference between
God and the rest of tbe world (the
result of his creation), and of faith
as the all-important condition for
Man's achievement of immortality.
The theological ideas of Athanasius
were based on those of Irenaeus,
Origm and other early Christian
apologjsts.
ATHEISM, a system of views re-
jecting religious concepts (belief in
God, in the immortal soul. in the
rcsWTection from the dead and so
on) and religion as a whole. Athe-
ism as a system of views cannot be
reduced merely to a historical, phil-
or scientific critique of
. Atheism sheds light on the
nature and essence of relig-
of the real world
from a materialist
the for the
of mass faith and the
of that analyses the
oature of and the
materialist
in the
-
from rt'ligi(H"f
('ntim" allliclrriralism and rtee.
thinking. Nor be
confuscd with dfism ami
which arc often closely associated
with it. The advance of atheism al_
way!> proceeded parallel to thc ad-
vance of in
The more consistent matcnahsm,
the firmer a foundation it provided
for athcism. Naive materialism pro-
vided the intellcctual foundation for
the struggle against religion in the
countries of the Ancient East and
in the societies of Ancient Greece
and Rome. Metaphysical material
ism, which developed in the Euro-
pean countries in the 16th, 17th and
18th centuries, due to its limited
horizons, often sided with deism
rather than atheism. The philosop-
hical foundation for Marxist athe-
ism (sec Atheism, Man:ist) is pro-
. vided by dialectica.i and histo1caJ
materia/wn. Atheism came mto
being in the distant as a reOec
tion of socio-economic relations, of
relations between social classes on
a hasis of successes scored earlier
in the fields of science and materia-
philo!>ophy_ As a rule, atheism
provided expression for the inter-
ests of progressive social forces that
were combatting conservative
tices and religious ideology sanctl
fying those practices. In each neW
historical era the range and content
of atheistic concepts changed.
first form of atheism was atheism In
slal'e-ownillg society. It nourished
most of all in Ancient Greece and
Rome. During the period of the
feudal Middle relision c!!9C!
to pmvide tne dominant fOIiD rj
ideology_ The Church used
means available to combal atheiSll
and free-til inking in feutlol soctS
however it was unable to hold
AIlIEl';M. BOI,;RGP.OIS
-
the advance of
The ncxt stage 10 the advance of
atheistic thought was tx)urgeois at
hei.<,n;t. which the pro-
gressive classes an intellectual
\ weapon in their t.lruWC aga!n!>1 the
\ TcudaJ system and the feudal
Church in order to rrOleCl their
economic and politica interests. A
place aU of its own in the hi!>tory of
pre-Marxian athcism i!> that 0ccu-
pied by the Russian re ....olutionary
democrats. Despite its limitalioO$
stemming from the specific condi
tions of the hi.c;torical period i.n
question, pre Marxian atheism con-
stituted a watershed i.n the spiritual
life of mankind and a cruaal ele-
ment i.n the ad ....ance of civilization.
Yet a higher, more thoroughly con-
sistent form of Marxism was to be
Marxist atheism
AmEISM, BOURGEOIS IUs-
toTically progressive trend' in hour-
geois ideology and culture, consist
ing i.n critical analysis of religion on
the basis of primitive dialectical
and metaphysical maferiolurn
I atheism came inlo bet.ng
I \ In the struggle again.<;t feudal ideo
logy. In its development it -went
through three stages: atheism and
free-thinking in the time of the Re
naissance, atheism of the Modern
Era (17th-19th centuries) and con
temporary free-thinking. In the age
of the Renaissance (15th and Ibth
centuries), early bourgeois culture
with its anti-religious and anticleri-
cal thrust look shape; one (If the
sources of its ideas was athrism in
society and free-ihink-
mg m feudal society. Scepticism w;tS
'\ thSl: methOOuloeitAl. (oun
da

lion-fOr critical analysis of religion.
The Humanists and philosophers of
the 15th and 16th centuries (such as
Valla, Pietro Pomponaui,
Giordano Bnmo and Lucilio Vani
nil de ....eloped a new doctrine of
Man. countering Christian anthro-
pology with ideas or the iodividuars
and selfrespect, hi$ tight to I.
bapptoCM on earth, independence r
and freedom. The free-thinking of
the Renaissapce
... In . production and
wence, In particular the natural
!he teaching
of CopernIcus was. highly
in' !be Tflif)out piC{JLre
or-. the world. The philosophical
basIS _ for the frf?e-thinking of the
RenaIssance penod was provided
first and forelDC!1 by primitive ma-
terialism in the fm rn or pgnthdsm,
which contained elements of spon-
taneous dialectics. Critical ana1ysis
of religion consisted in the
sure of the contradictions in Chris-
tian teaching. in '1ninging down to
earth .. Bibli.;1.l and heroes,
in the rejection of belief in Hetn't1t
and HelL of the myth concerning
the creation of Adam and Eve and
of Chrisrian rituals.. The fOllllula
tion and resolution as to the ques
1Jon of the origin of which
baa not been raised at all in the
Middle Ages once again loomed
important: the reasons for rcligion
were seen, as in Ancient Timcs, to
liC" in ignorance, fear and deccp- )\
rion. Thoughts were expressed with
regard to the evolution of religions
lBruno, Vanini); the idea that had
been voiced by of the
Ancient World regarding the nega-
t:i\-c .-ole of religion in society was
once more in the forefront of allen-
tion. Bourgeois atheism or the
Modem Eta was based on scientifIC
dLscoveries; the advance of mechan-
ics, mathematics and asrJUOOOI)' f.
cilitated the elaboratioa. 01 I'vh..
AllmISM, 8OURGl
l
.oIS
anistic picturt of the world and the
emergcnce of materialist philos-
ophy, which overall wa .. metaphysi-
cal in character, although it was not
entirely devoid of dialectical ele-
ments. In the 17th and 18th cen-
twics a transition from latent forms
of materialism -pantheism and
deism - to overt materialism took
place. The highpoint of bourgeois
atheism was the overt atheism of
the writers of the rrencn Enlighten-
ment (Diderot, Heh'itius, Julien de
LA Mettrie and also that
of the following generation of the
Enlightenment writers (Pierre Mad-
chal and Constantin Volney), and
also the atheism of Feuerbach. The
revolutionary-democratic atheism of
Jean Meslie, had a major lnfluence
on the atheism of the men of the
Enlightenment. Materialist and at-
heistic ideas were systematized in
Holbach's "Systtme de la Nature"
and a prnfQwul analysis
or reLigion was unaertaken by
Feuerbacb. The pioneer. Jot scien-
tific aiticism of the Bible was Spi-
fUJZ4. Atheists of the Modern Era
foundation the struggle against
feudalism, portrayed as an unjust
lOci_I order. Holbach and Diderot
convincingly that reti-
not promote improved
standards and that even be-
the existence of God and
him could not hold man
base deed ... Feuerbach
a tbesis to the that
of
arc
value of atheism
expounded in the writing. ..
I'IItre BttyIe. Atheism in this age
.. chv .... CI jzed by a struggle for

frudom of l't'()rship and for
toll'nJtion. which Wl'rc part of
overall In
bourgeuis atheism. of the 17th, IHlh
and Ilhh ('cnluncs substantiation
was provided for the idea that reli
gion was human rather than divine
in origin, and that the factors
counting for Its cxistence were de-
ception, fear of external forces, ig.
norance, natural disasters, sulTering,
the work of men's imagination
their propensities for drawing ani
ogies and efforts to educate the
younger generation. Feuerbach,
after conducting a detailed inve!;ti-
gat ion into the role of fcel!!tgs and
emotions in the cmergenc or reli-
gion, lit upon the epistemological
roots of rtligion. Despite certain
conjectures to the effect that reli-
gion might have arisen for social
reasons, bourgeois atheism did nOl
bring out the social roots of rrli-
gion - this was later to be the
achievement of Marxist atheism
(see Atheism, Marxist). The Frencb
materialists established the link be-
tween religion and tbe interests of
the ruling c1a!'>Scs; however they did
not point out a link between over-
coming religion and eliminating pri-
vate property and forms of society
based on class antagonism. Bour-
geois atheism attached to<!
importance to the role of rehgtOn 10
the hi. .. tory of socicty: religion was
scen as the main obstacle on man-
kind's path towards progress. this
attitude stemming from an
view of society. Overcoming reb-
gion was portrayed as the goal for
the educational and propaganda cf-
of an enlightened elite. A
number of bourgeois thinkers re-
garded religion a .. something essen-
tial for the popular masses.
geois atheism was contempl.ttvt
______ _ ____
and extended no further Ihan a the-
oretical critique of relig,inn.
ATIIEISM, IUSTORY OJ', the ICC
lion of atheism concerned with the
patterns of the emergence, err.tal-
li7.ation, and development of atheist
ideas. At all of .their historical
development atheist Idea!; were di -
rectly linked with materialiy,t phil(K
ophy, achievements in the fields of
notural science and the humanities,
and with social progress. The history
of atheism is the history of the
struggle of science against various
forms of illusory representations of
reality and for the a ... s.ertion of tbe
scientific and materialiy,t .. Weltan. ....
cbauung", or world outlook. SC1en
tific studies into the hi.story of at-
heism must strictly adhere to tbe
principle of hiy,torical authenticity
and link the idcp.c; under. investigJ
tion with the special feature .oJ so-
.. c1at consciousness in illc hlStorica1
era in quey,tion, with the role aad Im-
portance of atheism in the eroer
gence of the progressive ideas of the
time_ Analysis of the atheist ideas c!
the past came to be appreciated by a
broad public thanks to the materia
list philosophers of the 17th and
18th centuries. Pierre Bayle in hiJ
"Dictionnaire historique et critique"
(Historical and Critical Dictionary)
praised the atheist views of the ma-
terialists from the classical world.
The French materialists of the 18th
century stressed the outstanding role
of their and contempo-
raries in the formatil.lR of atheist
concepts. Modcrn clerical historio-
grapby falsifies and distort:o; the his-
tory of atheism. attcmpting to reo
duce it to the histl.lty of a political
struggle. Numerom. studies hy Mar-
xist historians and social scienll.'ilS
fohed further light on the ways in
which atheist teachings have taken
"hape and developed Athe-
iJm in slave-owniflR .meit/y, Rtflai.u-
Fret-thinkinR in society,
AthtiJm, bOUry;:rof.f,
Atheum propagated by the Rlluian
revolutionary dtmocf'Ou, Atht;sm.
MamJt).
ATHEISM IN FEUDAL SOCIETY.
See Free-thinking in feudal SOCiety.
ATHEISM IN SLA\'E--(IWNING
SOCIE. V, the first, chronologically
speaking, critical analy:;i!i of religion
from the standpoint of the philos-
ophy of mattrialiJm in its naive
form. It developed In India, ( hina
and in Ancient Greece and Romt;.
This atheism took shape against a
background of significant achum:
ments in the spheres of aatura!
S(.ience, philosophy, 1iterature and
art. It gave expression to the iDter
of progJ euive democratic cir.
des ID slave-owning society and
evolved hand. in hand with frte-
thinking in the culture of [he
AnCient World. In Egypt, BabylOD,
Palestine, India and ChiD3, iDdeed
in the AnCteDt World as a whole,
there existed a secular culture eon-
taining clements of anti-religlOu.S
f;ccpticism and spontaneous
alism. Sceptical attitudes to rehg-
ious mythology permeate Greek
culture between the 6th and 2nd
centuries 8.C .. for example. the
works or the playwrights Acschylus
and Euripides., the comedies of
and the works of 'h,e
Sophists such as, ProrOgt..IID.f- Prudl-
cos.. C'ritias and 'he
and JC.Ceplic Comeadts. The atbeiS!5
of the Ancient World base ,belt
critique of .n:J.i8j.9US mythology on
thcrr teaching to the effect lbal
origins of Ibe world are 01 a maten-
,
"
41
Al11USM IN SOOt'TV
al nature and that the world de-
veloped in accordance ""ilh naturaL
laws. The Chinese atheist Wang
Chung (1st century) held that the
original material forming the world
was "eb'i", "primary nuid", which
gave rise to a multitude of different
things including Man and his soul;
he rejected the ideas of a "heavenly
ruler" or of ghosts in which the
Chinese believed. In the Indian
philosophy of Con'aka, place of
gods was taken by natural elements
whicb are the basic components of
all things. Carvaka denied the di-
vine provenance of the Vedas, the
other world or supernatural forces
and proclaimed Man's right to the
dclighL<; of life. An important con-
tribution to the development of at-
heism in the Ancient World was
that made by the atomist theory of
LHmocritus, picurus and Lucretius.
from which the conclusion was
drawn that the world was some
thing eternal and infinite, a conclu
sion that undermined the view of
the world as a divine creation.
Atomism contributed to men's ef-
forts to combat the fear of death
tbat had been cultivated hy the re
ligious teachings concerning Hades.
the soul. according to tbe Atom-
consisted of atoms and decom-
together with man's body;
that there was
grave. Liberation
the of deatb was one of
manifestations of humanism as
atheism of the Ancient
atheists of I hat period
the flJ'Sl to raise the question
10 ..... w had come into
of Colophon
the gods were a pro-
Mad" irwentive mind and
_ ..... created gods. eodow-
IlIaD. with natures like their
own. The rea<;<lnS for the emeT_
gence of rcligion were seen to lie in
ignorance, fcar in face of phenome_
na of Nature (Atomists), and at'\()
in deception In the
Ancient World a conception of the
epistemological roots 0/ religion also
appeared on the scene: for in-
stance, Sextus Empirieus (in the
late 2nd and early 3rd Cenlury)
pointed out that a number of thin-
kers linked the emergence of the
idea of God with an exaggerated
view of the capacities of ordinary
man. The main devices used in the
criticism of religion were the fo- I
cussing of attention on the failure A
of religious concepts to match up to '
the facts of real life, exposure of
the cnntradictory nature of religious
propositions and also on the incon-
sistency of religion when it came to
considerations of morality. AtheiMs
in ancient times regarded religion
as an c,,;1. For Epicurus the gods,
whom the pcClple worshipped, werc
the fruit or mcn's imagination and
religiou!, concepts mere
myths. Since it fills mcn wilh fear of \,
gods and life artcr death, religion is
seen to deprive Man of happiness.
Lucretius saw religion as a source
of crimes. The way to overcome
religinn the philosophers of the
Ancient World saw to lie in tbe ex
planation of the natural of
phenomena. ihat were Ijnked by
ml!)' wilb. the.. operatioA.d-
nalural forces, in investigation of
the external world and Man's f;piri-
tual world. Vel Ihe views of the at
hcists of this period were of an e1it- \
is mould: liberation from rcligioa I
was not to be the lot of everyone.
The athei.'lits of the Ancient WorkS
did nut, however, reject (he c:Jiv:-
enee of gods, but at the same time
they lent the very conccpt of god

"ignific.ancc' Democri
(Wi placcd on a rar with other
natural phcnomc:na; l.picurus goch
lived in mctacosmic 'pace and did
r
not bring any innucnce to bear
I upon life on earth. Atheism in
slave-owning !'.OCiety wa$ a fad or
whieh helped stimulate the advance
of culture in the Ancient World. al-
though its teachings had nOI been
adequately c1aNlrated and the ar-
guments used were often naive, and
/
many of its tenets were of a specu-
lative nature. Credit is due to '.his
ear1y atheism for the fact that it
first raised questions of atheism,
which were resolved in Ihe cen-
turies that followed. In the 2nd. 3rd
and 4th cenluries A.D .. as a rcsult
of the srrcad of mntica
l
ideas
!hrousl.t many royls crJ.hk, RW?"
\ ( Empire. atht'lsm I'lcgan t('t lose Ib
f\ hold. The last atheisl of
times, Luciall 0/ I. 2nd
century), critieiJ'ed not only p'
theism, hut Christian;'" Cn!l.;:s
of Christianity in ancient limn (cl
sus, Caccilius. PurphyrIP" and
Julian tile Apn.dare spoke oul fr "m
a sceptic's viewpoint, whik retalD
ing on the wholt;; a poIVlnci.(,tic
sLanee.
I
'-
I
ATHEISM, MARXIST, a 4ualita
tively new in the ,ldV;tncc 01
ath!!ist Ihought. Aft!!r as,.-.imilating
all pO!'itive and idl'3S that
had heen an'umulatcd in the pre
vious devclopml':nt of atheism, Mar-
xist atheism advanced the
historicJI --. . limitations of
previous te3(.-hinp., emerging .10; a
genuinely sci!!ntifie theory scf\o;ng
to express the intcn'sts of Ihat con
sistently rcvulutivnary and pro-
gressive fOH'e -- the working c1as.. ....
When descrihing the essence of
Marxi. ...t atheism Lenin wrote:
IOMarxis.m i\ materiali,,". A!i such,
it is a' relentlessly hn!.ti1c to reli.
gill" as was the matcnah<,m of the
eighteent h cent ury Enq"ClClpatJ \<,IS
or tbe matcriali. .. m of Feucrbath.
This is beyond douhl. Bul the dia
Icctica1 matcriali'm of Marx and
Engels goes rurlhcr tban the Fney
elnpaedists and Feuerhach, for it
ilPpli,9 the. philnsophy II
domam (histOry, to the do-
main or thc social scieRl':!:!.. We
must comhat religion that is the
A.BC of all mate:riali!lm, and conse
quently of Marxism. But Marxism is
not a materialism which has
stopped at the AS(. MarxilWn gots
fw;he:r It says.: We mu!.t kntm how \
to I.X)mbat '1:ligion, 3.nd in ordct to
do SO we must ewlain ,he wurC\.' l,f
and among n1;l"l!lt'!.
m Q mormofi.l( M.'UV" (CoIlt'cltd
Ji vor. 15, p. 40S)_
The aehien'men! ('If Marxist at-
ht-ism to have 1OC;QI
t nlikc
Marx, Marxist atheism goes
than reducing rdigilln 10 ils hurnan
h3SC To usc Karl Marx's own
that holsc itself "rlfst he \
understood in its eontradicli(lR..JnsJ
thcn. hl::, tbe elln.lra;
dicti(lR rc\"oluhORll!!d In practice \
(Karl Marx and. Frederick Engels.,
Sc/4'(tcd U'orlL!' \0 three volurm;s,
Vol. Ont" p. t4).
athci"m is free frum da. ... c;
tions and il is aimed not at speCific
rl'prcscntali\'Cs of the edul'ated sec-
tor of society but thc hroad popular
it ducs noC Ica\c. any l('Itlp-
holes for jidrism
istieatcd (orms of rehgu'IUS
tion. It serves to sct free the nunds
of the working people f!tlm the
burden consisting of vesttge5 aDd
44
AllIEISM, MARXlsr
delusions of the past and it pro-
y vides a sociological, epistemological
f\ and psycbological analysis of Teli
gioo. Sociological analysis of reli-
gion makes it possible to single out
the social reasons for why it comes
into being. evolves and withers
away, its place and role in public
life and the social functions which it
performs. Epistemological analysis
thoroughly elucidates the special
features of religious consciousness,
)1 the (or filling in ..&."ps
in realiry With cogni-
, live basis for the formation of relig-
ious beliefs. Psychological analysis
of religion enables Man to under-
stand the special character of the
innuence of religion on Man's mind
and emotions, to single out the na-
ture and- of religious emo-
tions and their role in the formation
of the individual's world outlook
and behaviour. In its analysis of
religion Marxist atheism proceeds
from the whole legacy of atheist
thought so far. It has assimilated
the positive features that atheism
accumulated during many centuries
of cultural dcvelopmcnt. At the
time, Marxist athcism has
the historical and class
of earlicr atheist teach-
from a materialist
the sources of religious
underlincs the direct link
:en the fight against religion
the need to ensure social free-
and freedom of ideas for the
masses, and points out
means of surmounting re-
illusions. Engels
must he "overcome
i.e., explained histori
Engels, Collected
Vol. 23, p. 60!\),
lask could only he accom-
by theory tbat was under-
-
pinned by the firm foundation 01
dialectica 1- material ist philosophy.
The fundamental principles 01
Marxist atheism are as (I)
evaluation of religion as a totality 01
ideas horn of Man's dependence on
the elemental forces and specifie
social conditions; (2) specification
of the link between religion and the
objectivcs pursued by the reaction-
ary classes interested in 1(
ing socianlluslonS;(3) ;
explanation of the fact that the
campaign against religion is first
and foremost a campaign against
those social and economic prac-
ticcs, of which it is a distorted re-
flection. Marxist atheism sets out
not merely to free men's minds
from religious delusions, but also to 11
(veal a true picture of the world
frceTrom-an that IS supernatural or
smacks of the othcr world. The
main task of Marxist is to
evolve such scientific concepts, cui
tural values and moral ideals as can
make Man's inner life richer and
raise his political awareness.
Rooted as it is in the findings of the
natural and social sciences, Marxist
atheism affirms the view of life's
purpose, of the prospects for his
torical development, of the future
on carth that awaits mankind,
which, on thc onc hand, rcjects all
religious and theological interpreta-
tions and, on the other, prOVides a
scientifically substantiated resolu-
tion of these fundamental qucstions
of human existence, encouraging
men to hdieve in thcir own poten
tial, enhancing thcir self-respect
and helping them guard against fu
tile dis. .. ipation of their energies and
potential. The humane essence 01
Marxist atheism lie. .. in the fact that
"criticism of religion ends with the _
tcaching that man is the highest
AI1II;1SM PROPI\Gl\l1;O BY TIlE RlJSSIA' Rf'VOI' mO'ARY 1)1
. . ....., '\4(}(RATS 4<;
being ror man" (Marx,
collectcd Works, Moscow, Vol. 3,
p. 182).
ATIIEISM PROPA(;ATI:O BY TilE
RUSSIAN Rf:VOLlITIONARY
DEMOCRATS, the higher stage in
the dcvelopment of revolutionary-
democratic atheism. Revolutionary-
democratic atheism came into hoeing
at the same time as rourgen;s athc
ism. namely, when feudalism was in
a state of crisis, yet it differed from
bourgeois atheism in a number or
ways: it was aimed at the broad
masses of the working people.
bound up with the idcas of Ut(lpian
socialism and il was rcmarkahly
more consistent. The secd .. of revol-
utionary-democratic ltheism were
flTst elaborated y,,-jth any rcal c;aritv
by 71lOmaJ AWfUl'r (:<oce E'1gcls.
"The Peasant War in Germany. in
Marx, Engels. Collected Works, Ml ,,-
cow, Vol. 10, p. 415). fbe ideasf
revolutionarydcmoc1'"al:c atheism
werc elaoorated In Ru; sia most pro-
foundly and consi. ...ten!!v 111 ;lV
Vissarion Be'insky ( ! SII-l848), Alex-
ander Henen (IR i _)- HPO). 'V.kola'
Oxaryov (IRH-lS'J7., Mikhail Buta-
shcvich-Petrashcvsky (tR21-1S66),
Nikolai Chemys/rel'sky i 18ZS1&I.\Q),
Niko/ai Dobrol.\Ttbov
and Dmitri Pi.uan:\' \ 184tl-l&:h'''_
Turning for inspiration to the ma-
terialist 'radition \)1 their
sian (Mikhail I onf{)lfn.fOl'. tJcxandrr
RatliJllclle\'. th( Dccemt"lrists) and
West Eurupcan pr,'CUrS\lr<; (the wri
lers of the FrcOl.:h
and Fellemacll), thl' Rus."ian rc\'ol-
utionary dcmocrats in
large derrce in (\\;crcoming the
Mctaphysical and mcch:tnistic limi-
tatulO.Iii (If their materialism: lw (,,{lm-
hininr materialism with dialectics
tbey prO\'ided with a more
.and r.ulid rhih.'WphieaJ
an{l. SCientific foundation. The dia.
approach to an under.
standing of Nature and wciety gave
Ru'>Sian thinker .. the chance to
out the souree of development
III the world. thu'.i removing frum the
order of the day the question as to
the "initial impetus", which thc
metaphysical matcriali!'>iS had N:cn
unahlc to resolve, and al\O to dem-
onstrate the inconsistenq of cre
ati.ollism. Ih1lding thai Man\ con-
s"lousness emerge ... a result or Ihe
Inner activity (1f malter, they eame
ncar to a c;cientifie understanding of
mental and. emOlional phenomena,
thcrehy addmg a new dimensiun to
critic..!1 analysis of the doc-
tnne c nec'rning the immortalitv of
tht soul and Ihe L'mJCm'e "f a life
arter d;':,llh. As a re"ulr ,"If Russia's
S(lC 0 c:c' 'nomll.: \he
democ "ts wcre
,Jhle m !nrmulate bws ,""I, social de-
but they realilt'd that
such mlli-1. without cxi ....t.
i hiS cnahlcJ Ih..:m to gP as far to
;d.:.ntifv \he soci:!1 roots of religi{)n.
Rejecling the Ihc<'Iry of dcceil. which
inc think..:r .... or the Fren('h Enlight-
.:nr!Knt had upheld, the Rus .... ian
turned instead to analysis of
men's living conditions and con
cluded that the for the ap-
pcluncc and l.'lislence of religion
WCf!.' to he f(lund in men's hclplcs. ..
in L.KC \If the fOri,:e .... of Nature,
in the ... ertv and hardshirs of
opprc",<;cd By
r..:1ij.!i\ln fhlm the pmnt or VIew of the
inten; ....' .. of the pcopJe.ib
e
-rl"vOTUiHlnarv -demflcrats were ahle
to reveal more clearly than their
rrede.:es.c;oTS i1s role thcy
"Ime ncar to .. ceing III rehgwn the
llpium flf the people: they demon-
strated that, by coru.oling the op-
)
I
..
ATIIFlS\f ROOnn NAn:RAI
Ylllh i1Iuswos of bliss heyond
Ihe gr.a't. r UeiWl. wa,';i Tc-conclhng
) them {O their fot. athe:.sls
made an imfX1rtanl ccnlrihufion to
the clat.nration of "'it)'S in which to
overcome religion. They considered
that rcligi(l" wa' hound 1('1 wither
away after the collapse r society
based on expim('Jtion anc! substitu-
tion or the .aller hy In
J9th-cenlurY Russia revolutionary-
democratic dcvtlopcd into I
movemcnl or the progressive
InlelligentMa end exerted 8 bcncfi-
aal influence on the of
Rus.<;ian democratic cuhure and c
culture d other pet}plcs.
ATlIEISM ROOTED IN "'An RAL
s( It !'oi( . athel
VleW!. hc."d hy (hose wnrJ.mg tn l
field ...1 the natunl !l, "'''''0
have adop(cd il ll.lnd of mot('nal
1":trI .....,olt:d UI notuTilI fC ('til ('$.
ThL'i BthclSDl IS mextr C.lbly link d
wtth Man's bow JgL of
lhe 01 Ihc natural 5C1cnc
II loJc1ped Idcnldv Iht" Inron,'"
t.DC mherent r. r f b ICIl!
.)( rt"'gJllIJ UkolC1f:i II s ... ar
'crll'Cd hv C lical vtCw.. err
IIfltltJlSrn from the poml of , cw of
l.no",1cd atlalne"" in 'H. Ilf uf
the nalural M:U "lC' of I 1(' an
pc r nal (nxi, 10 the mmorlalil), (
the flUl. lire hc:vond \"1, grave
HctIWn lind 11111 Ie Many Inl r s
ling VlC'Mo bavr heen \' I V al
be rrom Ih r lcrr: v of lur 1
kJ( at,.1 aboul the tgln o! rc1..g
.ou hel' T'hf> one and
bm cd nal1l f th I (f t
hct1m fin<b xpr 1ft 't."
III( or If phi ooh\', lhe lru
eRete In If!\ en Cl.\J1l f r
the lad of .. mar < I (' ton
ror I ocial tt.Jt.JU '1 rr I1nd
radure I g1 P lhe r I J( paths

in order 10 reo
dcluslOns. Natural scienltsts
adopting this type ... f alheism tend
10 use terminology find to
make nadequate use of philosophi.
cal cone . M odcrn fideEs," cfis.
torts c views of such al.
tern," ng II . represent as sup-
portl of Lenm 1l00cd
that apologi.;s of rcligJOn and
Idcali .. m "M"i7c 711 'Jc minuleF-t
ernr, the vC\Laenc.l;.s or cx-
nr ion on {he r:lrt or famous
It 11 st!> In O. acr to ju!>tiTy thclr rl;
(ufllshed of fidcism" (Col
1('(I('d Jinrk.J, lW, Vol. 14, r
28') Alhci .. m rooled in natUi
nL S PinC d "'-idcsp. cad suppot1
n .he lQ(h and 20th ccr.: JrC!' m
C wah pf marked progre
s of IlK. natl; I
\\ Id and of lhc dc\'clcpmcnl 0(
m IL I lism root -;I n th natural
Kene
UIIElsr AT nlE "(IRK
Rf .... ( U" JODI na. f thc
Reglt," I (omml' f th A
l fllIln (ommunl Pal r (I!
v k ) puhli cd t-; wl.;en 19:
1
C'-
t'l,1
(()'l/SliOl
c r. (lOll f tho!.C' , -
dIn 1 believe 1ft th nif mer. I'tII
d .... ar ,0-' lnlcd C the t
4 r mater .al wor 1 l;' k II
I ":lpOI -I () L. _r(nB '-
... n non . e or. 1'(;"""::
ami (. ! .. l: ss "'I, n-re
lig.ous l: .nC!.S Implie." a I l
(f faith n wj r "'c .,.,.- Ig!
hut I dl ne always n(. u ...
hel n'1(..110ns 2! well h tbe
( pltali I ntr of ''-1: pTC'sclll
dav therc r a good r:: :'1V pcopk
r .. m rc1igxm sornc.lbing
aJ cn. but wh at tk same {1m(
AIlIHsr
"
are by no atheisls. can
...,ften he explained by the seepli
-- agnOSlicism or indifferentism
ele-. Intrinsic to Iheir world outlook.
C(lnseiou!<oncs.s prcsuppo!\es
a ddibcme lIccerlancc of philrs
, ophic.11 malerialiSm as Ihe only truc
IhcorChcaI hasi< for alhci!\m. AI
the .,rcM:nt time cnn!\cious
n('5." L" ha5t"d on the dia-
lecticalmalcriOllist world OUllook
and aca;plS Ihe w(lrld a" it i", with-
out any extraneous add ilion.... It
start!\ (lUI from Ihe faci thai the
world II,round of C In-
slantly mO'1ng nd c'langing ml.'lter,
whie"l n the 01 Us evolution
ha!\ hrought ((lrlh Ihink ng Man. its
uilimate Alh::!.l C""n
Klousncss L" mcomrauhlc with
tither lr at})' kind f <! 1.1
t phdosophy, mduc.lmg the
wpbl . caled form!\ or subjective
1.1 lism. Atheist c.1n
c '\I "I n the plane of it! 01 -:"{
, I.. ., II takc on "Ie 11\'e h:- m
f\: m f spec ric boob, artic_
wnk 'arl elc or on the
f ant of 5OC.a1 -YChl lop;)'. In he
Itt. c II cml .;5 indivil.lual
umc
A.THEISr EDUCATION, mOuen'c
pcopJ almr.d al fos crmg
tili( m l("fI, Ii I w. rid outlook
and UI :nounting : b ief. t
15 mpor'.anl Ie. b- w.:en
Ihe 11'o'e prcre1uI1IIcs of
t edue t . I perifie :OCIU-
e. :me :on
A
nns. In Ih fl
VK. " of wbu it t ffl :-::tL:d, nd e
subJedl'o'e .I .e Ill: ! ju-
e K,naJ I ,. opl .... th
'J>C..,1,aI purp<r. I: m
demand: an c.: c Ih
edwe . condltiun n Wtll
nt.::.due "'11 is effect d T1h;
openl or education m
capita.Ii"t soclely lire limitoo_ Only
by undermining 1he social
mots of fIligjOll, ueales ravourahle
oprortunilies for Ihe wide-scale de
vclopmcnl (If .alhci<;L education. In
SO\-lcl society Ihe In--
nucncc of religion and"
mass athf'iJt f;omciollJncss i!\ elM-ely
bound U.I! wilh thL c4'ononi and
cultural refnrm. .. laking pla( in he
nf oClicIopmenl In
lurkly alhcist education i1
e:lllcd upon no me 'Iy 10 provide
e:lch working <:iliJ'cn with the bar 10;
on which 10 build up a ,,;cnlific
wrrld outlook, but lisa 10 c..:nablc
him 10 \\ilhsland rt:ilglOu innuen
c and develop Ihe nccessaly skills
11... c rry out propaganda
work. t lion l" ino;cpar
ahly linkc.d w.th 'he a "I((ts or
c mmunisl lion: Iiell. In
ternalionali"t, m I :tod 8C!.th IIC
t)r n 'Ir, e In .attitudes 10 lOOt;.
I WJ S 1 rale a?,e I thet..\!:
eau lion c n he ingld au' firM,
Ihe critle]1 "JIC I. I. mli r;;
the r liglOu world lutlook
J lion t' ,. ICC' fi, j .. c
nC)' n::.n Ie :D r'le rf 11-
re \ 1C world and 10 I.. IOUS
n 'e, of 50C I and Man; se ...
:ldly, Ih. poSltl'n,; pee . lhe
nn' stinli': uf he h IC I
m,.1h and C lC -,tlon5 10..1 the
which mak up tht; u:nUfic.
ji II lical nate aI, int retation
Ih ottJee i-ve Wt)rld., the explan3<
of the nee of rclip ". of
r In fr il tXl:' '1e nd ,I
t:. ,. e ltv Irar. ,1 If
at I t. JUClllo" confined only
to nl14 Imt d r I gJOn th n it IS
onW )mpl" hing r 1ft of It!\ Ia.U
It IS A roy,"g rchpou." fall'l bu' ,;.
I!> ffirmlng Ihe ath ' I .... orld
oullo k. I nlirte 'f'lCW of . he
"'1 ki : 'he Importance 01 the ('I('!l
48
A TIlESf PROPAGANDA
live aspect of atheist education can
also be deduced from the fact (hal
in the USSR there are now groups
of people who have grown up in
an atheist environment and are not
religious. but at the same time have
not become convinced, conscious
atheists. It is important to convince
people like this not only that relig-
ious ideology consists of illusions
but also that the atheist world oul
look can provide scientifically sub-
stantiated answers to important
modern questions relating to what
man's world outlook and moral
principles should be. Atheist educa-
tion is a complex and multifaceted
process involving a variety of meth-
ods, forms and means of ideological
influence. Side by side with it other
forms of educational influence are
also used (the introduction of non-
religious ceremonies, involvement
of tbe working people in active so-
cial and cultural adivities etc.). It is
essential tbat all these methods and
means be combined tggetber and
-
mterwoveo.
waverers.
Greek mythology, one
virgin goddesses of
.,: as the
1_ ore: aDd victory, wise
.. seeD as the sym:
-
bol of prudence. She was regarded
as the patrones...'i of heroes., crafts
and the arts, thc defender of civic
order and also chastity.
ATMAN (Sanskrit), onc of the main
concepts in the religious-mythologi_
cal system of Hinduism. In Vedic lit_
erature, particularly in the Upon;.
shads, the term designates the soul
or self within the human individual
and also on the universallcvel. The
subjective individual sclfhood is
measured against objective primary
reality-the Universal Spirit or
Brahmarl - and the achievement of
their identification is one of the
main precepts of Hinduism.
ATOMISM, (1) a philosophical doc-
trine in Ancient Greece (Leucippus,
Democritus, Epicurus), Rome (Lu-
cretius) and India (the Vaisbeshika
school), according to which the
world consists of indivisible p-;y1jcies
that are eternal and indestrustibk
"and which move in a void. Their
combination leads to the "birth" of a
thing and their separation leads to
destruction or "death". In Western
versions, atomism, starting out from
the eternal nature of movement and
the expediency of natural processes,
provides the theoreticaJ basis of
atheism. Indian atomism attributes
the role of initiator of movement to
the spiritual principle and considers
the Univcrsal Soul and the Moral
Law or Dllamla as the motive force
behind it. Spiritualist atomi5m was
developed in the doctrine or the
takalUnum; (2) a scientific doetnn'f
regarding the discrete 0
matter. The dcvc1()pment of atom-
ism, from its mechanistic (17th and
18th centuries) chemical (19th ceD-
, - ) ,.
tury) forms (classical atomism of
the modern rorm, provides one
I
I\t:( i\Bt:R(i. 1111, CO:-'IT<;'SJ()" ()r
the moo;t important cnncreLe !ocien-
Lilic foundations of dia/ecrical ma-
reria/ism.
ATON or ATEN (liler'lllv
di,c"), a god of Ancient Egypl, wor,
ship of whom was introduced hy the
Pharaoh Amelllwrep H' (Akhena-
ton).
ATfIS, a god worshipped in Phr'y'
gia, who symholized the fruitfulness
of Mother Earth. According ttl leg-
end, Auio; wao; a shcpherd and the
mother-goddeo;s, (\'hele, fell in love
with him. She jealously dro\'c him
mad when he decided to marr;, anc;
turned him inlo a pine-tree. hi Asia
Minor and later in Ancient Rome, to
which the cult of Allis !ipread
around 200 B.C.. those who re\'c'I'"cd
him annually celehrated his dl ath
and resurrection. Certain clemcnls
of the Attis cult were takcn ove
later by Christianity.
"TilE ATIITlII}E OF TIlE WOR-
KERS' PARlY TO RF.l.1(;tON"
work by Lcn;" first puhli:<ihl,:d in Ihe
new:<ipapcr "Prolctari" (The Pwk
tarian) in 1909. In this wurk Lenin
demonstrated thai the workcr:'o'
party ba5cs its world I)n
scientific o;oeialism, i.e. llO Mar105m,
tha.t .is diametrically opposed tll anv
Lenin wrnte: "RehgHln IS
the opIUm of Ihe pcllr'Jle di('
tum hy Marx the cnrner llf
the whole nllll,l{lk on reli
gion" (Collcctrd Works,
1.\ p. 4()2). Thi .. artidt con
talns the definilion of the
of rrli,::ion in laplt.ilist society
lenin Cumes nut dearly against
iJlliludc" 10 religi"n
nd WIth reference to Frrdcrirk F'i-
rts he writc" that Ihe al"know-
cdgcment of ,ilht'ism in the form of
, 010111
war again .. t i .. the OcSI way
to :o.lImulale IOtercst in the laller
make (\ reli,
glon mnre difficult. unin ex-
posed opporluni .. m lu llc f(lUlu! in
certain altitudes to c1ahnr
at the same time the Marxi\l
Idea to effect that rcliginn
..hould .remam Ihe privatc concern
of the m.di\idua1. Rdigion is a pri-
vate affair as far <i'j the stall.: is con-
cerned .. hut not with rcspt'(,1 to Ihr.
proletarian partv, whieh aim!> at lin
crating .the w,;rkinl! people from
the 5plrltU; I yoke tlf religinn. The
19ainq religion .. huuld not be
hmlled 1.0 lbstract idlologieal pro-
paganda. but: llhcr h. "linked up
with the (:Onl.Tete P'<lCCC (\f the
ela,,-... mO\'ement. which aims
::<ipdal .lOOf ... or reli
Slon' (lhid,. p. 405). The P'u'y of
working clas.'i. wrote :
11uSl he the ideologica1 Ii at! ... : 10
. fight ag.J.inq JII kinds . me
Jheval oOs.cura_nti<;m, including the
OIO-51),Tc religlon.
At'DlANl 1 l. cd which
omcnto h:.:ng 'n 4th century in
Mesopot<.lmi.l. foundl'r Auciius
(d. 112 \.0') c,lll;,;J fm improved
mlHals ,Inr! flttadd the cleq.w in his
sernwns. and his
1 (lllo\\'('rs hrnkc . .Iwav trom Ihe
Ci1l1H'h ilfill he nmsceralcd himo;elf
his/wp. In Audiu .. pro-
(film 1,l',
I Itt' Jssl"rtivn that ;111 .. in the
RiMe where human attrihules are
JSl"Tlhcd tIl (iud. should he under-
:-(,l('K) lil('r.lllv. Thl.: official Church
condemned thr teaching. ... of Audius.
AH;SBl'R(;, Ttll-::
01; (Latin ''Clmft:ssit)
iln important document In the.
tory of Lullierof/iJ/11, an c"po:o.llion
I
,
,
50
AUGUR
of the fundamental tenets of its
dogma. The "Confession" was com-
piled by Philipp Melanchthon with
the supervision of Lucher and on
the ba<;is of the theses he had for-
mulated, and also of those articles
that had been adopted previously
by Luther's followers at conferen-
ces in Marburg, Schwabach and
Torgau. It consists of two parts: the
first bas 21 articles of faith (con-
ccrning such matters as the Trillity,
original sin, the Son of God and the
jllSlijication by faith alone), and the
second has seven articles with a
similar exposition of the delusions
and abuses of the Papist Church
which the Reformation was wiping
out The "Confession" was, accord-
ing to Engels, "the finally impor-
tuned articles of a reformed burger
church" (Marx, Engels, Collected
Worlcs, Moscow, Vol. 10, p. 417),
i.c. of a "cheap church", that had
done away with luxurious rituals
and simplified the Church
aTcby. In 1555, in accordance with
the Religious Peace of Augsburg,
only Protestants adhering to the
Confession of Augsburg were
legally recognized as such. The
'"Confession" is at the prescnt time
ItiII recogni7.ed by all Lutherans as
document expounding the fun-
dlD'ental tenets of their faith and
jastifying it as the true faith, which
restores to the "Word of God" its
b .... meaning.
AUGUR, a member of a religious
college in Ancienl Rome. which
leiptetcd the will of the gods on the
basis of the behaviour of the birds.
11ae oa-.ce was for life and high
lip was attached to it, since it gave
who held it the chance to in-
the course of political
eo!:JIII ,
-
AUGUSTINE m. IlIPPO, St. (J54.
430 A.D.), Chrlsttan theologian a d
acknowledged as
of the Blesscd by the OrtllOdo
Church and hy the Romatl
Churcll as a Saint and Father of the
He I?layed a prominent rolc
In and
Roman Cathohc dogmas, m particu.
lar those conccrning divine predes/i-
natioll, grace and I'ffribuliotl or re-
ward beyond the grave; he also
fought relentlessly against heresies.
St. Augustine's ideas are still in
flucntial among Christian theologi.
ans. His most important works were
"Dc Civil ale Dei" (The City of God)
and "Confessions".
AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS or
"RIAR..'i, one of the oldest Roman
Catholic monastic orders. It was
founded in Italy in the middle of the
nth century and later spread to
Spain, Portugal and other European
countries. In the middle of the 16th
century the Pope numbered il
amongst the mendicant orders. The
so-called Rule of St. Augustine
originally adopted by the Order as I.t!
charter: for a longtime the authorsh1r
of this rule was attrihuted to SI. Au
gustine (hence the name tbe
Order), hut it is more Hkclythat 11 wM
drawn up hy onc of his followers. The
monks of this Order were used by the
Papacy in its struggle against popul
a'
and heretical movements, and
the 16th century onwards in II!
mis.sionary activity among the peC!"
plcs of Central and Southern Amen
ca, in the Philippines, China, Ja
pan
l
India and e1M:whcre. At the preset!
time the Order Mill numbers several
thousand members.
AUGUSTINIANISM, an
Icc1ual, intuitive trend within Cbf1t
Al.,-roCEPIIA1.Y
tian philosophy. Thc main pnnci-
pies of are: extreme
realism of a NCllplatonic persua-
sion, acknowledgement of the Im ...l-
of inner experience. the
teaching to the Cfcct that there
exists a directly experienced link
between Man and God, the rejec-
tion of persuasion hased on reason
and the emphasis on emntional
mcans of persuasion, and, finally,
fatalism, The founder of Augusti-
nianism was the mediaeval theologi-
an St Augustine. Throughout !>tv-
eral centuries Augu.stinianism was
the dominant doctrine in the
Roman Catholic Church. After tht:
nth ceotury its influcnce began to
decline, hut it continued to plav a
prominent role in the ideology of
Roman Catholicism. Thf" out
standing of the Auguslinians,n
Roman Catholic philosophy are the
mediaeval mystics St. Bernard of
Ciain'aw: and SI. Giovanni Bo-
nawmture, the J (Antoine
Amauld, Saint-Cyran. Lemaistre de
Saci) and Pascal in the 17th cen-
tury, the Roman Catholic "modem
. "
ISts at the turn of the ani ury (AI
fred Loisy, Edouard Lc R 'v. Lu-
cien Laherthonniirt el aU and the
at the prc!-t: nl
hme,
AURELIUS, Man:u. (121-180 '\0),
Emperor of Rome rrom th!. He
shared the view of the lauer-dav
Stoics, according to whose theory ail
men, whether free men or slaves,
We!C equal in view of the law or
equality. During his reign
It made easier for slaves to
become free men and restrictions
were placed on the: use of torture.
Yet Church tradition still maintains
Aurelius indulged in persecut-
Ing
"
At:RORA (from the Latin "aura"
hrce/c that precede! the dawn), the
goddess. of the dawn in Roman
mythology.
AUSPICE. See Augur.
AUTHORITARIANISM, CHlJRCH
the hierarchical f{lfm of Church
f!lin!stration demanding the unques
tlonmg ohcdiencc of low-ranking
clergy to their superiors, and
o.r In the This auth
Orltanamsm at enhandng the
authority or religIOn as a whole and
,nnueoce on tbe
::ife of society.
AUfOfEPHALY, the inde
pc'!1dtnc;..; or L Ifgu'\1crnment ,.,f I ne
Or:.hodox ( burches. rhe first
autoc::phalous Churches appcart::d
al l"C time v.ilen ..:crtain of the pa.
tn:trchstcs and metropolitan sees in
the f.J'Stnn provinces of the 8Y/.3n-
tine Empire (Antioch, PalcMine
and Ait:landria) were hreaking
away a!- the rc ...ult of
tendenCies and the dc.sirc to sct
themselves apart and becomc inde-
pendent of bllth Church and I!p'
peTial powa, As the Orthodox faith
spread. ncw autoccpbalous Chur
ches appeared. Al the present lime
there are fifteen autocephalous Or-
thodox Churches: the Constanti-
nopl, Church. the
Chwrh, the Al1tiochiafl Church (m
Syria and the the Church
of Jernsalem. the Russian
(be GeOl'Jion Chutrh. the Snblan
Chun:h. the Romanian Church. the
Bulgarian Church. lhe Church of Cy-
pnH. tbe Church of Hcllas. the Al-
banian Oturrh. the
Church. the Polifh Church, and tbe
Orthodox Church in America.
AlTOnrnIO:-":Ol'S rn TS
Al:TOCHTHO"iOLS CLLTS.
mordial rcligioU!;-cum-magie cults of
an indigenous term
appeared in connectIOn ...... llb the
Deed 10 di!\tingU1e;h orig
m
al local
("uiIS frflm modificatilm ... of these in-
corporated mlo established W01}d
rr/igrons Autochthonous cults 10-
\"OIVC totemic, and animIs-
tic beliefs. a system of tribal initio-
titm,t. the worship of of
chiefs and deified king.or..,
and other early forme; of at
various stages of their development.
Special featufes of "'arious countrics'
historical development and condi-
tion." in the natural environment
determine the similarities and dif-
fcrelKcs between the
lutochtbooous cults.
AljTO.DA.t"t (,he Spanish w<>rd
. literally "ad of faith"), the
for announcing and car
oat I 5CIItcncc of the Inqum-
ceremony included: a sol-
in which the dergy,
of the Inquisition trihunal
UfH;taalS. monks. mem-
. brolherhoods and
InCO took pan. the laHer
,b., would hu
m front of the a'owd
I solemn an-
of tbe 5entcDCC in Ihe
the Court 0< ,he local
lile cp>.ution of the rocR'
by whirPing. or
vekc-whK::h would
_ by lile occuIar lu,h
lilt .m car-
J816.

like sclf-COn\ictinn. auro-!mggcstioll

u .. ually lakes place 'Aithllut the indi-
vidual to argumcnh
As a spcci(jc meam. (If hringing
Out'nee to Pear upon Ihe 8c11\;'" 01
the indi,,;dual's hody and hie; gcn'cral
state, (ir ...' came inle
being in the Ancient Eae;l. Varinu. ... re-
ligious and philosophical tcaching.,
part j.cularly Yoga. used CClmplcx.
multlstage system .. _of auto-sugges
tlOn. The psychologIcal and ph",jo'"
logical or
i. ... fairly com pin, ",bieh makes il
pm .... c;ihlc: fn interpret auto-suggcstirm
in a rcligiou. .. and way. In ac
tual fal1 it j" the impact \;a Wf\td\, and
images connected "'ith the tatter, on
the cerchral 't.Jrtcx and later on the
5utxnrtK;lI nerve centres Ilfthe hrain,
"co"("';pondinlt" tu varinu... fune
tinnal sY"lcm:o. of the hody. '" hieh enn
Mllutt" Ihl; of autIH;uggc"ilion
Pwce scs lR\olved in thc fprmatlnn
01 001 Inn ... and Id!.: and the indJ\id
ual' J'OWCr 01 rw.y an im
port ani pari In aulo a.'
hi... uggl.!!'..flhilitv 11 rd1t!1OW
Ct lOccptionc; and idc ,IS arl. the !.uhjcd
or auto-,uggCSlion, fflf Ihe individual
il one of the mean<; rur ((lR
Mllidat 10Ft fan h in (iond and il erealce; I
favourahlc ruin1 or drparture rot'
prayer. In mudern p"ycho-thrrapy
aUl<H,uAAc""tllln in order 10
the hody during pcriocbof
inlcnfoC preMure Of in Sirc!oS sal'"
ationr..
AVATARA (San bil . ) .1
H".dmsm the inca. P'-
tion of a (.od in the guu.c of dr:r
gooh, rcoplc 0< animals. JD .......
'lines ,h .. had been wido lot-
lief .n ,he /101Un ..... ","'" of
Th" OOOt'Cpl became
,he period I.- ,he: 4th 10 ...
ce.nlUllC5 A.D. 8csl tau ....
A/.IIAR

In HlR2, in ctlnflltmity wilh a
T"ar ... dence, he ..... ;1<; hurnl alive
wllh hi ... dno;c'-l follnWl'f!;'
"'Bu(lk
ten avalara!i nf lisiJlIl/. <;omc of
which were human in form. rnn ...l
n'lla"ly nr all. Rania ano I,:ris/llla.
In BudIJJII.V11 the wmo "iI\<ltara" i<;
u ...ro purely and ... imply to mean in
carnaliun of a god.
AVE \1ARIA. tlpcning. wwos tlf
a Roman Catholit praH.'r tlf Ihank<;-
gi\ing. addre ...:"cd to Ihe Vir!!in .\fal)'
(Our I od\". Mo(IIt'r oJ (iod, 'fado,,
rio). Many C\lmptl\l'rS have ...ct
thi ... prayer 10 mu!'.il'
Avt:RROf:s. Sec Ihll RU.\/lti.
A\ES")"A. See LcX(}{HlnolljmJ.
A\'J("t'NNA. S(.'e Ibtl SlIIa.
A\,ID\".\ (San!..kflt). lr,nnr'IIlt"<. delu
Slun, 1.llll1re In perceive Ihe truc na
lurt" tlf thmgs. In pariit'll!;" religiOUS
Ie... It'hmg'>, In nwldllllm thl'" n:
garth d liS (lne "r r hI.! main -.:allsec; pf
,md
AVII,NIJNFSE tAl'f1VIT"\", 'he
pcrtnd dunng whll'h ttl{ l'ap,11 \c.II
wa In Avignun (S(lulhern holOec),
I! had Icn there al Ih\:
dem Ind e.f Ihe I rl"m'h King Philip
IV .Ind rcm;unnJ there frllm I till
IF"! I)urin? ,hi ... peri,'ld Ih\" POl'arv
wa tl.'icd hy In.:nch to
Krvl I hnr politic;,1 emb,
4.VVAKl M Pt'lrnvkh Ilh;"!1/ Ilr
1(.21 1f,M}), ardpric!'.1 ami promi
ncnl th.ol(lgian ;md author: une (If
Ih!" Ie.: ddt r 41r I he {JIt/ IJdu"'rn'
mrrVcment. (In all"tlunl tlr hi'i refu,.tl
10 Ihe infroJun:d hy
"'!ltrlau.:h NtJcon he was I.: kiled to
'llht:ri,a in lh'H. In I(.tl). in aU'nrd
anC( Wllh a verdict (lf the l hurch
(lIuO(:il, Awalt.um wa. .. unrnx:lt.ed.
ek.(;ommUUlcah.:d and unle mure
Ilf t ommcnlam:)'" and h." fa.
mnu" 'l.lk'" (an auttlt-io!,!raphv,
Awakum 1hc
reader wllh a vivid and t;llptl'
... tHe nf Ihe I,r the official
( hUfl.h, lhe .. unlrulh ..... and
\If adOlin"tratillO fount.!
1R lhe C\lunhv, Ihll" mi('in)! thc
Uhlpliln tlf I ht;
A\'I\T, a rhythmic unit in ,1
(111m) tit Ihc "(.rUII. In
Mlhklll hrlid\, c-Kh .tval (tlOl,un,
Ihe Immediat(, "ou.l \If (iud.
O\\\HlI.I.AII, Shi'lll' Mo .... km
k,Hkr. \,njllyin!! ptlpulatlty
rolluwl"r' ,lOd .)1,,, othcr
JUlhurilati\e religinus !calk-rs.
"-ZAN. Ih(" n'1iginlh ('"xhllllali"n ,""",'
Ihe nllll""", (",tiling ul"1O
't.lY Ihl'ir pr,!VcT'" (ntJma:) a<; re-
quired of Ihem fi\e Ilml'S a day.
4.Z>\Ztl .... 1 Ju,II,"n II inn ue;cd hv Ihc
Jews In pll' Mo\,m limes fur a
"f the Wlldnnl<;. .... AI Ihe
tillle III Ihe. fcslihll of )"0111 A,f'pur
(Ih,' D<ty Ilf Atnnl"menl), Ihl' pnc'it
bid 110 ,I Ihl" "ins tlf the whtl!c
IJCIlp1c .md kl him out inln Ihl' wil
dum'''", tu jnin A/.IIt1 (henl'c the ex
prr ...... itlO ""l,IPC go,II") In Ihe apoc-
ryphal Book tlf ( nlK h and in the
1 alllllill Alald is dc ...ulhcd alii a f.1
kn (ertain (hmWrn IiiCcts_
I ht; name fnr Sal an, for the MOl ....
he i!'o the evil splnt
AZHAR 'ol.AZHAR fW .I-AZHAIII,
Mtt!ll m thculqtical centfC .. (Iem.
whl( h h,:(,lm a M,IIIe .. IIIIMftII
In the IfJlh e ntury ,. "$
AJ'JIAR
the year 972 in conjunction with the
of tbe same name. From the
13th century onwards it has been the
largest and most authoritative
lem centre of learning in the Middle
East. Eacb year it sends out
dreds of missionaries to vanous
countries of tbe world. It bas a Sho-

no (dO<:irinal) amI litcrature faculty

and a fal:ulty t,f g(.'ncral theology. In
rClTnl Yl'.us it opened new!'>tCU.
lar for medic inc. engineer_
ing and ilgriculture. After the inau.
guratillR uf the Rcpublic of
alA/har made a stale lUllver_
sity.
B
BA, in the f'f'iiKirm of Ancient 1:)111,
(Inc of the clements the
of man, the .fOul, the
bodimenl of immortality. It was
generally in Ihe form of
a bird with a human head.
BAAL. a god of the ancient Semitic
peoples worshipped in Phoenicia.
Palestine and Syria. Baal was con-
sidered as the ruler 01 the Earth, Ihe
god of rain and "tonus: he was the
patron of towns and life.
RABEL, a Biblical legend according
to which all men originally spoke the
same language, hul later after they
began to build the Tower of Babel
"whose top is in the heavens", "the
Lord came down to see the city and
the tuwer, wbich the sons of men
had built" (Gen. 11:5) and upset
their plan: he decided to "confuse
their language, that they may nOi un-
one another's speech" and
the towcr was not completed. Leg
ends about the incomplete tower
and the emergence of different lan-
guages arc to be found in the tradi-
tions of many different peoples.
Some however, hold the
view that the prototype for the
Tower of Babel was provided hy the
pyramid, Zigurat,
according to archaeological
find mg. .. , of seven tiers and
was ninety metres 10 height. It was
an enormoU5 edifice intended for
worship. Jews and Christians regard
as a symbol of hUIIWI vanity
IOvllmg God's punishmeat.
BABISM, a teaching (If the Moslem
Shi'ite stet, which arreared in Iran
in the forties and fifties of the last
century and which lent a religious
navour 10 popular upri. .. inp di-
rected the oppression from \
the feudal landlords, the Shah's
regime and tbe expansion of foreign
capital. The name stemmed from
the title Bab, given to Ihe founder
of tbe sect, Sayyid Ali Mohammed
f lR20-18SO), whicb in Arabic means
"gateway", through wbich opens up
the path of trutb and Ali
Mohammed preached thaI tbe com-
ing of the Moslem Mes.w-
MoJuJi - wa... at hand and propa-
ga.ed .he idea of .he periodic: in
carnation of God iD prophet&.. The
main tenet .. of BahlS- weie ex-
pounded in .he A1-Biyaa" (R ...
lation), a book written by Ali M0-
hammed as a S'-It stirUle ahe
Konm and.he
BABYlO:"IAl'O CAP'IlVn"V
BABYLONIAN CAPTlVllY In the
year 597 s.c., the kmg
Nebuchadhezzar besieged Jen!sa-
lem, plundered led away anto
captivity tbe noblhty, craftsmen and
artisans of Judaea. In 586 s.c., he
besieged Jerusalem again,
it and again led away captiVIty a
considerable proportion the
population ?f The
endured this captiVIty for approXI-
mately 50 years. In the year 539 B.C.,
the Persian king Cyrus conquered
Babylonia and set the Jews from
their captivity. The story of this cap-
tivity and the subsequent of
the men and womeD of Judaea IS re-
corded in the books of the Old Tes-
lament and it is interpreted as the
fulfolment of God's will.
BABYLONIAN RELIGION, collec-
tive term for the polytheistic beliefs
found in the slave-owning societies
of Mesopotamia - in Sumer, Babylo-
nia. Accad and Assyria (4th to l!:,t
millennia B.C.). The main ideas of
Babylonian religion were the follow-
ing: simple people counted as noth-
ing before the gods; kings were the
favourites and proteges of the gods;
tbe existing order and laws were di-
vinely ordained. The gods of Babylo-
Ilia appear in anthropomorphic
form. In Sumer, in the 3rd and 4th
millennia, a concept of a great
Trinity of gods emerged in the wake
oIlhe fusion of various triba1 cults.
In addition 10 the three main goo.<;,
.AIw. En/il, and Eo, other gods were
,Iso worshipped, who personified
the forces of Nalure and certain as-
peds of men's practical activity.
from ancient limes there had
ailted in Meso)lOtamia agricultural
calls, in particular that of the god
den of fertility, !shtar, and the god
01 farming. Tammuz. From the be

ginning of the 2nd millennium th

patron of Bahylonia, the god
dllk, began to he accorded pride of
place in the host of different gods.
Thc of the centrala.ation of
power. in the hands of Bahylo-
nian l.:lngs was renected 10 the emer_
gence of a trend towards mono-
theism: the ancient gods came to he
reg.arded as different manifestations
of Marduk. During the period of As-
syrian dominion (8tb.. and 7th cen-
turies "'B.C.), the Babylonian pan
theon came to include tribal and na-
tional gods of the Assyrians, in
particular, the god Assur. After the
downfall of the Assyrian empire
these new additions vanished. Ele
ments of primitive beliefs were al-
ways to be found in Babylonian reli-
gion, in particular, elements of ani-
mism and magic: dhination was also
we1l developed and an important
role was ascribed to asrral cults. Ma
terials regarding Babylonian religion
are to be found in written sources
such as "Enuma elish" and the epic
of Gilgamesh; certain ideas and
themes from these works were
adopted by the ancient Hebrews tfor
example, the legend of the Rood): A
characteristic feature of Babyloma
n
religion is the advanced
of the priesrhood. which organJzed.
in accordance with strict the
complex and lavish practices of re'
ligious worship. Spectacular
were buill. When ZoroosmQ11Iun.
Nam and Glrlstianit\' began h
5.pread in Mesopotamia,
religiun gradually declined and h,1
ceased to exist by tbe 13th cenlun
A.D.
BACCHANALIA., religiOUS cdr.:bt
a
-
. . h' f h god BaC".'
lIOns m ODour 0 t e J
(Diom',msJ in Ancient Greece an
Rome, resembling unbridled orgl
c
'
nAIIAI ......
Bacchanalia Wl're u .. ually pcrfllrmed
at night, in the (lpen hy lij!:ht of
main role in Bacchana-
lia wa" that played hy W(lmen (Bac-
chanles or Maenad,,) whn workcd
them"c1ves up into a frenlied
through wine and rcligioU". exalta-
tion. In the 2nd century 8.C par-
ticularly wild flurns of Bacchanalia
became widc"pread in Italy. In the
year 18(, B,C. Bacchanalia were
banned by the Roman Senate hut
they were <;till cclehrated for a long
time in secret after that.
BACCHUS, in m)'1hnlng)',
this was one of the names gi\'en to
the god Dionyms_ In Ancient Rome
Bacchus was w(luhippcd a!\ 'te god
of viniculture, wine and merriment
The advance of winc-gt'()\lwing and
yinicuhure in Italv )romoted "le
spread of the cult 0: Bacchus n
Italv. Bacchanalia celebrated
in honour nf Bacchu,,_
BACON, t-rancls (1561 Il;tr.), t-ng
lish philnsnpher lOd ,',e fal'1er of
Engli5.h motrrialism. In 1'\IS .. -:. C
"Novum Organum" lifo;!!]) am ..
other work!; he as,,-ertr:d that le
purpose of scicnl'l' W ... , finu 01 t
ahout Nature, to it"
(
he demanded that men clean,,-e tho.; r
from prejudkcs and dllu-
"ions. He clahOi 1tC!" ncthlld<, -(lr
5.cicntific imlw,:tinn ano cxpoundt:d
the idea (If Maluill/ntt/': he <,trc<;seJ
that sh(luld pre
eedenl'C fwer faith and h(.; nml out
cbll1a, .. tic phihl!O.llph\ \1' 1C
same time, Baclln c I .. cu
that thcre wa. (ind. and Ih'1t po.;
clal intelligent luI XI. e 'I C
Ihe e 1<, 1Il dem 109 'l:lt t (linr.
dlr .. lted ag:sin.' the re iSI' us
0(' di. .. t world ,':'cw lOd It; j logIC .lIly
to a materiali<,t undeT<.tanding of Na-
ture and Man.
RORer (c. 121+ 1292), Enlf
hsh phllO'ioOphcr and foCicnti,,1.
was a Frand.o;can monk. Bacon tam( \
oul again"t scholastic and
l'olind fnr Church Icadt;s. He
saw experimentation as the \lasi. ... fnr
thc acqui!'iition of kncw.'kdgc, and an
understanding of the forCl'S of na
ture a.s the ultimate purJ"<l!'iC for the
dc"e1opment or science. He
criticued feudal practices. the ignor-
mct (If the clergy. and hc proooscd
that work should be carried out to
promo(e secular education. Tbe
<. hurch 3.uthoritit::s banned him rrom
tt:-.Jching in Oxfurd J1ld he spent 14
ns ned in a mODa."tel'}'_ .. c
_d th:tt lir I" Ul ;:: for com-
u' ., and :"11 I1sl'"d 1- n: Ci (0 C )1'
- -
n: t, .ion..
8AH-\ISM, I rdigi lS-politk.11
mo\,.;ncnt lhal C'T'::':--cJ 10 the
middle )!- \!>:c l'lth 10 lr Q
,Lmone, tho.: .uihaenl!'i of 8abism,
",hl' had :kd frc-,m Inn aflcr (hl;
l.f tht.ir by the.
Sh,ths fl fuunde of Ba-
MimI Ali" NUT,
fr,lm whllSC tille B:h'l'u"lah
("SrJ..:nJ"l1r ,'f Cod"') the mo"e
mo:nt )11. IS name. Tcmm,d from
all ib llnce rCHllutionary
<In( J.:m 'r lie hcgan to ad
fce,"tnnila' _ ':t with the Shah's
r ,gim!.: and tht., prc5cf\.,tion of
pri\,II" f'lT,'pcrty, and. WC1JI In'
.:qualitv. Thl' pac,fi,,' .dl!l the
f.n>lherh('l(-.j of all mt.'n dnd pc";:!. S
adherents llf Rah,lJ<,m
hI I "".1<' in aetual f3et an
O'lrr..:-
tl
or he rullo,,"ers of the mo\C"
\1 the C:.b<' ;md na-
honal-lib .. ration stmggle anJ r"
58
BAKTASllnl',s
fleeted the inte.cests of tbe compra-
dOT bourgelMsic of Iran.
BAKTASHITES, an order of der-
\'ishes in Turkey under the sultans.
The founder of tbe order was held to
be Hadji Baktashi Beli who Lived in
Asia MinOT in the 12th century. The
beliefs and rituals of the Bakta.<;hitcs
evolved from elements of Shi'ism
and Christianir),. In imitation of the
Christian Triniry the Baktashites be-
lieve in a Moslem trinity consisting
of Allah, Mohammed and Caliph
Ali. In the 14th, 15th and 16th cen-
turies the Baklashites gained more
influence over the janissaries, visited
their barracks and became their
spiritUal mentors. The Baktashitc
order was able to put down firm
roots in Turkey and also penetrated
into Albania.
of spring and light in
mythology, onc of the
found in ancient reli-
gods of fertility sym-
and rebirth.
IANNS, public declaration in a
church of a forthcoming marriage to
be celebrated in it.
BAPTISM, one of the seven sacro-
nkhts, which marks the receiving of
new member into the bosom of
the Christian Church. According to
the assertions of the clergy, as are
suh of Baptism Man should die
from the sinful life of the flesh and
be born again for a righteou!t life of
the spirit. In accord witb Christian
concepts. mcn are b(Jfn stained by
the original sin of Adam and
Baptism is designed to 'wa.<;h away"
and to open up before the
iDdividualthe prosped rlf sah'ation.
The ritual of Bapt i'.im involves
-
either the immersion of bahies int
a font fillcd. wit.h water (OrthodOXV)
or thc spnnklmg of habies With
water (Romoll CorJrolicism). In
Protestollt;.WlI, as a rule, the faithful
arc hapti7ed when they Come of
age. In all cases Baptism is reo
gardcd as the solemn moment when
the individual is admitted to the
Christian Church. The origins of
this rite, however, can be traced
back to pre-Christian cults. Purifi.
cation rites using water are known
to have been performed in many
religions of the Ancient World and
were bound up with the view of
water as something possessed of a
purifying force.
BAPTISM IN THE HOLY SPIRIT,
onc of the points of dogma of the
Pentecosrals, who attribute special
importance to nine of the Pentecos-
tal gifts mentioned in the New Tes-
tament (Acts 2:1-4 and 1 Cor. 7:11).
These gifts can allegedly be recei ....ed
by any of the faithfuJ during Baptism
in the Holy Spirit, at so-called in-
spirational prayer meetings, which
arc preceded by long strict fasting.
The individual who has expericnced
baptism in the holy spirit, according
to the teaching of the Pentecostals,
becomes equal to Christ in
supernatural capacities and altaIDs
etcrnal hliss beyond the grave. The
ability to "speak with tongues" (or
glossolalia) is viewed as the outer
manifestation of tbe descent of the
Holy Spirit. This activity is often ;tC'
companied with shaking of tht'
hands or the whole body etc.,
has led to the Pcnteco&tals being
referred to in popular parlance as
the "Shakers".
BAPTISM OF CHRIST IN THE
JORDAN, a Christian festival. In the
8AP'Il<;", or RliS (RUS.SIA)
"
Orthodox Church it is one of the
Tweh-e (irrat Ffasts. It is celebrated
on January 6 (19). The ha<'is for this
festival is the Gospel legend con-
cerning the haptism of (hrif'
in the River Jordan by SI. John 'lie
Baptist . The festival is als() known hy
the name of Epiphany (;reek
"manifestation"), sincc during Jesus
baptism there wa" a special manifes
tation of all the persons of the Hilly
Trinity. The festival of the Baptism
of Christ that was established in the
second half of the 2nd century was
originally celebrated on January 6 at
the same time as the Natil'ity and
Epiphany. Il was only in the 4th cen-
tury that the Nativity came to be sin
gled out as a separate festival to be
celebrated on December 25th. In
Russia the festival of the Baptism of
Christ and Christmas-tide coincided
in time with the n,'atk.;, traditional
festivities of the Ancient 4ilavs c I
ebrating the change of the scar )ns
(winter solstice) and ahsorbed many
popular ceremonies associah:d v.ith
these festivities. Rituals in the
ment of Baptism for the blessing of
water, and in particular the main rit,
ual for the "great hIe:. ing of wa
ters", that was performcc! either n
the church or by a hole in the ice on
a nearby river, can he seen as ves-
tiges of ancient beliefs linked with
concepts of the purifying ll[C :
water. According to the tcae llnR :
the Church, it was prec sely from the..
moment of his bapl that JCSUS
began to preach and to 'cnlighten"
the people. This festival was alw3\'s
used by the Church to onsolidate
concept ions of he wo:' d.
")f Man's place in socictYlDd of hL'.i
vo-:al. ... n and PUlp' e in lift;
RAPTISM OF RUS (RUSSIA)" th.
mt:''XIuction 01 Christianitv to
Ancient Rus at the end of the 10th
and its adoption as the
The cnllal'Kc of the primi-
tive-communal order and the emer
gence of society paved
the: ,:"ay for the replacement of the
?f the. Ancient Slav<; hy
(hn.sllamty, which, in its (ircco-By
zantmc form as a result or close tic s
with had already in
the mid-9th century hccn widely
adopted by the Rus.<;ian ruling "Irata.
Yet it only becamc the Malc religion
after ma5.'i-scalc baptism of tbe Slavs
that was organiled by Prine
Vladimir SVYdtoslavich in 98R-QR9.
The increasingly close political ties
hetween Kievan Rus and lh'"
tries of Western Europe made the
introduction of <..1tristianit'J impera'
tive hy this time. In their turn,. thr.,;
Christian Churches that had )CCOITt"':
establishcd in the nlcr
estcd in extcnding their innurnl e to
other people P"ince Vladimir of
Kiev the ( 1f slian rcligior; a!i a
means to ensure Iht centrali7.allnn
of I he state or Ancient R '!S and the
cor.' 'idation of its international 00-
sition, and to strcng.h ., 11 own
power. The state actively promOld
the sprt:ac Christianity, u!>ing the
new ideology md the or
ganizational De work 10 consohdatc
the feudal ord( [ The introduction
of Christianity m:' with opposition
from the popula massl s: (lutbre,ks
of popular unre In lib century
against feudal assumed
the form of snhChnsltan move
ments. It should he noted.
that the introdudion Ilf
to RtlSSia pl;t\ocd a positive rolc. In
I
"d" r the RU
5S
l3n
the CIIDSOI atlOn ') .-
stale and left its impnnl In the
sphcre of cuhur..:. In 1985. Ihl.:. (hou
sandth anni\'t.: rsar)' of the h?PIlSID of
Rus was cclchrated worldWIde.
DAP'IlSTS
BAPTISTS, one of the
within Protestantism. It came into
being in the early 17th century a
Protestant sect, its founders being
Congregationalists from England,
who had ned to Holland to avoid
persecution at the of the
Anglicans. In 1611 the new teaching
was formulated in the Declaration
of Faith of English People Remain-
ing at Amsterdam in Holland. This
bears clear signs of the inOuencc of
the Mennonites, from whom was
borrowed the rite of adult Baptism.
The ideas of the original
gave expression to the radical aspir-
ations of a section of the petty
bourgeoisie, which was demanding
religious freedom, religious tolera-
tion, and the separation of Church
and State. In 1612 the first Baptist
community was sct up in England,
and in 1639 in North America, in
Rhode Island. In keeping with the
Protestant tradition, the Baptists re-
gard the Bible to be the only source
of tbeir beliefs, and they proclaim
that personal sah'a(;on can be at-
tained through faith in the redemp-
sacrifice of Jesus Christ and that
tbe faithful arc chosen by God for
redemption. One section of the
Baptists, which upholds the tradi-
tion of Ca/\inism, considers that
God even before the creation of the
world, "from the very beginning",
predestined some people ("the
chosen ones") for redemption and
OIbers for death without redemp-
tion (the Particular Baptists).
Others adhere to the Arminian
tradition and believe that God pre
de-stincd all who believe in Christ
for redemption (the General Bap-
tists). Baptists believe in "universal
ministry''. they do not accept the
clergy as mediatory between the
faitbful and God, tbey do not rec-
-
ogni7e the saint5, rclic.r, icon, h
' f h ' t c
sign 0 ( e cross, monat(icism, h
sacramellts of the Church t c
'Chhf' and
minor urc estlvale;. The rite r
baptism and receiving Commu:o
symboli/e, for thc Baptists
[
'h d h' d' ,n,
alt an IS evollon to the servj .
of Christ. Baptists recognize
those festivals that arc linked
the name of Christ, and a very few
other special occasions (such as
Harvest Fcstival and the Day 0[
Unity for Evangelical Christians.
Bapti.c;ts in the USSR).
communities are administered bv
an elected presbyter and a councii.
Baptism began to spread far more
widely from the end of the 18lh
cenlury, particularly in the USA. In
1905 the Baptist World Alliance
was formed, whose centre is in the
USA. At the present time there arc
Baptist organi/.ations active in many
countries of Europe, including
cialist countries, and also in coun
tries of Asia, Africa and America.
There arc over 11,000,000
in the world today.
BARTH, Karl (I 1l861 968),
Protestant thcologian and founder
of dialectical tlreolofJ'. He called .for
a regeneration of truly evangelical
theology hased on thc (If
Lu(lrer and Colvin. Barth's Ideas
stemmed from his view of the abso-
lute contradiction hetween Man and
God, which only God can uvereome,
imparting to men their knowledge "f
himself through the Word, c.
x

prcs.. ...ed in the preaching of Chns
t
and in the text of the Bihle 1S'
whole. He was one of the idcolog
lJ
":
s
of resistance to
regime in Germany. His malR.woth
"Die kirchliche Dogmatik" (hurl
. . vcr the
Dogmatle.c;). was written 0
period 1932-191>7,
OA')IIJDI:S or S'tRlA
"
BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, MAS
SACRE ()J<' St., hloody ..
perpetrated by the <,;athn)i(s
again .. t the HIlf{ltellOtf In Pan .. on
night of August 21-24, 1572, Sl.
Bartholomew'S Day was bemg ccl-
ebrated. The leaders of this mas
sacre, inspircd by the. k.ing's mother,
Catherine de Medlcls, and the
Guises, the prominent members or
the Roman Catholic party, planned
to destroy the leaders of the Protes-
tants, using a convenient opportunity
to this end, provided hy the marriage
of the leader of the Protestant move-
ment Henri de Navarre, for which
many of hie; devotd follo-
wers had assemhled in the c ty
Nearly 1O,nOO pe(lplc were mur
dered on St. Barthoklmew's Day in
Paris and a number )f other cities.
BARTOLD, Vassily (IRm- 93t"), 'So-
viet orientalist, specialist in the
tory of Islam, academician. Hls
works ("The Caliph ami the Sultan
"Islam", "Islamic Culture' , 'IslamiC
World", "The Theocratic anCl
Temporal Power in the hlamit:
World") are rich in factual evidcnc
and provide important source
terial for scientirlc research intll reh
,
glon.
BASEL, COUNCIL (W Sec uetu
mCl1icalor General O ...
8ASHKIN, M:lhrt (rcfc.:il11CCS 0
him rclate to the period
a Russian frec-thinkl'r l3ashkm s
views were innuenn'd hv Ihose of
thl.! N(II'gOf()(/.MOJc(JM' hCr(J\'. Yel
unlike the !'uprmters of th;t1 hi r("Y.
he rejected the j)ld Testammt pro-
phetic tradition Clnd c1ah,ratec
:Je.,s of own, has('u (In the pnn
.:iples of man's Ill\e fUl his neigh.
hour as advUGtlCO in the New Tes/a"
IItellt. Ba .. hkin spoke out in favour or
demon<,trating
that It wa ... Incompatihle with Ch,it.
liarlitr He regarded not a",
God but 3.'i an ordinary man, and he
regarded iconf as idol". He rcjctted
the idea or something
as wen a'i the
Church's claims to political domina
tion. The Council of 1553 accu<icd
Ba .. hkin of spreading heretical idea ..
and he wa.c; forced to take monastic
....ows in the Mona. .. tery
BASIL THE GREAT, St. te. 330179
A.D.}, Bishop of Cacsarea in Cap-
padocia (Asia Minor) and onc of the
Fathers of Ihe ChUff". lie e )mhaUed
Arianism J.nd ad ....ocated a.<;cetici. .. m
and the monastic way of lif" St
Ba .. il clarorated a fOTm of the u
'rVID' and drew up a monastic rule
which nOVo' bears his name. He: '" the
aU!:1or.l a '('ommcntary on the SIX
Dap of Creation' (Hc:taemcron),.in
which arc expounded the ha.\tc pnn-
cipks I Christian cosmology, a
numtlCr f manu,lls the ollduct
109 "\1 (hUl service"', emorlatlOn!
and"" 'tlons.
B<\SILIAN MONK.."\, a m\,laslll..
alcording 0
Church TI:cllrds., hy SI. Basil. lite
(irral in the 4th century. h was \\1dc
Iv utilir.ed by the in order to
achic\.c' formal to Rllmr:
bv tht llTiginany Orthod.l)x popula
lion ("If the Wt;slern of (he
l kraine and after the
llf the L lion of
t(JI'."k (15%). In the 18th century,t e
Order hccaml a
pwpc.-y.owm r, y!;t laler It a
.lHl(xi J( al or Its influtnc.:e
RI
' (2nd cen-
8ASIl.lOES 0"- sy :"
tury A.D.). Sce (in(lStlcs.
62
BAUER
BAUER, Bruno (1809-1882), Ger-
man researcher into early Chris
(ionity. and an idealist philosopher of
the Young Hegelian movement. He
devoted a number of works to criti-
cal anah,j<; of the New Testament.
Bauer demonstrated that Chris-
tianity was the spiritual product of
Greco-Roman culture. He regarded
tbe philosophical and tbeological
writings of Philo of Alexandria and
Seneca as the sources for the ideas
of Christianity. His maio works are
"Critique of tbe Gospel According
to John" (1840) and "Critique of the
Synoptic Gospels" in three volumes
(1841-1842).
BAUR, Ferdinand Christian (Im-
1860), German protestant theologi-
an and historian of early Christianity.
head of the New Tiibingen School of
theology. 10 his theological ideas he
was a Hegelian. He saw tbe struggle
between the two trends represented
by the Apostles Peter and Paul as the
prime cause behind the emergence
of Christianity. Baur made a definite
contribution towards the dating and
of certain books of the New
See Babism.
PlUit (1647-1706), French
and representative of
and scepticism. In his
.... work historique
et critique" (Volume 00e-1695
.-I Volume Two-I697), Bayle
6-';_Aarated that the Bible contra-
dicted DOt only the testimony of con-
but also itself, and that
tbe Bible were just as
as miracles from pagan reli-
e'llOSCd models of moral
[rom the Bible such as
AbnI/IGm, tbe Prophet Efijah and

King Da\'id and put a

to the effect that morahty is nO{ d _
pendent upon religious conviction
e
demonstrating that from the poinl
view of Reason not a single conclu.
sion favouring religion could with-
stand criticism.
BEATIFICATION, in the Rom.n
Catholic Church this is the act of ad-
mitting a person to the ranks of the
blessed. It is seen by the Church as
the "first stcp", or a definite stage in
the process of preparation for event-
ual canonization. Thc right to beatify
is that of tbe Pope alone.
BEBEL, August (1840-1913), pupil
and followcr of Karl Marx and Frttk-
rick ElIgels, a prominent figure in the
German and international labow
movements. He devoted a good dea1
of attcntion to questions relating to
atheism. He exposed Bismarck's
policy of Kulturkamp! as an attempt
to distract the attention of the
masses from cconomic and political .
prohlems. He made a major con-
tribution to investigation of the pro-
cess of the emergence of Chris-
tiallity, demonstrating that it ap-
pearcd in the course of a
widespread movement of the masses
shaped by specific economic
socio-political factors and that Its
dogma and rituals of worship took
shape over a long period and
brought together elements of other
philosophical and religious systetDS
existing at that time. Bebel
as a consistent defender of MarxJslD
in the struggle against opportunjctS.
who at the end of the 19th
began actively to propagate c;oocilia-
tory attitudes to to
and link together ChristlaDlty
socialism.
onus Af-TAIR
61
BEGHARD (m.), RE('UINE (I.).
member of a Chri ...lian community
that came into being in Brahant
aboul 1170 and which sprcad to the
Netherlands, Germany, France,
Northern Italy, Poland and Bohe-
mia. Most of the memocrs 'Nert arti
sans and they preached poverty and
common property: they opposed
marriagc, although mcmhcrs could
marry after Icaving thc community.
They rejected Church and secular
power and helped the sick, the old
and orphans. This movemenl W:l'S
linked with the hcretical movements
of the Amalricialls and thc wl/ards.
In the 14th eentury the brotherhood
was banned and the Bcghards and
Beguines were persecuted by the In
quisition. Isolated of tbe
community are tIl be found in
Bruges, Breda, Am!'terdam md
Gbent.
BEGUNY, a wandedng !iC ...'" withan
the Bezpopovtsy group .f 'ilc Old
Believers' movement in RUSSia, that
carne ioto being at lhe end of rhe
18th century. (The name is derived
from the Russian word "begun"
meaning "runner".) In various pans
of Russia its followers were referred
to as hermits or reduses. Mcmt-ers
of the sect saw thcmsd ...cs as. true
wandering Orthodox Christians.
They preached that the end of lhe
world was at hand and the mentflfl'
of the seet advocal('d among other
things, that people should not pay
taxes, perform their military service
or official dc,,:uments \\ hieh
they termed "clear signs of the Anti-
They saw '''eternal wande-
nng" as way to salvation. From
tbe beginning of the 19Ih century.
ho"'" h
" ... ver, t esc demands ceased 10
he compulsory for all followers of
the Beguny sect. Some of il .. mem-
after makinp: the vow tn lead a
of wandering. began tn complv
Wltb the law .. of the land and to st't
up !;Cerct cel1 .. and
for members of the sed. Only short.
before their death they were ob-
10 take rdugc in onc of theM:
hldmg-places. At tbe present time a
few mcmhcrs of this sect are still to
be found in the Northern Urah and
Eastern Siheria.
BEHAVIOllR, RELIGIOUS. the
range of a<:tion ... by an individua1 or
group compl";ng with the religious
prescriprions laid down in the rules
-,f their particular religion. Man ....
forms of rdigtoU"1. behaviour which
appeared In times were
handed down from generation to
generation aod ar .. still being
duted today. A distincti("lO is dra'ND
between religtous beha\;our during
worship and ,)ugide .... orship, The
fnmt.:work fllT religious behaviour
(u! sid'! ! he ('If worship rc
ligiou:, uptoTlnging within the family,
the of religious or-
ganiution' de ... is also shaped .by
motifs. The nalure of rehs-
ivus beha\;our depend!> upon the
faith to whkh the iadividual believer
(it varies between Chris-
tiani!\-". Ruddhism, Islam. Hinduism
and so on).
BElLIS At-FAIR, a trial organized
by tbe Tsarist aut.horitic:s ia Kiev ia
lQIJ in conaectlon Wlth the un-
founded accusation levelled al the
Jew M. Beilis or baving "!'urdered a
Christian boy, A. Yushc.hlRsky, SO as
to make matzOS out of hiS blood. The
c.ase reflected the Black Hundreds'
policy implemented the
Tsarisl governmenl and Ru.<;Slan Or-
thodox clergy in their efforts to lead
the masses away from tbe revol-
BLKlflYRI'V
64
utionary by
pogroms and whipplng.up
tism. Progressive publ.'c opinIOn I!,
Russia came out against the anti-
semitic falsifications. a result
Beilis was eventually acqUltted.
BEKHIEREV, Vladimir (1857-
1927), Russian
psychiatrist and phYSiologist,
of works on morphology and physIo-
logy of the nervouS system. In 1907
Bekhterev came out in favour of ob-
jective psychology based on the
study of objectively observed reac-
tions of the organism, which played
a positive role in the struggle against
ideo/ism in psychology. Bckhterev
studied the possibilities of using hyp-
nosis for medical purposes. His
main works were: "Hypnosis. Sug-
gestion and Psychotherapy and
Their Medical Significancc" (1911)
"The Brain and Its Activity"
the Babylonian and Assyrian
of the earth. This figure corre-
to the supreme Sumerian
Enlil and also to the god
i.e< to by the Hebrews and
aDS as Bool. Mysteries were
in honour of Bel, in
was aeled out the story of his
aad resurrection.
-
Krinit sa (in Au\.
(nan (,ahcla) where there had hecn
a Pnpm,1sy (ommune or
Old had emigrated
there RUS<; 13, of the
cstahh.-.. hment of <; u('h a hierarchy
persuaded the former Metropolitan
Amhrosc of Sarajevo to join the Old
Belicvcrs and in lR46 to head the
Old Believcrs' hierarchy. Thc 8c1aya
Krinitsa Hierarchy, togcther with
other Old Believers from the Po-
povtsy branch, was recogni/cd hy
the Rogo7hskoye community of
Percma7antsy in Moscow, to which
the spiritual centre of the Popovtsy
has bcen transferred in 1R5:'. At the
present lime the Belaya Krinitsa
Hierarchy is known by its adherents
the Old Believers' Archbishopric
of Moscow and AU Russia. It incor-
porates a number of eparehies, all
led by their own bishop, under
whose jurisdiction therc arc c1nsc on
150 religious communities in various
parts of the USSR_
KRINITSA HIERARCHY,
Old Believers' Church
group, the emer-
was linked with the
of certain circles within
Believers' movement to set
OAD supreme hierarchy in-
widI the canonical right to or-
for the priesthood and
ead 10 the Old Belie-
on the Nikonian
"!IM'; derives from the
BELINSKY, Vissarion (1811-1MS),
Russian revolutionary democrat,
materialist philosopher, and litcrary
critic. Belinsky'S materialism ,,:cnt
hand in hand with militant athclsm,
He wrote to Alex01lder Herze
n
in
1845: "In the words God and reli-
gion I see darkness, gloom, chains
and a whip.,." (Complete Work:S'
Moscow, 1956, Vol. 12, p. 250-.
10
Lenin referred to Belin-
sky's famous leller to (jogol as
"one of the finest productions.
the illegal democratic whi<'
has to this day lost none of Its
and vital significancc" (CoIlK"
Worl<s, Vol. 20, p. 246)- It is a\sO.'!
outstanding document of
atheism. According to ,
Russia's salvation lays "nol lit
ticism, nOl in asceticism. 001
\
I
I
-
or' lIILR .... ROtY
- -
pietism, hut an the
of civili7)1tion. education 'nd hu-
IDancne.\S. It 5 nut scrnons thaI
she oeed'i (!i.hL ha.\ hcarc! 'enty f
them!), nt)( pnyers I he has re
pe'ltW enough or thos 0". r aoc
over againn "ut 'Seos_ of "umJn
dignity to be uuur,cd In I'll P
an awar"'l 5 or Illcn's nghlS md
laws e rresponding nnt to thc
teaching.'i or the Church, hut tt
:ommon re'T1' e nd justice, and tbe
possible implemnu llltn of
those aws" V:.omplere rtorks,
Vol. 10, p_ 21J).
BELL CHIMES, In the (lm" 10
Church (oal announc emc"':' t the
'3ithful that a hurch
about 0 kc place In I:lr.
lor ClJU/'I'n bell chime, are lJ!:"d '
spe.::fic mt mnf n the ur,,.
seMI.:; anc. nsl1l " r. 1;:;' -:- J
part of C'lUrch ' tu I. Th_ tal" I
also ,unbutt ';IaglCai powers '
bell .:hlmes. e g. w , ... lOg the
fl -CC'5 0, dal .. U "':... ,.
shatter ir l' 11"C:, In oth-
word! warding uff 1:_ 'rl r ,-
t',rs. rle f III nn =. c
or small >c'h r r f1: Jal r ';1( I
purposc las It liS n th t:o
pall md wa. char... I,; f-
1)1 mit v ull!
BE U TOWE R, 11 L lower .
f Jrturl n WilU..'h lUrc" \<
hunb. J! l!,.Jlv U11t <,., ::1
rl -::n l ehur ...
L
'd .. I; .: j,n.
f
In \'1Ie):1',I J.rt f','
elUI, t: 'Jlk,lOr :,' .r: l
I owcrs N -. thr, ,01 >,rot
;e'1 (} the L. .:r: ", c "
chi tnc, I rter 11,.
I ,l("V ,',\0'" ui:t
'lfoughout n ,he :llh 0.;n'
lUI). Bell lowt;rs ha\c \.xi<.,tcd In
RU'Sla ... inee the uth
II III
-
BELLA II, Rob<rt (b 19T), Am",-
can ...... 101OgJst. He wrotr a number
or W'Jrks devoted to of the
1oaoi"lY :f .. Ugion. 3cllah at
t ::npt'd . {) evo"\; a theor.' fer the
evolut" n of religll..m, in ",,':lith ',e s.m-
g1ed,ut r.".c IlUUn stage of 175 :11.,.el
Oomcllt !'he, :nnh y t&g of
IS ' haractl'"" .1::,,.1 IClordlng
"I BI,. 1:,h, hy the dc,C:iopmcli1 . ,1 pill
r:;': TI, and the tntll\1duah
nttc ., c!.:gjosity. Tht eonc nt of
\.' .-.c it :l which ht de ....e1oped
nat"' ht: C'.3.ITI This rrom
hiS POint of vu -J" .... ,15 b ,und rally
I .. all Ami r rdlns
of tboo-rr :ree an.l soc at ')r e;m,:
BE L1'()N \. 'odde
R -= :'J r=:' ...... """,,,n.- ) lh
reek 'ldd E)\'4 1n 'lI,. II :"1 k ..
'" E 1 na r::' pV
"" 'r.; to'l
,
- -
, (. -,
,.'" . - -,
fr!!n.""t kr
-il'''' -I
.::. --'
l Mil,or
un.l! 00-
n Cbhl ',)
, ... " ill!
[U)\"tlDH III f.RAROIV. an
,_ P.c c: . h r(>lJnd,d:o Ihe
, '" II'! "C,llur 'r Ant 1t1 Pi
k ,0" It J Bi<;nop .1'
'i " _ He m;!dl.: u.<;t:
f , b' ;ld "'ld ... among
0: . ,;.:, ,[ tht C'XI,\I
r" . f dcluh)()Y( (White Wa-
t .1 fi ::md tying be
lma in Inc f)(Xan on "il l$'
,J.!ld\ , 10 \\.hich ,h;:;rL o;;urrmelily
J' , j . u" -1..1 n 1rthodox who
,len ,_,,,,, dHlh.tlC-., and
\ 'n Durin!!. the 18th
Jnd ()(h, thls gaVl'
;<'L' ", c,c afchc, for ,hal
1
1n
!.tnJ undt, [[<Ike n by
numerou" ,,)ld Bdit:\'t'r". Pikulsky
epistle" relaling of bis
..
BH ....IIAl2'AR
"""--

"travels" to Bclovodye, the "confer-
mcnt" of his rank of archpriest and
of his "return" to Russia. At the
same time he also as..c;erted that it
was impossible for ordinary mortals
to penetrate as far as Belovodyc: in-
stead he offered "salvation" at borne
i.n to his faithful followers. At
the beginning of the 20th century tbe
8e1ovodye Hierarchy broke up.
that .or the. Mauri!'.ts - publish
matenals relatm- to Church histo cd
The l'<mfedcratlOn of Benedic ir.tf'IJ.
founded hy Pope Leo XIII an
was granted official suppon
through 8 charter issued by Pope
XII in lQ52: the present
tlmc the Benedictines constitutt
onc o.f largest Roman Catholic
orgam1".atlon.'i.
BELSHAZZAR, son of Nabonidus,
the last king of Babylonia. He
perished in 5:\9 S.c. when Babylon
was taken by the Persians. With hi!'.
name is linked the Biblical legend of
the divine message "'TitteD in flames
on the wall of the palace during a
feast, predicting the fall of Babylr n
that very night. The phrase "'Be
shanar's feast" had come to "ym-
bolize 'ack of concern before im
pending c ttastrophe.
BELYAEV, Vevg<nl (18951964), So-
viet bistoran. famous for L.le re
Karch work he undertook inlf" 'lc
history uf a numher of Arab coun
tries. and into tbe social role llaved
by Islam. He took an active part in
the work of the Society of \filitant
of the USSR md Wi!!
member of the editorial boal i of lC
Soviet journ:J "1IJauka i reli;,\''l'' His
m.in works Me "Mask ':tJ !rian
ism" (195"'\ ",d 1'Ie Arabs, 1,lam
aDd tbe AraHaliphatc 11%<).
BENEDlCIINES,. memoc; L f the
first Christian monasllc order n
Western Europe ('-oundc.:d by
Benedict of "'lursia in ."30 AD_'
The Rute uf <;t. Benedictncludr:d
three vows. P' ,.eTty (,I:" ctvmg peT
ataDeDt re Idc.nec Within 1 monas-
tery). chas1lt} and obedience hl'm
(he 17lh century unwards onc f
the ikoedictine congregatil ns
BENEt'lCE, in the Roman Catholic
Churc.h, a reward for a clergyman
consisting of a lucrative office or
plot of land. The custom of reward
ing tho$e in holy office "With
benefices took. root in the cen
tury A.D.
BERDYAEV, NikolaI (1814-19481
Rus.'iian religiOUS idr:alist philos
-pher, onc of the le,ding lights of
the Godseekers. He emigr'ltcd from
Russia in 1922. Bcrdyaev's ,bilo:!>
ophy is usuallv dcscribed S I we )(
religious existentialism, ustityut na
del'ending the religiou!' w('rld out
look. In Bcrdyaev's opinion, Nature
and history arc manifestat::--1S )f
fundamental realitv. which be
-
referred to as lhe spiritual-irrational
nnnciplc, freedom that had 'lot bet
\..T::. .. te_ "IV God. This freedom was
!iCl:.n h: be -he ouree of evil il
worl TIle m in idea i.n Bedyae
v
throdiey was thai G('"J reveals 'llr
_Alf to lC worl_ ut docs not rule
"f' wor 0. For hi'S own salvaUc
tv! n ue_d! (,od, but God also
Man, who o,\;,- -comes falkn I."
nd brin:,s ll. rer I'lC 1 .. .:,1 .
:naae Min. Y t ' __ 1 Ideal ..lD on
1;.; . Uil.e esc hat logu. IIv rh'
og
1" .....
hi! tl rv onl\' I){'"' s -5 rr. DI .

1<' through gJvlDg rt.: toJ l.
. ..an of till. M,n-UJJI tS
cn"'!.I1O& it'\ I. 'Ood. JlLr which aDOI.
worl'. will come mlO hemg e
--
81:RNAR OPUAiRVAUX

eternal reign of f.he lpiril. freedom
and immllrlality). As regard ..
soaopolitical ideas, Berdyaev
moved from a stance of "lcg:ll Mar
lIl.<;m" to one that anliMarxist.
His main works indude "Ftlosofiya
svobodnogo dukha", 1927 (in I:-:ng.
lish tran!>lation: "Freedom and the
Spirit" "0 namachenii che
loveka" (On the Vocatiun of Man
1931), "Opyt
metaf17iki" (An E-MaY on I sebato-
MetaphYSICS. 194, "Sa
rnr-p znaniye" (Self Kaowlc:dge
1949). '
BERGER, Peter \ I' 1<), Amen
sociologIS onf of the nam ret'
resental vcs of :u phenom noJ.:';I
cal school In SOCII' HI "5 e--'
g. ged n nalvsl! of religIOUS l' m
tole lte rod al! m\
g: tes Cle tustory an SOCIC of
r.eltc;: ....'1. Br mpt ) she
hg'lt on soc fUDe' n reli
&,00, llAm '1t" f "'hicb.. ..
)( eye . IS tl::'" I ...... mal tion (jl." ;:
C lion) f thl": '--1 'l! quo. I" c t
'l'k. h bc"'!l I" xpr "-JZ lC
Idi'l With tb_ '"J 0' rei; on It
will t- J)(X Ib' --. 0 so' 'Soc 1 prob
leml ft t
h
... BI"" er lD
work: date mduc f\lr Soc. I
Con'itruc n of ' a I tv t" 10
n Th s l k
n'lnn) md "Pyr - ds of cn.
1<;7'-:1.
BE H 1 I )1' U .
. h ide I: I p Ie to reprt;
\
ISm. In hi w k (l .. I. tin:. -l
\ ," ill --. 0 tb Ilnd .(h
JI nd the ta' f ntl'
p l.Iy 1U... lW rcl4t1o. 1S
the (. _. -,
on of '" ture
.. thi j vc rc ot reJ ..
"on '" f l'lS ,r e op:"l
society'" and moralit .
Ie>v< I b 'I' as
or I e whole 0 mankind. Be r .
son presents God in his writ" g
crealive evotulion. For him as
or all that exists is pure e q as
tcri-'''d' . on lIDa-
..... uratlon", which Qn only lJe
witb tbe help or ntu,.
lOt\., Sl7D by Bergson a.... mYSlical
percept'?D. idcu have
an Influence on onodem theo
logical c JDttptiOOS.
BERKELEY, Georg< (68!" 1753),
Irish philosopher ""-&0 :d a
.... subjective idcahsm. n
h.. W!: 00_ eaated I:n ho
'I..: '!!I the Ar.: ..
I
;_ n <hurch. In
"WOrks f ' CODctrmng the
Pnoo".J t-Ium1lD dge"
0; Dr >iAI
Ii --.r and a::o':;L D '. I i; Ala
plo- 11, 7 e Philosoph r
. 'ii 1 -'-4 c ;; )ugilt tv
r; t t;i,;.: - , and at. _ ::;, he
me .. ' - prog-_ _ philos--
I and sc_ 1_", . c
r: ; '" ' - :::.::1 It: g"! otrV
l-x:k lnd ph. IC V. I'
I;; I ",- .ed BI !J fr . I.
k.... I\. .. "1/ r. e:I by Bcrk
I s 'u]osoph.,. prL .1de:l on_ tbe
L- -e_:-
t
:;. or "'P" 0 Titicism (. e
':':\In' v.or tillcj 'dateriali m
- _ ' --mOo( ntiosm \
n, ,
fJO.e \\ Fr ch e ?I
m,ltr:-::'"
.= .. !l Ib"o or lit 'Ai.
... s. :u;;! "US c or 1_= k it r.
, (.....::C!l Order "J Bc rr.3rC
if at_ . :111 - d'"II p...: ItlClI pm:
t..- L-'1 t? r ;ct ot!' ,."
Ihl /(. .;; ... .. .: k ading tt;h: 1---
md C .,demnatloO of tr-
nflld oJ OTt;.":: .nd u {l,trf if la
F ':":"!'t I-i;; was tlk. ,clll'wlcdgrd
:ta.:
r
.JI tbe faeuon t.D
BERNARDINt'... ...
-
..
france and a of
tbe Papacy. In his .....ntmg.<;
Ihe primacy of SPiritual over .temp?"
ral power. He was canomzed In
1174.
BERNARDINES. (1) a second name
for the Cistercians, which became
more widespread from the 12th cen
tury onwards after the Order had
been reorganized by St. Bemard of
Clairvola; (2) Franciscan monks
who strictly to the original
.::harter of that mendicant order,
who in 1453 established themselves
In Poland at the Cathedral of St.
Bernard n Cracow.
BES. in the religion of the Ancient
",gyplians., the god )f revelry and
danec-' in Judaism, (nr. tianity and
,')ther 'igions. an evil spirit wlJo can
ratcr into a man or animal D order
to .hem. Beli,'- n Bcs
tt'mmed from men's to un-
derstand the nature of some mr"ltal
lin..
John (c 1031472),
hUH leader f Byvin'
scholar and humani .. t. He wrs
Archbishop of 'Nlcae'l
1437. He regarded religious umon
the Greek and atm ('''lurches 15
to thei.r jrlOt struggle
... iDS( the r .Irk;. '\fier 'lc 'oU'-pse
01 the Decree ! l signeD at 'l.c
Council Ilf r re':l.c..:: in wbic't
was repudtated by almost the whole
of the Greek and pc ple,13e .
..non emigrate: to l.aly whc' e
alter Joirung the ttoman (;-: 10lie
Cburdl. be WaJ made c_.-:al.
After the fall f ( n tantu: ,e 1(.

bieJ to organtze 1 ilf,-li:-::
die Turu. Ie was in expert m
cI"sical litl I :Iture from
wh .... h he translated variou:. ..vOrkS,
induding Arisrorlt"s "MetaphYSics'
Bcssari{m of Nicaca did a great deal
to propagate classical culture, par.
ticularly hc philmopby of Plato.
BETHLEHEM, -l town in Judaea
named hy the Evangelists as the
birthplace of Christ (Mt. 2:1; U.
2:4). It is in Bethlehem that the Gos-
pel stories arc set, which tell of thl,
Infant Jesu!'> in a manger, the choirs
of angels in of the Sa
viour's hirth. the Star 10 the Ea!'>t and
the homage paid him hy the Three
Wi!'>c Men bearing gifts. In the
Chri!'>tian theological tradition, Beth
i!'> a symool or sign of gOOd
(lings and sa/varion. It contain. .. Ih
,",ure 1 of the Nativity on he sup
pose!: sight of Christ's hirth built JV
the E -:npcror (onstantine in
A.D.
BE.LPOPOV IS\' sec _on u
the 01:1 Belit'\'cr:r movement, whlC 1
r:megcd in RU'S5la Jt the,,"ld of :r
Tth century. The Brzpopovtsy -
Jee ed lhe c-'ur(.'1 hler!J' hy. Leader!
of l(',Ir ecrnmunil :'" were to ec.;t( d
rrom mLng 'Ie hutv rIC Bezpo-
povt. y retainc.:l only two rom ,,11 the
( 11 stian sacraments: BaphM1 and
onJesslOn _ rhr; e sacrament! .as
lS sel'VlCCS, were ldminic;tl.red
hV leal err f commuDltie So-
c 31 c nt:lldiCtions nd int:.. '1al e .
tradielions Wlthm thr. QmmunlIll.
them..:'vc"S :d tn Ihe emergen(: I
nanv diffc 1t .;' U.l! ion!. and )ff
.!: Nithin Ibl; 'lez-x vtSy seC
on Therl; w_ f r 1m mCC :I. lor.g;
11 ..... -:sy j to wbc' 'If the le'
11.1 m r shout... ... rc .. ,
lIiCO or 001 w m.::h '" :l(!"'d 10 ' f;JI
1 thL e.-posed to
1e fcdos.. tnd . ID
(av. ur . mal nage In whose lOro
mumties Ihe bcg\n to ollie
l
mnlP.
-
-
ate for thc ceremony reqUIred. 'hc
ad'lootcs d he Spas
which emf gcd rn hc KenlJl ners
commurliric$ sprc:u.l cxtrcme fanati
cism among their fi Ilr wers. As I
means of escaping Irom the rcalm
of the Antichrist" they recom
mended 10 the faithful Ih .. path of
suicide or self-immolation. In 1e
tRth cenlury the Pnmorskl,; persua-
sioll (Danilovites) emerged, did
the Philip per.nuJJion 'lnd then at Iht;
end of th!"! 18th ccnl Jry the Bt'grmv
(or wandering) scct o;pllDg 10. Aile"
the October Rcvolu(on m n ... of he
Bei'pllpovtsy jisIDte
graLed. At the present me th"
still a !'>mail number of t'u 'D 10 1l.
Baltic Rt "'ut--lie; of thc l "I.SR. in thl
RSP.iR, Ihl. l kr unf' ilnd Byc10l
r;e Pomo ky group W 11'_ 1
10 3V()Ur of the sacram( nl o. nar
riag .... ) in L thuam enJf"Ys K nu-t
mnucnrx among ,Ie Be \-1'":V
r"cir eommuOIti( 5 u .;'" bv '.;:
OIl.! Believers Supr me \.. :mnn: n
the city 01
8HA(.AV-\D (.ITA, San kfll pIC
t("XI ncorp raled mtl th( A,(ahab
lIarata. which cxnolJnc!' l( 17.. m
pomt! 01 Brahmamsm itnd rin
luis",. rlC Bh<tf' \IId (jiLt! jc
th:..t e'lI.:h mm louL rry (lut h ..
uu Y ,L Iraml::) n ilC'C rL nl,.. " h
the .. lma t. whlC'h 1e helon' ,. r . .:
m,1n VII It ai'
rol 1C"'1. huminlv JIi "_
Ii... md Urin: J :'U n \o'i en y
,Icn_ nd '" n mUI n.
mong th ... m. )'
kshal v (warr .. r he
ev I lIod' e rwen, n .11
1m In t: l 1r.:: tilln he 1
me j( w 1 t. rth
)nl'l thi -scrvu.:.; 01 (Iod 8rar.:::3
an cnat-Ie n r) I merge with him,
.e 0 lchle\' II.
-
B!-IA.KTI, a mf'lV\:men!
Wlthm Hlndu;m. On lhl thl re
11 vtlopc<! a JY.l['Jular se"*t nan
movement In India, nainly i= the
xtWC':"l the th I
C ntunc whicb pn laimed 'tat
mt:" w re 111 .qual b fi _ God and
whil-h rejcctei the )r nen
10 clSll Later Sikllism
Wil!t 0 develop out r Bhakti
BIBLE (fHlm 'le fir ek hihlia"
book.,. a coli _ '1 of
Books. con."tituting the HOly ."icnp-
tun f for (hri"tian!>. The part of
1l. Bihle tb Old Testament 15{)
e )nstitut( So holy WTlhn('S or ew.-
T c B: c of 77 Bo ks J
th o\P(lLT -"tal onc' <tre include :I).
\.1 nv ur th n ontain no more than
cw -. J!: ... Tt: Books of tho::
va:y .1 hly with fe-ltd til
lcn c -::!::- I "! r form,
al ilngu So of the Bib"
-: H w. '\rlm"ll 0 l <,mall ex
.. I n Iso. c1hmstll ireck (the
K,:- . I( CI in Ih( 1\,;e,o; T sic' t.
Bv [U th( Bihle h."<; bl!cn tran.<;
I.ted r.:) \- rtuallv all
of '"= 10. l h. tiln l hur
n th r x: e' <, C'\
nrop.l!.. t tht; 'lihh v ad\_.
I a' supn, ':\ hn Ir;..
.c ., wiue, of v n 'C la'ic.
.l( "oun . tJ:. o. n. nIh .
t .. Impll:: om_lhv"'1. oj,
fal ( .tulia II)'
me ft. fIt:. 4i v ril h
tiC lnd n nn g C' of :omv
of th motl. !1 II b -. II Ih
"oihl and liLWlSC .... Ihi, al
ti 1. r. fl. i1 . h for
f":t( n iJ,ke t mpo:: fro mOO rn
p" II z. kn "" d h, Bihle a
wurk f ji\ r; ori/IPo. &..:1, "Ia,,::ul
; m'.' 3,,-1 'hank 10
.1 ... . ... .
II.!!. . (w;.. ..... nnn Iiteral !filer
prctatlon of BirhCJl texts bv way (If
n
___ \.1,

whIch maintams. that It j.- not onlv
pm..'>ihlc hut n('Ccs.,ary. whereas he
other stres.. .. cs that a path IS out
of the In answer to the
question Is if to kill or rob?
we are told. in 1"( first place that it
IS wrong in any circumstances, and
In the second th<.t if IS nol only pet
mis.."ihle hut even prcscrihed hv
God. The reason for cont ]-
dictions to he found in the teaching. ...
of the "ihle lies in the fal:t that the
various of the Rin1c gave ex ..
pression to views and concepts of
different grnnalinl1<' spread over a
thous.and years, vir ...."S that were also
held hy ,,::-itcn lxlonging 10 a var ety
of social groups md (:Iasses.
R.S'.I("Al CRITICISM, 5elcotifit'
nll investigation the
Books of the Bible in f their
and rorm. Therc two
trend!'. In Bihlic..:al uitic'sm. 11
lOd the His
Bibll!;,.!1 sets out 1
ant: clUl date the
texis, IOdvidual BO<'Ih
and gr. ups r 8ook!'., also 10
out Ihe hj'I4 ri4 il condition!'. in which
they appt .lred and II dl aw ana logic ,
between the 8()()h 01 the and
Holy nook r OI'lC' It
UK, all u hac olngu I IIlr Lli
and m ,lena''> C!V1llal lc
10 'n 'hiS An mpor
ani prerequlsltl fOi Ihe !" UII "'nc !l
or IhK line o! aprw, al. ... I I mdl.
pend( ft! fr m pr-" ill om 10
herent In ( hureh ' r 'ivn' ""...... !JI "h't"
Innogrolphy Iii' ,ril.\1 ...... lieal
cnllC1c"m fir 1m'.! mto Ix n m 11
lb1h c ntuJ) rh 'T rnntl' woo;
.. which Ihe maIO til -: mVI j
.lUslnru.;.d, fill j m C'Jd res
W('I Iluthncc.l, alonr. 'tjO th rc
Ii.He method fe>1 rc" .tut 'flO III
those qUC!!.1I 'ns. wa -pm ..... a s
-
'T,31.1dtus heologioo-politi'
(Theological
1670), Later Blblle'al Crlticl!'.m Was
S..Icccs. .. rully advanced in the Works
of Icun AslnlC, Wilhelm de U' 1
J"lim Welll.ouscn. Karl
Graf. f"f(lm ilmonf, the Marxi.' I; 'h').
lar .. who concerned themselves 'Nit
L
criticism of the Old Tc a.
ment Paul Loforgtu!, NikOlai Nikol,
. \ky, Izrai! Fronk-Komenec,{h and
Ahrom Ranadch he singJ d
Ollt. It was cst;'lhhshcd lh; 0
thcir that wnrk to re' d
he texts of the Old Tt'!.tamcnt
began in the ccnturv nC. al
parts of it had ocen 'landcl
dow" orally It 10 earlier datl hiS
pi X s was not com.,letr ur.' the
nd ,--""II lTy n,C Biblic.1.1 en 'y '"'
r, It- iishcd the rclafv 3m.' n
... '1' ineonlcsl' hlr hror.v:
d the Be; ks f thc OIl! Tt '
and r the v ... r om p'al , th')!',C
Boo!. It was not untt! the 19th
tUIY thai hHor 01 erlt _I n )f
Testament hcgan t4 LVI! i
Pro' )nl r
Tlih;lIg"lI (C'wot mal cam. J\l' e n
. I
tTlI uti( n to Ihl' w rk, In p rtle
I'er,-lifland Raul' .at:'... 0 th- Y,I.!
J)il.3d S.rau, L,n 8m:
Fauer to whom 1(' t'-le m .. n It'ml
. '
f. rmul:u ng ana 'Jh.,.. n 111
S' ntil C vu NS c the I Tlt lr
tho.; I:l k f the Tcst
Wlt'l dc"en _ II thclr r ftal h
cular tha' f Bruno
F"'dc.nck FlI" wr:l lUm r
w rk n the 'mln;""V l' t r1y ( -I
n 'y AI th_ or t ... 1 l
C -
turv numl-er f .. ' ._1
11lJ:'. Ih r . rour.- \.'Ort;'f'
1 alai ther w<-s no 'C: .

c.ll n4 fc r r tenc
"ll. wer the rcpres 'llall" .
h .
mV' '1C'hlf. .]1 sc 4 d
M. Robcl'U. ': f)rrYt'5 an
m ACK
-
tin') In lhf' 20Ih cen
IUrv lhese Iradltlons of .. chnhtrship
were cu Icd furlher by ueh authors
as Georg Brandc .. , Sergei KovalvvlI
:nd Yokov LC'11sman.
Bihliul cril c sm waslimt,;d CIt e.
t..bli.hing thai it inconsistent tTl
yenc 1te the Bibl(' an ohject of rc
ligious faith. as a divinely inspirc_
WOl k, In lor the ralinn
..) r:'crrcd bttck to the ancient
part, h, ('plSli.f 'IOd )uflar: Ille Apm
1014. In the J,Audern Fra intcr::-,ting
examples of r Uionalirt criticism arc
10 be 'ound Tn r ill of !he w,lrk
)f Her nann RClmar J' puhlishcd lJy
I !Smg. ,-.:I .t;ll moc'els of ralion:
".' Bihllol C" lit m lr tc f4 un'
In f"lc WI rh of the French [- ncye o
pae(fu ,,' 1 JL"a1l Medic'. I; /.
'aire t'olba4 1, Pterr. Mart 'hal. 1
Sovie 1 lil,.."al Jr, In 115 d a great
G U was hee hy Yrmc" an
Yo ..... am .. b'an \"Kl' r. (J\ "'e
pn01 'il. .... oti.: '1theisl P" ?'l:"'.mua
n 'Oc SOVIet 1.. oilvn '1e' n J
o nvone ;- 1d of Dirlil- I cr Clsm
)ul O1a s usc f lchu'Yem< 11 tn II
r 11 r .. 'S f ml cholal kr:
r "arcl.
UIR' '" (I BIRl Ii. Abu Ralhan
Mohammed schul...,
and promim ,I th nk... in th: E
dunne:, c }- y w
horn 10 11 t .. : f lG, zn \ al
I)re ,'iI reO'lc" n 11 I::: '
bli of 11 0; '). -I, f: hchtnd
W k r: -: my, m th .. ..I
1Il1O( :gv _ 1l1( V :ld olh
'. L ,r:v :-11.. ,
Ihl :1_ .... ,., ad \ Bir
pcnly n d:', n_ rc
1110 \', f.. f', d,
. Jt :Id lh : sutr. \! the j, v
l"'n " f I. .. WI ; 'prtY. ... I :l
ae :ord - WI; r: tur I lay, an
"'thout the tnl venll( [l (f any
-
supcrnatu.ral fC".- 'e As a ;;,Je ",ci:!olar
hr explamcd natural ph 'ome'l.a
With reference tu natural caw;.;,;s.
BISHOP. a memh:: nf he hi h
rn:dcr of mini:>ters .n m, ny
C lurrh. n the Orlhodox Church a
gcneral Ie "ll f,' all archprrC,fft (p 1.
metropolitan, 'JI'Chbish01) pod
bishop) .
81 <\CK R(K)KS, anclcnl fUI )PC In
C ltammg m c im -or
!: n.:ery, nlling .fl L devil ng
and talEmrn: sooth: ving
th, lOtI,. tat Ion of "'1"4 m
h '
Qual' 5. orne 'ure , nc
l\upcrslillom, u (! )ml n whu h wr e
used fr lUI JOSC 'Jr\:crv Ihe
J,Aiddll t twas, lie'lr i Ih.! the
T) 'Ill had c"l 13, Ii
,.r, m (,oa th( '1" HI ly np'
111: _It 11. J wer, ompl, J
,tiC who II "'d
nfl rlT..tion rt 'liang f) Jpcrstition
w .,; prt; ld rr')ng 1'. lr-
v.ltch In WI;- err: E ..- the
most r mot . Ih sc werr
It, (,abu reS JI _ 'j f4
Ih (",mOlt!;; -: h JIIc_
hI:,) k f MI nd
1l k
8l \( K MC'LEMS rr" IOU
:l "'cmer.' am t A,;)- \menc m
n!: I :)A, .,.,hich un tl .. rar.!.
n .. h: mille' ot: I b
5U r. ;( ,f):(l n whl
1':": b :I C' I"'.. n
,::. th 11 "-1, - 1\'
J;: an.. mlxtl:: of hl;
a f I u.'71 .f.,V lck ow j I!
: "'QII I._'r bock
- I and ,osc of hris
., f
,,_. '>, r 11 C rr.;! c )
tl: ... fA'1.. rom
l. ::-:-pJl i a me ;age of l
as': ':'_. III Whl . r" ,';'':'- of thl.
Blad.. Moslems declare that the time
ortbe destructive war,
was at band.. in which all white men
would pcri. ...h, leaving Black men to
ruJc the world under the guidance of
a Black Allah, In the meantime all
Btack people are encouraged t,o
sever all ties with white people. This
)1
appeal for selrisolation makes it dif-
ficult for Black Moslems to take part
\ in the fight for social change and
civi1 rights.
BLACK STONE OF MECCA, a [et-
ish venerated by Moslems. It con-
sists or several pieces of stone held
in place by a silver setting: it would
appear to consist of pieces of me
teorie or volcanic origin. It is fixed in
a niche in the outer side of one of
the walls of the J<oaba. Moslems
visit Mecca attempt to touch it,
,n"" they believe that it is a petri-
fied who on the Day of ludge-
mtnt will come to the rescue of
those believers who have touched iL
BLACK THEOLOGY, non-formal
ideological and theoretical move
ment within the framework of so-
caned Black re1igion, which regards
"true" Christianity as the religious-
cultural cxpres$ion o[ the life experi-
o[ the Black population and the
means of its liberation.
-
[or civil rights intensified So
Black Theok>gians put fon.:.,d lilt
idea to the effect that the
Cbri.')tian tradition was African
origin. and from this there
tbeir reinterpretation of the Bb!
. ch. I,
resorttng to su lDlageS as Blac\
Moses", a "Black Madonna" and
"Blaek Messiah". The maJOrity'
however I. were ,in {avow of a de:
mythot<>gJud remtcrprctation of the
Holy Scriptures and viewed Christ
flrst and foremost as a symbol of
protest and liberation for the most
oppre..c;scd strata of society. Blact.
Theologians regard the Blact
people as chosen by God, stressing
the redemptive nature of its destiny
and its special predestined rolc. Tb
socia-political aims o[ the Blaa
Theologians vary [rom radical slo-
gans calling for "Black Power" and
total rejection o[ "white" civifuatioD
to moderate liberal programmes of
Afro-American consciousness-nus
ing, or support for "Black" capital-

ISm.
the ideological point of view
8od< Theology is closely related to
*' IbCNement of the Black Moslem,'!,
-.a Judaism etc. It is most wide
IpICId in the US, where it began to
... shape in the last century as a
to traditional Chns
as a "racist religion"
obedience and ac-
of opptession. It became
[)It active in the
the social crisis deep-
BLASPHEMY, ecclesiastical eoD
cept meaning contempt [or any oil
ject o[ religious veneration. Theore
tically blasphemy only includes
of mockery or desecration 3gamsl
God and other &acred objects 0'
worship, that offend the religio
iJ5
sensitivities of the faithful. In prat
tice however this concept was
extended arbitrarily to van:
,--us forms of criticism or rClecUfo.
the very idea of God re<
thinking to atheism), WhICh
contaro anything WIth indio
gard to the
VIdual. This substitullon .
concept for the one par
tlcularly widespread In.
ary reactionary clcnca1 kiJ!g
amuous to rrcc
drid
. people's struggle
__ OrnlE WAITRS
and atheirm in the of the f
uhli
,
at large through accusal ions 0 blas-
phemy. Uc;ually advocates of any
religion only condemn as bla<;phe-
mo
us
desecration of own 01>-
jc(.1$ of vencrat ion by 5Omcone cl\C'
their own mockery of other peoplc's
holy objects they qualify without fail
as manifestation of the fight rei the
true faith and drorts to put to shame
supcr$tilion. This was precisely the
approach adopted by ChrL, ans 10-
the places ('f worship and at;
coutremcnls of pagan CUllS, hose
who observed $uch cults If'lavc''' in
a similar way the (hrt$tlan
Church. Moslems did not
desecration of ('hrisl ian places of
worship as blasphemy, and the sam;:
can be said of Christians with regard
to their desecration ot M slem mos
..J qucs. Moreover, Roman Cal lolic 5
A. did not see dCSC(..Tat ion of Orthodox
holy objects as nor did
<?rthodox believers regard deseCTa
l10n of Roman Catholic holy objects
as blasphemy. The Sunni
a similar inc- of
With regard to objec' w""uc at d bv
the Shi'ites, and vice vers.:.... In :oun
tries where Church and Sot t ar
linked. blasphere
v
!a "lun
tshed bv as a criminal offence
BLAVATSKY H.'en. (IR31 1 ,
founder of (he Theosophic.1.I SI ... ty
(1875). After ded3ring herself () he
of the "g'"' I
ptntual principle and 1C pupil
a brothcr'1oc.v' of Tit . 10 "mahal
mas (''t; . .l!" of sacred knowl
edge"), rhe prupagated .. v: tical tht;
o ?hlc J d(lClrincs (sec
.fophy). Resorting to n tL ....
and hla '
tant charlatanirm he sue
C :d d
- t: n ng tens ! thru
sand f t II
tflts 0.
10
owcrs In van us c _:1
of 1C world, in p.:..rl1 'llll" , r
lain, Franc .. , and he
[}c<:;pitc the fact thai h
f"1udulcnt pr diu:!. wc.-c: cxp d
morc tban :me otc ion, ..
Ideas arc still "'hcred to in the pre
ent day '>y people with my,tical li
1l3tions. In.e
BLESSED, TIlE. I sperial categor';'
of 7.calotS in the Rorrun ( .. th:.. ie
and Orthodox Chure cs. n the.. Or
thodox Church., thts Ul-
eludes GOO'l Frob .lin'" :c.ain I
the saints; in the Roman ( tholie
Chun;h it unite Ih n ..Ijviduals
were beatified by the Popt her
thf'tr death. and are, as a rule, venl r
ated i.e:. in a partic Jlar
country, diocese. or rcF-i us
BLESSIN(,., C?Dvcntiooal '1gn
made with the hand (or tbe laVl
ft
)f
both band: ::1 Ihe of be Per
son being blesse J) to W1.\h pC" SOD
g ife, uc _ and harr.-:
tr .... ; on of t" r. I I ...ing Ul :to
domeslM... or re" c. '-xl '""" n >e
c d back. t 1: .tr 1ertalnlRg to
Ian .nd tnbal xieties an
L erc was \\"CUdew I ped ancestor
KorshlP ilnd due homage p:_IL.
( Id pe':)plc md leaders. Man s xli f
in (DC icial and peaccful ore
of the words r hIS mccstors, the pa'
tnJ.' .. '; , the ft unde.;:- f his dan and
o c hC1d of I- amtl has sur
WI In c...1 tim 0 le form of
r . _ 11al bk- ':oft' and c still rc
rtd l ID V nous r: llifc situ-
JlI.. B' -g. Ie v. _ lscd LC
(j : err. f w..,k man'1 dim-rent
rc:' .. os. In (1: IllS , ...
n -","de d a lor llIlpartJDg
dl\'U1t Grace l!l thl.; !.llthfu1 bY way of
tbe pntsl
BUSSING OF mEWA1l:R.<;,a
crcmon)' 10 Chriqian "OJsbip

--.
'.
-
_________ "115-'
eminence or intUItive acceptan'
(iracc thwur,h faith). Rlondei Q
cat cd the theSIS to the effect th
S\:iencc, if not by ,"
whil'h cClnf-j!>ts in the priest dipping a
three limes in water, thus al-
legedly lending it supernatural
properties. Earlier lhi!'. ccrcronny
was carried out hoth in churches (on
the eve of the festival of Epiphany)
and by a river. lake Of well (on the
day of the actual festival). At the
present time the Blessing of the Wa-
ters usually takes place in a church,
after which the water is considered
as holy by the faithful. The ceremony
contains echoes of the dcificatiun of
waters practised in ancient times.
.' ., reI
gllm. IS not capa" c of pcnctrrf
the essence of phenomena. mg
BLISS, the term used in religious
thinking and moral teaching to
denote supreme happiness, be
stowed by supernatural force!". on
Man (or his soul), the attainment of
"heavenly joys" (or Nirvana) in re-
ward for faith. Supreme and eternal
bliss is attained, as a rule, onlY after
death, in heaven. In Christian 'teach-
ing the ways to attain bliss are laid
out in the so-called Beatitudes in the
Se""Dn on the Mount (Mt. 5:3-12),
and the Scnnon on the Plain (Lk.
6:20(2), describing the qualities or
human perfection. This teaching df':'
rers compensation for deprivations
ex:penenced on earth till the after
lirCy thereby justifying their conti-
oued existence. Recent attempts 11...
moderni:7e religious tcaching on
bliss, while narro'NIng tht; gap '"'e.
tween it and earthly happiness,
nevertheless leave intact its mystical
and anti_humane css :nce.
BLllE ('ROSS, SOCiety or
kani.ngs: came into
hemg m 1K77 m S'NIt7.erland and
latcr hecamc w;dcspread in Gcr.
many a!'. well. It set up communitics
(along Bapli!'.t line!'.)! youth groups,
and chOirS and it Qr-
ganl/cd solemn and
meeting!'.. The programme of the So-
ciety included appeals for an end 0
drunkenness and for a campaign fot
"resolute Christianity'". All this pro-
the gro'Nth of its populanty.
parltcularly among young people.
The Bluc Cross Sociely first pene
trated as far a. ... Russia at the begin
ning of the 20th century and its com
munities were also set up 10 Lat\ia
and Estonia. After the end he
Second World War Blue (ross com
munities were absorbed into the tb
Union Council of Evangelical C/InS.
tians Baptists.
BOCCACCIO, Giovanni
13"';). Italian realist and humanist
wr ter His crowning
was 'he "Decameron" (1350-
1
:15)1
One of the malO themes in that lxYl.k
was crittClsm of thr Roman Cath0b
'
( lurch and ridicule of tht... etl rgy,
m(.:nks and the Papal :ouct. Be
BLONDEL, Ma.ri"" (. l(11949),
French pbilos"pher of the Modern
ist school of Roman CtllhfJIk:Sm. he
towarw nco- AuguSl ,ne
tcachlng (to the effect that raith m
God is intrinsic to Man) anel to-
wards intuiu\.;sm (in his "philosophy
or action", which affIrms the pre
caroo countered iJl
Christian virtues of humility f"
denial with his 0 'c
tion .n the name of other 1)COplc.. .
the name of rricndship or SoCo
a..et.10 dlfcndr:d man:
s
right r
derive i:nJoymenl from life on Eart c'
Doccacclo !llso wrote a nUlll!,,\hc:
orbr" work! in which he laid
---
-
for of Man fn m a
"On the V'
Qr Fate Endured by Fa
m
ous
Men and Women" (P.c;5
1360). "Of 11tU$lflOU! Women"
(1360-
1362
) and (,cnl atOll;) of
,he pagan Gods' (1350-1363)_
BOCHENSKI, Joseph Marla (h_
1<Xl2), Swi55 nco- f"Ilomist Ohllo5-
ophcr, Dominican mti i:om
munist. work )1:;;: .mds
in the theory ana yr3C
iee of socialism, yet the sprcac
the ideas of sciL ,tifie communism
compelled him 0 h. t
dialogue with Marxists was exp ii-
en: In his .,hik o('lhlCll w.-rk: Be-
hcnski gives &. religtl us, deal: t rt
erpre!_lion of fun. ami 1: I ',i!
ol""lical pr 1. Jems. The w llle .. 01
of philosophy rrom Ilochcr;, kl
WIDt of view. scn:cs l 5UI port
IglOUS truth: Modi 1:: -::11
... y. . would have c beli ... - L. ne-
altaUl belt etil! po.:.
pmc I I V ....... .,. .' 1,
which oJ' ut 1: laths -\' whid:
:lI'.n nay reat 1 :I J:: rstanc.:.: ;z.
"od
, .
BODH1SA'I'I ... '0
traLhmg of Butt0l1!}1Ji
. '
as ttained 11 <-
. :-:.'" l "
tx: .. wt!
odh,
.1r :lment) nd \It ]1
1 0 cnll. mto ;".':lIt
thl. I, 11 out
compassion, \10"
th "
e to hel. 11 n <II
r , n earl\' udl hi! tt:.
...
..
o
1n 0 t- .., rdcd I od'
"N I' &."ama {} he l(
n. hter....
I. uudha. llte; tL. .d .. c t
o
d
,.d
. -
the, t " -
c led 111
utnr )!L.
to M h I - .1!'.al. a\ erG.'"
C" Q aye":.:: Duddhl." :ty .. -nJ.n
p.ablc of bccummg a bocJhJr un
n
md f acqUinn
"trcngth!\ nd h
g
Supernatural
3nSW t C QP<lC ty o(
enng men spray\"""S d
tbus helping ml.. ncaQ-
,:,orne the torments of Ih,- SO ave -
Th ... QT7ISQre
C mC' ,1 revered of thl.. Hodh'
Mahayana lluddhlSm :;:.\;;
M nJushl (the embodiment . U
,-at... ran and .,tal W':10)
" the t "Lxldim '1 m)f
p...\\: .. ), Avaiokltt. 1\ Jra Itll m
): -lling ovc\ and L.!,!
Malrr-ya. :: urn,:;; 71 .le C ..Ihtsal
.a c ...'r.;A.tulc L.e 'ourtb ' cry f
diVlnc heinp. )
BOLHME J kob ( i- ,) l),' ,.
d iln my -1.0" ph vl.:)f
11k rt _: ... ::: h r 1 a
.. (oc n'thl w rid
,'lion n'"
l'
d

.. ,;..
:n - - .-

" -

"
-
IVln
-
,
,
j ""li1th
,
'"
,
.. d
,
a ,e <
n- o(
l'
"
on e
.t.
and in n
_I.
""Ie drawn


- L._ :: s
thll
.
\....1.: lot'
-
-
-.
_ r. ...
.. II1d.1
\ _.: ill
Be" r -J .... us Manl:;., for-
.. _.;.s tnus Ie ). 4 '\.r .),
L h"
,O!l I( r;. r ( !llno
cpr - .. Ii ....
1, N of
n r; , 01. :: IITlti e I :
,
'(' . .
fl_" ." .... 0 ,
. ,d.. ' .. :JIII;J he
p t- ,,",S. u,-;(Y. r
_ 'ph-' . ,,(
Loc: re _ f._ .. 11 d t.. lie, --)-
oglc!1 wo"ls So c, . On ht: H
l
ly
r . nitv and On the L J.lholic
78!-_________ -'fi e:'::;)( PO.OJ'< ,I 'N
-
--
F'Iilh' His main philosophical work
W"dS "On the Consolation of Philos-
ophy The philosophical and theo-
logical news of Bocthius excT.tcd a
significmt influence on mediaeval
philosophy ."od the philosophy "If
the Renaissance God, in Bocthius'
view, was a pcrwnai God. who loved
his world and had \\;shcd to make
Man in his own image and after his
likeness and who li ....lcncd to Man's
pray.:rs. Long before St. Anselm of
Canterbury and St. Ai/It;-

''as, Docthius had formulated a
numlV r proofs of the aistcncc of
uod ilnd had applied -4 istotlc s
Ir;-c Ii theological problems. Phil-
osophy, ac.:c rCling to BoelhlllS. WlS
the handmaid of theology, although
1 relative independence
BOGDO-GEf.fN or nOG
DOKHAN or B()(,DO. title (:l. tht:;
supreme leader Qf tbe L !I1l31s1s in
Mongolia, w'to became e"
ID tht:;: c .... nl.JTV rhe Bog 0-
Geg 1 was re\'Crea as tbe liVInf' g _
(Jehubi/gon). Thc last Bogde (egen,
(hzheblszundambak.hutukhta, died
In 1924.
BOC.<JMILS. lR :lli' .:uduJ mo\'
menl which t"V'\: the orm' f rclig
ious lseresy, rpl thc atti' lde
of I he .. lld the urb n poor Il
came mlo being ID Bullfla In he
10th u:ntury :'lnd w n' t probablv
named Jlter (s fLunder, a pri
named Be t spre:-: .. 'uring
the 11th c nl'lfy m 'Serbia, (- a.! a
and c,. rtau'! ':u' c untne fne BL
gomilc; pUI forv.:'"lrd the ide of com
munal prorc: r1 y ID tb pint con
Mlmer cpmmur., m. !- e "Bam work
of the m()\:('mcnt WJ.S the ' c led
'the
Book"), lis (rachlng W:X" based "'0
d"QUSm, draWTng from Manichaeism
nd POlllinw7I, The Bngnmil\ rc
ccled I he sal ram ellIs and
g .. actiml.'I
."vstlcal Thcv 11$0 ()p.
}' scd of the Cron, ;eolU
lOll relIct, hut they belic vcd I
pro\'cr. The Bogomils' movement
lata hroke up into a number of nIT.
"hoOI"': of thc Bt-.gomiis took
part in the peasant and Ihe
national liheralion mOVcmcn\
against the Bp.anlian yoke; some of
the Bogomiis rcjec ed violence md
a(!v-'" ItCC:: humility. tn the 14th c:n
lOry L"IC liog{lmils lurned into a sect
whitl1 mile' in its ranks part ort!-.
cIc gy and ome towns[)Cople T
Boromils movcme'1l excrtfd an i ...
fuene on West European lcn hc:a1
ec..s.
BOGOMOLO\'. 4Jex. (192"t19!' \.
pr minC':1t Sovie schotal who wrote
anumI;:-' o! worl S COllla.:::.:.
enl qucs of mr _ rn h oi In'_
"gal us ,hile sophy, hookS on II
1istOry f thei! m and fre th nk. r
11 amcng 'lese Ire the
OIlnw_ng "al .'1 work! '(J( rr.:; .n
Be urge' IS phv 1ftf I M)5
(1lJt:,9), BI ti!h Be urJr.:n P'll
0phy in the nth Century (9 )
anu - OUI ,COl: Philosophy ..
niled Stal in the '.Oth ( . nturv
(1lJ",4" UmJcr hi cditol hip Ie
n 'p: per Wd' lea.n Q
lnr' r :lC title rvt"oOf.1 Br :s
Phdoc' phv an R llgion
B()(.ORAZ Vladimir 'w' 'e 1>
the y.: )Q\';n l\. A r n
I' 36) Ru an and thr'"
, 1: -51
gr pncr religious hl'- 01 t;ln. llngUl .
He "Jdied the way' 'f lift and
It I .. of '1c pc. ,pies of lh:
H;s :nonogr Jpn ,nl
l
tlcd . :
(hukdu d profe lund r
ligation ,r shamanjo;m. He was !
- -
-
cbarge :If the setting up C.r l.e"lin-
grad's Museum of (he History of
Religion and A(.cism and wu It!
first dircctrr.
_BOGOSLOVSKIYE fRUDY"
(1b<GlogJeal T ... sactI .... ). conce
tions of articles which are published
periodically by thr. Moscow Patnar
ehate: they contain contributions
from well-known Church
and theologians, rcportf
cal discussions, documents drawn up
by tbe Biblical commission working
on the new translation of tbe I)ld
Tcqomenl, and other ma-
Lena1s.
BOHEMIAN BREnlRE"I I'
known as Moravian Bnthnn mrl
Uollas Fratrum), a r - - _
tbat .lpp:.:re:: : II:!.J 15th o:n
tury after tbe defea' 0
1
C'" J Wonles
and Ihe wbole of the H : e" _
ment I'be communities of le BObt.
mjan Brethren gradually
Ic;;o.her n aD eo ..:.csia _.- rgamz
alion th t was ndependent
lome. n ;.:Iti f Jda.: Utop"
te ching of the Bvbemian tbinker,
fet:" Cbelcu.:!ty (c 1 'Q( C 16C ,
xc e:! a powerful ;-J1m 1(".C .... :1 the
ormatie :n th.. oc at and rcligao_
VIews d Ihe BI henuan E .......... -
wh c.. mme": had initiallv
'-"-- . _d f mall p_ Ii' and thl;;
orban poor Wbtle reJ ..... f jaI
Q L! or tbe IVI! Ie':'! 1e
I.) JifTe Ie.... th
Boh ; '1 ..... tbren cll
l
j or I
( ilD1lc t they m
:1 pc. r d rCIr:' , :J
I}o:- rractic _ d the e .
iln :ommuDI- d pr
a .-
If. c:: non" 0 -"lcc. Th J reJectr.d
.;: lion of the Roma.-: Cath
pr
e (I wrh an rnar.y e1emenls of If
ae ... 0 h' L
WOo Ip he cmplU-<.JS
- " -
-
on ntua1 worsh r L_
!;'; lies. - rp 0 11.11; Jamls and
- indu1gc_1Dd
:;no AI tIlL end of the tc:IU 10
after t(.;prescnla.uv of In ury,
p:"!'OUS , lasses h d bc:1J1l:- ,P""lS-h
._ 1;0- 0JO' t e
tL ..
.., 1;.. lnllial radicalism
way (0 moderatel:J)()OO& nd
tre.,ds. The B th
. . . 1 - re fen,
y dunng Ibis ater period,
n ,m:T'ely ill rCltgIOu."
1100 also one Which prO':rl.")(e d
educltloll c:ulture its
ranks many promtn .. rlgl If
(f Boh ... nuan culture. incluamg
wdH.Tl()\\ll thmker Bimop L (;
po. 'ob'.l: and Cornmw.r A ter the :k
ft :n the ., 1 Wbit - _. e
Mcunt;dJ::I In 1620. tbe C ... ..
re ":treo were rooted and
..... - ermgrated. 10 Poland and G .
10 ... 18tb c.,;..t iJ'V f _
W. IJ1O\' C"Jt f( :n:..1 w rc
aus .. mo ...-n Il of c
Perre
L
, s-umed at. r the <wou
t t _rrnhut "'I .,m
:rulle"
md cha.m;x.
[ .:;-:
iot:::-' ,I. ..
the :de'
BOLlNLBROKE. ..", ... JobD
(11 __ ),I!r. r .h w... )01-
. his' tlerr the dy
of t.:ltV 1 ,51 anO a Dumb! ...
,O!)" owp,"= J >01' . cal VI Ing.'i
e ae j dl:l<t tandp . t, put
f -d 'natu!ru 1'C:lig;; m
f -.- 0 ( rutianilY and lbt:r
c.n: ds. 1: ':t",tfaDIe from
. and prqudices.. He lfISlSlW
.... ' mora.:.otv V."JII; lode pendent 0' rt-
-ODS collvu:tions and propagared
;:uman;.;r.l aDd fret. tbinking
BOLtJGNA (ONCORDAT."
Ibf""ement hetwc n lhe Frenc
b
tiftg
I and P0JlC Leo X ;,:
Cilnduded in 1;Ci16. 11Je OJ '
80
BONAVENTIJRE
made certain concessions to the
Pope in comparison with the condi-
tions forced upon the Papacy by the
Pragmatic Sanction of Bowg
es
(1438). which had established tbat
the Church should be relatively in-
dependent in France. tbat the
Church Councils should supercede
the Popes and that the King should
enjoy special rights, when it came to
tbe appointment of leading members
of the clergy. According to tbis Con-
cordat, the Pope retained the right
to be the supreme authority in the
Church court, and annates were re-
stored. There was no mention in the
Bologna Concordat of tbe rights of
Cburch Councils. but the King's
. to appoint meo of his choosing
offices in the Church was
BONAVENTIJRE. Glo\'llooi Fidan
... SL (12211274). an Italian
Roman (:atbolic philosopher,
general of tbe Franciscan Order and
later Cardinal. He developed the
ideas of NeoplalOnism as expounded
by St. Augustine, and considered the
highest form of religious knowledge
to be attainable through ecstasy. The
pictwe "f the world conceived by
Bonaventure and his orthodox mys-
deism were auned at combatting
p-ogrcssive Ide,15 and the anti 'cudal
&09'emcnts. He was cmonized by
die Roman ( athOlic (hur !t m 1482.
M)NCH.BRtYEVI( H.

OlUrch.... Aft.cr IQ46 BORch_
BruyeV1ch was.1O charge or the Mu.
scum. of t.he of Religion and
Atheism 10 L.c.nmgrad and after 1947
he the History of Religion and
Department or the
Institute, USSR Academy of Scien.
ces. He devoted particular attention
to Ihe study of peasant movements
of social and political protest, which
outwardly religious
and he pubhshed, among others, two
works entitled "Materials on the
History and Investigation or Rus.c;ian
Sectarianism" and "Materials on the
History or Religiou. .. Mm'e-
ments in Russia". Works by Bonch
Bruyevich on questions of Marxi.'il
atheism have been published in
ume One or his "Selected Works
(1959) and also in the book entitle.
"Selected Atheist Writings"" (1973).
BONHOHFER, Dldricb (1906-
1945), German Protestant the;;,.:,j-
an, member of the Resistance, ex-
ecuted by tbe Hitler regime .. 15
main theological ideas were forme
lated in letters, which he smuggled
out of prison in 1943 44. Bonhocffcr
went a long way in his criticism "'f
_ religious concepts, In hiS
opinion, in the modern cod,
as a moral, political or scientific hy-
I)() bad been outgrown aDd
:tis :.ardt:j, Bonhocffcr was a suppc:
,! .. or nonreliRious Christi,anity. AC
d
c rding lUIl., (''trisliaDity shoul
discard the ir ea of an other.worldh
od and reject the idea of duolism
-n ""['gron, namelv. f'::Jar 'lere aJ
1
tWI.; ;:-rsonalittes. onc I:luman 1D
om divmc In (hTi:;t The .. -seo
cc

hrHiumty. m h:s VIeW, 3)' In ,t e
1chmg of Man' :ove for tus "Irlgh-
bour This teachinp. he belicye(l
. D 10
oughl 10 fand practic.1.l fel
1 life in the name of onc 5
I
--
___ ':;":;)('K CH'
8J
English Bible (Psalm 7 . I WfJlen making essential active rc
? tance' to (hc forccs of social evil.
SIS -d h be
60nhoeffer 's I cas ave cn
dopted hy many modern the logi
:as in particular. by representatives
of beath-oJ-God lheo/OfJ'. IIbuotinn
theology etc.
BONZE, the name given by Eur
pean
s
to the Bud
dhi.c;t priests and monks In the e un
tries of Asia.
BOOK OF THE DEAD. an An"ent
Egyptian collection of texts
to the age of the New Kingdom (
1500-c. 1100 B.c.), t'lat bear witne .,
to mortals' efforts to win immor-
tality. It includes up 0 200 chapters
containing magical rormulae,
prayers, spells to war'- off dangers
that the dcad man mighl t'oe unte-r
on his way to be judged by OSIn"
to tbe fields or eternal bliss. Some
ideac; in the Book or the Dead, in
particular conception." of tbr. "dread
?eU", have been incorporated albeit
In a modified form, into lat:. I Ij.
gions. including (hristianity.
BOOK m' HOURS (,reck "Horo-
Russian "Cbasosloy"l.
liturp.ical booK, c('':ltaan
mg psalms, prayers rantic'cs and
texts in the CYI
'
" of ser
from the tcX:s for thc I,
;'1nI. Itselr that were ,;oUCl.- cd n
den.'1ce Book). Books 01 Houl s wer
bSlgncd primarily le UJ<. of
c urch leclo:-s and caoturs.
r.0F PSALMS, nOK' lC
eSlament cont 10lnr ;0
fhe an IllS rook
D
re traditionally at'-il-uted '"'I K.mg
Qwdbt ' .
car ' u In the text thert: are andl-
12. 0 the that onlv P ,1m
t I,;; A Jthmllf". Ve' ic n or lhi
I"
sian Orthodox Bbl I II) the Rus-
. 'c)w ... /f
wntten by h' ( .... In ad:
1m see 12'20) H
flans f th B'b '. I
that 0 e I Ie bave e5labli.<;hl d
no more (han nine po;al be
Illng to the early years (/f
Irchy. New psalms were be' .
P
o t d . . ng mor
ra IDto the Book right up until
tht: time when the Old Te"ltcmcnl
W3!i finally canonved. In the
grnt, ID. addition to the p llrns m-
eluded 10 Hebrew Yc-'on r' hiS
there IS onc additional
which accounts for different sVSlcns
or numbering used in differen: Vt r
511 nr of the Bible translatr.d /from the
Hr, .. -w ext. and rwm the Ser'ua-
C )me.p illw are incorpcrllted
illt\, L: ntnals ! rhristian and
Judaic scmccs.
"BOO" OF REVELATION". n I
tide by FmimclC Engels aOOut the
.. h Rn'tlalion of SI
fohn thr It was first printed
in it Rriu;.h journ: I ., of
science, politi\'- and Ijtl 'ature ..
titled --Progrt. s n 0\' guSl IRS3_
'\tal ng out from bastoncd and .llI
gui ... : ':- m iJlks in his critic n- of
th_ Biblt . ... nltds dem lstrated th"
the AFJOC Iyp<'l." was . e "simplest
c _ irest Book in the whole
'tc NeK Tl'Jtament" (MalX/Engl. So
H't'-kl' Be _Ijn, Bd. S. 10), ana
lat L: c:-wi, = 1"Iumb:--s an t
thr l:tme ur "Jere he')C 'Ial
e1r' llV rule rs. "-C 'ordillS!i te..' E tlg Is
ell" JllUC !;: Rcvc.aUor: wa.<;
wnIten ,n 6M 'anuary .\nd
i: .. he 0 .:liduc.::. fnm
I whal ChmtliJ,;/t}' looke Ikr n
tt: .. vt:: 1r OS ! ngels tM:
,
..
L. C j Ie ""Ill!Il OU'51'1 come mto '"Ie :1.
.; Palestine II result "I
or manv most of wtllL
been JudaH In the be
gels 5tressed "'there 15 DOthtn8 to
________ MACCAIII',I';'C;
- ----..
found apart from the old Judaic and
pagan idea to the effect that God or
the gods need to be propitiated by
This idea rcworkc:d bv
the teachers of early Christianity
"c('Insistcd in the fact that the death
or Christ is a great sacrifice, which
once made, wiU be effective forever"
(thid., S. 11). Engels ::tsscrts v.ith jus-
tification that the visions described
in the Revelation of St. John the Di-
vine arc "in most cases taken word
for word from the prophets of the
Old Testament" (Ibid., S. 12). Mos,
important 'A;th regard to s(-icntific
Biblical criticism is tbe method u5I.:d
by Engels for analysis of the Apoca
Iypse and his coo..::usion that iD
order to understand early Chris-
tjamty the pictures painted in the
Revelation by onc d the early Chris
tians are d "morc v:llue I han all the
other Books d the New
put toge. - ,Ibid. S. 15). hgels'
aticle playe_ an m:_;.. At ant nlc in
the scientihc elUCIdation of the
cmcrgt:lCC of early Christianity.
BOOKS Ot MACCABEES, non-ca-
DOnlc,'1.1 Books ,{ the Old
Orthodox B,ole incorporate'" 1 ..,
3 Maccabee, while the Roman
Bible ar -j the English Bible
only I and 2 Maccabce .
name "Aact:abcc:. comes from
of thr Jewish family, wht <SC
...mers - the fat her Mattat hlas
... hi... four E led a revolt
the ru! - cf the Seleucid dv
.-y in the six! --<; rf the 2nd centurv
a.e. The lint thr Book.. teU of the
ud the events linked WIth it.
are Dot known. l'be
was written between 1'0
10 B.C in Hebrew. tlul it ha. ...
cion to us only in its GreeK
2 aDd 3 Maccabees were
iD Greek (tbe second was
written at the same lime as tbe fi
but the third d.atca back to the I;!.I
l-entUry A.lJ.). rherc exists a fo M
tx,,:,k to Fl
m
:
which IS esscntlally a philOMlph' I
. h .
tl C 5C Its content avmg nothing
common with the other three. Il:I
BOOKS OF TIlE PROPHt:IS
group of Bouls in the Old
which are held to be the works 0(
prophf"t:'). Of these four arc (he
(Jrc<.lt Prophd!> (Isaiah. Jeremiah
E1ckicl anu Daniel) and twelve
M nor Prophets (Hosea, Amos,
Ohadiah, Jonah. Micah, Nahum,
Habbakuk. Zephaniah, Zt
chariah and Malachi). The order i:
which the Books of lhe Prophl t 'n
a-anged in the Old Te!->laID<:nt illeS
, corrcspc-nd '0 the rea1 or'! r 0
,le'r lppearancc. Some of the;e
Books consist of several works wr' .
Ir, by more than one author. In he
Book lf Isaiah, for Chap-
lers 1 date from the seton-' aH
of the 8th century B.C., while r}ap-
leTS 40-.... " were written during the
"'Crlod .. f Pabvtonian Captivity aI j
w"" .: '13lUrally"writtcn by a diffen:'lt
lul'lrr literature on the Bible tho
ec on s ref! '\'"fed to as
Isaiah, while the remaining 11 chap-
ters, written later .. till, lfC kn"lWfl as
Tritt Isaiah). The Book of
.... h lIso consists of thr-e differe'
..,art by differ nt authors. Othc:
n ')h c-I the Prophets . .t!:.> u
doubtcdlv represent co.r.ptlaUons "
thiS rort and can r'llv bt:
tri' ute'" to '"pel; fie autbors In C
vcrv bosest way. w:th n gard ,:(
'belr chronOlogy the Books of
Prorhc .... arc divided three c-
t( Lor cs. (1) Books wrUtl:D bet.:
the 8abylC'OIan CaptiVIty (lsaJ d
(haptcrs 1 3(). Hosea. AntOS
Micah)j (2) Boob written wbe
n
llRAIIMAS
---" -
JeWS were taken pri"'-lncr and lived
n captiVity (Jcremi<th, E"dcicl,
Dcutcro-lsaiah, Ohadiah and some
Cl) Booh of the late Old
Joel, Daniel).
prophets providc.3 legendary, myth
ological explanah<.m for the
of and mIsfortunes that '>c-
fell the Jews uf old over the cour5C
of the centuries and which were dif-
ficult for them to undcrstand, espe
ciatly in the light )f the tcaching Iv
the effect that the people of Israel
was God's chosen puple. The
Prophets accuse the JeW! of railing
to abide by the Covenant lal they
made with Yahweh, they interprc' all
their sufferings as punishme"lf fo,"
this faithlessness, they predict disa'-
ters of an eW"' kind and fu
ture intervention on the part of
Yahweh in the -,d to :nsure them
salvation after all. slDee Yahweh will
forgive his people and through thl
medium of the Messiah i
l
c- 'xlieved
that he will re-establish the J ws'
rightful position in the wor'd.
BOSSl IT, Jacqu .. B<!nlgn< (IC ,
1704), a FreD' h isht p who L1phL .
the idea that human 'listor)" was the
accomplishment nf ( od's purpose
As a result he paid mc'; 1 al cot ion
10 vindication of the diViDe rihl )!
absolute monarchs md to the j.
galion md duty of the faithful ")
submito lC': lut'JO. ities without
question. Bo, uet,"-mt: famous 10
connection wllh hiS dCTland made tt
Ihe Vatican lat utonomy be
qanh d to the Roman (atholic
Church 10 France. The F ljh w
or tbe E nlightenrnenl, n par
ll\.llar Volrail'l \. (ici1:ed h" rcae
tionary views.
RRAHMA, In Hinawsm one 01 rhe
god making up tht;: Trinity (or Tri
mu.t1i) togethe with and
f)h,vo. Origina1ly Brahma Mood oul
a. .. the supreme gcJd, the creator and
of the world. Later be lost hi.s
pre-emmence whi1e the otb: tv.o
of be triad assumed more
promment po5itions.
BRAHMA SAMAJ (' Voioe Ij,'
Goo"),
-us socIety IJ1 India organllcd In
lB2:8 by .the outstanding Inwan cdu-
and reformer Rum
Mohan Rov The aim of Srahma
Samaj was to bring together the
progressive forces within the bour
ge Js te that wa!" then emerging.
o raISe Ih cultural vcl of the
::nO:: to c lIJ'Iv<-ign for tht
abolItion or p te c al, religious
and other bar and for Ihe
ft rm of pubi<. educltior... "demhe'""S
of Bnbma maJ c ;;tpiled text
books "'"""1 geogravhy, astronomy, gt..
0::- In". ["1 mmar and other sub-
_ts. The L i"'5 or Brahma Samaj
- ded a sin..k. reformed r ligioo
I-_--Ion the principles of monn-
l.'Ielsm, t ! W 'i tt. be an tI ..
I-racmg. UDl\ rs. I creed repre
scnl =-.fj a sv lthc.- .s or .he pro-
grl H"" pc'1l! I.. f tlindullm, Islam
an'" Christiamty. Ii a vchlc:c .,r so-
CI: I rdorns of a
he urop:,.gation )r he reforml' '.
dvocatcd Brahma SamaJ
pi vee: ''':-omanenl lD
...cloDml lt of public life ID India. Its
liter ture SCICm.;C and In
ti:_ ''i!l ccnturv Brahma SarnaJ de
g: :lcratcd mto a numhcr of
mteUcctual Slxie ties and grouPIngs.
BRAHMAN or BRAHMIN, (I) rep"
of the
,0..'11 in India, a
BraJunanism and Htnduum..
Brahmans monopolilcd as lheir OWII
84
BRAIIMANISM
province the study and interpreta-
tion of the ancient sacred literary
works of Northern India-the Vedas
and the rituals of worship associated
with the latter; (2) in tbe
and idealist philosophical teaching
of the Vedanta, Brahman is a fca-
tureless sacred force, or absolute
power, which allegedly constitutes
the only reality, lies at the basis of
the illusion of the world and is inher-
ent in tbe priestly chanl of Vedic reU-

glon.
BRAHMANISM, religion in
Ancient India which in essence rep-
resented tbe Vedic tradition at the
time when slave-owning society was
first emerging. The holy writings of
Brahmanism include the Vedas and
commentaries relating (0
latter (the Brahmanas. the
rar and the Upanishads).
ISm provided religious sub
for the division of society
and the teaching of the
of souls. According
the most important
were unquestioning sub
to the Brahmans, deifica
tioo of kingly power, fulfilment of
the Dhanno of one's own varna, olr
of the rituals prescribed
the varna concerned. All this al
creates a favourable Komra
lead .. to a new, better rein
and eventually to a mcrg
wiIb the Absolute, namely, the
Brahma, for all livlDg
uc but particles of him.
to carry out the demands ,,f
leads to unfortunate re-
Brahmanism retained
main gods of the Vedic
some of their
cbanges that
... chEf b'6('d

BRAHMIN. Sec Brahman

brahmin.
"BRATSKY VESTNIK" (hate.".1
Messengtr), Journal of the All.
Union COllncil of Chris.
tians - Baptists which has been pub.
lished in the USSR since October
lQ44. Six issues arc puhlished an.
nually. The main purpose of
journal is scen hy the ACECB to be
the "correct education" of members
of the Church "from both the spiri
tual and the civic point of view"
BREAKING OF THE BREAD, spe
cific form of thc rite of tbe Eilcharisl
in certain Protestant Churches and
sects (\'Qngelical CIJristians, Bap-
tists. Mennonites, Pente
costals etc.). Unlike the Roman
Catholic Church and the Onhodox.
Clmrc/I they do not regard the
Breaking of the Bread a sacra
ment. but consider it a rite symholiz-
ing the unity of the faithfu1. Evan-
gelical Christians, Baptists, Men
nonites and Pentecostals ceJebrate
the Breaking of the Bread on the
first Sunday of every month and the
Adventists, four times a year (on the
first Saturday of every quarter). Be-
fore the Breaking of the Bread
ventists carry out ritual fcet-washtng.
BREVE or PAPAl BRIH, a leltCf
from the Pope on questions of minor
significance as .:>pposed to the Papal
Bulla on more.; important
questi0ns. The runtents are reIn-
forced hy the addition the
seal; it 15 not, however, qgncd bv
thc
Pope .'ut hv one of tbe Cardinal seC
retaries,
BREVIARY. a book used by Rom'
Catholic deriC'>, containing short
tracts lrom the Bible. works by
nAUT-R EARly
--
Fatllers of tltr Clwrrh, L ;."tJ of 'he
Saints. psolnH, prayers, hymns ilnd
other used in IeMC . Bre
viaries con .... ist of four parle;. (for the
four M:3S0ns of I he year), eacb of
which contain. ... four chapters,
BRIDE MONEY, payment for I
bride (in money and property) whll
a Moslem marries. The ql.t :1 the
bride money depends upon the
agreement rcached between the two
families, their propnty and S4 c'al
position. Although, according tl thl
Sharia, the hride-money hell ng'" "'I
the bride. thiS r JlinlZ; is or a "letly
formal character. In "'"Iily t I! tht;;
parents of the bride who rec IVt 11:'
money, and who keep part for lhc'l1
selves (hence t'1e Turt- sh word for it
kalym: meac
r
nam
der"). The 11 no"_-
turns the bridf"; nto an th '
cm I .... "''''ought'' od "sold a
c"'"mmt <liry tbus deb:!')IDjZ; he.
human dilUI y
BROSSES, Charle<i Ie I "'')Q-l ..,)
thinkc oJf the 11'<TL;'
ment. one of the L nc}'c
1
0par:!: ''- l
hiS b k "Ou JIle dl dil'ux fl
riches" (On the {ull of ReliglOu:
Fetishl... l"fht'\\ he tra! :i
that fetishIsm, tl.. mmin,:t from flll
and 'gnorancc, W(:S il,n anclcnt an
cssential stage ,1 III .. liglOns.
Brosse .. caml out apIDst '01 to
luributc the concepts "g x! ur
0 t hc I C ill. 01
pnmlttve people. SIOC'C thest; !"
'our Wl..rtJs. far too recent n or gin
and far fc,. :il str"ct 01 lat (I ...
thC":..:.c Brm ,es Wd! ....;nong .,1' tir'
to apply histf"ri("11 n he m
vestigation 01 elJirly !01m5 01 religion.
BROTHERHOODS, (P ,<I,I"0u,
assocIations and mutual.:ud so
clcties widcsprt,d in 11th and nth_
century [uropc and closely allied
WIth CT'lft They were
to II. .ocal (;hur(;h and
unlt.cd crahsmcQ from a
and had their own chartcrllo
Late r brothc;rhoods urncd
ID10 of religlOu. .. free think.
109 md hereSies. I'hey (;amc to t;::
pcrscc 'y the Catholic
(hurch nd '"tco developed intu sc
cret organin.lions. As absolute moo-
became more r rmh stab
he i . 'lese ':>1 lthcrhl :xl. brokr. uP.
( ) rcl!7.lou. rnd ellu tional -
n" WI,l P ht "I Wf .oors
whi(;h "'"&:0:- 'n the period frl"ll
the 5th tl '8th ..::r.' 'r'es WI,. ::
ffi'iat( i tl he _I Or-'lOdox
burch In tb l kralOc Bl 1 US,
or' .. h"ill fIIese
!-rotht ICi:. e' v Jpnold
tb lOde n_ f the l kraIm ... ,
.. Bycle:- .. - ... ( c .. ,-
COt.. at: tlOi'"" :l J;t ... a.. whl
... "1'"1;; Up Iii : ordanc wi;L th .
.aw l f IBM .. 1t .. 1..': 'Ul"d to
e t .... J A Fk'i("1.'m' movement
..... rio - m and which cn
ft j n r.:.: TV U Ih
o .
(1::-:: t1optt;: i ' _, lD rno:.:. :
Lraer.
"BRt'/(' MlE R AND EARLY
CHRIS"TIANITI a ", ... rk bv Frede
ck E -:"'d \\ Hen fIr lC newspap:"
"Dc "1:_1 Idtnok.ll in April 1882
01 the on of Bruno Bauds
JCl.th Ocsrntt hiS split with Bauer
Iller . lC latter "ccred the
pt,litiClI and hcgan to
." Prcs"lan mrnarchy and
Idealism M..lTX dnd Engels con!ln
ucd
(.1 kcep vf his critical works
he:UiOg upon the Nrw
the.; hi;;WTV of early C'hnsllaroty an.
lhc", hdd -the!'c in high esteem, as tS
del
r
from Engels' article. After DOt-
86
BRUNO
----
ing that "official theologians ... pla-
giari7d bim and therefore main-
tained a silence of death about him",
Engels maintains tbat Bauer "was,
worth morc than them all and
achieved morc than any of them" in
respect of the question as to "the his-
torical origin of Christianity" (Marx,
Engels, Collected Works, V 24, p.
427), and also regarding danficatlOn
as to bow and why the popular masses
in the Roman Empire preferred
Christianity to other religions 'Hide-
at the time. As a result of the
analysis of the Gospels undertaken by
Bauer, Engels noted that if almost
nothing from the whole <?f the
Gospels turned out to be hlstoncally
provable,then "even the historical ex-
istence of a Jesus Christ can be ques-
tioned" (p. 428). After referring to
fact that "tbe German philos
is prevented by his idealism
seeing cleaTl)' and formulating
,Engels goes on to eXJXlund
own conception of this pornt,
based on Bauer's works and also on
our personal study" (p. 431). Engels
pve coI15ideration to the question as
to the lime and place of the emer-
FDee of Christianity, revealing the
social causes and conditions of its
U'Krgcnce and pointing out the idns
.which it bad drawn, anal)7jngas he
4icl so the class composition of the
&'II Christian communities, their '-,1)-
cioI demands and ideological auDS.
dcmomJrated why ChllS
lipnjty became onc of the world reli
Jiotu and waslatcr tobccome the ide
ology of the ruling classeo: Engels'
AA" i& of enormous ideological Slgru
1M 4""CC for the Cientific analysis of
1IIIiPoo
GIordano .'illppo (1548
an Italian thinker whu pro--
u theory of a cohen:nt,
material Uni,.tru. who triticizcd
the P"C"'" of fhe world and
many Christian doctrines. While
paying trihute tn pa",hei.'ml, he de.;.
nied the existence (,f (.od the Cr1
alor and Ruler of the world. He de-
veloped further the helioccolric
theory of CopemicuJ and ex.
pounded a thesis to the effect that
there existed large numbers of
other worlds. He resolutely op
posed the idea that there existed a
life beyond the grave. Bruno re-
garded religion as a force that gives
rise to wars, strife and vices in S(l
dety. For advocating such idcas in
public Bruno was tracked down by
the Inquisition, eventually arrested
and burnt at the "lake
BUBER, Martin (1878-19651, re.c-
tionary philosopber, professor cf
Judaic philosophy and tb .oIOl!\' <l
JerusaJem University. In the pro-
cess of campaigning again'5t Marxist
philosopby and dthei!>m be dl;;
veloped so-called dialogistic phil"'
ophy which pronounced tbe l>u
r
.
pu!>e of man's life to be
and "dialogue" with God by Olean'
of the mysticism of Has,dlsm . . He
maintained that Judaic
and the moraJ principles
in tbe Old Tc tament have .... r
f.aI vaJuc. Buber linked bls rehg
mu
,;
and philosophical r.oncepts to .'h'
ideas of
ism. He z&.o ad\'N ated rdlg"l'
e tel1tia/ism and came under.the
, h cal ,,,..
innuence of hoth philosoP I ,
.. . . Buber t.
tlOnaJIJm and mystu.;lsm. dais
t
,dcaslfe popular amongst s i1l
,ther moder, ' theologtll!pa'
tbe West. His maID works !"(19Z'),
mel" (101', I .",d Thou of)l"
"The and Essence
sidi.,m" (1960).
DliODIIiSM
-....:"
-
-
Bl,CHMANISM, .I
ethical doctrine. which denia the
..ocial nature (I( the antagonistic con
tradictions of capitalism and lt
tributes them all to the "moral 1m
perfections" of the individual. The
founder of was the
Anterican Protestant ministcr Frllnk
Buchman (1878-1961). Buehmanism
is a mililant clerical movement
has its own internat.ional or-
gani7.ation - the Founda1l1 n for
Moral Rearrnamc"lt It calls upon its
members to follow the "(our
lutes" (honeslY, ourily,
lod love) and makt. wide l' 0:
both church and secular mass ml dia
in order (0 make t he of 'luch
manism nfiltrate the public con-
&jou:oess. ""'"he activities of the
Foundation are direct-d from an
nual :onference'S and also from
,
three c.:ntres whi1" arc to ....
United States, Br tam an"'! 5w tur
land.
small state, ,ituated in the et:ntral
reaches or the Ganges. The wife:: of
King, Maha Maya, gave birth to him
after immaculate COtKtpfion. WIlen
be bad reached adulthood Gautama
came to the conctusioo that all c:e
eoce 15 iuffenng. He Wt nt away to
live :!S a hermit and arre1' 5CVtn years
he "achieved enlightenment" ano
to preach it in the towns and
vlllages of India. He expounded the
malO tenets of his teal.:hiog n a scr
mon at Bcnares (the "Four Holy
frut'ls His pupils set up the rlfst
mo:: stit commlmity there h- -I vcr
been I n Buddha died at thl
age ill I Q:)(., Buddhist!" sol
'mnl) c.:kbr u tbt: an-
niversaTV f ev lt f le :1
.I'S t1' her (he on: 5 "lhe
Buddha' .:.: :ompL",i in th ' ...
and 31'(1 :cotor A.D. Ire b" :d)ll
re".ollec..... o( preacher c
not t.... vet 10 I.._":D 'IlStrated
.' AI 'lat is b:-vonQ
J l.o al tblt
-,
BUDDHA ($am knt WI rd
"'he llight ''':11 d" r Awak:::-
Om "), in BuddJmm tbe b 109 ..... h_
titer a g:-eat number of r,.ml.J.l nil
:. has lttained perre... )n anJ IS
C. pable of "II inl ng oul to {hi he
path leading to religiou:, 1n
this fundamental, hr 1d -sense
Ituman txlDg can become
achu vine mo. e md m( "p vutG
and an undl tandmg of . r..: y
..;o-..!' r; ve iKen the sing1e
banded Jt;=_' (f Buddh' m as
r pre .enl m B1 dJhI c 100ruC II
WI" "n
8lJDDHlfiM, :;'r'!(: or lhe hrr.l.
" lrltl fI ';b ns whlC) lOok shape
,ndiJ. m It:: midd1 L'I me Isl Dlll
R( and I r spread to
Ih (. mtr._ of ioutb t n-i Cell-
,. F I rt
t al :\ 1, mc t" , lC . r
r 'I vf Rl,;-id) .. rm CODSlde
( Ner. suh
vf all "lly anal,.. '1ments
Bu"-dhi! p ntheon inclute.1Ij, b "1-
dreds r 'luddha. In Its Mor
11' now 1:" .. ))p, w rd Budtha 1:..
: Dam (' lb,. f1 under.. tlud
'iiddhartha (,3UU'm3,. W ..
alter achtevr;. enli!!htcnmc .. ;"
CdnC be k 10 Buddha SL
ky:. mUDJ lIe W II son of il k:,'. _.
Iriya chlcflarn, whom leg :ad later
elevatea to the position .)f kmg f.
t" c. lOll IDto .'
oj r - C,dd/la Sh.kya,
p re ."ty its c:merg.:
nce
nunt. 1 a.u ch
! ntU__ f .'!]J
. thID n& ilD SOCIety, the clJilapst I
cl ",'an and ties
. .d da.' s.. oppresSIOJl
mCT(' -- .
f tar...... slave:1JWD1D8
appeal..- ce 0 . rer'ODS no
stat's. F"rme
r
tr,b.at oflk"
longer atel the rcqULfCtDC
O
88
RlJOnJIISM,,-__
social conditions. From among the
numerous religious groups that had
moved away from Brahmanism and
advocated their own paths for rclig-
ioll.OIi .<;ah'o(ion in the 3rd century
B.C., there WCil'i DOW laking shape a
morc or less united Buddhisl or-
gani7.ation (the order of monks or
Samgha) and doctrine, enjoying the
energetic support of secular power
(i.e. King Ashoka). Buddhism
teaches that any being, any life, in
all its forms and manifestations, is
evil, bringing suffering to all that
exists. The cause of evil and suffer-
ing is the attachment felt by man
and other living creatures to the
world perceived with our senses,
which is, in reality, a mere illusion,
a perpetual cycle of rebirth (Sam-
sara). Any human emotion,
or desire only suffering,
leading to new more terrible
reincarnations. In order to wrest
oneself out of this "cyc1e of
it is essential to overcome ignor'
ance, to understand the essence of
the world, to renounce any thirst
for life, or aspiration to life's plea
sures. to power, to wealth, to un-
derstand the fickleness and transi-
tory character of all that is, earthly,
aiDee only then is it possible to em
bark upon the "path of salvation"
TIoe &<>-called Eightfold Path to Sal-
.... is the upright life, whose es-
MDCC lies in the gradual sunnount-
.. _ of an thirst for life within one-
d, of aU attachments; it is a path
ot+Hipiete aloofness, on which
.C DO longer any place for
eww at the prospect of salvation
at band. Salvation itself con
tbe transition from Samsara
Don-being_ In early
ooly hermit monks could
to this salvation. Laymen
..Jy hope for better rcincar-

if thl'Y made f
fcring." to monks and
mu.ral precept!; to ah-
stam from pcrpclratmg evil, from
fal"l'ho(x), from thert. from SCn"Ual
ami fwm alcohol or olh
inloncant!;. The teaching of
was advantageous to the rul.
in$ classes, S.ince i.t explained all
eVIl on earth, mcludmg exploitation
as the fault of the suffering indivi
ual himself, who allegedly created
for himself in earlier reincarnations
such a fate (Karma), and also be-
cause it advocated meekness and
humility as the most important vir
tues bringing man deliverance from
the sufferings of earth1y enstence
During the reign of the Kushan Dy-
nasty (first centuries A.D.) Bud-
dhism flourished significantly ir
India, but after that its innuenLt;
waned and it yielded ground to
Hinduism and by the 12th century
Itad almost disappeared from India,
while becoming widespread heyo'ld
its frontiers. Within Buddhism
there has always been controversy
between a large number of sects
and different schools of thought
Hinayana is regarded as the most
ancient form of Buddhism. Anoth( r
school is that of Tantrism, or
Vajrayana. It was mainly Mahayana
Buddhism that spread beyond tho
confines of India_ In the 14th-16th
c nturics, Lamaism developed In
Tibet. It was in the form of Cb':tn
(Zen). that emerged in China in the
5th century, that
popular in the bowgeols coon
u
',
of the West. In recent
number of trends of Nto-BudJhiS d
and Meta-Buddhism have emerge
At the present time Buddhist
gani7..ations in the of
play a wide range of
Some of them are actively
BLKIlARl
..
knd BuJdhl\1 Icachin
-
---
in Ihe !'>truule f(lr natinnal inde
pendence., (:tllnni;:Ili ... m and
A numller CJf inter-
nalitlnal Buddhi!'>t nrgani/ation"
have })ce(1 estahlishl"d.
BUDDHIST PIIII'()SOPIIY, lC
philosophical content and sulnitJ.n
tiation of Buddhi"l teaching. E uly
Buddhism spread in the form of
parables and ilphorism<; pm
nounced hy Buddha and com-
mented on hy hi'i disciples. Bud
dhism adopted the idea. of a cvcle
of reincarnations from the ancient
religions 01 India. The path from
onc incarnation 0 another 'on-
demns man to suffermg, deliver
'inee from which ht:: can only seek
thr'.lugh the attainment f Nin'ana
Man -through liS own efforts and
without mediators. through i rlu
ous life Ja! "lOR th: ugh t'te ...tage-
indicated ID the Fou; Noble Truth"
and becominc:: in arhal, can I re'ik
the of reincarnatlODS and z.'
in Buddhists lckn w
ledged .'C reality of the extend
world mr' man's ntenee 1: I
:;mri1ual world, while 'holding at 'he
same time that in thc world the s
nothing except proccs:..:, of lw::
and dcvelopmcFjI The ul S Jr' 1
constant sub lance mei c mnl l
for ev - The malO tenet of the
teat:. ling was helL by tl' (I
": the cill for ! 01 all lat I!
livlDg (in ... hilosophv. this 1.:
refe;- to 1. Santana' strict
submlSslon to the 'ommanC:, 0
1

mmd: knowledpe mus S(TVC (0 pro-
mote ) piC'"'us life and 15 ,'''sc"ltial
for .mt:' from ... uffc'ing
Buddha s doth a split he
hiS followers took place.
Some of them (tollowcrs of the Hi
nayana trend) remained faithful to
the traditional view attempting,
a cOMistc"f,;Y (thc PhJ
nsollhlcai school .. o( thlo Vaihha."h,.
kas the Sautrantika'i in th ..
nf the latter of
dialectICS arc 10 be fuund). Another
school, that of Mllhtn'tmQ Bud.
dhl\m, _ reformed all a"J'lCcts or
teaching. lent Buddha the
(If a deity, intrnduced rlo
hgU1US nlual-., revt:rcntc , pravcr!'>,
renounced thl,; !ioucalled f'ght(old
Path, while offering tne n-a! . s a
hrrld <lnd e<l\Y palh or deliverance
11 mgh thl cult . Sodhi! itlV.'S
(splntual nl'ntL-i' The ooc Na-
gtl'1/I1a. who was a reform of
I:uddh:'m and founder Ilr the
l1yavada Madhyamika) ",chool. foi'
mulated lhl.. .. of a material and
spil tual yr. d that !J'e lnt "'tRce
thl yare b th bac;ed on n ,lIu Ion
ar: ",at was I r lkcn up by
Asanga (I -.. I r )1 th
Y O!" .. , ..!ra sch -::! th

ooher V r 1C C ]C of
::3f 'h ., CXJstc;,
'Santan: cr. W or 'l'lUSnC- .
, on I' " c"mhlrJt: of
L'lannas cicmcnl whlX_ )nly
C lar c ::.., 'rt that th, V arc
relativ. ,tary. Tht worle!
or. ). momrntary ...ombina-
\.ns of momcntalY oharmas I; u.n-
Tl. il rv r:,c
thiS \If the matC'rt31 ",,\;rld sex-
plalDcd w,lh rc"crence to the exist-
ence of Kanno (on 1 gtnen.l and
indiv dual plane' Birth and
arc alc;o onh seen as moments ID
thb ndlc!>..' flow of dharmas. Na-
garJuna also considered thai Sbu-
Iwata (or Ihe void) was and
absolute, even o\'er "gainst N.II'\ana
,is expounded in early
BI.KIIARI (al.B1:I(IIARIl, III ..
ham .. <d ib. Ismail (8to-RlO A.D.),
!'--
nULGAKOV
-
prominent Moslem teacher who
plavcd 8 significant role in the com-
pilation of tbe Islamic collection of
or the Hadiths. The col
lection which be compiled is onc of
those which constitute the Sunna.
His coltcdioD entitled "Al-Jami'al-
Sahih" is regarded as the most auth-
oritative of the Six Sound Books of
the Sunna.
BULGAKOV. Sorgel (1871-1944).
Ru.-',sian eronomist and mystical
philosopher. He emigrated from
tbe So ...iet Union in 1923 and be-
tween 1925 and 1944 he was the
Dean of 'he Orthodox Theological
Academy in Paris. Bulgakov made
the transition from "legal Marxist"
to a religious stance. According to
bim, culture, social and national re-
lations formed outside Christian
Ideals arc disastrous for mankind.
This led him to view the revolutions
,h., took place in 20th-century
Russia and had nothing to do with
religion as a presage of a catastro-
phic end to history. The dominant
idea in Blllgakov's teaching was
that of God',; incarnation, i.c. the
ties, connecting links between God
IDd lbe world be has created )0'
or Divine Wisdom. Bulgakov's
that was utterly mystic i1
in character
Ius work." such as
Light" (1917) and "Con
ceming God Incarnate' (19:n.
1945).
IVLGARJAN ORTHODOX
CHURCH. onL of the 15 autoce
pIoaIous Orthodox Cburches It
... in,o being in the 9th century.
... tbe country was overrun by
.. <i<ee\<.< (10th-12th ccnturic"
.... the T.rks (14th-19th cenlurie"
it came under the jurisdiction of
-
the Patriarch of ConstantinnrJ ..
who used to send Greek prios!s .....
Bulgaria to support his inter to
there. In the mid 19th century cst,
f
. l'd' ....
sense 0 naltona I entity 8m d
ground, the Bulgarian Orth:
oI:Jenly to
With the anti-Bulga.
nan policy of the Patriarch of Coo.
stantlOople and to demand that it
be as indcpendent. The
Palnareh, however. refused to satis.
fy these demands. The Turkish gov-
ernment in an effort to exacerbate
these contradictions instituted
through a decree of the Sultan, .,;
independent Bulgarian exarr:hau:
headed by the seoior Bulgarian Me-
tropolitan and consented to tht
convocation of a Synod under bis
chairmanship. Although the elec-
tion of an exareh required the ap-
proval of the Sul'an. this move did
e"lsurc a certain amount of inde
pendence for the Bulgarian Ortho-
dox Church. The Bulgarian ew
ehate was not recognized by eon
st.mtinople. In response to this. the
Bulgarians declared that. for pur
poses of ecclesiastical administra-
tion. they were breaking away from
the Church of Constantinople, a
move tbat the Patriarch of C,nst.m-
tinople regarded as scbismatJc The
Bulgarian Orthodox Church only
ceased to be as
ifter 1945. when WI status of a pa
..:.. restor to it. 10
I ,/53 this r hU'-l..h was granted c,..,m
pletc mtJepc ndcncc autouphafy
and it IS now hC.2ded hy a Pa'
tflarch. Th: Bulgarian OrthodOX
Cburch ha.c;. clc": n tparchic<;, '\.720
-.:burehcs and 120 monas'
tr"rir ..... a theological academy 1
seminary. Thee Bulgarian ortb( OX
Church is loyal In its support
country s socialist power.
___ Rl RiAl. ROB
-
9\
-- -
'''6l it has been 8 member of t.he
World council 0/
BUl L, name given to the most im
portant edie s i ..... ucd by the POf!f
cOntainmg mandates, m
structions and scaled WIth bulla. is
written on parchment and In tb( .htrd
person and opens up with the Pope 5
name and the formula "Bishop. ser'
vant of the servants of God ......
the. .irc as 'xGi his soul
(spmt) either remains among the liv
tog or m aka its way I a !peoal
r:.:lm of lhe dead (world be\'C-,d he
If':1vc), but in both ca.o;es it retJ.lM
the i:3pacity 1.0 nnucnCt; the .sffatrs
of his living fellow-lribe m;:: \ (mcm.
BULLA or BULL. !i round leaden
seal allachr.d to Papal bulls. in
mediaeval limes. also to royal or 1m
perial cdie: s.
BLI NANN Rudol! 184 IS 76),
German Protest mt .. 1 ..
19205 hr. was an adhc_':tl c Ne 'T.
thodoxy bu: latef Iu r. to e;e.tll ntlal
ISm. God, acco:-dtng to BuUma
nn
,
w '5 not some metaphys.:_ll "lU,
or object outside Man. f r tum l.i xl
existed C"nly as an inalienab .;: .e
late o! Man. His ex:: tcnec; could not
be demoru !ted w'tb r cour.;- to
ft''iSOn, but IS (. myrehcnde ..... x1la
ential1r ,10 the .ct of aith. Bultre'lnn
first introduccd tbe it a of tl:: ..
myfhologizalion of It:: "Yo, '" Tes# -
ment. Bultmanr. he' t"Jal iC'50lar is
modern man had c 1! cO II '"
Biblical rn)1h'S to be ,.11, ( itristianit
nc,dod 0 be d .. ytbol, n
other lC hr' if'l m
1

'll( .dd be ntcr rell" DC ill.
bl,;! m: ' pf' Q " :1. I
and on! r r-4 aspr
boE-- m ex dnar s
Ie. htl, ()(Il,r .;-rt j
mitIor nnUl"'\'; ... n 1 r::: xJ 1 (
Lan thl orY.
.. ..;. . his lribe or commun:y);
L'll- I!' :10 msurmoun::\ble bal
between the world of tne livlD2 .nd
tbe world of lbl kad and every
person nay tum ar,atn 0 th
world of 'te ftc, oc Rj rem
carnate:! !S 'lC ! he nt w 'X)I n
of tbe cl 0 or Inbe Burta:
rites :xiSI n th hl::Jc "V of all )C
pies md n aU religions. r _.
clud: pr ctlces f, Q JC ')
e (M burmng. burial
i1 W r s. lttl D2
c .. mt 0 ..::: xp .... leav
-g C t be ... 1"" I
I J'ds) or part' co .en:', n (c:'-=
ru;.t: !it, 'Tl. -:1( n .. e, kuH dr--:!
I:!. 'let th :- .ction of s.... t res
ov_ .. '\ mounds. I :anr-:--
Leo .. : J \ u!' . rnausok ums and so
;) thc ufi .. rtru'. L,f
1: I h .. u me Iming for th
d. u
L
s ml; .. j wilh lh .
I. :r Th e. ' n<.:c , I t.. I '11:,
""it ck I l nocr F ! .. _ 'itruc
plod. bey re n :(Irporatcd i-,t .
later rt..' l! tl Tl L" an inlew
al
I'
I ",I - ':\ inc
(u
, C I 'leI: r
, .. . 1, tdt.:D fl
a
I nrtbodo'"
bur r l nl:li lOC, I
d k
u'" 1 f ,; h of -:,,'cc:
J1 an
.-J' e. t thc,; I .lJI'
UI c: al tI1e
- t'
f 1( Ie"" on th .. IX?'
1(1 of 'un/ISQ l l..
lh fi week tfl r
BtRIAL RillS - h
othiavs " !"idc or rcmem..l
j I 10 be tr'let
a
h:-.nc of" (.I.,t .. oJf
Orms f rcligll l!'5 Il 11
:'le ..: '7TI I x rang o. Ir', lS:

aile Jl u'l man ..:ontinues tel: .. d
b.\ck i.1 If,3n ! t!]lat Cl"fCm
orue1
Anclenl SI ....
BURIAl.
BURIAL SERVICE, ecclesiastical
rite performed for the dead at the
request of the faithful.
BURNING BUSH, in Bihlical myth-
ology, a bush that burned but was
not consumed by fire. with which is
linked the "great revelation"; from
-
Ihls bush alme forth the voic of
God, who im.trucled Moses to
out. for Egypt and to lead the I
rachtcs (lut of captivity to
Promi!o.ed l.and. Gud for the
time n.:vcalcd himself to Mo!o.cs
Yah weI, and endowed him with
raculous powers.
c
CA.BANIS, Jnn
I rench ph .. elSt m
elined luwara 1I:llgaT malenalam
He turned his aU ... "11 pr mar Iv II
the substantial on of materiallSm
and atheism will data drawn r, m
man's physiology he (.3JDt. t:J the
CtlDclusion thallhe ':nain is a soeci:J
organ for the "secretion" of
thoughts, just as 1C t
A
mach per
forms functiOns or the tr.-cr
excretes hib Elements o! volgal ma-
terialism are (. be found in { lb ....
work side by ide with a.t;I<Y.: :C
doubts and, by tbc end of his We, \;.
talism.
('ABBALA ,from the 'Ii q b-
balah" literallv "ree i'
or tradil onal 1_
ligious-mr.:. C ill tea("hmr. whieft I-
l.3me widespr !'ld lmong the f II
wers of Judaism. fl' 1 book. in
which in pprOXlmatc'!, "lrd en
tury he tflchina 0: Cahbala ..
cordI d, ""'cfn Y rah" (t:ook
of Creallon Its lnt nymou! :..thor
taught that I'le ba. f l) that
! single Coa. th t the l '!lI\ .. I
Dunde j n trD numbers .,d lC '
. of :I.e H "'rew !Ipnabct (
bahsllc 17I, .. ticirm WiS. "'cyclcj:-i
further an the ant r: :nou" book
(Radianl'). whuh ap
pc lfcd 31 uDd the Bth entuTV n
<
pam. \\r :lill maIO! unmg th_1 hue
leks II t' ibut .. s thl :Jthor 0'
l"lhar represents 1(. di ty dS In-
IMy" and the wor o!
! the fJowmg or'l I
JI"lne . Coni ldiding itscf,
the "Zohar' r.ontains fl..:.... n 'cs to
en <"iTl 'I' crcati .. " attn!)utl!. or
e :11 -:y, '-rough .....hi.h it veal it
\!f !bblb
e "TOltSmigratiO'l of .f.
On th" ba. ... Ii tic computa
dn'lnatlo- were ana the
r bbal.l .....as il'S("Q for pl:::poses of
TJDgI<
Eo!: 17&'\.1B5t,
Ir ... l(h ..... ian i r' In hi
Vc - cn lcari (J n--y 0 lea
r he pal.' a pirture of
of Ito: fUlure r: '3m
1( r: hand lhl; poor become
re _ j on .... '!
C - -pliO Ih ": .blt
rclitoc "'0 Id b r ... amed in .....
C1 I 01 I:: fl! r \tarx desctlbei
l ..a r :'0111 ajthough I'X'
!:.'II perfie.al --:>pon:"'1
..:ommIlOl, :;).
( .\\.. HIN. \tarce
l
t a
I Ih Fre"tC':l and Intc-,a
til'. I c: JI 11 a c -nmunist 'Il()\'l
-:l.t "1e tht -, of thi
Frcn '1 ( r.'\muRi l)' rty.
su"Jec ec. re Igln ,te har!Oh ... 'Jl
md propag led :1lalechc it .Ind hIS'
t C ma: -: 11 In re"pense ;0
reli)!lot:" nue 'MaOO'jm Cachm
turnt; j lh r to lhe fact
Ih"ll ,-ommURl" s 'lot c''!lJv d,' no(
,ell c monlily but Ih II they
. bstanua
., ""I\ldc ., ,Id sc nUlIC su
lir"lor l.
C4..llS, fire r-''''athing
R ....ma
n
mythology. son or Ihe 6 .....
.::..- .
CAFFFR ____________ _
fire and metal-working. Vulcan Ac-
cording to myth he lived on the
Aventine Hill of RC'mc in a cave.
CA .... ER (Arahic wnrd meaning
"unbeliever"), infidel, atheist or
heretic. Is/am legitimized the holy
war ,- ,or Jihad -. unbelievers.
Chri!1.1iam. amI Jews are not re-
garded as infidels. Yel if they at
tempt 10 eradicate Islam or to oc-
cupy Moslem territory, then they are
declared unbelievers and Jihad d.i-
reetcd against them is considered Ie
gitimate
CAIN, )ccording to Biblical legend
the eldest son of Adam and El't,
who ki1led his rrothcr Abel, a
"keeper of sheep" because the Lord
Yahweh had rc.<;pe<. ... to Abel's offer
ing, "itilc to Cain's offering he had
not respect
(" AIN'S MARK, a 'pe<.'al mark
which God f.--t upon Cain, Adam's
and Eve's eldest S0n, aeco! aing to
Biblical legend, because he had
lilled his brother At'cl out of cnvy.
CALENDARS, REt IGIOl S, calen-
dan; which give the dates of rcUrious
festivals and which provide informa-
lion about various retigious and
Church events. The Ancient
aDd Ancient Romans are known tu
have had such calendars, which
li"'ed tbe daY" ,If f, .. tivals and saer.
ftees. In the year 448 a religiuus
calendar was compiled which repre-
scntt d a tranSition from pagan
cakn<fart.. to (hrs:;.llan calc ru"ars
From that time onwards L1lristian
calendars hay!!: been regularly rom-
pled in the form of lists and collce-
tiom of legends about saints and re
ligiou (C\livals ordained to be c"l
ebrated on part ieolar of the
year. The!'".c calendars were known
3!'. prologues., synaxa.
ria, and mtn%gions.
CALIPH (Arahic word meaning
"'"uccessor"), spiritual and temporal
hcad of the thc(l(.Tatie Moslcm Siale.
(Ihe Caliphale). The flrsl Caliphs
(0.'U-661) were regarded as !;ueccs.
sors of the Prophet Mohammea.
Subsequcntly the Caliphate became
a hereditary position with the c!\tah
lishmcnt of the Ummayyad and Ab
basid dvnaslics (661-750 and 750
945 respectively). From Ihe 10th
century onward!; the Caliphs were
simply regarded as first among :nc
religious leaders of the Moslems.
CALVIN, J<an (15091 ';64\ one >I
the leaders of t he Reformation. th
founder of Calvinism. He was born
in France. By the beginning or 1514
be had broken with the Roman
Catholic Church, and as a result or
persecution he fled to
In 1536 his first major work, "dins'
tianac Religionis (In,
stitutes of the Christian Rehpou),
appeared there. In 1541 CaJvm
tahlished himself in Geneva,
to become one of the 0
.' [
the Reformation, C'haractensltc. 0
l alvin's tcaching was his
Lon of thf importanc' of worshIp 0
God and hi!" insistence on the
plementation of God's comrnaD
a

ments in (he life of
Cldy, He elaborated a senes 0 d
dinanc ... ,;" in 1541. wbicb
the nature of stale law. Calvin rthe
to (he views and mood 0 for
bourgeOIsIe then
power and which saw a..'i I
ments 35 predc"'tined by .. for
sIgn that they had been "chosen
hi'; scmu:
-
. - -
CAMUS __
" --
CAL.VlNISM, (Inc of the three
maIO protestant movements (along-
de Luthcramsm md
which adopted the ideas or Jean
Calvin. It took ,hapc dunng the age
or the ReformQtlon and gavc the
fullest expression t.... IS
Central to CWVlnl!.t L"lco-
logy, based the princ,iplc of jmli
fication by faith lIon: IS the tcach
ing of predesti'loti/ n, according to
which men's fate 13 pi cucstined hy
God 'md cannot he "- (langcd t>v
any man ncr of "good deeds
ciLseiy linKI d with 'rlls tcaching of
prcdt: ,natic-n are Calvinist i 'cas of
secular vocation and "secular as-
ceticism' , which rt!Occl the spirit o!
"I)oUl7.C015 thr ft", whilt ruccess m
husine:;: IS rCRardr:d tv ( dvinists 1,
stgll tholt ). mar.: bas been chOC.!"l
or c.alvation. from '" ( 1\ n t v Co'"
I "lint polil cal I "'= ul r
mnatl d to l"tc t<-"" f I nns;,ll;'
aoout "1e "k. ngdl m f Cod" on
e __-th. "(,od' word s rCc>J1t oJ
the foundal on Of Lllth a! e1l:'
)rcs d in the H, /y SCnplUTe:."J r t
J' h; f (hr stI:J.n w r 11 In Cc.l\i C:
iSm kv I: 1 r 11cally simplifll'd.
V",er tinn f boe (TO' and c"'n';
rCJc(; d. [lapl and the I.u-
c'lari! tare le only 'I.; 01 lC
seven C'J: I ..to socrc.mc-,.ts I at ,ll-:
etam..l nd 1,.,:: ;t.n;: YJI w !5
ymbolic Tn I d.'ito. ..d e
c'ler m (alvim. t commuOIti:
r
ilr_
(I ...ttl d by faith. Jl. Fro"D th:
mid 16th :enl Jry ( IDrim ., beg r
tn spread beyond the bol..1 rs of
Ii I r ilCC (/-fugue
1: ), ti <'c..)tlac m.... L If''.!.1Jtd
IPunte .), to t'le ""lethe .,do;, \.; er
nanv. Hun nd At ,If!
J:'" enl hmc (al\i msm . rep!_'
lei ty If Reforned (,hur hcs
and C'ongrtirnalisrn.
- -

CAJ\.USA.RDS, particlpant.s 10 h ...

popular anti-feudal revolt vf . -0-
170S IR Languedoc ;n
mee) who protested Ih4
lO4'fear.ed taxes and levies iniTio:
?uced hy (hun.:h and s.late and also
'Ie revocallon f the Edict e f'Jan.
t:- md Ihe religlous pc- culion or
tht Huruenots (Cal 'nists). T lC C
mlr:.rds demanded that tb. new
taxes be ab lirhcd ana ar...mi:rr:
among the t lmL:
11 '1s lad i.':::Jm"d fcalur:' of a peas
ani .. .. !an beTe.y co 'plwte with a
pI e.:-:-"lInme demanding f"loallevc. I
r lC revolt was cr Jshed, lOW'
eye late d artioD) by
..: conlw'Jc until '15.
(AMP<\."4ELLA. Tomma,o ( -(x)-
l#':: )9), 'alian think",,:, p" tic I
leade iUld l oplan e< mmu::':'St.
While l! 1 Dommu.an monk .....
t d oglu!'! 'iJoInrtiCl$,:; On
r...:' ....ral (k; .. le-:: w p. cui d
I-v the 'nqumt .,n .. ). his lO ....i 'w
ment In a pic "',un I I\.p.ar: h rule
in ( labr.a ft was . nt te lile
Impl onmcnt [unn" .. '7 r.l!'
be spent In Ii confIDer. .;"':: ...c
wrote m3J v w-: k l<;). phd . 'phy, 4iS
tronomv and mt.:ditCi1f work
(iVlt.s '" I .. ' (t Ity 01 :he
.... _l! .: him intcrnatl( 0:1 fam," m It
L I 'n d ,n ideal :y .... tho
e
fu: J. which 'Ie iJIl .p;inc_ .:.:5 3 c"-n
...ommunily, wh.e:", pm ale
pr-"lCr"'V had been 1.1 Des
p;' . the n31\'Cty and lOt onslStency of
1:" llopian dre-uns t work
him lDli - the b raids of .. oentific
.
C<\hI{;,S. Albcii (101:\.1%6).
Fr
"nct'! c:m(cn' :alLSl
, f Ih
. Ie' nmbcl 0 l .
"'II ,.... W 'd War HIS
the: Second or, . "
philOSOphical Wo'rks 'Rrc Lc
CANOl ,E .. "i
..
Mythe de Si'yphe" (Myth of Si,y-
ph'us, l(42) and "L'Homme rev?itc."
(The Rehel. lQSI) .. In these Jush
fied stoical. rcbclbous PchavlOur of
the indi,,;dual bereft of any hope
success in his activity or in his
struggle: he held that the absurdity
of Man's existence was the inesca-
pable norm of life. With to
religion he adopted an unmlstakahly
atheist position. He was the auth<!T
of short stories, novellas and an anti-
fascist parahJc of a novel entitled
"La Pe;!c" (The Plague, 1947).
Camus' writing is characterized by
numerous contradictions, and a mix-
ture of humanist views and individ-
uali!'.m.
articles used in worship
in various religions. They are used
during senices in places of worship,
which is an echo of ancient heliefs,
linked 'Nitb concepts of the magical
Significance of smoke and tbe
cleansing power of fire.
CANON (from the Greek "kan(,lon"
meaning 'rod", line.
-standard"), a collection of ruks,
in character. In Chris
(1) laws or rules which aI
stem from JeJUS Christ him-
aDd the tposth's [n tbe ....road
of tbe Wflrd the Canon means
rules applyinJ!. tn dogma, wor
Church organization, thal bave
lent the slatus of laws bv the
in the narrower !1>Cnsc a de
CIIioa by the Oecumemcal (. ounul
__ ding the ordcnng o! lhe
ClNrc.b and religious life; (2) all
Books in I he Bible whil h have
.... recognt7-cd In
- the H()/v The
followed hv .he Orthodm<,
(atholic and Protcsl.lOt
C _'" eM5 for officially reccMng a
-
book as Holy Scripture vary So
what; (:\) hymnological canon:
refers to the stan7as of poetry whO b
began to he insertcd, in the Ortb
C
dox Church. between the verses
the Biblical Canticles
matins. In places the text ofth g
Canticles later di""ppcarcd, with
exception of the Magnificat.
only the odes, which are now kno'NTI
as thr Canon; (4) in Roman Catholic
and Anglican Churches a mcmbr.r )f
the chapter,
CANON LAW, in Ihe Olthodox
Church a collection or (Ca
nons), i.e. rules e!'.tablished mamlv t
Oemmenical Ccmndfs and cc"'am
other (up until the '1th ,..:l..
tury). A large part of these rules w.s
incorporated into Eccie.fiiaJtiC'll La"-,
that operated in Tsarist I"" In
the Roman Cacholic Church (moo
Law includes rules ]1 Church
Councils. and al:c;o decrees pa.c; db)
the The norms of Caoon Law
adoph:d at1he heginning of the 2G"
century determine internal relations
within the Roman Catholic (,hure
L
.
They were systematically codified In
the Codex luris Canonici (Codex of
Canon Law) promulgated Pope
Bcnedict XV in 1917 In 1Q83 Inc \\"
Codex came into operation. (anon
law is nol I ....W in the stric" scnse
that word, in that il docs .101 'CIT'
D m the statc authorities aRC I"
rules are not any fora;
.....f coercion. Norms or (
Law C'-1n be regarded 30;. legaJ on y
Insofar as they iI C I ecof,tli1CC (I';
binding bv a r-artic.Tllar stall
CANONIZATION 'n R,man U:
h
;
, Ch ""
and In ',r. OrthodOX U
the al,) \.,f adding certain
the I<;o;embly (Jf saints. A speC!
procerlurl.' for canonization wa.!> on
I
CARl ,YI.l:

introduced in the 10th century (the

first historically canonii'a
tion is that of Ultlch of Aug."ihurg in
903). although of the
saints began at the lime whcn Chr s
lian worship was first taking root.
The process of canonilatinn still
continues today, hecause worship of
the remains an effective way
of maintaining the Church's in-
nuence ovt:r the faithful.
CANOSSA. :t castle in northern
Italv famous for the fac . hat the
. ,
(,erman King ilnd Holy Roman Em
peroT. Henry IV (1050.1106), who
It: heen defeated in the im'e-titurr
Jggle Pnpe uregory VII,
and heeo deposed and elt(":om
municaled, had tl 1sk 'or ahsoluul 0
fro m cxcommUDlC.1lon at its gates n
a TIl humiliating hinn. 1 kecp-
igg v.1th tht; de nands. He llY
V orne into thl .... lStiC on oot nd
dr In nothing but rags. r:1C ex
I on "to go to r ml rSsa h<1' JC
:J.UIrCC figul 11 vc mf':mmg II
agree tl c lpil ltation.
(ANTOR (lll n word neanmf
.. mg '), \.:ill Wiler 10 J. Rnman
I athohe (,urch f mu<;1C
.. h' ir matter 01 gam:'. r the c"urch
music c mpos in roteo;tanl
( lurchc In JeWish lynaA' ';:tIC
the olor .... r "aznn. the II Iding
w'lo chanl prt:'ycr. dUllne;,
SC"VH.:CS.
l.APl (tUNS from 11 r:
\.. -ppuc () ml:amng <I :.: lr; , ..
; 'owl" SlU h }' wo .. hv 1e
pu 110 F h.: l( e the , tm
nk of 1 nc,dicant Romafl
( Ih IIr orJl;r fnunol;\.o m l') n
It I)' 10 an cffor t (;(\unl the n
... l(,;: f 1( nnall(ltJ. It w .
of!; 18l1y ns' lule. hv Ucmt..:nt VII
- -
in 152R. Originally the Capuchin. ...
were an offshoot of the F ncisc...1n
Order. They ...tcd a< an inde
order from 16\<). The C
I"calously defcnd the Po-
pacy In the period thl.. r 'mter-
Rcf",:narion and late 'ngageu In
rcliglous propaganda aimd It
strengthcning the of
Roman CatJlOfici.tnt over Ih
m<lsscs. Capuchins were al ""I
involved in mi.<sinnary work mak
. . .
109 II easkr for Ihl c)1 lllC'S 0
lidatc lCI! pl)w .... r The 1
chm Orf'er _ II todav
C s\.R I)INAL. n thc h':or'uc\iy the
Roman fie Churr'r 'lc s:.:c
rank ft( r th PO[H' (al rl
by thl PO[)C ..... :... ,e
.. g11,;. n .... ll th thc
!: n Iv Ii" '1e l rO,", 1. u::: Lhev
1rc tow Imm :ti iU. 1". n
Pope s t'e.:t -i wm am 1& th"
, .rdinJ.l) t Lh "II tal
<. .o\RLfl..E Thomas (1'7Q(
Sc h ..,hilosODI er, hI. c, n n nd
C \I ',1. l' V r."'aml.: clnc

o p:mthc m: h hal the
dlVlOC ... I mll;ht JI t well
h, nllcd lC JI of h" \- or
(j(\od) con ,Iitut( I th fl\lJrdation .
\ He lil\. ,lC It t;n:.""V
10' i\ ldu. 1. \\ 1 hout aUa(,.:hlOg
nc II 1C I XTftrnal r x:"t
I-ie 1. ( c s..tw it prim 11 Iv IS
It \ xprr' 1\ of I he link h. tw :"1
Man n e tr:, crillu!'. lOlVl"r5C ;
:\\; "'1 .. :: and u, _ For h(m
l at \\3. g moc IN ' ,C .... 'All
,ch (\1 I"("l"e/atlOlI Hlsh
__ ) <. ' I
( "c, l f-
III n 11 or .,erOCs ("On 1e
r
.;>e.
"'II hln and Ihe UeWIC an
l. ..."'l .', I" the
H 1 Whih Idea olfllt
Carl\'1c adoplcd a
,
98
critical !iitand as regards hourgt'o
ls
society.
CARMELITES. a mC"l.dit"ant
Roman Catholic monastic ordel'- It
was founded by a group of cnlSodef'S
headed by Berthold of Calahria ,0
1155 in Palestine. The name s
derived from Mount Carmel. on
which the founders of the Order first
settled after they had built a c"apel.
After the failure of the Cmsades the
Carmelite monks resettled in West-
ern Europe in the 13th century,
where they founded several monas-
teries. The Rule of the Order was
officially approved by the Pope in
1247. Among the Carmelites were
monks in favour (If a stricter rule
and others who sought a mitigated
onc. After the Council of Trent
(1545-1563) the Carmelites finally
di\oidcd up into a number of groups.
In Spain an order of Discalced Car-
melite Sisters )Vas set up in 1462 by
SI Teresa of Avila, and later a
lar order of monks emerged, which
in 1593 was recognized as indr.
pendent. The Discalced
led lives of recluses and they C''l--
served the primitive rule. The (ar'
meliles are still active today, In
traditionally Roman Calholic coun
tries the Church entrusts to them
work involved in the upbringimt md
educaLion of children and young
people, and missionary work.
CARNEADES OF CYRENE ('14-
129 B.C). philosopher of A .. '_nt
Greece, repres. ntative of classicil
sceptici.'im. C3rneades criticized tele
ological proof ofthe existence of God
(see Teleology) by pointing to the ,ro
periedions of the world and life
CAkfHUSIANS. R"man Catholic
mOtUUtic order, whose fltst monas
- -- -
tcry W1S rounded in 1084 11
(Jr<:nohlc tJ.randc ('hartrcu ..
Latin vcnuon IS Cart(h)usia, whcnCt
the name of the ()rder, lnd t w
onlcr Ily approved by the Pope U
t 116, t11c first ('arthusian conve 1
let Up c. 1234. The Order be:-:
elmc onc of the largest feudal land
owncrs in the Middle Ages. Onl.; )f
the mam !'ollurces of the Order".
wealth was the production and sale
of thl" liqucur "Chartreuse". DUring
the Frcnch Revolution of 1789 the
Ordcr a large part of its land
and its inOucncc diminished. At the
prcscnt time thcre are small Carthu
sian communities still to be found iJ
Italy, Spain, France and s me othe
countries.
( ARVAKA. See L Ok-avotD, carvaJw.
CASSIRER, E msl (11<'4-
German rteo- Kantian philosoF'1c
He invest religion in the
framework d a !:ymbolic philOSC?hy
d forms of culture autonon:::..
of the spirit- in wbicl:l
Man creates a symholic world.
Among these creations he oumbererl
sc cnce, r;::ligion, mytbology, art and
language R ligjan he dermed;;5 he
symrolic expression .:>f the highest
mord ide_Is, as a Sign system thl.:
in the communicalion.of
cclings through acts of
C asslTcr held that religiOus faith IS a
phcnomenon originafng from 5
mind, and that it IS shaped ,e
cordaoce the law.- of cognaUO'IJ..
( Duter garment worn
Rom n <. 3thdic 1nd Orthoa
priests and munks when lbev are 0.)1
holding SCn'lceo;.
CASTE
me1.omg "race', --breed.
-'"
LA"IlIARS
cestry"').. f.C1r-contaln.ed and 5Cpll
lie ,"oclal group, WIth I strictly
defined type If occup:tlions, its own
life.style, ,usloms, traditions, rules
under the Ba.\ilica of St ....
"eM R) . ,;x. Ja! 111
elc. The tl which :n indr .. idual
belongs i" detr:rmincd hy jr birth lOd
thr peop1c wil h whr-m he ha:'t::s com
mon Nigms. Marr agl s only Uowed
within lhe gjven grouf Proff' too$,
nghts and obligar ons If _ P sed
down frpm one r.eneratioo 0 ;m.
other. The sy..,tem is built Up::""'l
the and its pre-
requISite I!-> mequabty that s recog
nlzcd as immutable, the d:- . n of
ca :!S into "higher" and 'I -'
oncs and tbe resulting laft regard
mg i'..:cific forms of contact v.;: 1
rne"Ilbers of tbe "lower" castes, .... licb
re 'one; dered "c mtemptib' !Dd
unll uchat-
I
;::" (a.: "e Co t!! arc
sanctified by religion in I'rahman!rm
and Hinduism). fl. ... "J of
the- caste sy:-tem c bouDf' .. i- WI"l it
aevelonmcnt of rela.: oc bet .... 0
\...tflLUS fithniC L- ups. -
pea.! 1m:c f 1 '1I d!' f l'
bour an':: the .. Y I':: '
blse"l SOl
C \SUlSrRY "
in proVIng (. b'ous pro"lC"
!n ludalsm ubde inlerpn.: -
lion the 1 -:rah r I 7lmud al
mudi V, o. pili ul cO ts
del:., _ ItlLns on tOpl: ,-onnee' d
With relijiOon or ri' l3.. 1 wbol lC'!:
of '1:1r plithng . ubtL s;-n
hm s bereft d hr -:;:] 14 '";IC 1 f ft 1
10D. A almudie ...
l:.J:rv uld _ L.. who pr vcO 11 _
o dcmrru tr te why so _.' 1 t
IS fa. 'uden 11 uld mltted, r
10 fmd arJtUmr"J, for ilDl
.... c ;nd thr. r.an:;:: p. pOS.!llf 0,
(J\.TA(;()MB..'i I m 'le LAlte Latin
a13c.Jmhas ,Dam'" 0
1
dlL
orne underground pa\."'g- 5
cavell. L)f n:ltunl or IJ'lan made
onglO, that in anc ... ,t r
f a of religioD.<;
or hlJna' or the dead. FamoU1 cala.
I.:ombs art those oUl<;ide Rome n
(Sicily), and ", the
Island of Malta. In the p:.:'\d rrom
2'ld 0 the \th c ntury cat comh!;
wen'! by ( bristi; n- The
n wr ,arlieu!: fly ex.
,en .IVt'. con.oq'>tmg of "by_
fiRth ... 011" ow gallene (whose
t"r:J length i= believed 0 h1VI
reatbed Q(X) kilometres} and
b:"!lls, or richly decorated
.... "'ucco On the wall.
, ''': ..atac1mbs many epitaphs atH!
llntlftt;" c with worship
3\ remam :ilDta<.1, which provide
unp-:: rtmt l!'-I e material tor til'
hlstorv f Ily Ci:,' >tianity.
('4.fl"(HISM I 'rom tbe Jf ek ka
tck. .. r.;: to make c r '), a
COOlaimng exp '.
n. of dodnne Jail., iO
rn d qt; .. n.vcrs
and __ r the e u'y st<>i D
tt- r(' lS L; . fID ..
fc r ert' t 110. n ( thohc Or
th x --' Prole tant c te ell :n >. x
y c -:1 1- JO(b prmopll. jnrOC I
tr'lt \,omc .....'l ) all .... .0_ Le of
l , and at..} ret-eeo.
1 and lIH""-:...aI diffen.
( nEe Hl MENS. in tL (lrC,",'
(hll. h, IhO'"'.... .wdergomg
t. llDmg .. mstfl!t ..1iol:: preparatory
t 8a. tisr.!
(r\TlIAKS {frem ,1.: (,I :k "katba
ros meaning 0<'1e pure a he
01 "I'lr tian sect c( tbt ',lIhl4th
c.:.nturies in Westl.Ml [urope The
Cathars tOClk r.belf doctt'[lI;S from
H''l
CAn IARSIS, RI :1 :',(
-- .
h BogomilJ. The followed
tcaching regardmg the cxc
-_( e of two principles - that 0
(God) and that of Evil (the
Devil), the spiritual and lhc,corporc.
al. They rejected the doclnncs con
cerning the death and the rC5urrc(,"
lion of Christ and r.cgardcd the
Cross, churches and Icons as un-
necessary. The Calhan; the
seven sacramefH.f to he a
ceplion and they practised puhhc
confession. Most of the Calhan; re-
jected the Old Testament, the feudal
courts, secular power its law,s
and they preached cell-
bacv and non resistance to \'101encc.
The Cathars were drawn for the
most part from the ranks of the mer-
chant class, artisans and peasants.
Cruel persecution of the Cathars hy
the Roman Catholic Church and the
secular authorities had led by the
end of the 13th century to their
stratification and decline and in the
15th century they disappeared al
together. The teaching of the Ca-
tbars was taken up by theAlbigenses,
CATHARSIS, RELIGIOUS (from
the Greek "katharos" meaning "the
a phenomenon in the pry
of believers, consisting in a
.trw' of relief felt by believers, when
they have recited prayers or per-
f"' ..... ed other acts of worship. Relig-
jails catharsis is the psychological
lDtithesis of religious fear, which
(';In be counterbalanced or displaced
by religious catharsis. This phe
DOtDenon is a vivid manift. .. lation of
die function
of reIitjon. actively utilized in relig.
propaganda and worship Llf all
*""",",",';0'11. Ministers of religif'n
., out of their way 10 fO\ter religious
CIIIharsis. rechannelling and mysti
fying nonrc:li/!:iou .. or
(cthil'al or ac"thl'tll,:).
CATUt:ORAl... in thl ChriJtia'l
(}IlIrdl, Ihl' main thUflh in -l
diol"CSC, when' sC"niccs arc Clln.
dudl'd hy dt:rgy (the
Patrian.:h, An'hhu}rnp and so on).
CATHOLIC AlTION, a general
title secular Roman
Cathnlic {lrganil"ations (professional,
women's. youth, sporting elc.), the
general supcrvision of which is ef
fccted hy the Roman Catholic
Church. The aim of Catholic Action
is thc consolidation and extension of
the influence of Roman Catholicism
among the masscs.
CATHOLICOS (from the Greek
"katholikos" mcaning "universal"),
the title for thc heads of the Amlt-
niall Apostolic Church Geor-
gian Orthodox ClJun:.1J which IS
togethcr with the hlle. of_ Patf7arrn
and whil:h i! on a par With It.
CELESTINE ORDER, a str;ct
Roman Catholic monastic order,
founded in the middlc of the I3lh
ccntury hy the monk Pietro de M;r:
ro
ne who was later to become P '1"
" ) Th'
Celestine V (hence thc '.
Ordcr had monasteries In
countries of Western Europe. It
.::eased to exist by the end of the
century.
Laun
CELIBACY (from thO 'd"
"cae'.cbs mClnlng 'un.marncf re:
,.:) onc uf the 0 'nl
'. . . h reqUlre
mC
hw,oU! asce'ICl.-m, I I.' t cntCT'
that men' ,r women should no d,'
. vow
lOtI" a marriage UOIOn. t Churrb(S
manded hy a number 0 tiJnd
and sects from priests and of
the faithful as well. In a nuID
CHAT'f-.!.
cc1ihacy t: mrulS<lry fi ,r
monks. In 1C Orthl dvx (hUrc'l,
pric.'its and dcan)n!; may mall'
forc urdinaflon hUI m after md
"'ave to he cliha.tl In the
AnKlinm Chlln" Ih... bhgat, n tl
clihacy for "1 dcrty w S ab lirh:;l
in 154<); (2) cumpul ory
(If Ihe Roman ( Ilhoh, clergy,
iaid down fly (.rcgof) yll 1r21
HlR5). Celihacy wa< rahfl( d ID pr ,
lice from the middle f Ihe l-th c- 1
tury. Through tbe ntroouction of
celihacy h( Roman ( Illholic F1lUrch
sought 10 relam intlct Is
property hy. J"oiding lh .... pmslhlhly
of il hcing dl" dcd up hetwc :) he I:
Tbe Encyelicil (Jclihatu5
talis" (On the Celil ':II"")' c P'ICS!S) I
sued hv Paul VI n )6"1 r Iter ...' i
the immut able nature 01 th_ pr n
ciple of c"ih!"y. c:incil!: I
Jne of the wh y 2 o. 1cr
Iblc numhe of l{ man (i: 11.. I(
priests Ica,: holy rdcrs.
(ELL .;epardh; min
lial hUI,"inr of 1114 llei. it'r
fl r a member 01 th( no ...
munilv.
CFLSI S t,Z.,rl c\.::tl.r" eeLc
,:-ailo!' pher 0
1
PIli.. .amn. t
Jnc . f II fir I enl c of (Iz, ; .:1 .fl
in Ie A leH'"l1 "",'Ir tie WI. L:
lUlhor \.If m lOt \. hr .1Ian WOI" cr:
,'llc T Ul;; Di OUlS ... '
w:Il:;: .... has not SI.lI' v d, hut wm.-i.
al e .... lOr tl IJnf' 1 .... Ie S
fri m II W4 rk con tutl :: II
Ir npt 0 l( :1.1 oul the 104 - _ -c'"
of l hri. li'n m)1ho ...." lnl ").ug"
anrl 11 0 tl .!mr- Ir II II dOl lOt
age 01 pol\'lJr . n: l dsc.: m4 k :1
( hri. tian H.lcnsk"llf 0 helOJ; Ji.
Vlnely ,me. exposes lC
gnor !nce of ( u .s.
uc ceit-ine, n romc terms ',1C

'"
divine natur: ! Chmt and l:Ji re.
demptive c h, ..
aflllJropomorphrsm 1f h' Old
mefll. HI 11'i1l atta,k l til . in h
Ie f in thc Intarnation and tb. mlr
leks Chrl!
REI.I(;IOIIS, In,
SOCC1,.,n if -;: n' c: matte 'vl th
P':'lrch, which enJnyed right to
- ",..,1 lC 1uhli n Nork
Whh .. "I jid lot m{ ... with Its ppff)V I.
In W 'crn Tun. li!!1 c ... sm
shit w s fir nlv tahli hed hy the :':
of lhc Ih c Imy In 14% P )C
_xan.-l V I I' UI'::: di 1 whlc
'an: _. ban on the rL <lIDS!. nd
ji . mmalll 1 or ny 'xloks the
( lUI h mlg'l' J!. heri 1(!1
T l( i\ man Corhol,c r Iff I Jr W JP
'r<" ! st I .... ntH c: ill ture (sc
j,.,.I- .. r-rumpnhihtoruml. nRI;
S l I l'giO_ c:nsor!'.hlp was
C, e ... J 10 thl century and it wa:
.- pI - 1l1"1 the floly Syn.od '\
( 3rt fi 1". "c sorshlp was
1tl, din 1.. nd remamc ... '""': 1Cr
ti I Jnli.lh( Uc:.. )bcr RI _ of
1 let: lS, ... n ll.ip emaln!,
)c ap " U a hv h
\. to' n !- '" We .. an ts
:.t ,"0l ": soc a1 though!.
102
__________________
---
the sanduary where the cloak of Sl.
Marlin of Tours was kept as a relic),
(1) rooms or small buildings sci
aside for Christian worship for the
members of private institutions 5uch
a" schools or hospitab; (2) part of a
large church or cathedral with a sep-
arate altar, orten dedicated to the
Virgin Mary or a particular saint
and sometimes containing holy re-
Lics; (3) term used (0 denote a Non
conformist place of worship as op-
posed to Anglican ones in Britain.
CHAPLAIN, a priest in tbe Roman
Catholic or a Protestant Church at
tached to a private chapel of a
prominent person or institution, and
also t he assistant of a parish priest;
(2) a priest officiallv altached to the
army or navy.
CHAP' ER (from the Latin capitu-
lum" meaning literally "'little head"),
(1) in the Roman Catholic or Angli-
can Church, the oollcctivc body of
the canons or those ihlc- f"'r
too administration of a cathedral or
church presided over by a
(2) the CQllc ...-tivc body admin
a Roman Catholic monastic
order.
CHARI.ES, in the mYLllr logy 01
An cicnt Greco::. goddesses 01 JOY,
chI! m, and beauty. They were c;on-
lidered to be the daughters of
aad Hera. or Baochus and Aphmditc
TIle Lnariles, usually three after He
(namely. Aglaia, fha
Euphro .. yne), were ohen
as beautiful young 'WOmen,
dothed or naked, holding
and mu.'f.ical In
6 putheon of Ancient Rome they
_eqaivaIeat to the Graces.
CHARIlY, relief to the deprlvtd
("the 5uner.ng" and the
encouraged by Chmtianity and
which has aL'lio been adopted as on
of the dogmas in Nom.
advoc .. ting nanty. Christianity :
tempted to recon{1lc !:ocial, dass.
based antagonisms fiCtwccn the 0p-
pressors and I he oppressed and (0
reinforce inequality between pc ,pic
CHARMS, EN( IIANfMENT ac-
tions involvmg magIc, rooted in a be-
lief in the supernatural possibility of
innuencing the destinies nf men and
natural phenomena. This belief lS
born of man's helrlessness in face .
Ihe elements, sicknr .s and
Men used to believe tbat with bt
help 01 magie means it was pos.<;ibl
to prediL antiripate or summO"l
for a particular '\tate m a "'r
natural phenomena. Mr'lJls of en
chantment includoc lnC7ntaUor. tal
isman.; and amulet.s, rings, \\'! _ lhs,
-'11 ts f animals ... Niies. various
;ove phLltres and $pell!i,
CHASl Bl F or PIlELONION 'D
lC tt>rn (lUrch). deevele<
outer Garment made f brocade
>N ve, W1lh gold IJr silvc" :lfcads.
lal IS won Y pr eCjls n thc 01: :10'
... 3X. Roman (atholic md Anghc en
(hurche- whc 1 CC ... br,tinp Ihe E-'
l..1an'1. mr .a.rcly 11 other mcs.
( IlERRl RY, Baron Il,rbcrt .,1
(1 648), I lr,lish phllc
and p-.Iitic..ar. In hlf
VCIlc1te" ( Tr.Jlh" .6. )
he put fo:ward as :tn ... lterlaU\'\" to
r lilons that w .. c. mmunlc.Jtcd. by
('od tf" men thr< .ugh ..'elation
(llldai.ftn, Christiallity and I
!;j. cailr.;d IrlJI or rC.J)onalle nllg10 .
$OUI. hc held tl' \>c thc c.''1n-
c.:cpt uf lJod as the supreme
OIOiR
- -
o ther prinapll" mdcrlymg this rei ..
glon iT the acknrn;..t... of
wtue as ' ,- mam marufUf;J(ion of
rcvcrenc awards God. repentanc:e
of sins and on. ( Ig-
ious-phill ISOphlcal on pro--
Vlded the foundation fLf E nghh
um.
CHERNYSIIEVSKY, Nikolai (1r28-
1889), Rus!sian materialist philos-
opher and atheist, scholar, writer
and political journalist. The journal
he edited known a'li "SOVTemnnik"
(The Conlemporary) published
main philc:.lphical
work .. Ant;-pologichcskii pr ntsli
filosofU" (The Anthroi olc."c : Prin
ciple io Philosophy, IHIiO). H eo
tific approach to philosoph: L.
lems he attributed to the innu lCC
of Feucrbach's anthropological na
le_ al:' m. fbe anthl pol . cal 31'
proz: 1. m (leorc' ..hevskv .. iew
provided the ke... 0 d:::: e'
solution 01 ucsh m of nor
politics, poOl c:tl e... Domy ilr
,
on, no 'Om f r --
pronuscs with the "f -ta' C .:
sions" of ar: ide 1 L:!
ophy. WIle 1 startmR out from the
mateial mity f lC WOI d. mOlll::y
aplh-;r '.) be:. tantamounl an"
dl,,; taodine,: 01 th:: mt .;:' lied natur!.:
of 1IIlivcs .. me" Man a 1 art
of lC alt r h "n tur I' 1.
and inlerests th ten tr c j o' tk
to time Imme-ml r .:11. .'\.C1.:0. ..,
(be lyshc\I \I '''IIC\ .. C':
b_ hoNe -, C -1,' Id on lC ,e . d
and th,. ne .t 0 'human r. lur.. ,
tbe Olh_ mc"}nl ovcrco:-':- .
(-:tl ohstaclcs ,r:1 di du s
path II 10 lDricr t .. f I:ti. OW"l
t J( natur _ C.u 0\ he" loy came
fOl
w
rd WII ":'i( ethll: 11 C UC f Ihe
rea.,.".nat-Ic t:;tc ,w :ueh h con
l de.! 0 rc tglous cltuL:. tht .I

-
""
;u.bk c t 1$ pn.;y-II,::t owuds
act .. of 1lOb'" self-sacrifice Iyy his
\,:wn. 1- rest, he does ty all
I!. nee.. !J")' (or the triumpb (.
chosen idl:!l He
cI . mor ..
than other revol
utlonary-dcmoc 1tic thinken the
role ... economICS in shaping of.
vanous .a ... is, <. ht.:mysbcvsky COD
..tered It "liaI 1(\ ibe te the
-nas'SCS rrom poranee rom their
,. .
r:. l.glOUS rol1(): edu-
_ tbe r- --.;: lion .
trom the r- 'lere of tlK.
natural SCleDc.. ...
(HFRt'BI'It, in Je""" and ( or
Clan m\1.h one the bighC)l
(:;o.;;)od !l: r l),- ""Ph) orders 01
'" IS 3liI< '-.!:I L-vehy.
(F L\SM. <'_! V.' _. m (IT
( .' ilL
(I' "AI RA, ( ) J .h. "'''bolO(!''
d a mo .ll:-"":
th IJc j D ck .0- I - bc--1y
d :Ii Po ! and le t u of a s;,. -;:=t,
rr. of Tvphaon 1 .....
,I ':1 bv Uc lerophon; I :t me
.... y.J II .. -,r_c;ot . Car:c.!.'';
tic monstcrs m : S(: ptur ... of c ur
c)C s and \,.0,0.: lcdral Om(h.ooilnded
f" m p ill of d: .. !cnl re u or m
-0 !V "'mal
(IlIROMANO Se- DiVUlati""
(HIROTONY 'c JrdinC!Jon.
(HOIR, (1 ,.oup of &:ngc
r
.. espe.
_ 'v r}r t::h:::-dl; (2) part
o e. tb j, .Ii or hurch UI front ,)f
".(,1' (and in Orthod?X
In fr.'nl Ihc iCOIlOSlaslS) ",bleb lC;
U
H Ilv r.lic. d: it is wbere rc.;..1ders
"..... d d . scr-
anJ the chOir sll or stan urmg
Vices.
104
CHRISM
CHRISM (from the Greek word
mcanin.lt "ointmcnl"). oil used hy
Chrislians for ...acramcntaI anointing
Of Unction. IniTially only ordinary
oli\o'c oil \\'<'s used but from the lith
century onwards hal ... am and other
fragrant inlUCdicnts arc being added.
In the Orthodox L7wrch chrism is no-
wadays made from olive oil. while
wine and aromatic suhst:mces and IS
consecrated by PatriarchJ alone.
CHRIST. Sec}eslls Christ.
CHRISTENING. (I) the Christian
sacrament of Baptism: (2) the cere-
mony during which this sacrament is
conferred; (3) the family gathering (0
celebrate a child's baptism, which
often an extension of celebrations for
a child's actual birth. As a religious
ceremom' this occasion came to ab-
sorb certain beliefs and rituals con-
nected with the desire to protect the
new-born child, that were adopted
from ancient pagan cults,
CHRISTIAN tHl RCH. See Chri"
tianity, the Chn'seian Church.
CHRISTIAN ETHICS, moral teach-
ing, which is based on the mor.}1
ideals found in Ihe Bible, mainly t'll'
New Testament, The main tre:1ds m
Christianity accept as moral ideal, l :1e
of Christian morality lS
the Sermon on the Mounl
theological virtues failh,
charity (or love), the.: rcnun
of the world. the ide at; of rin
Iltl#liption, the acceptance 01
as a means of pu:r'
of the
nee" a
. '
one s enemIes
..coal principle is I he
caUjng for Christian
-
- -
1t1VC, from which sh'm .111 uther '
J I II I
(Olll
man s. 'co t))tiiln'i pr '
{
'h" h' C5Cni
. m,lIan l'l .I('S .If; Ih(' pc-rfeci le:lch
109. Conlra.,lmg II with th'
hilvc hcfore. maIO ide }I
{
'I I h'
1fI'" el c.tn. howcvcr, he
found to the rehglOlis I.Ind phihlMlph.,
cal of Ihe Ancu'nl WI,'
'f I . h ' , or u
\ or cxamp l', 10 1 L' wntmgs tlf Plalo;
to Ihe world a'S
thl,nft unreal, the presentation of the
spiritual as 5UpCn\1l 10 Ihe malnial
the ortht' immonalit)' of the SOIi/
the .deal nf u.+;celiciwn; then in the
teaching of the Stoics we find'the ac
of suffering and uf fate, the
of duty. the bridling of the
passIOns and many other ideas). Yet
Christian clhit's cannot he regarded
as a compilation of these or other
earlier teachings. Moral judgemenls
similar 10 Christian oncs evolved
sponlancously among the poor in the
Roman Empire bef0re Christianity
even appeared on the scene, Those
ideas indeed provided the souree for
the image of Christ -- that of a suffer,
.og '.caeher. a comforter and this
was the "'_)UTCC 01 l "lfj<ii.liaI
ethicc itself, which look shape a.<;,
mt' iDS f .-roviding mOld and psv
-I SUfPOlt for .the opprt:,, ed,
If was"X.fIl 0 (: :lIlly md p 'wer'
Ie 'Ssnl :,s. or many l,;. .le
dl;minat Lon 01 ethiCS :nade
:1s mark c1cllly fell on I he way of lite
"t culturc and the CUfti Ims of the
( hr' s: Ian pcorlcs. but II e,mld not
aL':\Jcve any 01 1 ne aims th3.1 :t had >:t
Ited" A'tempts ,; 11 by
rl'<;I"ring the . Tlgmai!:
dt'mO(f31;e spiril of
I "theology of rel'olutWII ' etc, bnng
ing "hOUII fJl'prf-' -hement
{ hrislian mouJilY :Uld the:: Id.t':ds
ctlmmunism (.r ewn renounelOg t j
I
wl,rl'
vt: rv ide::a (,f the ur
3
,
and of a divinity 3<' ... uch
---------------------------------
-
( 111(1') 1'( I' AI. PARTlL"
1
- -
intiS ('hrio;lianity", "!Jt-alll'I[(;nd
,IIroloKY"'). prove UMUCCC lui n
vit:w nl rheir inmm ..if.tcnf,:y whl 1 wn
((tinting the complex problems f the::
mooern world,
OIR",IAN III MANISM, , 'ypc
of Chri$llan Irlcole gy and , _".- U'.t
"nlhrnpology, II h.: ,II. Ahapc 10 "1i
sccnnd h;:M of lr. 19th century
rc .. ult of a drawlO" togeth 'I' 0 (,
bourgeoisie and the l hur'-" In
of tile growing revolulionary me .-
ment and of the hourgeoic,ic's renun
eiation of the maf:! ... lism and :tt"l(
ism once charae.::-I'- c of it an" of
the increasingly bourgeois nal'w' "
the Christian Churchr. md l' r al
tempts t fuse "'Ourgcoi.! lum' n' m
with Chr '.itianity, The a<!v _ tt< f
Chri.stian humanism maintain that
ChI ist's teaching is filled ",ifl thr.: . 1
timate form of humani'm, c nc
(irst, tree .. nizcs the humar. p:r
sonality at ')clOg a spiritual \al:;.;
dependenl of soc 'al onditit
ere lte ... In the imagcmd ifter 11
ikenf" ')1 (,I '(.. f :ondly, t' Uph("I_S
moral st i:lnd virll,;... mhw d
wth the hlahcst fl rm of h' -'ar',
(merclfulnts 0: onc f I ;..
men, omp<'!c on and fc rgl\lr.=""ll
and, 'hirdlv t c. rls tha.t th '>1,
mar I .. nd ",ult"J: II Impl r. ,:' f
soc nu he ilr n aT'
pi :neiph - r It Ir'eaf run... 1 (hn
'ian bum: ",',m 11": nterp. - lnr'
JSCU hy II ere 11 r- ups lod ,d
n thl node rl (h an c mmunil
In ,. variety 01 \lia\l Roman th lie
oller 1tl\1; b nt
attat'k co' 'II S( hUfTI 1'11.. dr. Jl<1
':':l 1 <.11 tJJ.n
siandl nt, ..... ;, r haru de ( r
din an h. r j n 11 _'
cO,. Ih"I" d, .... iUI,; ttl {11
v(,r-iml,;lO'l.tIOL .'
thlOg.., 10 1tlamc 01 ( xl,JI
-
-
-
r.ath1,;r by dint or :lUr me,tal eke.
I.ono;, ;tnll labour 10 perre. t Ihe w II
by (jl"Xi. Rc:pn
dlalecllCal/ilea/(1fO' Kurl B l1il R
101/ Bultmunn al.) .knv
: l hri ian
maIO: !lnlOg that ,he w ..... t! of
an' th .. world Man tI. lie nothin
.,? c -:nmon, While some ":\Ie
from th p .. ,tr ar.' com-
mun:'.,. (leh .. f1ewlttl Jcltnmn
,dl .)UI from I (11 1n ;.&nd
pom: tn. '.! tirv ('ommun: luman,

Tht dv,)C.eling
( hr llO1ll hum'lOIsm dre 1(; )C found
n other he,: ;') well Jch a'
. '
t c f)rth :Ie x ( and tht E an
r II;;al (hfl 'jam-BaptisJs f'mun In
)1 l <;SR
l II RISTIA." PHI L lON
F ERE "'\["E (l PC), 1'I0n ,1mt 11
:1.;":.,"- tion ' .f. i tl th ,11,
(. 11Uld [ :lr.::: ( !ole 1 Ihlt wa
... I }lit". II , ""It r re
1'610 :> .. ,. rom P,t, ,'un
tTl reprl.. I: 70Ilinent If
rl:: 'n 110", N1
li,J.1 _._.4 ;),)naJ :Iatle'
}r \ .. th 1 nd 01 Ttu
... I tinn or th
"- " 1I'.n rc phi' 1,
1, c;:tlr '-',;:. r-: I,: ."
r.: lnd r.;l .n nJ!: ':" I th
cd .. por.: of r.:.,. :Ie tl uc tion
(IIRISTIAN POL TIl \L PAR
TIES (Christian Dtmocnt,
tian "ocial, soclalYhrislian
, inlluentlal soc rt' "llIe}1
f( n m"r. 1..'01 nIne he \\, II I
:nanv '1 sti.Jn poil ..
P rli s cam_ Intel 'x:mr1 Ihl turn
'h L nturv tht y parlu ul.,rh
nfluen JI al ::;r 'it :ond \\
War \\ It 7' ,uling .. n. in tht \\', <,t
. a'me -\\)1 ne.d (o.rc'pl;."
:1( I r. . Llt!1 bOUTOl r:ruC5. I hal
106!-
_______ S( I, "'lLT
--
-
had compromlscd "1 11"", .,,;s In the
inter-war refiod and during the W .. f
Thu.'i if was precisely the (hr \f.ian
political parties in the capitalis. oun
trics whicb were destined to become
champions of the existing social
order. Some parties give a false im-
pression ofthcir true colours by refer
ring to a "Ihird" Christian path, hy
propagating Christian values, and
through deliberations on such suh-
Jects as "workers' autonomy' etc. In
recent years there has been a marked
departure from the orthodox line of
leadership among the rank and
file of the C1lristian political parties.
In a number of countries the rank
and-file members of these partil'"
have been invoh'IDg themselves In
sir kcs and the peace movement The
most mnucnlial of the Christian pol-
itical parties those or Western Fu-
rope. In 17 European countries there
"' 21 such parties y,ith a nembcr
totalling 3,300,(0). Most o! lhe
arc rerresented in Parliament
g( vernmCDI bodies. In - atin
America (hristian political rarties
operatc In alm()!';l aU countrlc -. In
Asiatherc .ne Christian political ""'ar'
in J ndoncsia and the Lebanon.
arc political partir with
Ouistian affiliations in a numtler of
can countrtes, which however do
..,.. exert a significant influc-:lI.;. on
political and SN.:laJ life. There -=-
<lui.:stiao political parties in the Sf'-
a.Iisl countries: in the GDR is
tile Christian Democratic Union am:
.. eu..boslovalua lhe Czechoslovak
Party. both or which work
of tbe ( om.tit u-
SCIENCE, a religious
of a Protestant .:om-
came inlo being in the
ill the USA. Its main prinCl'
pIc .. w\ '" for TIulatr.d hy M. At
BaS:. Eddy and C flS!st n rtlt'tJ
that the :-'''''ll1ng r people f,." 11
k.nd of lise3se i vnly po Ibk W!n(
"1\ help If rcliwou! faith. MMic 1
mcthods for Ir,:atmg I,he sick 're
.:::tcgor Cllly reJcctcd, since Ihe
cnly rtand in Ihe way of a correct Ilr.
v
ers, lOdinr. or Ihe nature of men's
suffering and even
death. The rcason for all evils IS to
he m the widcs ... read mistaken
oplOion to the effect that maUu
CXl .. s as \',)hjectivc reality. Thus il is
soffici"1 '0 reject such a miscon
ceptlon and to lurn to prayer and
I.:.ith n order to be cured from all
manne" f lilmcnls. MOttler is iDu
lOry, ;u.;, illnesses. sufferings and
death, wtuch born of it. orne onlv
reality and ":tc true basis of all th<..
eX!sL.. is. for (hr stian Scientists,
Reason, the and the Spit"t.
With referene.!s IL the Bible, Mrs.
r"' .ddy maintains that the "miracle" Jf
(. healing of the was
(X--s.lble only thank.. to the spei ial
'mpact of his spirit on them. Her
Ide:);s were expounded 1n her books
"ic":ence Cond Health with a Key to
the Scriptures" -\ 875), "Unity of
God and DI !lily of Evil" (1887)
and and
I;, n" (1891). In lR79 Ihr. rrsl
( burch (If Christ Scic.,1 st was .
n t;oston, Massachusct:"" and m
1801 the Melaphysical (olleg
o
.
After Eddv's death th
hip of the Chrislian Science m.ove-
ml . 1r:msscd into the hands of dirt?
tor, who occupy tbeir posts for life
and apr' .inl Iheir successors. Thl.
mcmbers 01 movcment tad: V
com:c.l1tr at... their on
study (')1 Mr). [ddv WI Irks, on rca d
lOr, the Bit-,Ic, an f
c' .mpihng rcports on th: healing 0
members (,f the communtty.
-

("KISTIAN SOCIA.LlSM, a trend

in SOCial en.dc.avoul ng 10
I ,d ("hri.J/ionttv llr II
;mc,;rgcd in the t.8305 .14 _ lDd
from the 11 was d,"hngUlshc.:1
by a diversity. ,r forms. Many proml
nent figure" in ('hrislian
Slflccrcly s.trove 10 liiet Ihe explOited
free fro"!, hardcihip ,I lCIT
oppre. 'icd lui uallnn, but while omg
war and ria r: 1
Lrh. ( r
pcntv nd \ t'
IIUt t Ibep'l
f,TC)SIV .1 ..; , '.
t ::cl: r: lop
thrl !ldL

so thcy rCC( .mmcndcd l"Iaths md
means to 'lis end Ihat wer _ unrc ills
tic (such ,,'ass me d
Uld religious self-improvement I"
the cour<.,e nf its volution ( : 1:)11an
socialism dlvclop.:! int( onc or I\:;
m: in varieties of idcol ""i
lS c unterweight to )Cicnti.
xialism anr the workers "'( 1-
utionary mrvere nt. RO!,,':ln
(ltholie WhlC11 I al'fIVclv
modernizing i" al -t, <. ,c f
"'DeIO! Enn'CJicoi.J oj 'he p, p-. '\
( tian Democratic J:-artles., th .
..;lmpaJrn under a 'let",:)f 107J
Catholicum, Ir d( UDlO.. an other
seculal Q. -:n ... (tholic -
lions, WC' ':: Im
l
rlant polie' ..I
n ,ts I" r.v pr n pi
" (hri n "OCtal! m, a1' play :t.
mrlcml rO!\; n letc Ir'" th: (hr
l
Ii n
rt;. n t nc..... )CI;.!I \, I I":
tb\!' ilidartmf it Ih_ tr. der to' .
toneal SllU11 on. The II _ Ii
c Ji me nsti' JI sa 4 t
cmpt tl pi . : n I: :1 - II
l1C c mmunrst pr 1m _ fl-
c 1anl!:Ulg th w\. rl tl _al . ,
fn m tbe commuOi t and w lL
W . :: of tl! u;'l rt
.. same l ml.; It .. ult"" be bor' _ ID
mmd that thl,; u
l
of (1' ;In
rial: ';) thell r. III gUt e 'I. be!l
IUt.:1 up V mill: os f
n tb pr'" tl ril.- I 11-
..,0 are takinr, an cre"'slngll/
Ii\ I) n' lC : d\ 'noCral ...
11 ycments an In' uticulal 'n lOU'
JOPul:r y or idclS of nlllic
'3hsm. th wt: (I nul t th
ldc olog: ( 11 U I n r\;
oblis!; d Ie make ntie I
n,t many p:) 1M
rl I;tv Yc nih fin< I aft lor. y
c-n \r ul r, "c
I
1
fl r m[\rm... I f !pdal I
I j I or. 1 by
r r 'lie ")"
11" r of I ._ n h II
'p I\:; .. of
L I:-L t of

ale ).....-r. r
. ,)f
j
___ oft: l' :I 'r ( .
(I 'i' 1( \1.1 I,
JI
} I
ID tt- , .. ,.,
Ir..1 \!!" oc
L I' c
, I
in r t
.
,
lOS CflRISIlAN TRADE ________
WCL) 'If a one-sided approach to
-adc-uninn affairs and the adoption
in 197.1 of a new "socialist orienta-
tion", in the spirit of one of the rc
formis( varieties of "democratic so-
cialism". This :r.hift in the interna-
tional Christian trade-union
movement helped con!'.olidatc its in-
fluence among the working people.
At the prescnt time the WCL has a
memhership of approximately
15,O<X),()(Xl, drawn from R4 Irad!.:
union centres from a total of 80
countries representing all conti-
ncnls, The wet. has 12 international
hranchcs and also a numner of rc
gional organil.alions.
CHRISTIAN TRAI)E UNIONS.
Christian sWldicalism.

CHRISTIAN In', THE CIIRIS
TIAN CHlJRCH. nc of the wnrld
rdigion.t -ngsidc Buddll;,'i/11 and
',flam I It came inlo being in thl I
A.D. in prm;nccs of the
Roman Empire as a religion 01 fhe
who w:'re :-ceking de
livcrance from (he nhumane cnndi-
tions ,"'If Iheir cXlstence in the cominJ!
of a Mcssiah . r 'ur The lUIS
lian idea of rrmblllinn nr helL
OUllo the ')urrerin,g and the unfortu
ute the pr:-omlsr that they w ull
pin harplOl"'s and freed, m in the
Kingdom of ck En
Fh; .. I re ,cd I haf II ll':lIy
po55ihlc Wli h ! hc' r'ro'" i' f',..' n! r W 11
beyond lhl to . ::;V}t.:: \i c
Philonian rl'nunClallon f the w'rk
aad ! ,) the fundamC'!'11 l'
pnnciplc: of a new wm1d r IIr;ion Co.'!
,.tJIc uf l..lfn'mf away ':lC 'po
pnpul.1f m,Is. .... " ' (\1arx .. E n
We'*t', Bd. ll, "i, 4f>$, In Ihc
of limt ( hy ISl13ntty wa'
.tap:ed In promote I he o(-'Jcetives of
die ,.Iing and t v th_ $1 h cen
lury il had hccomc the stale religion
of the Roman Empire. It$ Cosrn '
politanism. missionary work, the ah
stract ils sncio--political
and moral prlOclples and
of c1as.-.. -hascd and ethmc dlfferen.
ces, all contrihulc.d to its rapid
spread among vanous social and
groups Empire.
1 he core of Chnstlamty was its
tC<H.:hing about the legendary GOd-
made-Man, God Illcamatc. Jesus
Christ, who came down from Heaven
tn Earth. accepted suffering and
t.!eath in order In redeem
"'ri?,inal sif' .and who Ihen resur.
recled ant.! lsccnded into Heaven, In
the uturc. according to n
tC1ihing. there would be a SI 'tmd
(11ll1t1t1: of Chr 51 tn judge both the
li\'mg tnt.! Ih( dead. Adherenls of
Chrisl1anily arc lssured ',al hey
ha\':, f.l carry ut (om
mandmcnts .lOd the
{f life with csienation. 1." 'lad (ltrsl
If, and that later 10 wo; d
"V(lnd he grave thev re
w trdcd for l"'IS. 'hnous ork 1ta1
IItS. iantc Jewish "ec' (SJ( h as
he tJ, "11('\,), I-'c kni" c Iud, Ie
phil'lsophy (c .. Philo's of Air 'on'
dna teaching n anC ;lIC
StOlci.rm. all d notu:e_hlc n'
ue 1('e lin (hi iSlianitv ';ut"sequc;11
'O'ill t ti(\1l[ o! ":tc J nlll/" 01
sm . 11e ncarnal ,m d Cod Rap
t
t,{11
il t and oth;:, doC
WI re not t.1C. n of the cal 'i
(hr Ian .... Thc r",licl'il of!.. u-
.In dogm<l d h ':1g proc
Iretchm? ve- .. v_ 11
Thr r,.,,t Ilhal r cen
Ih:: t ''''''(,IW,']/ ( 'Uf .IJ of .
.-
'" I.. . ld ( llstanllm pIc _l
-'
pic mClltcd 1nd mc0l(,cJ nn nU
h
l!S x ... ISlllnr B.,th hdol _ t
'I nd If
II ,\.;:me'l!'oned (ounl'ls a U
Coutse of their W 'rk fierce ar/!. .
CIIRON<)f .OGY, R1J.lGIOL'S
ments ragc,d t:clween Chris-
,. n 3SS(lCI3tl(lnS on queslions rc
la , . r .
arding the IRterprctallon 0 vam1U')
Still more was
the struggle I,he
divergent views on certalO With
the worship of ieu!,s. an,d so on, Or
gani/.ationally C.hnSl1anlty has never
constiluted a slOgle whole, .In th.!:
of its development If spin
into three main branches: the Ort/IO
dox. the Roman Cacholic and PmteJ'
tallt Clfflrc:lles. Each of these
branches, in its turn, came to I
of various trends, movements, sects
and groups. At t.he the
soelo-polit eal dlfferenllal on WJthm
the Chr:st1an Churches and the
e s anL Ihe c appear
Dumu lur Ir
r
cnd, an... groul So
supporting PTl19rLSS v '0;": - which
Irv to revif'W fnm r orv"oty po-
clpitalirl deas. .1:
marked ten de lev to 10
6
n

among varil t!'5 (h: IS. an !_nl mt. '
lions. whil: comes partic"J!.lrly
tl the for 10 the oecumc 11
01 lOl 10 the w .rK -,f 1e
. 'f'rld (ounld of ('lJurclJes.
C'IRISTIANS FOR ISM,
mc .. cment wlich was
{ I lp at :1 conL rc! n "anti.,go
'!lik n lQ-, , thai hcen c n
led V ,)f C hilcdn pr
who surpor'cd the Po: ulal L
t:
0v
crnml111 .;:'; by !\
1dc In Ihe fmal d, \. Jmcnt
v the ('oflf ne 11
Ion w Jtlven ' f::: L ' ... ...-,
nd an "PfN''l! Nl: n .. d( tl :'.,; ."
ul h p: r ::. laiC ac vd" In th ... , 1;;
, .
I hon "Tl nen v. 11'; m I; W1S
10 a Genume V free iJl: ju't s ..
Clal: t ! XICty, whic-h, d. Wl.'\ ;If
11 ':I d by the iuthur cJ Ihe d{ _.1'
ment, .>10' In complete Kc"rd wit'
tht; pr'nct,lcs f Ch:"",.an te.3l:hmg

Although the cuur 011973
dealt serioUs "trrow Til HilS move' or:
menl In. Chile, il continues to gain
ground m othc countries,
eH RISTMAS, Sce Natinry of (ilnsl,
Christmas.
CHRISTMASTlm: or THE
lWEl.VE DAYS Ot' UIRISTMAS
(knrwn. a.<.; "Svyatki" ,or the "Holy
Davs In Rus.\la) which la' rom
Dccemher ]; (January 7 in the Or
Ihoorx ChUl h, 0 anuary (j ( Q
and wnl"!'> w\ rc ai'; jown bv the
(hurch for of thr let;.
en lat V bu _. and ,ap m of 'hm!.
During da\. (""'hlC 1 'OtnC,UI,,;
with Ih pcnoc . thl wmler sol
sti,... 'he Ar._ 11 <;1 ';S, wcll a
oth me cnl pc :'!_ flstiv .. !,
_.:'. w.th 11;: 'It'i' hip n
v v ,d fI .. 11
hu Ic'd ) n'iU" ,;, J
.. c: )f I\'C tf k
mlun::. we' 'lId, -:nummcrr l-
\Olde: en! rlal'1lm 11 c ' :-hI
( ,. ureh. 0 m. k th l h1'.
, I,h k JOt thc )C "'
I ...
c ''''1- W ".- .. ' ......
0 'RI it
Ii_ s h fore.
.op It .. SU'" I p::"" n
"' id It .J'cidd 11 C)llOrah.;
. L.
m lOto th 'c tival, dll!.l ... :1
( c llC11
n_ nR Ihe m 0 Un
ClttlR( II
o
-
-
raohs; in Ancient Rome, from ! he
founding !,r Rome; for the Moslcms,
from !he dale when set
out fr(lom Mccca to Mcdin.3 (the Dc
parture or "Hijr.") in 622 AD.
Chronology starting from the "cre-
ation of the world" is used today in
Judaism and bv the Russian Old Be-
, ,
iie\'eTS. Chronology in modern Chris-
tianity is based on the legendary dat
ing of the birth of Jesus a.rist and
this provides the most widespread
system of chronology in the modern
world. In approximately the year
525, Dionysius Exiguus, the Scythian
monk who livcd in Rome, in a rather
arbitrary way calculated the date 01
J<"'us Christ's birth and propo.cd
that it should he used as the starting
point of Christian chronology. The
Romlln Catholic ("hll1m accepted
bis calculations and propagated this
system of chronology in the coun
tries of Europe. By the 15th century
it bad become ",idely accepted in
doe Roman Catholic Church and in
doe 16th century it was adopted in
countries of Europe. In Russia,
system of chronology based on
birth of Christ was introduced by
doe Great in 1700.
(from the Late Greek
""'ning "thc Lord's
(1) Although the word
de Christian community,
its ID05l common
of a. type of relig.
which. came into
l JpdtC historical condi-
and a uf admin'
tration providing a framework f:-
its activities and
v;our. Within a l"'burch there Opcr-
a spc,:ilic &ct of, (relig_
IOUS morahty, canonical law etc.)
valucs, models and sanctions.
many Churches mcmbers arc
divided into two gwups. the prttJu
or clergy and the laity, and this divi.
sion is rcncctcd in their organiza-
tional structures. Administration of
Churches is carried out hy authori-
tarian, centralized hierarchical
bodies (see Oll"rh Hiera1[hy). (2)
The word "church" is .ll", used to
denote a building used for Christian
worship, in which SCrvlL.'t"S arc held
and which will contain if nothing
else, an altar p) It can also sigJIify
an occasion of public worship,
_ of reguJating rela
...... a re!ipJus associ
6& .... MaceD such an
... ItC". tpoups and
'I'M ..-;aueDt c1e-
_ foIJows:
{'HURCH AlrTONOMY. rdati'"e in
dependence of a ('burch in ques
(I(ln..:; of internal administration
granted it by one or other of the
autocephalous Churchcs in which it
is incorporated as an exarchate or
diocese. The leaders of autonomo
m
Churches are elected by local couo'
eils and their appointments are thea
ratified by the patria1[hs of the
autocephalou., Churches. At the
present timc there arc three autono-
mous Orthodox Churches-the
Archbishopic of Sinai (under the
jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Jeru'
salem), the Finnish
Church (under the jurisdieuOll .,.d
the Patriarch of
the autonomous 01
in Japan (under the lUrlsd-...7 All
the Patriarch of Mooww -
Russia).
CHURCH BELL, a _tal
sioa instmment u'cd to sn",ae" ...-
f.itbfulto church services or \0
lOwdl. .. ac-
......
_ .! III :-'( 1 HII':RARQIY
ill
-
-
nal ,1 drilmat'c natil nal event. It h.;L<;
the shape of a hollow pear ,ff at
the hottom, inside which hangs a
dapper, Chu-ch bells arc u<ual!y ar
ranged in thc tower of a church or In
a separate btllwwer, s6mding next
to the church or buil. on to il
Church bells wcre used ID
Ind Ireland from the century,
but came into general usc in Rome
in the 8th century. At the end of . ile
9th century they began to be cset.l in
Constantinople. In Ancient RllS th-
"e of imported o,clls became wide
spread in the 11th century first ID
Novgorod and later :n Kiev
Vladimir, and Polotsk. Tlte r.,.st be']"
to be cast ,n Ancient Rus were pr '
duced in Kiev in the second balf 01
\he IIh century. Bcf0re chur 11
w, -e bung in rlace thev woulu be
blessed by a pric,t and often gjven
individual narn-"
CHI., R( H C ALE'll DAR (kn< w:o as
"Svyatsy'" lD tht Rws,an (JrtlJodCl'C
(hu1[h), a list of. ant in the orthcr
1ax Chu1[/o comr.led for ,II the da)'
and munths of the yCJ! in chr( )no-
lO!tical order, 'n which the faithful
celcbratL memory 01 ii partil:ular
3oIDt. It is lnl;Orpf ral cd into stTl'ice
bouks, and It is also publi'hcd separ-
atelv
CHtRCH CONSTITUTION, a
t,;umtnl f' ( doctrinal character ap-
lCfO\'o,.;d at Ut:cumenical Council'i, At
,hr Serond Vatil'an Council, for in-
!Stanll:, fUUf SUl:h ('llostitutioDS were
adopted, of which thrce were
de\'.lted to Church reforms: the dog-
malic constitution on Divine Inspira-
tlnn ("Dei verhum"), the dogmatic
COm.lllution on the Liturgy ('SacrOS
concllium") and the ciog-
(!flC constitution OD the Chureh
Ulncn gentium"). These constitu-
- . - --
. -
f ,um ,sr I vc to (I rmulatc lhe basic
doclr;nal tencb 1\( the l'huH.:h and
the changes lhat arc introduced intn
th::-, in ;!ccl"'rrdano.; with
plan .. 'for r'.'!l" w;.1 and moderniza.tion
: he ( ThL Church constitu-
tl( ,ns.. "l!. mdeed other documents as-
s.J ... .,j ,"/ the Oecumenic.:al ('ouncils.
come :nto (lpcration only aftef they
have 'al,fied by the Pope. A
mt rSt Important document drawn up
by the Second Vatican Council was
the pastoral constitution on Ihe
Church in the modern world ("Gau-
dium et spes"). ('hurch conMitutions
are named after the first two word ...
in the text, which L\ Iraditionallv ,
'Written in Latin.
CHrRCH COURT, religiou, legal
imtitution and a nctwork of imc<;.li-
gative in Chri.c.tian (,hurches,
Questions relating to marriage, per-
jury, disciplinary offt;nccs by memo
tx: r.- of tbe pricstho -od dc, come
v.ithin its jurisdiction, The Church
...:ourt is the political instrument of
lhe Church leadership and the rul
ing classes in thc fi.ght against t--
thinking and anticlerical
ments, In the Roman
Church it evolved a.<; the InquISItion,
At the present lime courts
arc stut (0 be found in the, Roman
Catholic Churcb and alw 10 many
Protestant and OrthodoX
In countries where the Cbureb the
not separate from tbe State
Church courl is part of tJae -
legal system.
CHURCH .. :::
f Ch
urch roaks Ii ...
o ordo wI!idI r_
the te:: willi "" ......
f!... coiIoJIic
no
"'d ........... 10_
....
CIILRCH MlJSIC
112
hierarchy on the feudal
(Marx and Engels, Selected Harks m
three volumes, Vol. Three. p. 101).
In the Protestant Churches the hier-
arch\-" has been significantly simpli
fied: Hierarchies in non-Christian
movements reveal their own specific
features.
CHliRCH MliSIC, one of Ihe Iypes
of religious music, sometimes direct-
ly as..o;ociatcd with practices of wor-
ship and sometimes providing an ex-
pression for man's spiritual experi-
ences. It is used to heighten the
emotional and intellectual influence
of worship on the faithful. For
Church usc it is mainly traditional
religious texts thaI arc put to music.
Church music in the Russian Ortho-
dax Gwrch can he traced hack to
the ancient Byzantine plain-chant
used in Russian
is for a single voice or a
of voices (neginning from the
century), who sing unaccompa-
In Old ('hurch Slavonic. There
special music for the Liturgy, VI 'ij.
punlie prayer meetings
the Litany, Requiem
religious cuncerts. The
Mlurce I)f musIc for the Romo"
Churcl1 is the Gregorian
that is sung in Latin with
or orchC''\tr,ll acc.,mpaniment.
main items arc' !he "vt2S!,
Anthem, Magnificat. Tc
Mater anu Vespers.
Church music
(rom Protestant chants.
of which I he
and which is accompa-
-.icel instruments and for
words. will be in the con,
.... ivt: language' the
the Oratorio. Pas-
Psalm and Hymn,
r-.a COiUposers wrote
Church music iiov<lnni PalcMrina
Bach, Handd. Mo/<trt, Dmitri Bort:
nyansky, Rachmaninov et al.),
(hurch mUSH,: has ah'lays heen great,
Iy hy hoth folk and seeu,
lar musIC, In the finest works of
Church music composers expre"sed
humanist ideas of universal relev_
ance.
CHliRCH Ot' CYPRUS. See Onho-
dox Ozurch of C)'PnlS.
CHURCH OF HELLAS, aUloeepha.
lous Orthodox Church which u-
tained its autocrpha(v in uno, from
the Patriarch of Constantinople. The
head of Ihe Church is Ihe Arch
of Athens and All Hc'la! It
embraces 77 metropolitan sees, 8
eparehics in the Island of (" .. & _
4 cparchies in th( Dodccancsc
(Mount Athtls and the 'sland of p)t
mos come under the c esiastical
jurisdiclinn of the Patriarch ("00'
stantinople ,) The Church of Hell; s
trains priesls at the theological fa
culties of Athens and Salonika
universilies, in seminaries and tho
logical colleges. It put ut, Dr.
other puhlical ions, a journal entitled
"Ekklesia" and a thcologicai annual
nullelin entilled '. The
Chur('h of Bellas supports the c ':1'
solidation {II t:es bctween the van,
eus ()Ithodox (hurches and is )
nc nl cr of the World Council (

(Ill RCH OF Jt'Rl SALEM, on_
,f the ongmal aU((ll.phalous Or
thodox (hurches "hlch Ir 'm the
ccnturv wa!:.. he ....dl u hy the Pa
tfldrl h of h:flJsalcm ,md All
tinc, AI 1 he presen' lime t e
( hurl h of numbel
s
ap--
proXImal ely TO.! X}(l hdicvef'i. f?r
mClSt part Arahs. and also (,ree
I
I
I
. .i\:'\j.BASi]) RIJ
-
I
,nll and it hilS f.'\
in Israt.:
, h's The Chulch of Jerusalem
P
arise. dt1
_ memher of the Wor ounci
a
(If Churches,
CHlJRIN(.,-\. i or :norc ('om,
Iv
a nat PICCC df w( nd Wit 1 )
rno
n
,' LI h f
drawing on It I V lum c r
('cntrJi Aus rail<1n Ir he . to h(' lC
horne (,f soul. f (ote mc or r _ 11 m
of a tribe
CIRCl'M('E:LLI()NS, Sec
/les.
CIRCUMtlSION rcllgiow cum
m3l.,rlc rit ual IhvlJlvmg ',he rC"]1( v II
the fl rc pn t-c rnal( !>\ x I.lI ":.tn
Orlgrnally (in pr mtlv So. CH -I r
cJmdslon was ar rf the ntu ". n
volvc :l in initiali(, tJ Cd 'I JDlC"', wh 1
'I(lung ncn We .. e:.dmll to ....
ommu01tv of adull nalc (r Jm
C pnct''Scd ,MI nr thr tr h<
of Au", 1113, (ICC 1.113 lrd . fair
Atrlcan peo) I, 11 I ' .. 1 11
Jmlal'm ... r JJTH .. Ifr. he (i"C f
the rnain OUI W2,r I len :!of 'n<11
onge. "IIi, P;:I ti( Jlar f<tilh,
h UJ 1 liS Cl!::'. n: ty.cn w ,.
kn wn )more A 1.11 ws Ie nv
:>efo theIr I rive lif ons 131
aken de -'n:(ivc hap!.: [he ( rl. tlan
w
l
'lIch Ed ne ( en ell
c 1 u'..il, til r \I.
1,;(11 .. Jm(;:: 'un o. (h I t
f ..... 'J I,
CISIlRUANS fr n- IIC
t.:ne f II Ln.-. \. ox lell
t lJ 11, namr I) C1UIT: a
:lf1 (dIll( ic t _ c dc
. Mae y ,h- 01 n It lC {"J- I
ric 1 dnl lfl r
n I,;:l hy H. mur..-f of <. lUll aux
II 1( 1 th and nIl C" ltune l ,S
fc 'n n
il''' I n_, Il r '11 nvent-
re 1un:. - us. r ,md innucntiaJ
noo Ihere Werc 700 mona"er
. . \IS
ID a vanf'ly of (; untric ) Aftel Ih.
14th century th..: nnjlf r
the llstercmn' cntl- d ) I": ,.I r
I I' r " n
(CC IDe Twc new WC' II
emerge fTilm the ('istr ian OrC-
It.lmclr the BI lardine md Ihl
fnppists (or (': 11 In" of Ih
:.riet Oh.'>crvan('c AI the " #,t.:n
m;,; 1\ Order numt ittle VI
\ (Y)( nemt
"LA lIVII.TA nrrOLlt
(('athnlie U"ilization), '(Jurn'll
w'1ich I!. thr Ictllfr VOl( e n hal r it
\': _ .. r'")un in an com' ..lUI
n :< m( Iv.lee ml nil, I: 1 Jis
t but d II Q4 c untries, T1'>'" journal
I ek \1afJ" t Leninist !:; lnd
l( th" TV an . lctic of alhl m.
r 11 :1;: cle mbh."( d on .OCIO to!
Ill.-' 1<Y. ':lIe 1. an J( ..
m ren .... the ufL aI
f Ihl,. \'<;.' In.
(l \'iD TRIBAl REt
(1(l1'\lS. n' f (hI,; 1: TI( I
. f relir"J!! 1, T 1( '1 . In n
on. ( le pr;';" v_ C llrnul'.,1
S(}'la: 01 v 01 of ch TI:II-
fIc IIr:(C.tlOl .K'or hip. Ih
Wll: hiP .f ... l( tm"",. 1 c ...
me nu fl" \lOun) TI.n
l.
. Ih,
'TIl d l( appro;Jo,; 1 . 1000,
d I e
l-"t e 1 t.:rr.:
U."1( lR 1 0 ' ...
l,: tar"': nin .. tIC he
t
s. In he
of lC I the sp-.:s
f1

II .. would
, .' r! ,lUlrt:
_ tl pwml;';' l' an, .Ie.,
. ',r;'"
-,. f .lll! s " .. 1 .. . "
b d
an,
',haJ,
r: 'Ise .', ..
" ",. : hi "c rdlg
lt,n
..
, "l,n '0 (; .a. . d Ihc
_.. ,thlllc Ti ligt.m,\ an .
... w v ,,0 f lh re<:enl linK'
. Jrld "(','lJ,..'I1 , .. \-ib31 arc
dan' as.; j and ( . r-""rks
to fl.mnd .1mo
O
IZ lad
of Asia. Afric.l. 5(lUI
Australia,
\14
ClASSFS AND PARIWS
.CLASSES AND PARTIES IN
THEIR An J'I UDE TO RELIGION
AND THE CHURCH", an article by
Lenin that was first published on
June 4(17), lQ()9, in the newspaper
"Social Democrat". In his analysis of
the pcr.;itioD laken up hy the various
and parties in connection
with the fierce debates surrounding
the Synod's financial report at the
Third State Duma, Lenin singled out
the social essence of clericalism. and
criticil,cd the efforts of the hour-
gcvisie to revive religion. Revol
4
ution, according to Lenin, was dis-
pelling the populist and liberal iUu
sian to the effect that there was no
s('IIl in Rus...<;ia where clericalism
might put down roots, Clericalism
bad already existed in a concealed
form, while the autocracy had heen
m"ioiahlc. The first wounds inflicted
tbe autocracy by the revoluticn of
had aroused the reactionary
cJcrgy to organize openly as an inde-
pendent political force. Lenin
pointed out that clericalism, under
roVeT of moral and rcHgious slogans,
.... a tool of the political pewer of
die landowner; and capitalists. H,
dcscrihcd the social nature and role
clericalism 4J. a. societ:t- yes
of feudalism, refeMIlP. to. tbe
as "reuClalists in cassQ;tks"
their ... <ld'encc
01 die L'hurcb's feudal privileges.
When identifying tbe role played by
the trends towards religIOUS renewal
ill the period of tbe hoWl>:eOls,
democratic revolution of 19li:,\<r/,
and the Iransformalion of RUSSian
> from a feudal .dcol,'!lY
_0 tbe: ideology of 1 he bourgeo1< ie,
I "i .. called attention to tbe effort!,
ollbe "cultured" capi.aliMs to use
.are .MI:btle, wphisticatc.51 means to
c:m.olidate religious influence over
the masses and he singled out the
----.
distinction between the riCty of the
exploited .and the p.ety 0 the eXploi.
ters. Lenm also stressed that only
workers' parties adopt a
tally anticlerical posilil nand tbat
the social role of religlOD was essen-
l.ially a reactionary onc.
CLEANSIN(. RITUAlS, La.lntl ..
(from the Latin "lustrum" meaning
"cleansing or expiatory sacrificc")
religious rituals of "cleansing"
the as. .. umcd !'undean state" or "im
purity". Cleansing ritual, had ap-
peared on the scene In ancient timef
and wuld probably be traced back
to observations of the real prop<::
tics of water (Ihe washing away
Jirt), fire and smoke (for disinfec
tion through fumigation or scorch
ing). As sxial relati,ns became
more compll x and religious concep-
t ions more advanced, LIIe concept of
the 'unclean" state :u:quired
broader implications. People began
to consider as "defiling" contact
the body of a dead or sick ')Cr"
son, with an animal's or human
""ing's hlood. with a woman in la-
"'our. Y.ith a member of a foretgn
tribe ctc. In order to r mrve the im'
aginary "defilement" numerous 100
C.Jmplcx rituat we.re m
st tuted, whicb assumed a variety ,
fo:-ms. r1US ste1.m baths were the
m.!!Il f r ,n ' f rit Jal used to this end
by the Indians of "'101th Ame!"lCJ..
bl<>xI-le' _'g 'n the case of (er.:,J
A'llcrit..:lDS and emetic pttion.o., In
(''1:''c r f Latin Amerk iDS. Cle3Il5tMt
f\. T 'IJ'C
rituals tD ("ne f ,rm fir anv . .aC
encounte!"I..J in ill religions.
CLE'lfENT ot ALEXANDRIA. SL
(c one f the
(hnslian apologISts. head of dna
Catcchetlcal School of Akxa.n
fl)r the training of IhClSe preparing 10
-- -
______ u", UNY R''''OR'''_
,
he , .prized. SI. Oement sought to
combine faith and knowledge
Greek philosophy and (hri" ian
doctrine: he considered that Hellen-
.stic culture did Dot contradiC"
Christianity. Like Phi,o of Alexan
dria, he saW in the Logos m emana
tion of God, the of God, .u-
wisdom. trul divine
thought. Thcokgians of toC::y re
gard as valuable <. lemenI', apologc
tics for his corroboration of the prin
ciplc of cscious faith.
CLERGY, in the (h,istian
the coUectlv.! body cf who lave
been ordained minister or
pr e'its, the w(Iord can metimes be
used In narr we l!..t to mpl
the cL" I!" of a cu!..o pancb.
CLERI( (from (hurch L cI n"
cus" meamng "pricst ), :I m:"lI .....
r
f
the clergy, especially .. De n er
belrw the f pr < "
CLFRIC 4J., ,J) "j. relati"1! te 0
::50(. aled WIth I]\. d -fl;Y. '- - '--, ._I.:n
cal dr. , , (') .e. .dv<Y- -t ng a
Mge
r
It" fo he l hurcb n::; 'he -01
tical 101 nte'iectc .. lif .. Of society
{?) noun 3. mt mbe of H creal po't
tical par Y. such tha: o! the C'h: IS,
Dem cr ... ts In It" "V 0:- Komen
(JC'\, -nme t P ty\ n hpan.
CLrRICALlSM, s CIC po!;!ie.!
:ld fJcc . Ie fo:
Ie l hu:, 't in t'ie po!:h
r
: :tnd intel
Ie. life of ... ly. (h:r Cllism :s
)Pll" I all 'it_(.';:=- 1 lh- dcvekp
lJIent of ! )cit tic 'Jar 1 v
Ia: It ploviu:cs < ,nc 01
'lle.Jl;' r r JU til.catil'n and
enee ot nc'al Old IS T'.lsed on
and 11 ,"'. mad usc of by
Ie tnOSl r .. "lCtlonary cf
or' to thrn influence amllDg
masses, brmg' them nd
d
. roUto
a I pt a rehglOu, and idealist worTd
utlook draw them away from
the. revolutionary Ilnd nationaJ Jibe
struggle, supporters of den-
?hsm up various national and
organi7..a.tirns.
ISm I' acquirinl!; an increasing im.
p r.lane" m ':Ie political and ideo.
ogJcaI arsenal or imperialism. Not
\. ... nly do clericals use the Ct:lurch and
Its ramified network of organi7.ations
t" fu"her ' WD ends bu. they
D W have large oartics
tn power n many c'pltalist OOllD-
tries. I SV ng JP lcrr own trade-
wom 1 youth and oth:r 0:.
ganizations. cericals are :;.
to split If nnts of the wrrkmg
peo-Ie. anG go lt t..f tbc;r way to
fo: d.. 1('""1' m labour and
t -.3.1 .1 lion mfIVCments, work
Iflg in dO!: ::JQluttl :il with a&.0:

CLOOTZ Anacharsis (rc 11 narw-
Jean Baptist. du Val de Grier
l 1 5-1.)4). .dical hour"
[:eol:' .. c' thl [nJighlc!lJIWnt
."1d political llgure In Jrench
k volullon at thl en.:! of :,hc 181h
century. HI r:'erred tl' himself as
"Ie -. ..mJI I ncm'1 of I C'iU'i Chnsl.
In 1:: w.1I1:;-; c.ind pccches ID :,he
( n\." -It "D he out for r\-
Lccmc:1t . the Roman (.atholi-
m .;th the Cult of R,"Json, .:..ug-
g.., . ng I hat the reople to
! p N:lievlDg in Ihe pnests Inch
and 10 turn to
"lilV . was later
\\11 h "rhl-"r leftwing Jac0bin5
(Hcbcrlists).
("LlNY REFORM, reform. I; intro-
duced Iw thl." Papacy at the
, f .h' e Benedictine monaslC'ry UJ
lion \1 III -'n'
("Juny In the 10th and I uh ce ... ,.
COADJUTOR
,.
[hev led 10 Tbe .. hment of new
monasteries accountahle (0 that. at
<..1u",; (and not the bishop). the UI
troouction of stricter rules for the
monks (including celiba.CJ'l.. pro-
hihition of rimo"y, the institutIon of
elections for the Pope by the Co/leg('
of Cardinals (to which mcmarchs and
secular feudal lords could not be
long), and the prohibition of lay if!'
The Cluny Reform was nol
carried through to its conclusion be
of the opposition from feudal
lords and leading clerics, but 10
extent it served to consolidate
the Roman Catholic Church.
COADJUTOR, in the Roman Cath-
olic Church a priest appointed hy the
Pope 10 as. ...ist a diocesan bishop. if
the latter is not in a position to carry
out his duties because of age Of fail
. health. A coadjutor enjoys all the
and pri .. ilegcs of a bishop.
lOT!, are appointed in (he
Protestant Episcopal Church of

COGNOSCIRIUTY OF THE
WORLD, a concept 'xpressmg the
capactty , f Man as a soc al heing,
with reference to "le practical ex
perience accumulated in he
wurse of l:llstOrv, .:orreclly to per
cdve all the di .... -se kind .. of mal cr
around htm, their pr :lpcrties. lorms
and pattc-:-ns l f movement and the
ways In which they ue int rc n
ncctcd.
COItA 1M the Jud 11.; pr csts who
fflclated together Wi leo'llrs
in the Temple f }'ahWt'"h n Jeff Q-
km. m .... mt> l) f s an desccncJcd
from Aaron and bavlng certain
he tat)' reliRJous. pr leges and
r poDSJb htll .
-
COLLEGE 0'- CARDINALS, all
the Cardinals of the Roman Catholic
Chun'h. For many cCDturies the
number of c.a,rdinals did not exceed
7tl and traditionally the majority of
them were Italians. After the Sec(lod
World War the Popes began for pol.
itical fl'asons to the College
of Cardinals by appointing new
cardinals from the countries of Latin
America, Asia and Africa. At the
prescnt time there arc Over 140
cardinals, yet Europeans and repre.
scntatives of the United States pre.
dominate as before. Since 1179 the
College of Cardinals has heen
granted the exclusive right (0 elect a
Pop<
l:OLUNS. 4.nthony 1/29),
English matenalist philosoph-" aDd
deist. lie defended the principles :>f
materialism and detnminism in his
interpretation of consc1ousnc
Man's emotional lire and meolal e
tivity and he rejected the concepts
the immortality \ f the soul and In
will. In his work "A
Freethinking" (1713) be criticized
(he Christian reliJtion and the
l hurch from a deist standpoint and
W1th sympathies close to those of
thlOKe o! the Enlightenment. 0 l!t
Discour c- of the Grounds and Re
sons of the C'ui!tian Rcligl ,
(lilt) be suhJectec. thL Old Testa
ment pro
l
hec-es 'VN' Test(JJ7ft'
mn 11 I to cr t kal analr- IS ( Iii
\\ork w .! put hshcd anon..
nd row h auads rom
clL lcalists and theologtans.
(OMENIUS or KOMENSKY J
Amos 4j() 16 (zech cdu
, .h
tuma I , -:>ht .)SOpher od u
foundcr o. a deml Gal system
e<.ucation. H.. nnged 0 thl F.
nltan Rre:hrrn <. meDIUS c lie
COMMUNTO:,>/ BREAD
II
-
scholastic formalism and in his
philosophy came do!'>c to materialist
sensualism. he was a
consistent matenaltst: he recogm7ed
the Holy SCriptllfl'S the
senses and reason) as a source of
knowledge. Bc held that general
education helps to hring up children
in the spirit of Inmwnism. Yct he
also maintained that preparation for
the "life eternal" was the. uhimale
goal for those engaged in the educa
tion and uphringing of children.
Many of his educational ideas and
methods were in advance of his time
COMMANDMEN'" (T['II) or DE
lAU)(;UE (from the Greek deka"
meaning "ten" and "logos me;lOlng
word" or "t '}('hing"), the nurms of
0. odut ror thf'; ws of am. ent
times cont3tneC:: 10 the Pentateuch
which dlegedly were cngr lwd by
God on two . ne tal"llets eot"l!! tf'd
o Most's n Me-unt SlOat. Both the
ory o. thiS gir anL als the content
r the (ommancJmcnt ... ex
p undr:d In le Penlatf'UI n a
number of ve I<'ns Exod. un
w rds: Deut. 12 onwards) In the
( :lmmandments, which arc lisled n
Exodus {'W), for l'le
conduct of w(1fship pI :k min ate'
the people .. L. lied upon not (0 wor
!;hlp any fl reign gods. t(l de.. y
their altars, not tl) make the"llsclves
any' mOUlded gods md SCI on. With
reg rd 10 nr rms of person. I :x:h'
v: ... ur all thai s the e <; a
prohit-- lion f mix d marriages with
memtlers f trihts. In tW\
olh VerSlfns the (ommandmenf
C .tam. m addition t-:) the at- ve
mentioned prescTlplicll. for W'l
slur MX othc.r norms for mor I 11_
haviour the inuivir'ual shouh..i hi n
OUr hiS parents, nol kill, commit
adultery Sled. bear false witncs,<; or
Covet other people's prOllCrtv. Thr-se
commandments for mnral hthaviour
rcncet the moral conceplS which
shape in the era when
SOCiety was going into de-
slavcowning SOClcty Wa\
hcgmntng to take shape. Many of
them can clearly he traced b ck to
considerations (If a c1a.c;s charactc
Their significance is considcrahly
narrower than the verbal terms in
which they arc The com
m ..mdment "Thou not kill", for
example. only extends 10 memhcrs
of the Israelites' own trille, for (,od
not nly permits the killing
bers of other trihcs, but also J'::' s-
CflN:!> II, It is al aid down that
me-:nhc"'S of the Israelites' (I'Wn' be
shl he lunishcd by deat!- or c.:
jin sir. r.. !- fort; shows.. '
1C implic tio the command
men n t k I al .. qarrowcr than
mil;ht at first Appear Ic .. the;.;.a ,
tIl lC ll;ht of speCific h tC"le 11 COD
p at the lime II
thus un\\> fOi pol gists or re jo
tf' ltte 11[0 tu rt ,rescr.' the (oro
menls !o;ollc:clion )1 nc: n
fl absolutr morality. appropn " n
all times n 01 all people This
burnt: Jt hv lC v.;holl,; or the con
I,t the Ribfl the ch ract( rs n
which gularlv VIol te the ,,-om
mandm tts. r te C :lmmandrnent
agatn killing c for
ex_mol \' tC .. xhllftal10n , '
life', eve Of I. .. (, .xoo. 21 ..
A stgDlflclnl pc t .
tradition s lC (3,,1 that what IS pr ,'$
C II'lc 10 thl Old I. (tamllfl IS "nco
reJec C .. In the "'I,M.
UIM"l NI()N BREA[I or
PIl()Rr\ (ir,d;. .... otd m 'J.nmg 0
fenn ) in thl' c,'ntunes o(
L , ,r c'hnJrtomf'o. Ihls waS I c:
.. I,ll ry I " . !-Iwughl
" lmc p;n cn 10 the (l ll,nnp
"'
COMMU:-":ION nm"
by Chrutlans 10 their community.
some or were for the t.u
while the remainder was
u')co for the "suppers of lovc" hcl<!
after the Uhl,. Latcr in Orthodox
Chuf('bes the name "prosphora'
came to be given to the small round
lo.lvcs baked from wheat nour
which were used for the Eucharist
Roman Catholics usc for this pur-
pose communion wafers known a ...
hosts.
COMMUNION TABLE, most im-
portant accessory of a
church, an object of religious vencr
alion: a small square table, often ex
ecuted ",ith artistic decoration,
which in the middle of the
altar. On this. table arc laid (1ul the
communion dm.h, Cross and the
boclk containing the Gospels The
Ltcharist IS administered and
conducted clO5e by he Com
r,blc_
MUNIST MORALIlY 'he
level in the historical dew'
of morality. CommunISt
represent!'. one of the as-
ideology and the
of It evolved
--
--- -
evolutionary re tructurlnlLo( soti j
r( {tUiI andlorcmoM.
11 rclar ItS the main task. In th ..
cnurse d that restructuring
1"... 3lity its !e. the individual and
innel" wmld arc all transfornC'd as
well. When the conflict he
interests of society and those of b
is eliminated, ,then there 1
also disappear thc reflections of that
conflict in the sphere of mOl Con.
SClOu!\ncss --, contradi<.-lions between
convictions and ordinary life work
pleasure. duty and indinaf 1.5,
sclfi.!'.hncss and scUlI:s..IIOncss, virtue
.and happiness ctt The individual
.lchieves inner harmony and inte
md noral norms c lSO: 0 be
le rms of an obligatory nature laid
down from above. The indi\,'duaJ
)ehic\'cs true ........ dom, the prcreq 'I
uislle of ""hieh IS the elimination of
III kinds of matcrlal, intelJectual nj
religIOUS In these condi
nns t bee ml. possihle for hum:'n
..:Iatie os to tun into rcally humane,
md justice, cqu'lity and Ihe colle
ve spirit can all come into thei;
'"WD Thc free developmcnt of eaeh
mdiVidual is the condition of the free
.J:vclopment cf all. The self-rew.,
at on CJch individual and tbe
flower ng f the potential within him
fe r all rOllo( development will coin
c de With the ....hjeclive of '>Crving !lO
c.ety. The religious ideals of QJct'tJ
Clfm anc.: sclfabascment are alien tu
cmmumst mOl alit v it holds aJoft
eat" indiVldu:J md right If'- hap'
pmess.
(OMI\IDIllY, Rt"U!>lOl S, PI'
maryc II of religIOUS a
type l"f' cLal grouping.
109 features or religious commumtleS
which enable them to C1'}'5ta11ize a'i
gr'''IUpS uc: (I) theOTdical prinCI-
ples, i.e _ shaJ ('.d religiOUS conCCp'
co ('( RI f\Nr[
, 1
,
. os and idl 1'l. ""elir's, 11m' ond oh
L. L. I j'l
cctives. SignS anu Symlld.5. r I'"
lous adMties. Ihat m\-ulvmg
wCTship and it
of shar<:d (4. pat: ;-1'
of "uhordinaIK'n. dl!\tr hUIII n f po
and nics. The J( ture of
I delrrmcnc_
by traditions and hy or
1 charter. hy r Jlcs etc Wllhln lhl
context of a religaous c md
on the of SpeCI' I 'r lena z \
tem of for nat lOd mlorm I uh
groups takes sha;M '1( c
c,.:mndl. the clergy. nal, 'llnner
preachf prophets. 1:1t'1.lcrs lnd so
on. In pre capitati, WI 'al fl rma
tI 11S r:. iglOus eommumll s c 10
with aml'y," 0: l( :fl.
bourbood grour o<\s capl: lIl: a
tions dev oped, r .... j ... oU!\ <:0 .
munllie'5 began t ac'1l:'::1I., r.. re ..
dependeol:e
COMPARA1n HlSTORI( U
Pt1ETHOD, method c"'d In C1'-
tilic research "idl rna _ 0;, I'
Ible 10 earn al-Ollt var:
or t.d stag" 01 ne L. , on
r 01 t'WI dlf. _ 1.1 h'" m( .
which exist null lOr.o ,tv 1-:.::
which are t Ii. ;;rc.1 1 n.:. r
thl r L;;vcll pO':_ nl. I.h II' .1h
"cr II truct or f4
C In Jr ... k Me 11 :mr' lh
c lllie d " lor mr'"l.l ,.. 11 I I
StnCt the: sec nd hal. c 1e JQth
c...cQtuIY the; mcthod ha .... t-: .... :l w tiel\'
l!:!.;d In b.. th 1r natural SCI 11 e
Uld t',e hum ami ... inC rc -...
I lS S 'ho!arthlp n g=" al me'
ru'Story f religion In p.1rtll ul3.1
(OMU. ...
Frcnc'rl phtlo, phcr md .OCII
foundr o! r:J.SIli\ism In hiS tuclyo.
the pr .. M of human mind Ilc dis-
c led Ihrec stage; 'le Iheolmnl
-
the me' phv:: (" , dnd the poslliv
The fit two stages of ':lanklw.:!1l n
de ... lopmcnl (I.e the th:.:o-
Il)jl)CJ.l nd mctaphy .. - 1) haa I.
leg -Jly been JVCrtak Q Ac ording
tl om th' highest stag!,; In e
.:DC . m.:nk ad wa. .. m
WI! 1 Its pa-:" vi M'orld out! 'Jk
{ :nIt was I \'ch:m ... I lint or
I: saw the Ic'll v
mcnt .;xi .. 1 '. rmony '0 lie m thi
'- tion f ncw rt 19lon CJI
an at" Ie 'HIPI mc tw
whie wa' me ilnt Ity inle
fC ":lnJund, It Vir JI be the k
o. I
L
(i, tUn.:: t:., to rc du
pc. I... ":'I an :1 r VI
. nill r'U h r.: :'l wo'" w
( 0 j .. :=Iph,. poc- ye.
"' - phv ,
.1 h .. C
(0
c . I
f Ih 0' Q, lal
c r. :J lR :1' , I Ih
It:m rOD ) C n w F... I ')
tL _ room thm It: 1 n (11.-x1
n (.1 .... 111 k pol'C
t; ldi into the c':t. pe
:It: -., th l on 1\... n: t- Ick II 1 P
:-1 only .1 un JI r the
Pope "" I... o. r c I)roc...
or ' ll"lglrg Ih w
I id " '" l t .. th" th uly bv
(I r X lnd (he n p ... I. and
"-"en j 1'; c. _quen P p-s. In
order or p. 0 1(. Ie dcd 1."W1.
lh . j ::l3J rilY .\1. :'Ioe IS reqUir j.
. rd DC wi ,'le ApostolIC
nlCl.) Ih her
lilulim: f p'!ul" t c num Id
or c .- jina: . .: (I . hou
not e-t: d
4' ,0_ at .:JlOals :J\'C'I'
&. .... nol (aloe ourt,
("ONCORDANl E a k of refer
listing In ajphab .. al order .II!
the W('rds, .:xpresslons and phrase-
CON(:ORDAT

found in the Biblc. complete with
(0 the places where they
arc found. The most famous md
standard English concordance is
thal compiled hy Alexander Crudl 1
In 1737. There also exisl concordan
ces for the Koran, the works of
Lulher and so on.
CONCORDAT, JO 'lgrccmcnt
tween the Holy Sec and the govern-
ment of another sLale regarding the
position of the Romall Catholic
Church. its rights and privileges (the
appointment of bishops, ChuTrh
properly. exemption from taxation.
special rights in questions of the
family and marriage, condit nns 01
diplcmalic relations with the "ot/
'on), One of the first of these Wi:.;
the Conc'lrdat of Worms concluded
In 1122 between Pope Callistu5 I
and the Gnman E mrc"'or Henry IV
3nd which put an end 0 t lC long
trite stc':TIminr, from le
I' "'nlrov v. 1 If<! a Concordat
was conduLed lClwc::'.l Napoleon I
and Piu! VII. In tm one wzs con.
eluded 'l:;tween the grwern.
ment of IfllV ( ht" l alerOIf Treat)'), in
the Nazi govcrnmr"11 io
and in ).'51 wilh F anc 'c;
"orner In :"Spain. 1 'lc 1970s
wil f coun
WCre placed unt::er rwirw. In
I number of -:hanecs were n
into Ihc (onco:-d3t W th
In 19R4 the Italian gov 'tn
signed an agreemt-nf wilh the
which amended a numt"'Cr of
ia the ClCisting Concordat
-
sensualism. ilnd he considered (h!
advance of Rea<;on to lx the moti
orn: historical progrc:
( E _qUlsse d un h
'
stori4
U
C
des de I espnt hUmain"
Outline for a Uislorieal of
the Progress of the Human Spirit
1794). In 1785 he was made Scerl'
tary of the Academic fran!i'\C
(hen(h Academy) and he collabor.
ated actively with Diderol and
d>lIcmhert on articles for the Ency.
c1opedic,
CONt'(O:SSION, (1) ldhercnC\; to
any rcliKlOfl, ('llIlrdl, denomlnall"
or .. ociaton posse pm
If own relig,ous dogma, rituals and
slru","J:'C (,,) 1 <. hn: tian fQ(rorfll'lf.
whle') from Ihr r ig,ous \lcwpoinll5
seen 0 e ns'st n thc "granting of rj
ml('lon 'y a rricst '0 a h IfV( WI'IO
ha' wkdp('d n,s fin' .... !. a
(hr'st who (: ndint- h.: or
nw IblV nd ':"CIV ng "':"5 conf! -
lon" Thc or ginr of c nf4 Ion c n
":-e tr ceo hack f. m: me nll!ll
c.:l.d n l 'hnslIaltlf\J ronf::<"''>Ion "5
dl vel( pc nlo an ," ccti" nc ns
(hr ugh whle') peOplC arc subjcc: j
(0 the nnucnc" 01 Ihe -It rgy II
up 'i'lre Ihe falthl JI h"
chane' 10 'fee themselves' (on
an\! !.IOS c.nd thus 11 pr serve tht
pH mise f entry mlo the Kingdoll"
f (,I d lLer eath.:OS! _ocs ba!:: d
n explo tahon use c n(c"'lOn 0
(nlhcr their OWl ,ds. In Rursla.
01 exam piC, durinr. lC reign of
Peln the (,rca' Z L;;:c-ce ",as
,'")' sed ohlir.IOg pr tl ,nfl rm w
Jul 'onl,:r of anv cnmes DunDC:I
,(g t the service 01 Stale .'
( hurch" l11al I hc-y might hear lOOIi
dUring coofes"lon. A good numb r
01 pcdplc fell victim to mforrnt rs
the dergy. The SaC1'lm:
n
'b;
confcsslOn IS to be found both PI t
(:o:-.;nJ(T, RHJGIOUS
121 . -
R man Catholic Ind the Orthodox
... In the
Church. side by. Mde with thIS .!;acra-
mcnt Ihere c.x1s1s the praellce. (If
ublie confeSSion. wheo all the faUh-
ful prescnt in repent of
their transgn:s.. .. ums
In those whIch
reject the traditumal Chnstmn on-
(Cpt of the sacrament:-o, c()nfesslOn
was also condemned. Nevertheless
Protestant and pre
':!chers regard individual
"1S an important means of achIeVIng
remis.sinn of im n the cour. of the
Individual' ellor'. r ... lUam Sptr tual
pc ("ction. In their VJcw,_ ttr-wev"
confession s not a question of 1C
a!knowlcdgement of IransgrcssioQ"S
belore a urd artv but f 1C indi-
\ Jual r "IZIVlni; an :11 ':ount fum
sclf" before <:'00.
(ONi- ESSIONALISM atlt.:;n
thl Jghl and lctl( - c r- :t .:11
Ih", dt)7ma :1d" it',-
ticular con/rSftl '1 In C nlr "I ) r.
IOU lIIdifferctttisl11 ntJuitsm md
C""llicaJ philo .. phv
<. ONFESSOR n,,1T' r d --,
(1part from n r yrs\ In l( fl, )(
dox an" olher ( 111" an '- hun;he ,
r 'llesl who 1('" ." C(l'11 (lOS
and oftr-n a"5 a c.plril Jal oun-
;;:U, r.
(ON IRMATION, {II In .,
Roman ('(JlIwli, Ill" _ 1C frJC (oj
me'1l of '- nr.1 mat: n I dmln'<;
Ir -d I hAtwc_n the lIes
of I and 'b . .,! P n the c 'rse
of .. emn ur ng \ hleh
c ndidat-s renew lClr 3.' mal
promlSCS anc the p cxtcn h'!
O\! them, ,ra., ng Ih;' itll
IllI""1 re ::vc the U; I\' "pml her,
bt: Irae eos the gn of 11 (ro r on
their foreheads Wllh chrism. m t.m.
scnatcd oil; (2) in thc Pro,rl/ant
Church a puhlie act symOOh/inl;
the allammenl hy young mcmhcn c
the Church of adulthood within it (al
the age of 14-lfl) and a deliberale
hy 'hem of Iheir faith In
lCSIl.f 'lho their admi"5nn
as rull mcmhers te- heir religious
'CommuniIV. Anointing oot t" rt of
the ProlcManl Sacrament. In b")th
the Roman Catholil and
<':hurchcs ('onfirma! , IS
tr strcngthc, the n LgJous fait!: of
young pc piC
(ON Lltr, REU(-'{JUS. a c"
be .... - J' nchvldua!' :u
groups IR nnr("lOr with Val JS
po . n 2 IR rl llion to
qu tion . n reJ;:-rJolJs K
tlYllv and rull" nr _ c h:' lmc n
0' rei; .. , J' ,Jnt.'" R' '.jZ1
C Ql C C!i tal' .... "'rm of d
':mc r: 'ld dLb3L n. hy nd
; c ,Iron \Jon n-' r I
h.:: )oun UI '" r If
jQnu:: f/.. and II '!Iil", C
thll of . 7'" 'chJ;lon
li_ e 31.,';;: \\ thin n a' )C "}"
mn..l "7J, a t;J) vr m ,t ;"I !
1 glon Jr; I- tw: -, vanou c,:
. .,,"' and II
10m'"": n' 11.\...:
1C In r tam c ,dl rc )(
t! nc t cia s. :, .. , ni c
11 'ontradic IOns'. s!ru jc hl.
WI Irs. So- "loh c
,. f c'or
lie. n \\,1:'1. le a
,'av!'. n mportant 10 rl, ,rc, St. r:'!.
, - rre_ II a' IO-no;
1m I r
Jm! c'< ,pc - nfl-
c I c anJ tlU- co III
.. ,c ,",rv J
C h-- nun n . -
1 h.;:: !(lund ex
rei: lonn In Ihe
P" r .. '. s_ct<._ 10 re 'gJ0US
focn () r .. I
to rcligIOU-'iro iUI.:a
;neols ,
)
1:U _ flEIIC,Jl)l
. "-----
(ONHlRMISM, RELlGIOl S, Ihe
"ubordination or an indhidual's
views. valuc-o:;. opinions and beha
viour to views., values, opinions, rules
and authorities predominant in i
spcciric religiom. group or society.
Religious conformism is achieved
through the influr lee of group
pres:;Jl;: Factors promoting it in
lude (car of isolation, the urge to
avoid intragroup conflict and the
WJ.<;h 10 achieve higher status within
a religious organil..ation. The degree
of conformi ...m upon the
tvpc of piety inmlved, the age of the
1( efficacy of thc sy;' n of
r..onl:r-ul etc. The opposIte
of religious wnfor nism is noo cr 0
formism., the refusal 01 the inilividual
believer to subordinate his religiou!
Views., v.llucs aRC! behavlQur t, the
dogma ,"od authorities pre.
dr-mlDant m a speofic religIOUS
group or SOCU .y.
often lakes the form f inl authon.
0:- C'naulsm.
CONnJCIANISM, philO"..0plue"
teachLDg m AnLlent
ChIna propar.3ted by (nnfucius
Fu T.--u} and hi.<; tollowers.,
whieb became a nlir.ion at the be
ginning or this millennium. The mam
50Urce for Confucian is l un
Yu. (tbe Analects or "Selccter:
written by Ihe follow, c of
ConfUcius in the fith century B.l.
('Dfuaamsm renected the view-
and interc'Sls of lhe feuda1 officials,
&JlXJOUs 10 protecl SOCIety from S().
l3.l upbe 3\"3ls. The 31m of (:Onfu.
aaD1sm 9t'as tl) educate the people In
the: pmt of r 'he cXJ!\ting
,,,de, Accor.ding (0 Confuaanism,
the tr.v of raea operales in society
.... ucb u. down from Heavcn. In
order to this law, Man must
observe L (nlcs of propriety), rules
c

fC'r social bchdviour and tradition:

FltJals and behave in a \Yav C{;
patU,fe with his soc'aJ stat IS. Conf
1J

cianism justifies the pow: _ of
"noble" over t he common peopl'"
Confucianism became a
ConfuciUs was deified. Confu_
CIanism . differs from many religions
In that It has no priests or mystical
elements and it can be reduced to
the strict ohservance of prescribed
rituals. Worship involves first and
foremost veneration of ancestors'
each family or clan has its
lemple whe-c Chou lablels, S)'IObo-
liljng ancestors, arc arranged, be-
(,'re which offerings arc laid oul ane:!
rit uals are performed. fhe ruling
of China made use (f Confu-
Cianism wifh its teaching cone -'1"8
the un.o:;hakeahle continuity of ic s0-
cial rder, and the division of men
into tho$." of ! higher and eu 't; of a
k wer rder n :lCCOI dance with tie
of 't.feav .. n, in rde'" to enslave
the w rk.mg moO. scs.
(ONFl ( Kung Fu Tzu ('<51.
47Q H.C ), phiksopher and h: .. leher
f A.nclent China, founder of Confu
ciallism. In hlS leaehmg Co::fucius
hardly touched upon que "tions )f
co.!mogony and devoted compan-
: v_ly little'; httention '''l suc'l cor.
CCpfs t:s spirits and life beyond :he
&nve, he regarded HeaveD
as the hlghes' spiritual force Jete
r

mining men s fat::: and offerings
rnat1c . ." ,;",'ccs!, rs as the most iIn
pGrtant expreSSlon ",f venefltll.n for
the laUer (entral tu his philosoplu-
cal and cUucal theories were quC'j-
lions deaJing wil b '-1an. his meDlaJ
and SPlCltual ma.ke up. hi!. place and
role ID the world and SOCIety. Ae
cording to Confucius, Man's fate,
ju!-t as C'vcryt bmg else in world,
is determined hy the Heavens and,
( ). 1C}" .
- -
-
quently the (,! ...._f pic
c ...n_ ' I d' b
on earth into the nUh ... e an
h
I le a' c
the highranklDg mf t c ow. rnk
. ...."nnot be ehang"("I. The ord h:..:;
'"I!. - h L, b
to be :I lord, t I.; 5UI1ICCl '" 100
h fathr a fal':ter md the s ;00 I !".on.
dc" without doubt expre"cr"
t,IS endeavour to preserve the eXist
ing order of .... At the !".aml lIme
Confucius c1ahorated ! conception
ideal, noble mar. TVl):
Ihese heights eould t "'h, d
gardlcss of birth 01 SOCI::" tall! ..
thl :lugb the of hinh
mor!I qualilics- humaDlly, falln s,
loyalty, sincerity, filial dc'.c _"lCC
de'ls played an Import
ani lJar ..Jl the history of ( hma ind
left the'r nark on ill a
c
of Ii::
lfe
lON(.RH.All0NALlSTS, "" 01
the t'shoots f lab;n;,trr. IcI:J
emerged in Ent,.'and inl Wales
Ihe SCCCllL half 01 ":Ic .h c nturv
l.ongregational'. Is .r i lal
... .. t.'1 lOCI! (hurch or t:ongree.al nn
w..s self "OVCi""'lmn and ndependent
c
r
any ( lurch or '"lOl or Jr'l-
Uy. The ounde o. It::;: r
."',()ngregal on \;: <; Robe- t E; wne,
who mamt in:_ that neal C hur "'::s
had tbe right to .. dmIDlslc..r thel! ov ]
affairs and that (V mu" be :ndt
pt"'1dl.: 0
1
the S lte Am thr Im-
portanl lJ:-1nc-plc of the Congrc?"l-
tionalists W'C tnal a.r
should tal ut in the al WJDlstrJ-
tion _ f the c)Or;: "llion: thev would
re-..elvc member 1..;.: it and (It.. ude
persons I m II elf' cad and
mlJ1i..:: =r V-.2..ftc f'T pre chers. :41 U
COi):::Id r. Per ..
ortie lis of the ; olull'"t rnC11a"I""
fOreed many (ongr p.lJOnalis s II
ite to h lIand c tfly as the
lale 16th Some uf them set
tied In Leyden and later an 1620 ! hc.:y
-
"1
C" f Ir Ami v.; ...
'ev c.ct up tbelr own c --n:: uhlti .- .
ru..W' self ... r Other'" W .0 hld . up
a commumiv In Am Ie rd r.: b ClIne
the [nef' th or thf' Raprl u. Tt::
("ongregation<li'St, t 10k an ctlV
par1 in Ih bourg oi! "cvoIUllo. n
[lgland .. lh 1111 C ltUrv.
Jl- II:::-r own fl;, Jg.IOUS-pcl . cal
""up .1 as the Independen )
w'1ich ..... :1 th" e ,-t, uf (r, n
"WI u nv The T( ,\rratlon Al.t of
..... ,9 ... , (,. S le
hi,ll 11 ht tl cU' In <""T' th e
( hur ...... 'Ob II orm the
C'mlgre-all '.11 limon of L:- ! ... - '"'
.. " j W Ie 11 thl.;
the \.. "Tcg)hC 1 '"]1 n ,f :'J"
. .. l 1 f Ir lDd
oj 1- It: Inlere)t . J
II )1 Junel t up_
-\1 pr t:.......
I 1.- 0"
01 la.ID, (
Z<' d
( 7111
It: I, U1
,.
1
(;""INC, l.H;ATJONS. oc r or
)C1 tlO h melt'
r' boun J'f t. -pic " (p r
(ltv and obed! "'1( ) fl
" .
sp r.-c period for fe loc:-;rcg.
un,>, f ,kin fl nmon
I f
c b 'gan 10 emerge n be ate
rueo .. , L .
Jth I.: lurv Ind tbey ..,..;cam 1r
l;:rl\' t1tid( "or ad in the 9th C ").
1: n t,' minenl ofthcse a!",'
J. y . ( ..... '"lion
R ..I .. "i ...... )I";)r r ......
1 the M4. Holy R Ibe Db-
I ....
.. , ... . d by Ih I rui:( lor pro
"ial"v1 ro .. :tdc V' \hrv
h 01
1 or lhe Irgm..
""1"" tee I nd some
nr, of
h (') 'I c mal.. d
ot ers. . JV.ngoutthe a .
the Roman (. una 1,:31" rQlholi.t
- ..,1 the Romafl ...
min1. ...tratlf'n , m to thl" Vol/
Church VI in JQ67the
ran IntIl-due e
124

Congregations arc as folloW$: the
Sacred ConEUcgation for. the Doc
Ir nc oflhc Failh; for the Bishops; for
the Easlcrn Churches; for the Sacra
mcnls and Di\ine Worship; for the
Clergy; (or Religious Orders and ,Se-
cular Institutions; for the
lion of Peoples: for the Causes of
Saints; for Catholic Education. (3)
Groups of monastic houses in.
Roman Catholic Church adminis-
tered jointly and with a common
Rule. (4) General Congregation is the
name given to the Jesuit body. in
which supreme authority is vested
and in which the members arc repl _
scolcd. (5) A group of persons who
habitually come together for worship,
prayer ch.. especially in a cburch or
lIapel.
CONQl'ISTA (Spnish w"rd
mr'lDmg conqur t"), thc runqu.;st
of MCXlCO, Central in4' Sr-U1h
by Sranish invader In
149".,; Pope Alcxamler VI
t .... the <\pani!\h Cr-wn
the lands that Columbus hau <
c.."'IVercd in the Western Hcmisphc'I'"l;
thus tcgally "justifying" the c n
ljUCSt. rhc Church approved 01 ,inc
ble. .... \Cd I he C dnquis! a, vet the
blond thirsty nat ure (if thI'S conquest
aroused the mdir,natlOn of cc (hin of
the Church'" tlfficials, who by then
had been 10 the innUeQL_ of
the bumaOlSl Ideas of the Rcll3.lss
anee, men like Hartolome de L ar
(a.o.a.<; who disclosed the monstrow
LTlInes of the: (onqUlst.l Ir m the
Uandp01nt of ea.rly ChriUlamty, In
the secnnd half of I he l6tb century
the SpantSh icing declared Ibat Ihe
(onqu,Sla was OOtnplete. however
.be conquest of new lands wi.h .he
active support of Ihe clergy conti-
nued right up unLil tbe end of the c0-
lonial period.
-
CONQIIISTADORS,. .hos
e
who
tonk part 10 the Spanish conquc!'.: )f
the New World. From the
Crown thl'Y received enormoUs
tracts of land, made over to Ihem
complete ",ith Indians, in return for
their commitmcnt to convert the In.
dians to the Roman Catholic failh.
CONSCIENCE, ca.egorv in e.hlc,
which the individual's c<
pacily to achieve moral sclf.control
and ) determine his attitude to his
)wn actions and those of other
people, and the nature of his !"leha.
vinur Slarting out from the cOD!'idcr.
drion! of Good or Evil. Man's con.
sCJcnec presc 11 him with Is
menl' ndependcntlyas if were r:-om
any pr 1chcal intcres. howev,,:" in reo
dlily n VII ious Jtir-ru
"vfan s consciC,:)L arc t4 b
founL flCClil ns of nOuencc thai
h ... s Ocen :.Jrmn him oy C)f1-
crelc tl r cal and 51 ___ I condition
uf 11. life mj,. b.IS educ'll. m Man's
c nst encc uoe not bl lOp 01' i, . ,:,ll
merely con! nlidatcs tond reprodul C
those values (Ond assc-smenls, whlt:h
have bee 1 shaped by )ocial
cnc mr" II b.ercfor n he
final malYSIS lin thc _ ass and soc-cty
t whk.11 -'e individu..tl bclonzs
M !fX.I',1 dthclsm condt mns a nihile
e attitudr- If) conSCience, rer.arding
It as n essenlial fealure 01 Man's
plTltual ndtUI and als, 'ppost.s an
ander tanding 01 com cience as aD
I.mmulahlf: .lnU! infallible judge be-
tl'wed upon Man t,y Gtd.
C ONSCIOVSNESS, Mane' and
con
CONSECRATION, ri.ual procedure
which IS alleged through special aC-
tions and spoken rormulae etc (.0
endclW material objects with "'lJlagJ-
CO:s'STA\""I1:-';OPI E COL'I\('II S 01
-----
< .hank!li 10 which thev
1'- noWCL-..
ca ,-- .d to perform the cere
.\1 he usc I. . I.
WI . of a parricular re IglOUS eu
IllOniC
s
. I_ thl': of
(for wine building. ... elc ).
re p;rlil'ular religion thcse
'.Jh.'
" Mt)wers acqulr ....__ t rou"",. con-
magic '" . '
'iccration ue
, NSISTORY ( 'p m hL Mcdiaev I
CO ' ..., me. -nmg
. "UlO!\lstonum _
La'IO . I") (I) n .he RII'
"Church tnhuna, I .
. n Or1.1wdox Own'" a hotlr con-
.no d with Ihe admini f
cerne 'd hv .he
the Church ej,. .
orchpricJ( of an eporc/IV m the pc IOd
hetween 1744 and the Oclo1- r R ,"'
olution 1917 Thc (\In. ...':;. "Irv
in charge of all ep::::- affal; lnl.
it admi01stc .. eeclesl .. :'. cal ._w
the clergy me! ruled n m { ,
m. mage ilnd jivo:-ce mc
my with 10 'aynu 1. The (nn
5111 TV W\1Utli &.'" 'tc:.ldcd Iw Is '\el l,;
arv who W2S accou"1 al Ie to the
Chle
'
PI ,.'Cur ",to:' f ':It HI Iy
'2) in tht Romon (at/roUt r'mn I II
assemhly C'1rdinOIJ C nv ked
by the Pope; '1)\ in Protc:<:; \.. hu-
C1CS, :nainly the prr{h ..
rians, it is the ter n f' 0. t, the "t v
ernmg hodv respom il Ie fur (hu 1
dmmh tratio'll.
(tINSOL"TI. 'I, R[ L IGIOI :i.
..:il I' v' 11 kglC I modi __ il on, \ f
the II J:' ry l. mpen 11 rv func.lIt n
of religion, whu . ':I dr w n phd{
ophical. nO! 11 and 11(<11 de s r
fUding the I IIv .. llue f i _ n
.a.' , :1d th_ ah Ie tlue :':'"
nc lilv hcY:'lnd if. l nc ]t r.
c:radiciil Ie nalur eYlJ on .. 1;
"A n wt.lk Of and ( om
cc ,,), which 1:-:" hal
r f( r n "r Wllr ...
Uc t. Ihcr In Jrmoun: It-Ie or I.1mm
P :It, while sufff'Tlng II df IS
presenled uo;tilicd. even de Ir
able, In way cligion's phil
hicat and elhicJI "1lal un en<. ur
thc ndividualoc iever 10 rccnn
"ile himself '0 Ihe reallly arnunJ
him, In livc (In n me k hi p-.. '{CIII;
it. us c.:om lalinn promotc, n th In.
di .. dual re
dlilv. while llhslructing to him .,C
de velnp:nenl of 2: of own
w rth r fail' 1n'l wn r:: :ngt!-;
am.! Ji: "1cting from the n )Iu
tion uf real
m, 5LC
urcwnrmc of rr Gem rQt CO'JnUlS
l ONSTANTINOPL[ CIIUR' I ,an
ac' _ phalnus 01 -1odo)( (hurch.
ihit:'l -aditi{ -:lallv oc upu d "Ie iii
pIal _ r h nt)ur among thl olh L.r
Orthodox (hurch.. I war
Ii. 1;')1 I 11 .t 11 I' Ih fJy f
I L !lpl w th (\.:: n
, n- pi 'pr sent "'ay nLUI at
... nHe .... hid: WIS thl: nor ..
"" It:' Ri.)hl,' 01 l 'l-
Ire ill_ ... - Po
tar.: nopl )Ih .. r 4." of hc
uf l n tanllnl :: f1:u I
lri. phs of l n' r, dOll
) the -, ')Ower vcr, C 'on
Ih dOX P .pulaun wlllIn lC_ ,
f th 'c of thl cn mOl!
fmc hut hey jid 'Tl.ot
( " -;n,ln E npl1 e .h
. hprc n1me ,
Al I e -h '_, 0",
"r.' pic ,t:- I ...
(,1 .. tn-
Ilan
hhl hop' C dn... nur me I )
r - Turkey fhl
In _ ... (If r fllan 11.'>(1
odt x ( ,;.1,_ . ,s do
j UTlsdlC'",n,.
com Jr: 'nllrchl, S In
':-- 'n r ... +
1 L
11
"'d-<;oulh \mencl.
I\It. rll; 1 d d monasu:ncs
New 14,...1')n .1%!
13, h
:1 M. unl 0\1 l
cOL IIi((LS
ONS [AN TlNOPLE. (itntroJ
01'. St C Oe( um('ntcaf <"
\. ouncils
, CO'lslllt. ON nm OIUR(ll
(ONsrntnnON ON
(HURCH (Latin "Lumen genllum
or the "Light of the PeopJc'i I,
adopted by the Second V'ltJcan
CoUDa: held in 1%2- :%5 It le.ls
wilh the leadership of the Roman
Catholic Church, cbanges n Is
5trudU.-;" the ";;"uning of the' .. crgy,
a\ well IS the uprcmc authority C)f
.le P'"Ipe It also rulings
bout the corporate nalurt;: rf the
episcopacy. and the enhancement f
its role in the Church leaden ..blp.
Particular af enlion is devoted to the
lowest echelon in the Roman ( !lb
>lie hie -a;chy. I.e to the deacons,
who were gunled the right to per
Of'll .Jte ccrem4 nics of Baptism, tbe
Eucharist. marr=agc Extltlftt Unc-
tion, burial JeTVIrt! and also to con
duct public prayers_
ON THE
(HURCH IN THE MODER III
WORLD I Latin "Gaudium et s ....... ...
or " .. oy and Hoy;:") an ecclcs-:lSti.
cal pasto:a1 c... nstir Jt.:)D adop: :d by
the Scc:m Vatican (ounCli It sec
ve- to formuI.:-te (be pofltirn 0
1
'he
Roman r mho/Ie Churrh w:th regard
to the most unp< social proh-
I "lJS of the day war .and peace.
"'lela! JUS'lce. socio-cconomk devel.
CiJlblent uf newlv Indcpendent COUD.
lr'IC\, the po!-lh4.n of the 9. "'klf':"
'PC' pie etc The document" :r:a.tns
$Ome DeW poinb In the SOCI.:d do::
tnne of the RD1I1an L lthohw:;::r-
rek"_ ilCC mad4.0 t4' the nght 0:
king people t,- (""'111 u.:.oa.
'""'":, i.Tt r cogni7.c..: es
k unAt f defcndinp \\'l r
k,- r<: rights., With T 1'1 Ion
thal tbf-.,. mu ..... ' r:.;cogniz.ed as iI
la re!':'!'f Prwa't pro pc-nv IS
PI 1 if an {ntw (', lIIulllon
ndp.-1duaJ' freedom, but al
:t:nc lIDC: f auly bar-..h CTitiCl!oJn
-
is meted ut 10 the of ca .
talism. It is declared in the c!'
stuUlion that the Church does
associate Itsel( with anYone JlaI
ticular (orm of human CUlture .
social
t:"Tt. Th(' ConstitUtion
'lC ar ns race and calls for cffC""t,
to war and for disarmament.
This reflected the aspirations of the
fal11(ul, who arc anxious to obtam
peace aod security of all nations.
CONS II'll nON ON mE LIT.
URGY (Latin con::
lium" or "Holy (;ounol"), eee esias.
fcaJ constilUtion by the 'ie
nd Vatican Council on Deccmx-
4, 1963, If introduced som ... Dewele
ments into the order and statutes
connectcd with ( lurch r'tual and
l]lodcrni7.cd the way services arc
conducted, The- Consti'ution ,ntr4r
duced mass in the vcrnacular, .n
o:dcr tbat laymen might mvr lye
tbemselves more actively m SCMCCS-
Th" ecclesiastical document also in,
c1udes a point c neeming the
of f ....lk music and dan4:mg
inr R' man t ltbolic
CONTA, Basil. Ro
mant':n mateTl;.;!isl phiJl opber and
t t:..... Conla'r and .It
hel t It.leas were from n'alu'
ra1 sci, III ilic data. .wd in particular
frolI! the teachmg d Darwur
held that Man's oogruttve
are Inexhaustible, just reality ,tst.:li
r mcmausllblr The accuracy 1'1
kn,)wlt-tkc can he v tified through
pr.Jctice, mlerpreted by
hor tory eXlcriments and f
xpeflcnce Yet in his elucadallon 0
'O<:lal phenomena (onla 1,"lOt up ::
Idc,;.t.h t stance fht: reasons for (rC:
r-mcrgcncc of rdwoo he saw {(l Ie:
-t' men
m I he 19I10l anu of prmu IVC
CC 'NTII 'l P:Y of A HI'-- T:A( I II 'GS
-
- -
'leU' fear of t'te C"emf"lf of
and in
Nature.
-j\KION (from the u:-e:k
t. 01" ". .. meamng "scroll"), 1.
"kontakr,luo. used for pLJ'chment
n_e Irs 'd
]<U"llc; on which were wnUen 0:""
SL;10_ CUll cs' r nns. wbid
0- ... cnote the 'lym.-'S
later '") Thev coni ic Aho t d4,;'
'of ( urch fr tiva!: and
ost important 1.Is 11
with the al s of tho. ;:nt .xl
et""lted in the hyrnes.
CONTEMPLATION, proce. of rl'
rl c I)Crception: (1 D Ide h 1. pt 1-
1J)hy S Joke; ,1
Ihe f mtultI4 -: Ac rding
to 1 ndition that "iJ1 :1
back (I Plato. conI tl( - .:; ID
I" )r tt.. -I S an extr s ry 1.Sp
of Ide '5. r Kunt. on the other
apnr-ri Ic-ncots t c r.:' .
r
l
tion nv ( '.
t e iz.::.ll Impul
r
...
r
0. ctt'VI f
man mtellect and re r -:l. Bt :t
the .. tral"iI"1o y.; d ell pe m
VanOL;S Idf" hilo: phI rl'
M:-xtan m ter.J.I: n m: ... rete.
elntc'nplal n a pr r or It:
) iv .. :)0 f tbe c aI
.. Id, [lalce 01 later "'lie: n
-I. c te'i' tt4 :1 \pc._ on) j
n Or)! ... (; "'RJl . on; (
HmaUi .:to( r:l.utU:,'.", J ontt: pl'J.
t :1 c tit ute e -U IT'
rnt'rtll I I)- ), ht.-.
an C lmc f
e) tr tic J. 00 fru 1
th Id. tto: P reepul r. 1
"cf "mdmtl
c nJu )1 ,d pe I ut ilt
LWllf "t 'he\'"
r I lie to pm'ualil tt:,n the
r hr. l'an (lJu I, ont mplat ' n
tal t r v
f( :), Dc '
r. Is 'I. car ,\e
on on 1 choscn
---
is pi c . ce)l to the hODe of
deepening .11l1tUal iD'Iight. It .. ann 1$
to conccntr _ the IIlin<! and soul
dpoD (,od,
(ONTI"!l TIT 'It- ",mUST
IT \(1 INC: 'be esser.' " link b .
l\;e'''l OTC
e
ng md subse iUen" "
ltl t Ic!_ and in c bra !oCr.:
C :1 star,c') n tbe (leV( ... n 1t
d ithe n. and lso b theIst
Ir chings and progr re eJer.-= 'It
m the wh' Ie of human culture:.
'\, m 15 lC: hM: Wllh Ihl.
" ru 6' n f J LICVC
neot' l f Le b c .ti it'! of
"lei a L fmds exprc IOn 1.
tl:"" d- of tl: "Sm: "- lIh
IC:lcl: .. t'le lm of
kn<r. I d; _ ( " c: prC1.ou
'" -:':1t 5 to t m- conln .; ') _ ...
-eTl)_' ., "1 methods
r r ti
rrt'") ...

J ".l 'l o(
... r ( Imcncy md n;.
twe hu !J aeveJops m:' om.a.: v
from __ ep'wc ,,( I/!' fae I
(, do: ot lCI". .(Lv :nIl rf ... ' tD
ti: \\ rkl O tc: .. S:"'"'-'!
r. L: -:" 1.t n.! t r. SltlO:l
to c
.
.1 . 11" -mC sts t
1.lur I, It
T ..
- 'utlon )1I1.... -
, n I, : 1Jl)t! rei:.,. :l,
de 11' runs tb. gh
b ur: ,,! al' 1.:: ':l L'i, the
f
_ :na.:"
. ,-" n'alural nv
r
'
1 th Il.
P
, :: mrr I'C
f
rron mf
, ! luon 'elf
,f fL!':1 " : 1 on I yc nolDgl-
'
''' Id J dl . I ng
I' "lJ. 1''"'11;;100 '('1
c,all t.v. - or
n' J oft Jr,
P d d pilon M."n;1 In
n an _t: f t""
d
... 1 )534. li
nol en c,;n V't \\.:'; 11
mal r h lnt: n m ..-nlJlnmg c l1at _ts
d
"
or,,"! I r
glCTl an Ii ... ,'r I at'd UI'
underlymg C lU<; .. k 01 : 1 .:eJom in hi
mI' 1 in Mao s 131.:
128
CONTRIBU1l0N TO CRfI1QUE
relationship "ilh, his
stemming from his .ID
the face of Nature and hiS, mability
to change the course of sOCIal dcvcl-
opmeR!. Ideas (0 the link between
religion and social factors were ex-
pounded before Marx (by Feueroach,
for instance), but they were less sys
tcmatic. The continuity of atheist
teachings i.e; also rcnected in writings
on the role of religion in society, and
on the ways in which religion can
surmounted. Contemporary Marxist
atheism is the logical result of earlier
stages in the development of atheist
thought.
"CON I RIBUTION TO TilE
CRITIQl'E OF IIEGEL'S PIIILOS,
OPHY Of' LAW. Introduction'" a
work written by Karl Marx in 1&43
1844. It marked an important stage
In Marx's intellectual development
his final transition to a maleriali!'it
and Communist and 'he r""r
mallun '"If his scientific atheISt VIews.
Man described religion as a faotar
tic in Man's mind of '. ociaJ
reality. he maintained thai religion is
thr. self awareness of man, who
caher not yet f"und hirnsllf, or has
alreadv lost hirrul'lf (Marx,
(vllwed Works, Vol l p. He
tben reiterated pasl
tion as regards religion: "Man makes
rdigicm". and demon!-.tralrd
Man is Dot onlv a bu logtcal indiVid
ual. but that Mao i: tne ..... 'Orld 0/
\lQII, the slate. OCICtV. Thh
lius S(K.,fy. produce religu ",1n In
world-ronsl .......c... u _
Ilfv (them. 'twsl arl: an im'MCJ
KI'f'Irld" (Ibsd.) SOO-.;Ty, lCC' tdinJl to
not nly T,amfl rm." rciiwcl'1.
but also gave birth 10 11. This rnak,
l lie Ihl to rcli-
. n po5SC lOr .my lransccnden-
'J <;.cnu.; l'kc .my other fl rm of
-
social consciousness, rclioi
on
n
.,. cre
eets socia cxlstence, For thi'i .
son all religion's content
from at'tual rcality. Yct the
f I
. ,... Ie
nature 0 re Igloo rcsldes in thc t .. '
many forms of
cl3l It docs not adcq\
at ely reflect reality, "To aholish re'
gion as the illusory happiness of the
pcople is to demand their real
pincss" p. 176): this way
Marx raised In a matcnahst vein Ihe
question as to I he roots of reliKioff.
This work also prOvides the
formula which Lenin <:haractcri7.cd
as the corncr"slone of the whole
Marxisl view of the world w:th r-:
gard '0 the qucslkn of religioil:
"FlcJigion is Ihe opium of the
peorle (Ihid., p. 175).
CONvt RSION, the adopt _n of "
faith IS a rcsull of missionary
ltV. Efforts 0 recruit new ..:oml' s
1 feafure ...:ommon te r,'if.1O_
mc-vcmcnts. "rom' "1c mC' mcnt e
B"ddlusTn.
dnc !slam ra.lsed 'he quest"n a
hI w ..... t to .;( DYC:- the wbre 'If
to thci:- fail"t.
(OOPER, Thomas
'\nr',)-Amc: iCdn 'nateriaii,' :,hllos
phcr de . or, ,,-'11 mtst. "- :onoml-!
.mci '. .. an ur nE! ,71e French
, d hm' r
Rey, Jllon he ....x-.. :J.te I - h
y, th Jal..bm!' :ld the E;-:":J
. :.:: '11 flI es : n Vl(.y ,f : .11:0 .c
hl:n . f . H" .' _1'1 -,-t(lcw. I
'le l \. I tnC ,j Th, ruas
Jeff", nn' Lcml;.c-atie "arty ,.,.1.
rll.ng'i 11.. dcrendc d r::j
"elect " rcligl' us d, :tJTlJ<', ,:tpc -..
van,)u n.ble stm cs as mt_
and T posd .tny .
\\ "clcnet ,d rlo ilflon Hr ad\ nd
t ;.tcu It:lHlratlOn (,f (1tul'Ch a
51 'lad
I
,
-

--..:=="-'---- -
2?

ERNICUS, "'leolaus (1473-

COP Polish astronomcr and thm
out from attempts
ker. f t the geocentnc system of
to per e(: Id reeognil-cd by the
the had heen C:q>Oundcd n
)->s "Almagest" (see Geoeen
elm Copernicus gradually caml
rnsm, h I' . t' 'co y
dt a
new elocennc 1 r,
rounO , _
ording to which thc Sun OCCUPI:S
antral position and the Earth
one of the revolvmg
J. d the Sun and which also turns
1rOun ' . ( H I'
nd
its own axts e loe 'n-
aTOU,., h'dlt
. ) ('onJrn1l.':us teae mg ea I
InJm. dl
malor blow ,it the vcry ,oun a ons
of he religious world The
cone ,ption of the tcrrc<,tnal and the
c lestial as opposites was ahan
lC laws of had been
s. own 10 be the ;amc 0:' the Earth
n j the wh01r. l livers.. and. :U;
ble to l1uman unde
I
"'t: 11 on&.. mv r'\l m
the (hUI "-1 S Icj;tcnd oout 'rlf'!
world a" God's (:1- tu n ,
(JOcrmcus "De rev lut- 01'
b: L.ium coclcslium' On the
Rtv. lutkm of Hea,, ,Iy
1543) ndw cd lD .he !nde::.. I.
brorum prohlNtonm: nd rematDcO
on le list 0: 'crblLdc 1 I ooks
lS:K \..) nil teaehmr w.,., r:
lG.::Jc.d t-v lC (hureb.
comc lIll R( II, (hr IIan
( urch d l Mon,phv. II per .Ia
'"Ion se \I, noph' ""it" m), 7. .. ':1
"- me ntl hemp, I 1 E!y. n -rd
lty, It W<ll J.,v Pc:';
frl ':l th_ 6tl1 f .: try "';lW:
dcr c ml ucnc f Al .
, q cror ( 1ri 1 "lIly f the
{ r.....- l "1 C'-l Jlrcd e_rtam a
urrs 'flarr: fl r ;- 10' _ 4Ole!
I:Jc. "lts f .,c (0"': c hurd: pr V
In C' twards. kc"l" r sho;: off
is th y enter church, 1:Jul k ...._I'
-
their heads The Cop!:k
Church Its own cburche man.
md school. The
who are mcmlK 5 of Ihe Coptic
Church live maIDlv In Ihe,; owns of
the Republic ...! Egypt.
CORPORAL nr CCJMMUNION
CLOTH (also antimeaslob" anti-
mins), squan linen silk cia,",
(somelimes with Jarts .. rr/icJ ,wn
inl l he c "ncr), often depictirg
Chr st n thc tomb lnl! thr. "our
Evonreti""ts In the corners The Clf
lving in "" thIS e oth and laving it
upon the rommUnion con
stitute HI e er.' al 1 lua! tl: t
precedes lhe dmtrusle' ng of the
.(aeramenl of Hol} (:m:rnunion and
tbe consecration of lCW churc :
(reck), 'In.''' of
lC goddess r Il('/t
(OSM()('{INV, - f If ,.
my,," r: , t.. Jdy of q' e .-
e . 'erDln.l; Ihj ori - dcvl ;;
m 11ofl1-" !l.c,pa1elnd "'rs
t >IS
" rc1mtc sta. g ',.
l .' d n
net d c "oL _ -;: an 30
. __ ,r' of study I
mos ...... 01 r.. d
"onvar pl n '--rv stC!.lf i!n
(A. .lU r 'l hiS
I',e - eosml on .... u '"
, - nrc
d l1C - rtu ularl) !mp .' n. _ n
_" 0"'0 "C e' tx'rat: 1 - (
fie .;odd t' _
" whl( h n. d . I
. rl th 1
1
. orv. d. "or(r
pro. c -) first ,:QSmo-
Jr f the w{ '.' "'" ,.Ion.
r Inf' I ""Ie ... ' r
on .. to _
It :lIC ;')1 t; Jic w r _ pUI tor
r:: -; of c
tb
S!a:u )('nl I"!uiosophas. d
" 8 ( (I (uop-
th 'II: 0 t 1:1:';'/".' . : hLl"1 fol
pu", T\",tX .... ,. . ........... \nv c.:ntuflCS
d
Il)v.:C,l a .' .. ' h 1l1lV held .. an
i urlnl-' '",'hl( h 1 . t 0 'of ,he ,Tcltion (If
_F'S\ICW .
(hl- r, glou '0<1 was predonunanl.
f1'u,:' wI,rld tn: (J
COSMOLOGY
In the l7Ih century the French phil';"""
opher DtsartIes demonslrated tbe m-
oonsistency of tbe vie"" of the world
IS God's erealion and put forward a
hypciIbesis to the effect tbat tbe for-
IDIlion of aD celestial bodies was the
result of tbe whirling movements oC
the tiDieII particles of matter. The
.a..tifi<: fOUJKlalion for planetary
y .... laid by New/OIl who
his gravitation theory to ex-
p1 ..... rymolion.ln 1755, Ksml
put fIJI .. ard a bypothesis regarding
the emergence of the Solar System,
which from. the operation
.. the f_ of attracbon and repul-
iDA Daniag general COOclUSlODS
6CWL die MtumOi,+icaJ discoveries
".1+% by WilliI'D Herschel, Piene
fGFFudlled a theory of gravi.-
teticJe ...... to that of Kant, Yet in
the 19tia catwy prob'a came to
ligldwhio ..
by ,,_ ... I apb.ce were ,,"Ible to
.... widt 'COO:>dVSe oaIytotbe th:.
_Ie... bowIecIp.
0III0r ........ (."._
C J_ no-

Galactic cnsm...., ....
mg Its first steps so Car:
of tbe galaxies and ,he;, .......
being undertakeo; relet'ch ill....!
on into tbe evolutionary .......
the 5Iars and the _
which makes up the pIuioa, ....
chemical compositioa, the ...... 01
premieval perturbations whic.1od to
the disintegratioo of the
gas of the Metagaluy into
condensations; the mighty .
taking place in the quasaR_1lIdei
oC active galaxies arc being
and SO on and SO forth_ Modera_
mogony is developiDs lleacm, ...
the benefit oC an cwer-exoMlc ...
of data at its dispose' to ..
_ diverse proputiea ..
bodies and testifying to
natural character of tile
the eternal UDi>erse.
COUNCIL
odd of the Universe wa5 the ge-
::cnl
ric
fiystem (see
hich was elaborated m tbe 2nd
A.D. and explana-
tions for all pbeDOiLC-
na known at that tune. In the 16th
century worked out tbe
heliocentric system. (see
r!ism) which met W1tb a hostile re-
ception Crom Christiao theologians.
The emergence oC modern C05IIIO.
logy is linked 'Nitb tbe rOlwulatioa.
of general relativity (Einstein, 1916)
and the emergence or extra-gal- m-
cal astronomy (191Os). Great atten-
tion was devoted to the study of the
geometry of tbe Universe (the cur-
vature of spacetime. the p:II!sjtucy
of a closed Universe). The woo" ..
Alexander Friedmann (1922-192A)
demonstrated that cwved spax
cannot be stationary, that it IIIII5t
e"Jl8Dd or contract. As r-* ..
all this, research ceDI. cd ..
tions relating to the IIAI-.... 01
the Universe and its -.- ( ..
duration of e-. spsinn). AI tile .....
ent time models r.". ......
Uoi\'crsc have beeD
(George G ... _) and
tw liing mainly 10 the
Uoi\'cne: tbe "pte
he .. studied, .......
cal proc:e'Sea
- ........ ..
Unr_ ..... In
ably within the ...... ..
lay ...... ..
matter, ....
ophiol
cqnal
the
ship; makes public <>!>I!gatory
.ptions aimed at _"ling VI'
of that legislation; it at..,
effeds lints between the govern-
_ of the USSR and religious or
::u::' The Couocil helps reo
in the USSR
eatabIish coatacts with religious or
Ci'lilions abroad. The Council
its in the Union
and lutoaomous republics, in vari-
ous taJilories and regions of the
USSR.
of truths (guided in part
mon r.ensc" as he did so),
already been formulated by
thinkers. Cousin regarded
the creator of the Universe,
cepled the existence of a world
yond the and called for
reconciliatlOR of philosophy
religion.
CREATION. According to
bclids this implied the
all that exists - the Uni'lersc,
Earth, its vegetation and animal
and Man himself - by a
force or being. The Idea
alion is found in the
peoples and also in
and philosophical sysaoms
CREATIONISM, (1) a bend
Christian theolosical teachiIR
garding the soul. Ad.ocalcs of
ationism (e.g. present-day
Thomists) propaoe that God
bines Man's soul with hia
moment of birth,
bUlhing each time.
r'
&Iaat .... gita
(Adam) ...... Min
that sublequently it
("lradua, .. o" in Utin

CREDO (the Lalin word meaning "I
hclicvc"), (I) a o! faith
5aid or sung in Illurgx;s; (2)
views convictions and the fundamen-
tals or a world outlook (pbiloiophica
l
credo, political credo etc.).
CREED, short !;lalemcnl or the
main doctrines that make up the
fundamental teachings of any rclig.
ious movement or Church. A Creed
has to he accepted without que-
tion on faith and without evidence.
The' General or AposllC5' Creed
consists of three sections deatiag
with God the Father. Jesus CIarist
and the Holy Spirit, and aIt"ll"thc:r
of 12 parts or -d.-w:s
The first eight speak of tbe triune
Dalure of God. the hKamalion 0(
Jesus Chri'd and tbe redc",.,oo. of
sins; the last four are deVUled to
the Church and the "Iif. -"'"
ing". The first _ of
Apostles' Creed is found
of St. Ambrose e 390 ad
end grew up to tbe
had been compn.cd by the
105. I. actual fact the
compiled by the F.
Chllrr:h and ratified
men;ctll COUll('
and ."0 In
The Creed
dunng
isaiso
'34
CRONUS
ution. the transition period hclwccn
capitalism and socialism, the revol-
utionary dictatorship of the
rial, the two phases in the develop-
ment of communist society. the
strategy and tactics of the workers'
movement In Ihis work Man: ex-
poses the cs."cncc of idealist meta
physical theories regarding the State
and the democratic principles which
it implements. In his of
the bourgeois interpretation of free-
dom of "''Qfship (of conscience), for
instance, Marx noted thai "bouT-
geois 'freedom of con..c;cicnce' is
norhing but the toleration of all
possible kinds of religious freedom of
conscience" (Marx and Engels, Se-
lected Works in three volumes, Vol.
Three, p. 29). In this way Marx
underlined the one-sided and
limited nature of the bourgeois in-
terpretation of freedom of con.
science, which is restricted to free-
dom in a man's choice of religion., in
limited right to indulge in relig-
propaganda. Such interpreta-
tions of freedom of conscience re-
flected the class interests of the
bourgeoisie, which used religion to
consolidate its economic and politi-
cal domination.
CRONUS, god of Ancient Greece
the YOunger son of Uranus (Sky) and
(Earth), one of (be Titans. He
15 depicted in tbe form of a bearded
old man with a sickle in his hand.
CROSS, holy symhol in Chrir.
an object of religious venera.
IR the Onhodox, Roman CathA
ohc some Protestant Churches_
to legend, Jesus
CIuUt .was cr:uaflCd on tbe cross,
and this provided the basis for the
of the representation
of thi& UI5lJumeDl of aecutioo ioto a

- -._--
rel igious symnul. In rCitlit" a d h.
. l.. J' n I IS
IS !'mne nut hy scientific d
l:rosses werC' vcnl'rated in
tlan cuhs a.-. well . Representation., of
cro.s<;cs have in arehaeo.
.. an. different parts
of the. glnhc, an particular in South
Amenca an.d New Zealand. It has
ocen cstahhshcd that crOSSes WCre
venerated hy ancient peoples as a
symbtll of firc, which wa<; originally
obtained hy rubbing two crossed
sticks against each othcr, and al<;o as
a symhol of the sun and eternal life.
In early Christianity the veneration
of this " heathen symbol" was re.
jected. It was not until the 4th cen.
tury, aft er the mother of the Roman
Emperor Constantine the Great, SI.
Helena, during her pilgrimage to the
Holy Land allegedly found the cross
on which Christ had been crucified,
that worship of tbe Cross was offi.
cially introduced into Christianity.
Representations of Jesus crucified
on the Cross were first encountered
in the RLh century. Crosses a'ithe ob
jcct of veneration varied from onc
branch in Christianity to another:
the Roman Catholics use a cross
consisting of two bars. the Orthodox
cros.o;es consisting of two, three and
four hars and the Russian Old Belit-
vers crosses consisting of four
This variety points to the inconSlSt
ent nature of the 8.'iSertioD that St.
Helena found the real cr05.'Ii, for if
she had really found the original in
strument of Christ's cruciftXion, an
exact copy of the original would
have become the holy symbol (or all
Chri5tians. It has also been eslab-
lished that criminals in Ancient
Rome were e:llccuted nol on a cross,
but on a stake lopped by a cross
piece. Scientific dala bear out Ihe
conclusion 10 tbe effect that venera-
tion of a Cross was adopted by
- -
- -
" -
ristians from more mel(:1t :11'-
Ch other thmgs uld ex-
Among . h .
l' why certam ( r 'Shan
paIR, cJ'ect venc al on f (he (ross
men s r d
(BaJrists. D e::to
other Prate.. mt (hurche:.. -
CRUC .... IXION. In . "le Gl'fpelS 11"\
nn
is used to dennte 1 "le e:xeculloo
'e . he em
d death of Chnu on IsS.
word is also used to "lc
eros." bearing a figure o. C
which is .10 object or veneratlo,:,>
articularly in the Roman CatholIC
thult'h, and representation' of
Christ on he ('ros.'\, thai are often tl
be found ID Christian art f'trough the
ages. in the decoration of cbur hes
and on us 'iccts used in (":t: s
tian wo hip.
(,RUSADER..'i, pari".; p nts m the
eru."ader. Thi! name w g: l 1
tbem n n with tbl:; -0
scwn .;)0 10 their garm .. "'. h
was tbe symbol of tbe vow _ V hat
made to take part in the (rusad-: ..
CRt SADES, ar 6- 1\It: c.a.mj'"atgt::
cd by West Lu. lpe n Ie ..
In the 11th Bth c .' Jne's. W .... 0
behind a screen of fl.: ligtous
(to set free "the H Iy Sepuldm;
and the "Ht.)ly Lam"" Pa1cstlI!""
from the POWC1l" th: nfidl"'s, ... J
rl ...fenrl Calholici: rn (' ). rb ... P.]
pacy Irongly adv .ale lh\;.,c eru-
sadr-s lind was direc' rC-Sf'l'r: ble
fl"T organinnf, them. In 11 .ldl. "
our :.0 consolidate tDd Xlt nt! lh"
innuenc-.: of I be l. tho"c
ClJurclJ, to fan rcligJous fanat i(: i<; m
and 10 bnna about tbl' suhordi na,
tion of thl' Ort hodl' :Il Clurchn. t(l
RomC" R. pre\ental I\,C 5 or
classes in ((' udal sneidv (o<,k ]1arl in
Ihe CrU!-.adr<;, yet the dims
weI\; r ursuine as thcv did ,0 dlf
fered c -nnderablv Feudal lord5
who took part in he
rna<k; no set.;rcl or Ib 'r IntrD.tions
,0 un<ler the.. economically dl,.;
vcloped among countnc 'the
Ea' md 0" en'll I "d .and
serr 10" Iti_ of Nl rt 'lcrn Italv
(Jt""lO VeniC(: and P;.sa ",,',. h
IJlayc.l a larg part II: th org"1nu.a.
t; ::J or tht:; '- d Ide".. J .':")
... mt able 0 rc' _ C'le Ji,..'l Inks
w th the wore or th '1:::
c lterr .nC"1n, af:1" seIZIng Sma nc
p. JI. De rom'1e Sf..' ks and th r:
tll dm ... lIut th r 1, th BY/..aR
tine r [;;. re r. "1l LC n.: or
r Ir f ants I 1 t)Ok
r' .. tl!" (r\! ae:! . _Ing
_.: c-lCdium: te tl! E 1
meae.: 01" I" rom tbe e uel< I
"\iO and obI31nmg . :td and fr ':
. tu.1tion lb,ll m.
bad take"' _ . th .. E .lSt a' .h_
e -j, lIh I.lI'l fT 1ft
tw .... n "(. -..tat:: .... thl
L .. S' tht By:. :ltil'te I.mrlTc) fa
\ ed '. l a:.mt'hmg of the (ru
s. (les All .' eight.
wert:; '. "l1'.ed to Mlddk East,
. result of whiCh. ,I numocr or
C lS3dc . \I.. 'Ai_!: 'rmcd whl ...b
onllnue_ '0:. right up unt:\
. . ,d or the }"\11) ,_Rill!). In lite lth
md nth c.; ;!tUTlC;; Cru-(,\J:s were
. unelowd ry lJermaD (t udal h' rds.
l!'.a.'"lS! tbe Slav"nlC md ot her peo-
Irom tht Raltie lands. In I.he
UlltUrilS, under the gmse
I If C'ru,ades. tht' aIsc! or
d

, . au'Oe:
g:m!{cd purutlvt' e ..., ...........
al rooting out what they, saw as
The I::
Roman
{'pporluRlt" 10 extcn ' ., d
. . fl nee in new temlone'S an
Its 10 ue Cb h enormous
they hrought the . ure
profit.
l6 a TUI-r,of)'SWllf lIE" DRI'''' J;N Ie 1.11'
Cl IT Of' (.ODS WlIO DIE ANlJ
REl1'RNT()llfE,vcD_"al nor
foc ,,"to P=' mfv plants which. "
In the aulumn an I c me to ife n
!l,prL- ,Vari()L; h 1: cr
I and 0111:.,. ag:-icuhur I crops). "
"'as IYJ'ic.:al of an cnf avr rullur I
c \ li:.alinns n the I\.f,ddl I.
There eXI c_ nuS link d WIlt:
I c f l,gvPI () m. Baly
n' Tammu.., ':tm Phr,.
f;1o 's :JS r'J1rat; Oioln,ttl in all
of Whl a (( mal clill com! nmr
r -'J! ,f a n 'lIr or si' r WIll,
( , res f a gel<: vcr ( r/' /(' an
l\ ani' lIn..t '\dor:: I If lint
(}u Intoran fnmu 0(' ('
an I)mn J' \ I vor Im'lIl
unlar J)" the ou of hiS d{" .. ,
0, Ie nn, n('f ,",ere nfl1:1 r
g -I. J n cbc-,nUl uf,,! p 11
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ph' !ill( H ngl< J, nlaf v
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08
ct"VIER
dte obsc:nucc or ccrtam
and norms and \\ltb
.... h.tred ethnic traditions that are re
Iigious in origin.
CUVIER. GoWI" (176'/.18.)]),
French biologist. founder of com
parative anatomy
There is no denymg that his
00 the identification of types of am
mals based OD the similarities m
their anatomical structure and his
discoverv of the law of correlation of
organs and their functions., as wen as
the establishmenl of differences to
be found in the fauna 00 Earth in
different eras, aU bore \\itnes.s (0 thn
development of the animal world.
Cuv1er himself. however, rejected
tbe idea of natural development and
attempted to explain tbe erpedie'lt
charader of lbe structure of am-
mals' anatomy with reference to the
.. 1sdom of tbe Dn.ine Creator and to
attribute the replacement 01 one
kind of fauna by another to natural
KHmers such as tbe Flood (cata-
strophism). The mcoosiscenc1es in
explanations proffered by Cuvier
\\'ere identified by DGTWuJ and CIuu ...
ksLydJ.
C"YBELE. goddes.s or rertility in the
DMhoIogy and beliers of the Phrvgi.
In whose honour
held. accompanied bv thl.;
Qstratton of MOphyta" In
Greece the: figure of (ybc:1e became'
fmcd with Rhea. mother of Zeus In
- Rome the cui! of Cybele,
kDOWD UDder the name of Great
M?,ber of the Gods. and p.1tronc s.s m
,'tiles and 5lates. WI5 inaugurated lD
the . you lll4 D.C The: Megale<c,
G.am-:5111UC lnSIir.uted in bet baDour.
CYNICS, followrrs of the Aoctenl
(,reek J>hilosophe, Antl>lbene
- -'-' -.
founder of the (\nic School (4tb
century B.C.). The most famous te").
rcsc-nt:lIive of the Cynjcs 1ras
Diogcnes of Sinopc The ('ynjea
mlinzed the teaching of Plmo ce
ceming Ideas L\ general
because .hey regarded IS !rue 0IIly
he knO\\icdgc 01 the particular. 01
in<lividual things. They beld th.,
W3.\ only possible for men to atta.i:D
happiness and virtue if tbey rejected
the benefits of civilization, wtalth
and sensual pleasures. The Cynics
advocated that men should disre
gard rules in society and
also rejeel all religioll5 cullS. which
'"ley declared to be:: nnnecessary in-
stitutions of human rat:--:
than diviDe origin.
C\1tENAlCS, philosophiC3l
school of Ancenl Greece, founded
by Aristippas rf eyre.e (435-3Sl
B.C.) wbo laugh. thaI pleasure
(Greek "bedone") could be.
talDed through practical cxop;:"';,cnce
and cnntrol (If onc's desires. Sub-
jectivism and e.-;:-eme scc:pticislr>
are Inheren! in the th4 ught of lru..
()Tenatc School. Repr :;. ,tatn"CS c'
Ihis school nelude Theodorus lb
Atleist, Euhe merus, 'Jj
Cl-'rrnt', and A.nrue .:ris.
Th, ht'''.!.",um or the Cyrenair
laler is fU5.e(j wi: '1
15 o.st:1 '"" tbe .lD_
F: , :]ch atb..;.;sts d the lRtb. c, ntw"v
in tbell &.truJ:r,g.Ie A:gain .. , rdigiou
mc'll.lev.
CYRIL m' ALEXANDRIA. SL
(d. 444), Patrian:h of Alcundfl..1
from 412 !heologian and one ofthc:
Famf'n of the Ouur:h. who concen'
trated '::"tTl the tnlf,gft: 8&:'un.-',,1
berc"ICs at the 'V. [he
lOtians lnd the FWlCNmam. 51. Cynl
of Ak"xandria wrote a large nwnW
CJl..OWUK I POGl--'D=-' __
''''
--
-
ks thai cootam interprctahons
01 b. t' Epistles 01 the
01 the G,,!:.d tbe doetrme of \be
Al.""'tlesACco<ding '0 hi> .each' "80
'1'Mtty'. cl the diviDe and human
,he Cbr',t was the pledge or
oature 10 .
m,nkind', salvation
CZC.HOSLOVAK ORTIIOOOX
CHUR( H bee lJDC autoc:ephalous n
1951. Il consists of roW' cparct> .
and has about 1.10 parisbcs. The:
Church " heade-! by. M_.
Pre siS rCCt'fYf \elr '.raining at lhe
""hod", theol<Jgical in lie
L IIlY<nlty or P>-dov.
"f.LW\\lEK 1 SWlATOPOc..Uo-
(M"" and H' Word Outlook'
poo.. phiIosoobiu! '" "hIy _iUch
... be '1 P'C l"CC 1962 i.n
WU'Saw.
DA COSTA, Uriol (c. 1585-c. IMO).
rationalist philosopher, frcc-thinker
and author. He was horn at Oporlo
(Portugal) and educated in the
Roman Catholic raith. In 1614, he
fled to Holland and it was therc that
he renounced Christianity for
Judaism. In 1623, da Costa was ex-
communicated for publishing an
anti-religious treatise entitled
"Sobre a mortalidade da alma do
homeo" (On the Mortality of the
Human Soul). In fact, he was twice
excommunicated and twice read
miued to the synagogue. Oa Costa
committed suicide in 1640, leaving
behind his autobiography, "Exem-
plar humanae vitae" (An Example of
Human Life), in which he spoke bit
terly. of hath Christianity and
Judaism and rejected religions 01
revelation, the divine origin 01 mor.
aJily and of the Bible.
DAGOBA ('"'Im the Sanskrit 'dha.
litenJly meaning "having
rehcs Inside"), in Sn Lanka and
Burma the equivalent to stllpa.
DAILY OFfiCE. OttJwdrx
ClZUfCh :I'te establishe ... sequence of
sc'"':l"':c" :luring . te twentyf4 ur
penod :t.<;.' ollow ThL:;: are ninc
In all: V:".:>ers, hc.c 1C .,d of
Ih .. Jay, ('ompline, s
Vesper', M"id-mghl omc'
held a; the fnG of . 1C mghl
before sun ri..;: First, Thu ....
Ixt and Ninth Hour Sf"' VI( e
1c1d ...1 ?,9 12 dnd p.m, re
;x.;c ve.y. \;pcctal aHention; I()-
D
cussed on the LitwXr-the .
in the ,:
practlee three scruecs are Usually
held: Vespers, Matins and Ihe Li.
turgy. The others arc usually "in.
corporated" into one of thOSe
three. On the days of the mOSI im.
portant religious feasts an AII.Night
Vigil is also held, namely a service
lasting all night. '
DALAI LAMA (from the Mongoli :l
'dalai" meaning "ocean'.l i.e. occar.
like lama, lama as great as the
ocean), the tille accorded the head
of the Lamaisl monks, who, until
Tihct became part of the Chinese
People's Repuhlic in 1951, wa'\
Ihe sccular head of government n
Tibet. The title was instit lIed n
1391. The first Dalai Lam. was
d'Ge-hdun-gruh-po (1391-1474).
The fifth Dalai Lama,
hLo-hzang (16171682), cxtcndd
dominion ovcr almost the who e
of 'ihel anrt turned it into a th( 0
erar' c stdle The fourteenth [lalai
I am:: !r.lt Tih--:t in 1959 and 10W
resl' e' n Jndi,. In Lamai.HlI h(;
valal l.lma IS rcr,ardl:d as th,. suo
prcmf' t-<;;ng among Ihe "rcoorn ,
Ih ",11 llv nbodimcnl d thl pHI
ft VC"11 Ihle bodhisattva, Ava
Irk tC" hv' ra, '1(' living God-the
solut authl rit'" fo; he faithful. rh
deat 1 of lC Ii': ng 'lod mark the
bcgmninr 01 new :ncul:lion
Cll'll; m'lc' pc ill.:ouncl
Ie ,(ling lama.{ mve Id wit:1
auf'lI'IIV W4 uld .. -ek out :rol1"
among the wh4 had Ix en horn
DARWINISM
\.\
---- -- --
. ho 0 year after thG dC"Jlb of the
WIt I h L._ d
I
. Lama the on1 zn w om llU I
Oa 81' 1"L
. es-o;encc IJCcn , Ole
vzne g boy woul," tv mono
where he woul"" rec- ve the
as eper training l nlilthe new Dal "
("mo had allaind his maJrnlv 1m
1 ) __ ---!_-' ....
fUJIdioD." would be cut .. , a
regent.
D'AI.EM8ERT. Jan I< Rood
(1717-1783). F. 1ch malhem.atlL an
and philosopher 0: "e E .,h ....htcn
menl Hc workec w.th Olderot II.
produce the 'optd!e' (he
was in chapc f Ihe ctlOns on
m Ihematics lnd I)' \ _m-
liso made ut!J.anding :lis
..._,vC CS In mal1cmalics. ph U
lnd .Ironomy I- S lhill phu I
VIew .re f in rot.; ...:"1 1, ontr
ruclorv nat Jrc In 1-;.;- th orr
knowledge be pit..... a ::
Sl .. :t:! while u the t.-=::_
ing indinat 01:'5 t N ...
I:: sc exten<le
as fo c'l\.k-n!:" rl 1("
was mposslhl" II -t
that God exi. 0 It
,Ithe ctc' 1::'" r VI' '[:_. [ AI
)Crt n t c _. pro
f/es smc:e he saw rcli!o!u 5 I"
ing thc h. . f4 r . nuta. Ie me
pnne pie
,
,
DAN( IN(, B 'fYfttE RS, a (l:r Ii.
thai t. _ f : ,,"11 .., ....
MC'lnom me verne 11 (
,., .... ites n 1e
4
1: n rm;r
lation o. he II 11 :"f f '" c
mOIl wa somewbal r"\'. arv d
memhcrs 0 1 !tIS. k .... 0:
:n v(' rounC L r .. 11 -
J n{., Ie Yln
m .. n :-c cc lal'

DANILOVln S Se Fe, per

.su 1. 1.
-
DARWIN. lharl .. Rob<n mm-
'32), [ngl.ish natural sacntl<:,t and
f4 under of the SCientific theorY "
evolulion. explaining tbe dcvt"op
me"t (tbe organic 'w me
I,!I natural s:le 1ion. hal came to l;:
Don-. 1Usm. He r,raduated
fr. m {.amhridt;_ l nivenlt n 831
and (hen sel il IS a naturalist on
voyage. round the worlel ....,
thc ship "Beagle" fte rae oal ma-
erial which he coUc or 7.JOlog:
J. gcologicU. pi1ac"nloIDglcal 1r..I
'bnograf':lIl,; cse lTc't dnd 1:
rd .. nt Ie a:;- ultural nd . ntifi(.;
pr S. IC j Oarw n to c!. IW con
d.... r C"'"lc.. hr,; nalt:. I .I
p. nt "It: l rg :lie worla ana
::rp ji - or \.. n::lor of
nlc,o'
1
rg -
,
,
- om ,
-
n
,
r on
- "
,
,
r
k
r
J
110: 1
r. and'
e
I
w.uld
4.RWINISl\t, mtc ,J.I: . J1"y ,f
j(. 'c--n II 1.C 1, lUi I
'" rid. It. < te:. al ex
uo d 1 t'al . n' w k I e
0'1 n n. [l1.I,..-in
J Ih TllICTl.1 n" n. Itt: 1 '"at.
L _c1o..- l !
r , II; p .. ,.. w
",or I [llr
h' l natural. S' hC,
1 (h<1t :;'11: s "lC maIO mL
'C'f r ... ilch'nd l.'Oolullon
01 -:1")11("' of ClCS. Oarwtn c .
.::.:tc.1 In mllCrI,lli t lerms rhe ex
. _di .,cy of (h( ;>trucruretnd fune
14'
1M ('SA 'J
lions (If organisms resulting frum
nalUral selection and pointed (lUllhl'
relative nature of Ihis expedient')'. In
fhis way the development of the Of
gaoic world was explained on the
)
t
' of the Qm;ration of ohjective
. nalural laws. involve
ment 01 supernatural OT('CS. Tn hi!'>
work "The Descent of Man, and Se-
lection in Relation to Sex" (lH71),
Darwin gave a materialist explana-
lion of the procc.,,, hy which man '<;l't
himself aparl from the world of ani-
mals.. he did m.ll shed light on
the social factors Involved in the
process. Darwin made an
to the deVelopment of
Ihe scientific materiali,,' world (lui.
look. His followers included Em.u
Huxlry and (in
R':""'''la). Kltmelll 1imiryazev, Ivan
r..ilchunn. Darwin's work constitutes
one )r thi': crucial natural-scientific
of dialectical material-
Unt. _Darwin put an end to the Vlr.W
I of animal and plant spccit:s bcinlj
1cd, (ortuitou\ 'created hY
/ld md 1mmutahie, and wa' I he
m;,t Jut t-;ology on In :utd
\
CIC, n
h
' ba'ii'i by
mu . ., 1 II.,. ant"! 'h .
s " . I of
peacs (Lemn, Col/ccred W. ric
Vol. P I fhe advance tlf
ern bIology hio_ .... .l..
'1(.') ha' l-"1e
, s C;\IT!ed Darwinc m '
'h'.i .Ind lddej" .,' ur

I ,0 lh matemli t
: 10, ptllcal and method 1 '
lmport:,nl,.;C I( h 0 ogle ",I
'i I . on t I of
yo e ,)r \:1;,r'Slc.a.1 ')
genl tic . . aJ"Winlf'TI
plrtlealu Y )0 1 .
gent;tic thlt h,. , pu allon
[
c )ntf'lt!:nur 'rv Ih
y 0 cv )IUllon hOi:' k '
\, t::: 'bap:
DATSAN, 10 r _ .
n:l K l:";Iik lJuddh. "-fong"'I"n
Ih Rafll' for a b,ult tomall7JJ
m 1 monash .. ' I y ,je parI TTl' nt '
unIVersity In Buryat
--
---
Lamaism the: word;s "0
Ihl' mona<,lcry itself. denote
DMIMF,R. {;'o'1l hirdri h (
IH75). (icrman IRrrJ.,
c:lrly a
(."lsm Ilr (ltmlwnirv tracing',
ins to lhe cult of Af:e: It
g
'
DolUmer propag;llcd his ""_ X4iI
I
. . "II new
rc Igum and then in D
h
.0 aUmcr
em raced Roman Catholicism d
hccamc a theologian. an
DAVID (laiC 11th ccnlury 8 ("
c .. 971l B.C), King of Ihe
and latcr also thc
rounder of the royal Judaean dy.
nasty at JefU.saiem. He is venerated
hy the Church as a righteous man. aJ
from the Bihlic;!;1 lCCOunt of
hiS life it is clear that he was a trca.
cherou5 and nuel despot. He c-e
"ted a centralized state with capi
tal in Jerusalem. In order '0 cnhane ..
the importance of Jerusalem ....
tranderrcd there the Ari( ()
t"f,l'C'nant an com c that me"'l
wurship around the Ark. Accordin
ttl religious tradition, il was O"V1d
whu wrote the P.wlms. As helie' 1/
the mming of the Messiah took ro)!,
D;tvid to be venerated ir
a.\ the an('e'Stor of Ihr. Mes-
Sil h n Chri.-riallitv Jesu" :S 11so
known is th( Son -f D. vid"
DAVID OF DINANT all Ih-orly
hh c nturv), Frene.,
md natural M .. 'rom whose
I 1 stemml d ver on d lalurali
... POflf/JC' ... m, .)avid h ... J
'l:,t ,1 the (II allth:!'
'0\1\. '1 .. lcknow,,"',,'1 mrill,' " J
I!': Im,....- r ....... il Ai"' ,,1UlC' Pw\ ldJOg
, "lc I ounJal n ror all I 'hl 'lOmt na en
him tn rCJi'<"1 Ihr ( 'htlS-
ql,:) I '0 .he insigmlicamC ,I
Man, Ind .. deny the idea thai

"mAl> SI:" '''CROI J S
--,<1
of Khirbct Qumran
109 the Dead Sea in Jordanian lerr-
tory now occupied by Israel. The
(irst were madc ia 1941. Allhl;
Fesent hme nearly 4O,(xXI
haVL be_n fouad, mainly in Hebrew
and AramaiC The manuscripts "'ad
n :lWDe1 by a religious com.
mumty whl 'b did not recognue or
thodox ludaum and which lived in
that an. 1 t t"90'C , Ole '"d ,century
B.C and the 1 t \.cntury AD. ( 'e
Qwnron (ommwurv). T,e '\:Te'ls
(. lD be wvu1cd into Ih ;c mllR
group:: cm f:""ltD the '>ld Tnta
mt'n! m Hebrew 1!l al 0 IR (reek
-
- . -

will be retribution Of'rrward for

Ihe gnvc. The w--ks of
David of Dinant Wf" . on numerous
occasions datroyed by the (burch.
DAY 0.' JUI)(,BIENT See E,cho
,oIogy
DAUI Sill NDAI (168(h 747'"
Japanese opponent
nco-Confucian Idealism md Budd
hist mysticism. While call
ing for a return 10 Confu
cianism Da7.ai Shundal t;T1hcized l'le
Chuh Hsi morality which was the o.
filia] state ideologY n the period o!
the Tokugawa shogun Al tbe
same time he criticized (Qnful..aD
sm for ackowledging the _:Ii min.
'-Dee of spinl over matter ane! re-
Jwed the teaching to the effect L.- t
the Idell prnciple comes before that
which 15 mate-ial. Taken at: n aU the
philosophy 0
1
D "''1i "hundal paved
the way fr-r "lc: dev opm' o. ma-
tc:rialist idc= 0 Japan.
DAZHBOC.. Sun (Joe m nc:_-,t
Sl[v mythologv, pal 0 of fertilit"
lature an" Ihe sour.. f light and
..vaJ ;n:"I. In 01 .... Rcsslan LroDlc'es
Daznbog mentir-of j , . SOD of
the god )1 Ie vcn, \v:rrog.
DEACON ([km lb. c" k di.b
nos mcanmg "serv.m: ,IDllial! lhe
of he.: of miDI I serv1D8 lndl
b 'fJ,Op (in Ibe nd ft. :l C:"l'
tu. ), V)o wau' have 1 lD
of the t;I.-CtDOmi4 fT, -s f il
('a iste n commuDlty L.a.:
WI..--;l 1!! d.:.o \ ... '" tl m It. ...:d
.ll rank the assl tar;: II the c: :
wh!' he 15 C 'Jduc ng sen
perk "lllDg ,di ow n. .
DEAD 8E ... ROl -" i;; ,
COVered lR C va .:I f"lt; Deighbour'
AramaiC ; 'h'! Apoc
npllo of th )Id T,. m n He
I ..., w and Aram<uc. and ".ks \.-vm
f!1"!'d, by ... memb.:: f
( mmw: l' tb ..... Iv... be )e
c. -, c laID ." ow; V\: '"'S.I0ns
of tt' 0' .= _. Books. me ud-
I .... 'Oi!t7IODS "1l.;b do come de
WI 1 th \-311 ; j (or \1, SSOI'I tte)
1_""1. MaD)' I identl4:3.1
:hose . r vide be
or til 54, b':I the Grc k trans-
-n Ibr.; lJib ( From tb Apt
rvohl rc: found fragmer: s lf E
." J,:, lSirab). Tobit, and Ihe
Be of Encx:b in Heb w md
Je 'ormerly only f in
were k.10'\\'n 10 t n L:"'::"u
mIll Old (hureb Sla\l\.lnh... and
thiopian), will,," of p
T",:t;.:h",c Works \WIlt n ':Jy mem
rs of tbt community Ihemsc1ves
n ... :he communily'S M:mual of
L 'l:1,,:irtine, the W,.1 the Serb:
I- ymn\, commcnfmes 1(1 t
Books of Ihe Prophets and
_ er "'"Orb. In the Manual of
pune details are (ound as 10 . c
go.::Js of ne commuDit)', the wars ID
w new members were
lnd tbr members' dutico;. An Idea
IX r me:.ting rM"l' docume
DtS
IS thai
IWAI1I
,"
conceming the struggle (If the king-
dom (If light and
againsllhc kingdom of and
evil. The War Scroll dcscnocs Ihe
last t'lallic which was 10 take place
between Ihe Sons of Light and the
Srms of Darkness. The commen
laries 1(1 the Books of the Prophets
arc designed to shed light on some
Biblical prophecies which, according
to Ihe M;holars of the Qumran Com-
munity, relale 10 the fale of their
community. In a commentary on the
prophecies of Hahakkuk mention ill
made of the founder of a com
munity, a "Teacher of Rightcou.<;
who was persecuted bv an
.... " .
lmplOUs pnest " Some scholars afC
inclined 10 regard the "Teacher of
Rightc(1usnc!'>.\" as a prototype COJ
}t,tuS Oulst.
DFATH, the ces""ation of an organ,
functions of life as a result '
..vb.icb lis indi"idual existence comw
o ,an cnd, From .t religious s.tand,
IJ?IDI, man's death is the C1eath )1
hlS body, thc receptacle lor the dl'
s?ul which after man' death
r. 10: dwell in Hcav..;, or 10
He 1, C'7X!nding upon his >eha"iour
U'I thiS 'World" ''ki4 vew
liS a process, Accord,
"the of lif.-
a! U:I:" IS " Ily
lir
eo ssenlia contained In
c U 50 Ih Ir
Ih ....... " - a,t I C IS dways
"""6'.1 1 m'_lallon to l!it '
ary resul: :Sealh which .
C-I"n ,a' " is awav.:
- ...... Cu 1D It III gem" (l>i I '"
(Of Vaturr M a ec fC.f
_.. 05('ow. 1982 "V\<j:)
>c.atb wb:- " 'fi P ..
d
.-Jgn'lslhen .... 'Ir
oc-..o'lDa - Ie
'lO F.arth w ny way real 'ife
Ives of ,.
.
1if On the
....due as' 1.- 1 .lcqwrrs particular
div t;- ... b;-l': 1d of man's fruilful
rll:ancc ... ,5OC.:tl slgnj_
lDUnorf "Jit} IS tv I)e
- -
- -
IhHlugh the deeds or Ih .
dlmtual. who leaves his in" .c II
mark hchind him in ife (Imltahl
c
morlafitr). see In;
DEUH-()"-(am THEOl.(l(-
radlt'aJ movemcnt in so-called .Y,
tar (heoto1{r whi{'h I('t(lk
JI)(l()s {In the uf the ideas
p!.lunded hy DU'(rich Bonhottr: p
d' h' JJtr r
gar 109 t t.: way 10 which Iraditi I
Christian religion had C"ompl
lost touch with the modern
as thc(llogy, according 10
thl" concept, needs 10 start ...
from existing human realitv it ,--
lod
' .' as
to !Dve expression to the fX.
perlcnce (If thc "death of God" I
o he, (al't that most pe()ple now
is If (hefe was no God, 'hat Goo is
'01 experienced loday any mono
F"f IhlS se S il<.:'
the .,r elaborating an athe'
Chru.:::1nity , .nd an atheist vt
of (1tr .stole'lgy. While modcratc
representatives secular thcolog),
as Harr'ey (."a;- m .. intain Ih. t il
IS only (he modern 11, -liston'
II 'onceptinn of GO<! that has ou.
hvee: .tself, i.e 'lal w: I,A..l-
nted hy the 'death' of the e"';
109 of God ,'le
radie lily inclined adhe:::,ts 0 al
he:st III stianity" start oul rom
Jr Ihl" lIod of r dltioDal
(hlisti, . .nily, frlm nef=1tion of Goo.
as a Iranst:endental w 10 :;
llUSlde the world and nt. ing
I:: .;)mmr-n With the world. Ith
n4 e s to he replaced J)' devotion 10
I U' ('hTif(, thaI fin& :xpressJon n
'Vice 0: olhl. pc
( It"::.tiamty 1: nlc"pre: dual
f' n n Ihe Gospel of lc1.us 01 lila'
7.areth,
DE( AU>GUE Sc (, mmandmm('
ITenJ '")I'
,
I
I
I H1IRI' nANI7o\1i)'l'
U'
OE('t:M"'USTS. repre enlatl,,'e _ of
h 0 ,,'ululion ry n .... cmenl con'lst
01 memocr of the nohillly,
"g he 14 8-- . d
which on DI c TI r , carne
o t an uno;UI c ful r nc.:! u!-' .sing
a aino;t thl thl n lutncrallc gov_ -11'
;cnl or Ruo;o;la, W 1<: oower rc: tl J
on serf,own4 (. l1in rt. fer d II
the De cmtm as' '1C ml oJ. out
nllinl., "j,tUI of Ih ' stag-_ of the
Rus" In iocralilln ml vemenl (( I.
Ie 'ed U/,rlc.', VO. 20. 1, TtJl
bourgl OIS rev ulion nIh: "uun,
rles of We 11 [urPpc, '\c works
If R.ud . clt an th
wntl rs f the F ._h F 'Ii ....bt n
ml nl, had all 'V\,.- .J mo uld lh
"",_Ij outlook f "lc '\ m"
rhev unahlmc l n h_1I ie r_
ltu ,<:11 e1
d on wm' hiD. vel ( r ..
we Jiffcrcm.:: n II! r VI(w. 0
G- h r f 1<: ) ...
b' -; .r.ioptd r. de I; I. relilZ:'Ol;
'lat :14 :In Id
should t-:. \:...:-1 n volu' rv
plg.: !lda wr-k me 111': I wr'
Ihe naJ r(ty I r the ... ,.,
wen .,,;eptl.C:; .. ldvOOL'i of .11'>-
or ulhelSm r lC diff C Id 111
hov,t;v,'r prevent 1. [..: ,l
frou uDlling pnlitll III Rl
sentatl", 01 Ih mal4. li\1 ; l(
win c: the rno\em( t meluding
'yolr v Iv n Yl:lkl: hk 1.
VI mif kV, <\j der I'a
y ky, k lal Kn:.a" , I 3n
v kv ct I. ...
''!''lic,fr
With n :.I'" ' :I If . _

o1\wd.k
;:].1 V tu' It::
.,
plll)nS
)f .. lnd., __ c' "IC. VI ]\
J( m .
II . Ih .J-
I umote:.l Ihe er: I ncr. (If ::
I Pic 1..1, the mat en, I: t
\l)lLg of ... Dec nhrl! t .. o ... emc I
- --
&>0 ,r.cn open opp; ilion.- the
!Ii. 'al ore!:.. hascd ,
whlc, rc :C1\'Cd the If Ih
( hure h, had lftn inOuc,"
0 .. Ih ... ':II ad""ancc of r.
thinkIng at' el1m n '
TIIEOR\' con ,tilm
In whie" rc: JgIon
intI... be ng and '" 0 t cull or
Ih c:. lberate dcccl" )D )f h
n _'S by .rs, I .... r \'t;rs, r'11:0'
oph::r .... ( or r e rna
t I I: I' C Ancienl W 'wh
, J ...... txp Jr_orlhl c;! ecp
11 il 'Awp.. in their ggle
!;"'O- I f nd he r IOd
had I. ,r j Uen on
ro _ f ""C': in reI' In
t n h Al )h
_ri () ,\t" ..ole 8>-' and In
[l: I 11: C lr
tht 'b ec D: cei-
I -; t anc \{o ...
-
help dc
M. 'vi.
.J
It'" r h
Ih orv
.", .. or the E,.;;"
<!. n h .. t "th C_'" lTY anc '. II elf
tt:: tDli.cTS llf Ihe en h
nmer; m It:: C nlc:'V. HI W
\ r ,. II- (ltV wa adeQuate
!
-
id n t'ltpl n tion fur the
fl 10 Mal"ust th4 I n cxpl. II
mef[t.! nl r:-:I l ti 'nc W 1
I.
Ih,- a1 c d.:: U in
lC
-

..
r _,
rc :ill _ h --1!
-
11 1. >c
-:0. I 1(" n
"'Ie _ t fc., =t 1"J9:\.
-".- I
:::1. !li.11 ,-
l ""tun r re>- AV Roman
'JC ... \Wbie'l bil(l as e 1f1)-
".
DI:U ...\RKIlO:"O(lFJ1111RU IriC)1 M:\N!\. 'I) IIII:U
a'l 1791, dcvclor'l(.'d into a 1 uggl.c
againl'it other reb-
a..-. such. The nghts {If the
Roman Calh(llic Church wcrc ("UT'
Jailed, and priesls of all rcltgJt
were forlliddcn 10 perform thClr
functions outside.: specially
allocated for purro",,, of "'-'Im,hip;
measure ... werc also iake" In COllnter
religious fanaticism amI supersli-
tions. The "cult of Reason" (sec
Reason, lhe Clift of) was promuted
to oppose Romon Calha/icism, <tnd
other religious cults as wdl. A ncw
rcruhlican calendar was introduced
and al..-.o new, non-rcligiclus fcslivaiii.
including the Festi\-JI of Reason
The French Revolution was the lirst
which the oourgcoisic accomplishca
\lith political rather than religious
slogans. Dechri<;liani/.alion he
practical impkmcntation in politics
or thc philn<;ophical idcas of the
Fre'1ch Enlightenmellt. com-
mented: "Thc C"lnstian rdiVion n
Franl"C. as a maUcr of fact, <;0
pletely disapp :arc i in the vcars
1793-98: that e ....en Napolcon cl'uld
not re mtroduce it without or,-v- J-
ion difficulty (Marx anl r::,_
gels, Seier-tea Works ID ; v. I_
Ualr-S, Vol. Three_ p. 354).
DECLARATION OF THE RICHTS
Of' 'dAN AND THE CITIZEN J a pl.
vota1 document of the French Revol.
utlon or 1789, which was adopted bv
th" French National Assembly on
Aogu'-l 26, 1789. It proclaimed thaI
'lIt_? are b'''1 and remain free and
enlltled to equal righrs and thar all
CJJ.17.c-r:::; are equal befo!'!: the law and
(r'--edt m d the individ.
ual. freedom "'/ K:C;;'Ship, fre('oom of
and heedom . ,f I he
nus Dec1al.Jtion beClmt,; a banne;
ID struggle against fcodal and ab
practicn wotldwr.d
e.
IIECI.ARATION Of: TilE
(It PUIPU S OF RUSSI'
one n. thl:' firM lcS!1slahvc aCI, r h"
.- .Ole
Sov;ct state, pa;\,\Cd ('In Novc he
21 Ie; 7_
'- tlC'I/Cl. Ihe poll<.'Y (If u
(ne pc('plc .1gJin<;1 Ihat
t'lcl'n pursued hy.the reg me
md the {io ...
1m.enl In relation 10 the peopl!. of
who had. endured opprcs.
ST(m from and arhllrary treatment h.,.
Ih:! hmduYo-11ers and capitalists. Th
providcd the fnundati -,.
for the Soviet nalionalitics 1'<1Ii('(.
cquality and sm-.. cign rig.hts ,al
peoples; right of the pcoph.::> 10
sdf-dclI.:rmmaht n up Lo and inch d-
S.'C\: :<ilt n md the formal ion (1
Incpcn<1enl slat"si "Ie bolitlon ()
all 3nd every kind ethmc and c'h
nit ".:Iigir lLCO pnvilerc.co and rcslric
lions; th-= tee of na
Itc''''al lTIinr-rities ethnic gJ
inhabiting the lerrtrry d RU'1.:-a.
The Declaration dl 111 a 'tillS)
powerful hlow to tht idt'oll t.} of
great- w chauvimsm an'" b), r
ge I:'; nation: lism md the way
fm pr C ell Implemrnlat 1 of
.emn' prugr anmc on thc nat)1
alilies ISSUt
DECRFT-\L-S 'frem the l dl
crctum" "t1c':Ininp, ordinanc c
"rc olul 'on", cdie '":11( )ut bY the
P7PC 'f: m t,le,; 41 " ccnturyonw . rd )
o the 01"11 of Jc'tcrs, 'Which con
tul
a
,olC '-1 C e ntr-nt ,,f [ne ( ,
10ns the mam body ,..f 'In .. nll
al
of the R man (al
hohC
( Alter the 15th cent IllY
Dc . lals hcgan to appeaf .. be mosl
f4-mr, or whieh were (he so--....Jl.'1
Fah! Decretal- 0/ I.-tidore. (he
Papacy , n order 10 C. 'OSI ,hdatC
its p' 'Wf'I in i1<: str'Jgglc against srClJ-
lat ruk:rs.
DEI.PIUC ORAal:.
-
-
(rrem the (jreek
D irlg "prarng' l. an ICOD depld
mea; SUS Christ drl :cd as an arc ....
with the Mother of God on his
John thc 011. left
. OS to him. Sometimes this IS the
pra)'l af-vr_D to a row of icons, indud
name &"- ( h
. the: dcesis in tbe stnct sense 0 t e
:rd. and sometimes it denotes the
whole multitier iconoJU!.. .. '
DEISM, the phtlosoph,ilat
ligious teachmg, according. which
God is the impersona1, pnmary
cause of the world. who l!" ou' ,dc
the world and does Dot int .-cue m
the development or NatUJ'e s0-
ciety. The source,:, of are "..,
be found in mediaeyaJ philosophy
In the PC"' od when the CI::.:r"l leld
sway ove:r men m 1 die. llorz;
,::-ruon, deistic teanings de-:::
a mcans or cxpressulg .. thclSl ide s
regarding nature's independence
(od's will ac_ Man unlimited
possibilities for knowing the d.
As a philosopbical It r::
fleeting tht; ntetest. of tbe pro-
gre-slv", .. urgeoisie In tbe Modere
Era, dl- sm took sh:,;y_ In \c 'tt:
,,-cnlury, Hetbm of CI1ertJun' E:'Ig-
land) was 'gardr:d ar th: fallcr .
the It Deirrn was not II (
mugt :lcons movcmc,t 10 ,e phdr
ophical sense man)
and thinh or h F" ,:-Itt 1l/7J( nt
WC'C drawn to it {for xamp To-
lwId- Locke. Vilitairr Rousseau,
I mg, we[ as
(such as Deists
r:f cted t:- ditional upoc:!lV ret:
gT ::t, contrasting It WIth tbr "nal1-
ral 0 Renon" They Jt;
Died iiVUlc rr'l latic '"I, p,.(mde11ct:
many r '.ginus dogmas ,1Od rituals.
C!DI.C out agatDst religIOUS mtoleT"
ancc od /Tffdom of K'.,,-
Tbey tried to tdc:lSl science
,
and philosophy (rom Ihe domin.
bon of the Cburch, and rC3!On
from raith. The histt Kally pro-
gressive role or deISm was U:
by lhe <nd or the 18th =
lU'Y, wbrn HoIbh and Did<roI,
rrom positiom or melaphyskal ma-
terialism and atheISm, camr ror
ward .ilh a critique or deism. From
tbe mid-19th Cl-'1Itury onward.o;,
lit Ism was used by advocates or
in their fight aganlSl a'
beism. At the time delSm
prO'Jides a fc D ("I e be-
tM,;:- reiigJu!l .. ..I the natural
tl-,(:ncc"
DELJTZS!:II. Frkdrkh (""IO-
m German t:u<1oriall and -.,..
r or tl::. time in Bible
Sluruc"S >ditzsch n de a
l!' ;c coc::- J"lSOIl of the Old
Tt ttamc1U A: EU.a..yIonqn
demon"-1:rating thal lhe
Bible frc.,.ucf.l.tly adapted Bab.vloOian
C 15 and legends (in part':-:u1ar
with regard to tbe Flood). In hlS
maID ymrk entitled "Babel unci
Bibk (8ab-\'t)0 and the Bihle) Dc
lilZSCb t 'Klrates !>n-caUed pan-B:l
bvlonianism. somewhat
the inDu 1CC or th" Assynans and
be I' at-ylonlans )n the subsequent
.(1 rv world C Jlture.
DELPHIC ORACLE. an 0=1t al
tht. temple \..,f Apollo in Delphi one
I f tbe religlOUS centres of Anelenl
GrlcCC. Btlth
scntalives of ComIJ]urulJeS, de
statcs e\,\nsultcd the DelphiC <?!a
bdore taking important dccislOD;S-
The prophetic pronounce mend Is :;
r ApoUo were ma e
the 0 "" .. 10. __ .I cben they
(he pnestcss r:ru.
,Q

<IiI d
and transnuucd tn verse
weree e f h 1 pie.
f bY the priests 0 I e em .
pr(lpbectes rom the DelphiC
_________ .. I ____
---
Oracle have been passed do"," in
the writings of HerodollLC; and in
other classical sources.
DEMBOWSKI, Edward (lH22-
]846), Polish revolutic.>nary
cral, philosopher and literary cnllc;
one of the Icaders of (he Cracow
Uprising of 1846. His philosophical
vicYIS underwent a complex evol
ulioR from idealism 10 materialism
and then atheism. Demoowski came
(0 the conclusion tbal social condi-
(ions determine the whole intellec-
tual and of society. As
far as his sociological views were
concerned. Dembowski was a
Utopian communist. Criticism of
religion was a significant component
of his theoretical writings.
DEMETER, goddess of fertility, ag-
riculture, marriage and family life in
Ancienl Greece. The myth concern-
ing Demeter and her daughter Per
. rephone echoes the more ancient
cult orthc periodic rebirth and dying
of the plant world. The cult (If
Demeter was widespread through all
Mediterranean cuhurC'.s.
DEMIURGE (from the Greek de
miourgos" meaning skilled work
man"), a philosophie,jJ and lheologi
cal category that can be l:accd t,ack
10 Plato. In whose writJngs Ihl De
mlurge IS God, who crC':ites the
w ..... Jd frQIn C that bar.
unlike the Cbri :an God
who '"l'C3tes 'le world out of noth
109. f. 'r the.. lJnosti( he Dr'1llUl
was 'he cre,!tor o! 'he
w. 'rid, c<..ompletc With .Is evll and co In
In Chl .....han heolorv and
I\le .dealist phiIO$:"l,hv I he De
IJllurgc tht' :deal primary wusc
thai Creates the world,
DE!"OCRITIJS (h. 470 RC. '" 4('1
he reputed have li\'td
1111 a( 90), matcnalir.t ph'l
h f
I.)S_
op cr 0 AnCient (jrcece the _.'
. .... 11
representative (If {-Ias.\ical
tu De":locritus, the
wurld consisted of indivir.ihll
parlldes (atoms) that do not com
into heing and are indestructihl,"
form, thc nature of their
comhlnatlOns and their position Or
arrangement, and a void. within
which move, comhining in sep_
aratc h?dICS. and then disintegrat.
Ing agam. In the world there
natural, inevitability, which causally
all phenomena. Demo.
critu.s' rules out both
the creation of the world by a god,
and al"o a course of events within r.
thai s guided hy Providence Demo
critus regarded religion snme-
thing artificial. instituted hy Man
and stemming from his. failure to
understand the formidable phe-
nomena of Nalure, fwm his fear of
death and punishments beyond tbe
grave for his evil deeds. Democr
IUS' atlteism criticued l:w
numerous theologians and idealist
philos phers.
J)EMONOU)(.Y rcligioU! teaching
with regard tn d('mons. II can be
traced back to primitive hclief in eVil
spirifs, Demonology dcveloped ,.0 a
particular!) argc extcnt in 'he
am.:ent religion' of Bat>ylun
lfld
AiI("U 11 l"ln, rrom whenC4; it pe':1C
tratc d ludal.ff1l, Chnstianity tnd
IJlarn Roman (iltholinsm md be
Onhodf"X' nurrlz Jnt:1 !lOW m
Sl'lt in 11,.. etual cx.: .. tenc_ ()f de
ml while 'Some Protestants all'"
c1in-d accept them as ,ymboli
cally Ignificanl Demonology
IRcXlrlC!!bly linke..l with
m. 'raHly, In which the Dn'll is lne
Ul NO'tISA 1 ON
'"
- -
-
foUurcc und hea rer of sin. Accordi ng
() Ihie; tc')chlng. man 15 always and
"verywhere surrounded by demons,.
who ar:. a threat In h15 and only
the nculrati/.J" f ce
him "'rom the;;r pcrfidioU!" ,'1'c is.
,: lyer.s, rel/Cl,
or '1mctim( throuWl ! )eClat acts of
.....orship Rimed al driVl ng out devils
(.XOI 'ism), Demonology pro'll :.
the for thf,. fanalical C !'Ie cpt of
)orctry which Ie"! If sham '.J! _
\:uLioo anc! li4uidalt. n f he bv
the Inquisition Medi ... n rna,,;; I
also with dcm! ill ogv -g
10g I. i' does from lcathe
de toring 0 (: lnteml rarv r _ ,-
supcrstitll n .3' rding II wt:- '" :
fl r varlou' pt;.,. :-.1 r=:
tal dl "_5 U :1, h) ,a
the eHec of d( ';) 0 .
:- 'lUal part tt:_ 1e
.131 dor:lnn th
I human di astl ba
natural !aruc 50\;.
DE'dONS,

b
,
.. ,,1 m -

(lj'v J,
",
P .. t -
,.
A ... " .. , J"_
"
-
tradih, ;';lo- r " I
1a" c t II
With th p) .I - (. mom.
liglOn II JU til I ,. ,e
II ! 10 th\; "'01 IJ thaI I "III J
"I) .. n .. 1m I! 1.'11 an... !' bel !II: "
heodi. '\1 VInJl: II .3.TI.: :lIth
JI he!: n Ijcmons prov 1 ' 1;
uri:: ror the w:. I SUi"
0:.
Dt' \f\TIIOl.()(,IZATION. 1n Id.
that to "Xpl 1e malO or,
I(:nl f the lenl. I 'one ,':"00;;
Gigo: . (( intcrpl_1 Biblu al n\1hs
in ur'am:e With Ihi' UJl ,<; mlwJ-
ern m. n f'lC "fat:,er of tht; dL
mythologuat,on of Ihcology,
Bultmann, , uF,ge:Sled that lhe d,vme
contenl of The: Bibt(' (Kerygma)
should be differentiated from the
lingui"'lic forms u.'iCd to cxprrs.c; thl,;
I rue te n::'s of (alth. Bultmann MOl e
thill n our times. people do
not bclit:w 10 the Biblie tl m)1hs any
n .. "est: nced 0 b approached
'"_ (';'v lS svmbnlir.; 1m, 5 hat scrve
I) "tc re" 'I\.\hl,
Man md God_ m:'Jn , '
myt h' 31 l ot hUl ralheT n
tcrprc In <In t xist 1tl I way, T,C
_ n :cption... k _. I nythulng;
7.' - arc al _ f, emg I lr,
,
.: _.1 IJoth om l Op I, l-
t orthodox I -, c and al .. r.
.
I
,

r.
, m
)F 'L PfThR
-
,
Ie"
- p
Ih
,
.. nJ,by
N V rorr I.h
,J
1

' Ih c\ Icory U "
H m .; be. ';!lmnr '11
._ 141 lIy . W' !I kV1ca
llh_
nan the' ':
.. _"!'n s. hi laxfl n' a many
prtlU" ;:. fr m he r.: S llfth I'ithful
,_ Wi!:. iltlOIi. lC_ bv ' 1e RefOfmO-
. ., In th Jt n ',ut In
tr ouc d < ;1In l:" I voluntary don ..
linn) 1ftL ur
Dr NOMINATION (irom (he
:'1omlR .tio" mcamng IhcglV10g
t)f 3 namc"), In thr gLneral
scn"e a i'TOUp of nf'ljcels or pcnplc
linked togdhu b) l c\)mrnon
In the context the: term IS
______
------
used 10 denote grouJ?S (hal have, a
distinctive interpretatIOn of a rehg-
ious failb aod usually their own Of-
gani7.alion: sometimes Ibe word is
synonymous with confession, when
the JaUer is used to denote a sect
uniled by a common system of be
liefs.
DEPARTMENT OF MONAS-
TERIES ("M astyrsi<l' PriJuu"J. a
Russian state organization instituted
in 1649 (or the jD\:estigatioD of legal
cases for the clergy connected with
property relations. From the 18th
ceotwy onwards it also concerned
with the administration of the
landed property belonging to the
clergy and the monasteries. Under
pressure from Church leaders
anxious to secure for the Church
economic independence of secular
power. tbe Department of Monas-
(cries was disbanded in 16n. Il was
reinsrituted in 1701 and made re
sponsible for the administration of
monasteries, Church schools ett.:
In 1720 the Department was placed
under lhe authority of the Holy
Synod 01 the lWsswn Orthoaar
Ooun:h.
DERVISH (from the Pers'3o
ish" "poor man"), M4.-lem
mendicant monk. DI.:rvishes bel4 ng
10 various Sui! Orders. Often they
renounce marriage and emhrace an
asc.:tic way of lift In the early
Middle Ages types of dervishe
(' be distingll!shed from one an
other. mendicant monks and Sufi
scholars. Among the laUer would
be encountered fu\l."rians, philos.
.. poet ... who sociaJ
lDjUShcc, bYPoCl"Isy. and ignor 4llCC
of [be rnul/QJu. Religious k:aders
IlnJ ltkbers often accused them
of heresy.
DESCAR1l:S. R.. (15%-1650
Fren('h philosophl'r, mathcmaf . ),
physiri .. t and He .. "''''d
".. r ' d' e
a num(>cr 0. major ISCOVeries in the
natural !;('u'nccr, and came 0
ag.linst mediaeval schulastic conce lit
tillnfo of Nature. Descartes' philc!"
r
hy
was characteri7.ed by a divisiou
o the world into two principles in.
dependent of each other: "thin.king"
and substances. Man,
according to is .a divinely
created combinatIOn of an manimale
corporal mechanism and a soul, pos.
scs.. .. ed of reason and will'power.
Hence Descartes' dualism, contain.
ing elements of both idealism and
materialism. Descartes' materialist
"physics". including the teaching reo
garding the eternal corporal sub-
stance, was of a progressive nature,
as opposed to his metaphysics",
which incorporated ontological tvi.
tknce lor the aistence of God and
acknowledgement of the immortality
of the sou/
DESCHAMPS, Itgtl' Marie ( .716-
In4), French matenaJist philos-
opher; a Benedictine monk. He de
VlSCd a system, Which combinc..-d ra
tionalism, gravitating towards
Spinozism, and dialectica1 ideas.D
schamps held that M ideal, moral
roc ely, order of virtue", would re-
, lace that on feudal and absr
Jurist practices, a society in WIDC/!:
ev rything would be communally
owner! and where social equality
WI... uJd reign. Deschamps maintained
that religion :l "truth I urrogatc
and (hat those Ul whose bands
wc::dth !lD.d are c ,ncentrated
( nnot c"pe without H. to
bUll.. atheism will possible
only ,n an Ideal society, ! Ile path to
whit b br $aW in the Ws.scmmarioD of
truth
-
__ --,D",rcotl'lFRONOMY -,
"
-
-
DFSNI I'SKY, !"A:myon (c 1740-
t789), scholar d the Ef!-
ligblenmcnt. founder nf the ttlSton-
I school of law in R1W1:1. He
:essed the
the origin of SOCIal msbtutlOM tn
nection with changes in mco's
:nonUc activities. Starting out
from this principle.he demonstrated
thai religious heliefs I!m.eTged n
ancient times in the wakc <!f and
as a result of men'!. lltnbutmr, te.
natural phenomcna . human prl?pcr
ties Dcsnitsky's V1CWS connl('c1
with religious and teachjngs
regarding divinely ordamed soc.a1
practices.
DES ptRIERS. Boaa..",..
(c l.Cj(J()..c t SoW), f "lch hure .n'
author [n I:t!s works l. extoUe lb--
joys of life on [:ar' -1 an rr. c
Roman CathOileum ant' Pn.. e
,
um. tiD uposcd I
G m,;Jr. tbat -1 pi mded
sour4,;;; of . for ... c1 r D
Ptriers 'llainlalDcd that ... ,. 0
turned the fGilhful into"! ole ., )
(ragged bwd... ae...! 01 ... - .... Ix;'
tng' WIthout que tion; h :0
tb .. ignoran lIld ;rc..:1
pnest< and monkc r DC f .
Impo .nt wo ks ( rmbaJum
Mundi ll<37l.
DESI'INY or F TE or un l
...... J: . oJn of l!vcnt
I," IS :.Ir r.
-lime al J mev t
"') of An u
, I n
-
" WI!
If. r Ir
tt; .. {
A (lent
""n
dh
M
,

n
,
,
c m
-
)" pre m

e
c ,
exist!.: cc of an .IITcmbradng jot. r.
<:'cpc:ndtDC1:' of (?hettomena lub;ea
to a law of 'cause .00 elfect. whicb
means one pbenomeDOD
(cause) gh'CS rise of necessity 10 an.
other (effect). Determinism IS an (So
scnlw element in the un- / .....
derstanding of tbe world. Mati 1-)(
.... ACt il off both agalft.'".t
.n:!_oermtnism lind rhe
.:onceptioQ I... f dctermioism de
velopc'" on I e haris c"''- e syntL is
d ucc$scs scored in practical t:"_
s;;ucb and sc c:uti.:c.. theory.
a\:bicvemcnu m Man's und( r
standing of mecham tic c t:.: ility lea
a .:.:L":!lcr....r natural II n:... li and
p!...:...osopb_ n ... 18th and 19th
e.. turi:s tl ...... ..lU:: I link 8!"
"I instance r litat c tv. Tbis )
I 1. Iiowev _ ) ortlOD
Jr. it! d re tv iU1d 0 tal
\\ an, (; 'Ce' b pp "lS t ... he
"-.' ; -=="" j oegm-
[;. lh' mng l! p 01 (or
;Jeer llf u .... to - ili.
c. J omena. n. ... limiLa'
of t:: ...:" d :I wer,.
, >,t , r opiIy,
TI: >,t .. ..!.., e
, '
L.. 'C..!WI .... c th 'lC
01 MU Jdc "I I. ksVbat
c mnot [, , d. c ;J. t4 r..,:..:t 1I tic
orm. .. Jr. e mto ... r )WD. vta
ot nN ..,... a be: I ortUI'
to t r, wh1ch lik Ibe -
r.f 0"-- 51. tive! . I 1
ml! 1 tv 'tic".
1 If t' ... [8.' w Tf 'i C" III al
l I II ;0 'U!'It ,IOC.:J
o r 'I
- f ...r. h:Jt:'S III
f \,. q I. .. ,>benom 'n") )
: l r ... 1 r- I efc ren.c fO
. ".}Dof5 .. pcr naluttlforc..i.
t .
DEU l:RONO\I\' ,b 801'k 01
D. l ...
I (.. .,/1. .
IS2
by tbe leiter "D" It consists of W
chaplers. Apart cbapters 27,31
and 34 it t<; wnllen In the first
son. According to traditional \;CW, It
wa.< wrillen by Moses. However,
modem scientists believe that the
Book was compiled and edited by a
number of different authors proh
ably in the 7th and 6th centuries
B.C. In the Bible there has been
preserved (be story of the High
Priest Hilkiab, who in the 18th year
of the reign of King Josiab (i.c. 621
B.C.), found in the temple in Jerusa.
lem the Book of the Law (2 ehron,
34:14). There is scientific evidence
tbat tbe Book. of tbe Law provided
thc basis for Deuteronomy, This
Book propagates henotheism with its
Idea of 8 singJe national God
l"ahweh for all Jews and i singlo
(entre n which the rituals 0:
Judaism should be perfo' mcd.
DEVADA'!T-\ in BUddhist mvtht
.;-;y the unu(.. ant Ooe of the first
)upils Ih,. ounG:''- of Buddhi m
}lIakya-mUlU, wh c. nde 00 tho..;
')1 the Tear:ter, Unl!k tht
pith itlon advoc:tte: bv
Bu .:h, ed Of' .' {;
anCl stern ID ,le :non
''5he ")rder The legend<- atv-cul Dc
pflee" :he e nt'''ldic n
;\nd biUc r mOt; s(r Jggle ':1" t w 11
)D betwten tbl .. arly Buddhist!
DEVIL. See laton.
OF wtl'II!:, Martin Lebt--
rttbt 184Q) ( . .",
, . lellilan Pratt's-
tant tbel)l, '&Ian and Biblkal scholar
d(,Tbonslratr:d that tbe Bonk 01 th ..
, ...aw pr( t 'Vlded the for Deulell 'no
:m
y
I, with rcfe rl nC(;
o wtuc.:h It IS stated in thc Bible that 't
sUPPO<;cd to have heen found
e temple In Jerusalem by the hIgh
-
-
Hilldah in the reign f I<I
Josiah (2 Chr(lD .. '\4: 14), and I
actual fact had heen WriUcll h L
priests of the temple on lbe I.
o,f .King Josiah. in the
B.C., ",hleh fact the IXlinI 01
dl'parture for datmg the other corn.
ponents of the and he
Book of Joshua, HIS most
work was "Beltrage 7Ur Einleitung in
das Aile Teslament"
for an Introduction to thc Old Testa'.
mcnt)_
Ibtodol'< \1&..,- '50),
repl.:sental y- .. If French It(,,")ll
c'lmrnunism ]0 his l-hll
thuught he shared the VIew. of'
dth-century French mater s
figured IS a c nVlnce:! opponent 1"1
religion. Ii s maIO work wa" tIll 50
Co<h .I .. la C")mmunau!" ("b
Commurury t dc ,. I X4}
OHAMMAPADA (rrom Ll( San:,:rn
word mt lOmg the r u )! the
Dhal r.;;,' ,one f tbe f . tlC'! of I
"'ultaJ ltaka, whirl:t 5 pLT' "
But ::tu I ClOt '1:lca1 re
k:lc wn c. the T npltaka , i' thc -n
iamcnlai pr nemles of ClI' iJud'J-
lu.'m al e 1{1 undr:d fleul mv()v
n ... 1t w:t;y Th", ).4tras 01 th
)hammapal J l: cnt a r nUD.I
c.lIon )1 earthly dc<" res and tics al C
'" reJc clion f th wr"r1t a'S the )l'Ih
Pdlh 0 v v,u. poetiC
fl rm o! thc Dhammapllda m'ld( e,
su' an emt ':unal re'S.ponse to it en
tht part of l!lC Buddhist faithfu'
UIIARMA I Jan ... kril) or Dtf:\I\fMA
(Pali), .1 term which a variety ,)1
mcaOings. Jaw, dUlv rule. vutue
rt.hgt1 'D, quality, thing. truth
and so on. (I) I n I r, liginm jlnd
r('Iigitluscum -philosophical leach
mg:. of India it emhraecs civic, cthl<
I 'lnd cultufc.1 norms. I saw YOr
C::c which allege.-1ly upon
men hy the gods md W llCh vanes
from one caslt (ur "'rima) to lnothcr
Obs.crvation of the Dharma wa.'i SCC"l
:II virtue violaLit n of the Ohar na
:: sin, ror Ihls rca' on the c n
cept of Dharma s often te_
ar '>elOg synonymou. WIth v rlue,
refer 0 Ihe tnc.:runs;
Buddha tfelf a. Oharm ( n
Buddhi! t thLOIogiec..1 "111 Ih
term "Dhar na" i:: 1;:: tl dcnotp.
ninute ndiv1Sl(' e SPJrl: Jal F ,.t dc"
rom which there tak ;. pc 'he
-.am of lC mi'IVldu3J _
(J( 'The af'" tv of Dha:
Icgedlv gwr r: tl l( I.!' c
llC M.rlrt (..ut Ii' nd'
t lC wurlt f j' 1"l"
m Vdrt-' , r f: lU.
that r lC ", up. re
unlllam., bl,., I 1\1. W 10,
of 1 .. prm' Oh'''''' I
"I r...,;:)c turb\:
m< J wh 1 I
C
,
u r 1< I
on l(
truth 1-'
na. em I tu
'V.rvaa
DHlkR I It
,'OC '),
Ie sufi
1 '
"
:.l; S. .
I
-
W 11 W t
) ,
It

I
, '
,
( 0<: T ndk IV ('t;. nit. v
:Jan! mn round In _
mUM the \\ uld \\C1. K It:
Sl v 5 up intn a t.: .. i u
fa y, 11 tht y \\ he '" ti'!
o
I,
v }nd Ihi: tht;y \\ ..lid ..:onslder
usu 0 WIll <..od'
D!>\l,[ l TIl AI. "A IT
MarxJ'i( l philO!, )(
orv wllll'h W.I' lIn1 'd tw Kart
AI/ln. lnd I-rcJj'rick Engc,lf. They
-
pm
I
Tf
I.
J
f
,
" f
-
,
I"
1"""- of
" .
,I X,
I C! I
S-prr-
um ('
-fi
r
xc
I, ,
1( (. \ P ,,"- n
T e
. ,
f m tl T
u tio inhc c:.n,
wm th
lID! (f "W (li kc V
'.. .. opmrnt I "
\ \\ c: ,nt;,,1 1u nti(atl"c
" .:
c Ilan.. 'JI ...1mr _lC proccs. ....
\\h1\h me : IC<'f
ra,IL:'unt Ir r1;1 q:!.ln
Q
.tl\ h1Tt':5 lind
til .. ... II I
tht:' Unltv n
Th n I of the c .
.. "or the w\.rld are
m1 .. 1" .. ' . rohkm
Ihl.,; of e .l,.':;. c,l
of tht rd,,(ion hill r:;l\\eCn
4n..: math;' mt'rg .. " as
...
olrt1twr twc ad
.".,. ... is "" I . 4 ..,. _
coI __
_,.-. ......... '0
. ... ,..,--.-
coI __ ... _
-___. ... -to
__ .... <1 ... _
___ Al ... _ ..... ...
......... ... .
-"'--_"'<1'"
........ <I ICJI:ioIy _ IciItori-
aIp....-.. ..,. Iklr:wl <I do
<I ...... pntIicoI eo.
4.elM: 7 5 uS
DLUE(-nC .
OK' e

tio:s>ILbc
156
"DIAl I '( "'l('S
-
"DIALECTICS OF NATIIRI:",
work b,,' Frederick. EII1?C/J, in whi(h is
found a diaicclicalmall'riaiisl s.um
mary of all (he i",!porlan,1
mcn!s of nalural sClcnces In the Sloe
Dod half of the lQlh century, and.
which shed light on key aspc(."(s. (If
diaiecricJ as a theory and method 01
cognition. The "Dialectics of Na-
lure" was nevcr completed hy its
author. The main pari of the "Dia-
lectics of Nalurc" was wrillen hy En-
gels in lR731882. Il was puhlished
for tbe first lime in (he lJSSR in
1925 in German and Russian. rhc
contents can be dividc'd mto Ihrcc
main sections: natural SC1CI'JCC !!.nu
philosophy; classification ..,( .\cicnccs
and their dialc:ctiCiI content "ti.
c sm of idealism an ... mcraphr.- in
th .. natura] While wllrklR!
on his valuml ng .... " sct him".:H
1'lC "\1 tht ,jialcc'I::l!
3WS operali;w withm ,lnci
on (hi "asl! lO ... 'TPnSlraL (hI.;
ror th ... de lib ""lIe applie
10/ )1 th ... (Ill II e c j m( thOd hv
SChOIUS and sc eotl!"" ilk Co..
mg t. c tic "!n the or anc.
delw on ThlS}:'I k
W.1l also \ic,hly signifk ani In c :mnl
lor wub Mdr. t ali( ISm. II C'.(am
'ne r.lanv I' 1.11 whose Ic"lI fie
serves t"I IJndt.:rlllnt rclig
lous-id, m dnd J. 'Y.
In patieub.r il l.l;
v
t
!'blurt: thaI 'ng_ s
clCpOUndc,j tor th ... (iI' time I'll .I'l('
ory fa the ongm oj matt, demon-
strah.ng fhat lahour playcd d crUl,. iii
role In the of the formal!. 'n
of In doing so ['nJ;cl!
a blow at con
of .Inc human 50ul ,md the
of hy (;od.
r('tt,ard1ng the c<;",cncc
011 almt:d again. <:I vito/iun We,-
undh "
up WlI hiS athci.!>l world
Of- "'IA.n RP

-
-
nlltlook.. Fngds h
lr.:mpls hy 50me to rCSIltl
Ihe Ide", of Ihe ncaln( of Ihe 10
I . . w, Id
lascu on CCrtaln h
Ihelies (for cx<tmple. the
cnnccrnmg a Ihermal cnd f-- h
Universe) Hnd he willi!y made 'an
mockery of (he Ihen popular inlah
lion with spintuali.wn, Despite the
fact that many concrcte Scienlific
data and in he
"Dialectics of Nature" arc now Jut.
dated, its general philosophical
lenl rc.fains to this day its full metho
dt logtc'il significance
DlALOGl:E RElWEFN MAR.
XISTS AND BELIEVERS, ".op ..
al on, "nee! ing.", discussions t twr,:'
Mat"XL: and believers un thl 1- r
important SOCH -nolitical JI
the modC'''o wo;ld (war :tnd "ICace
ClJ'll:llism me" lli m, DCX)I
maJbm and lh. developing C)I n-
ant 0 on). "ueh dial,:;!,; hi
"('orne 11ghly hpkal an S OIT
ng IOl'V widl prcau. \1 I'
'!"c-_nt lime l!J1<tn' r' 2' X
lic llppol lOCi, s t leV
out of I h :r Yo., ,ODS: ',date (h( ,
mfluene \. the e, Wli 'h 15
Iron.'1: II l be ( lr .
mumst &n(J wor .. ers partlc Vlew
.uch dialogue n ImlVll ani
01 cstal iit.hing c ,nl c wr.th
dnd involv:inp, thc"Tl ole
lo:rhl f('!" C jcmocra ....y .,n_ so
cmlism r l( M""rxi'; Vlew
of sUI'h Jial(U.JlJc, cJai"lOllted hv
intcrl:-tionaJ e ""mmunirt movement
ani" t lfmulatcd ID d('tC'JmenI5
bv th.. I,tcrnatlonal M.celtnf, )1
<-, 'mmunis\ 4lnd Partie- n
196" .md (he "I (t,m
mumst and Workers Pall if'S of Eu
10 197(1, is ID keepiog wilh (hI
vital hJndamcntal interests of aJJ
working J>C.. ple, of Ihelr
IHOLRC
-=--
-
-
. 0 T'le ide:. r:! suet!.
al.lliude t, being ,ut nl. prar:tlC e
dialogue cl:o:!.fully of dl in the )(13f
mt)!o,t sue .. s for ( mmumc s. co-
. t ,ounl rll;
. ,h bdiev:""s s not a
\1 operation :ctic, hut a F tnt r prin
supported n Ihell
clple 10 , mmunI' JI-

m programmes. 'II
ter h fforls unitm" I
reel elf C Ie an<::: x,.
working pcnp, ggI . n'-I 1m
believers, in the stru e ae:u , .
,.Iism and monor;:: Iy c:lpltaL
pena d h qUI tion z. ...... ,
they regar t f";. I I
operation with ggl e (Y. ,
. . ,h the .. stru e, \\1, 1
hnkeu W1 _I '
Ihe
struo:rO'le hewecn tw .... SOCI
eo d -
lem
s - socialis.m Jl \.- 1
- n
While e"X1.endlDg l( \.- .....
th believers. Marnsls nmp,:
;'g:.insl any Ideological compro::: . .:
IS
- svnthc"'"J' _ Xl5m
or altcmo ..... , ,
nd rc1igmn. sts k
)(
hal difierenu. ID we. d f
not .Jle -Jt th= 'lC'" I, It'
L (mm',
.::o-opcral n ... -NeeI'
and tx:IICV
DlASPO:tA I 1<
meamnp ". I! n
, WOI J
Vtnrj
u! d In denote th t> 'om
P I I' wl;uc'rl mum! 1 _
cmr.:. ll,.d ID l)1c btt: enturv B t
dunnr lC 0-0111 1 [;a"'! 'I,nll
uprl' tv Dil pOI jZTCw _
., 1; c
'wl'en th- 1 - st
Jit 0. C .. o! :J
lS .
'\1 dc,J. U ... bv ':\.
" n
r.. I r ... d
- , , Ie J. \' .Dlnl
M. h
II _ u c
I rm Ji pm I.'
n _' on tl'- re'
rJP
n N nd unfamlhal 11 rn;
1\1;:


tlooal anI.. cultur 11 mmor IICS,
n
"DlDAt'HE" (the Gre k word for
teaching') one (If he m.i{"nt
WMks of ('hr"i::'.an (cnl.,
lnd 'cntury I I"'y In anonymous
uthn. It, !lJlI title Wil! Ihc MTelcll.
mg I" th. Ty,dve It '00
Sl' or hrcc part' Chapters 6 ex
poumJ ,;:th.. life aod ,I.e
m Tal .nC.::!1 d< of fc:,
( ; ti:.n::.; '- h:'ptr.::' '10 provtdt. a
I, I.::' plion ''')1 thl.; tim Ir
(hn lit raturc) . rIal, and
pr ' r (h":lplcr 1 ) e .,tam n
hurt' on I"cgarding h" mitudc of
I nmmumll lOW rc l,: I.n
tincr nt pfCil( h aml
L, :'I r. Jt 1Ion 10 'low
prop, .... .
lL - cieri :1.1 (n h01J) at Q
; 9C'" "'ould ':Ie ... " 1t d ID
cmm .. -;Ii T,er U .0"t::yI,;W1t.
'lor II U Ire)O earth
"D 1":11 r. He is only
.. ) th )n Clod'
, '.c- lUI. he lu-
, eng
1_
L l, 1
f _n
I , t
-
!. I

d
DIET"I'.u(:N

lion in his work to questions C<:,Oa
ncctcd with a comprchcns.IVC
crilique of religion,
) ( convincingly its lncompatlbllity WIth
the world outlook. He re.
jeded religious and
de la nat ure
to
(ThoUghts on the
fcrprctation of Nature. 1754).
(The Nun. 17f{J) loci
.PnnClpcs phiJOSOphiquc sur la ilia.
here ct Ie mnuverncnl" (The Ph'l
ophical Basis for Mauer and OS-
tion, 1770). ..
OIETZGEN, J"""r (1828-
1
888)
German philosopher. 'Whose
were shaped under the inflUence of
Feuerbach and later Kori MaIX and
Frederick Engels. Independently he
arrived at dialectical materialism, In
his works such as "Das Wesco der
menschlichen Kopfarbeit" (The Es-
sence of Man's Mental Labours)
and "Die Religion der S07.ialde_
mokratie" (The Religion of Social
Democracy), Dietzgen criticizd
both religion aad philosopbical idea/.
ism. Diet7,gen saw the way to over
come religion to lie not only in d:
\'eloping the theOf)' of Icnuwledge on
the basis of experience, bur also In
eliminating the social conditions tha!
gave rire to religion.
good justification pomted out that It
suppresses Man's active stand as re-
gants the world him,
Lng into him slavehke submissive.
He subjected to detailed criti.
cism the teaching and practice of
Christianity, demonstrating the in.
consistency inherent in the doctrine
of the Trinity, the ridiculous nature
of faith in miracles, and the contra-
didions inherent in the Gospel
stories. Diderot is regarded as one
of the precursors of the m}1hological
school: pointing to the absence of
any kind of reliable evidence, he
called into question the historicaJ ex.
of Christ. He was one of the
ftrst tlUnkers to establish the conti-
Guity betweeo the myths of the
c1as.,ica] world and Christianity.
While criticizing the readionary ac-
tivities of the clergy, he PUI forward
the demand for citizens to be free m
matters of religion and he caJlcd (or
the abolition of Church control Over
schook Diderot's atheism of a
historieally limited kind, typical of
tbe age of tbe Enlightenment: he re.
garded religion as the produd of ig_
norance and fear of men,. misled by
lbe. cler$)', and maintained that edu.
cahon lS the basic means of OVer,
the influence of religion,. yet
he did not demand the uJHl1'ulion of
S_ andC!tweh. Oide",,. \VJitings
and actJvities provide an imPGrtant
in the developmenl of at-
bclSl ideas, His main WOrks include'
"I..ertre sur les aveuglcs A "usage d .
qui Voieru" (letter on the
OIGNllY OF THE INDIVIDUAL,
moral category, the individual's real.
ization of his. sodal :'iignilicance. III
eTassbased SOCiety the dignity of the
individual manifests itself in conWI'
dictory ways. 10 slave-owning. so
ciety. the individual was constraJl!ed
by religious prejudices, from which
only the progressive people o( that
time were able partially to set
selves (ree In the of f
the feudal concept of the dlgDlfy 0
the individUal took sh.apc (e<;Sta-
tiaJly coinciding with the idea of
honour). which was a
eIa!... .. character and which did not 10-
elude any right to the dignity of the
individual for the "mob" or the com-
mon man. Humanism was to develop
in the IlruggJe against feudal ide&
fOO" the Edif ... tion of the Sighted,
1749); "Pen,tcs sur rintcrptttation
mom"ll " liE i"Tl DO-AREC PA,(J:ll.:
- .
-
-
- wb h negated the dignity c!
logy, . 3.1" humanism demanded
the for and
due l?eine- In
tpe dag!'lt!, the dignity f the
capdilic,t SOClel ":Ids for ill 10-
individual also the class he
tents and cont:,,-
to, IS concept of the dig-
\/ dictmg the. Only w'te-, so-
nity the I and exploitation hav-
ciaJ I d and 'm,l social r, ..:a.
been it
tions have for ic dignity of
f!d I t"l be lC accepted
the m IVI ua an and woman anr
right or every ";r t safe"",,-' the
for society Its,. divi. dual c
dignity of every m
44O-at k ---! 1 'i02
D10NISI I H 'bl -, c
Rnlan pamt,.,. t"! woo I :_
-od wben the StaL of M
pcn d ino !) l!."':: itt,.... '00-
was en --0 r
solidale tbe power ?_ t _ ..
P . ce and tberefore IDSJsted c t1::
nn ._ r_I:c-
adherencc h. c nn .;. J
and frescoes t. xecutcd by D
cbaracteri7d by ielicatc, ng
and subtlc COIOU A certalD .... I..
m.::y in hi.- echwI ues l! '\
howevcr other .ntr ...
tlt:- .. of lis work are Its o-late, d __
. h' h -rna ent oraUVe { yle. w IC
blurs :he I"yehological exp:- r
nt, of h" su,",jccts. Only f w
we- Its h ve s ..u'\" .. d. The Icons .
pamted arc mat: IV to be found In
tbe" RC'SSlan Mus lC' m
and n the Trc:tv ov Cralk y .!I
Moscow.
DIONYStus THE o\REOP4.(; 1"I to
Ac..:ording t the ... m . f
Testament ('\c 7 14 , a
Iht: A.theman A- OJ agu:: (judICt_
e;;ancil , wb i VCQ In the 1st
A..D and was converte<l to (Mis'
"""I/)< '>y Iposde Pall/. After that he

-
bcC1mf' lhe Bi.;,hop of Athl.ll!l.,
In the second half of the 1)th century
igiouscum-philo'KlphU:aI wri t ings
allcgedly from his pen b gan to .p
pellr. the A-called ArCOpagttIC. wn t
ings (ten and tlU.ti5CS
permeated WIth the SpirIt
t011i-m). Ide Dlvmlty. a. ..
the 'denlity of Bemg lnd Non-Br:mg
Ihal trBnsccn
A
.- affirmation nd nr
etion alike, exerted a, !C.trong m:
Oucnce on the though
'f I le BV7.antine EmpuL and
t. n E'll ,lDduding the thankt 5
of the R I1QJ ranee
D10NYSll S THE I"lWlJO.ARE-
OPAc.nE my:t.c,J i"'er-lopan.
, d m ttcmpts ( 0::
.. ,. n w- usc:
_.- L,_ - 10
k. -iUribute IlQ WT' ,
["ic the ArCopagitL ..d
- fu: 6 Bishop of Alhens r: c.:.
A.D flte e
y r- '1'. 0 ha"C wr Lng
A'n_""; fi extant r!iD
." - pmcaJ writings u e
--.p= h "O V"DC
c: nllLled t e (_.
"', .. ' Th ... logy",
\'t.:u:=_ ' ' HE- ...... [!.,J.!
I-hn.trchy, . "I' "OD the
h ' d ten cplSt es.
I-L;..:r:u..: yank r Neoplatoni<.
t "') of a
0
an
d .. - be bas crt"':i '-_ ":1y
I f (ru lstian phi,u;)Vp I
!S, ' .\ m 0 __ ... I..y nc.:o!\tive theology,
la' ef I ' eo- ds
c .", h' h God transcen
.. 110n alike and c
ar: . -D".. Source wtr-
the lltJmate emanation of
defie . knowledge , .d by man In a
Co ':x light .... ,...;eWt; the trans-
stz.: ... , flligl.OUS tc. .... ultimate
mls.'lon -.1 life' I
Source urcby o( angels.
to lhl: ;.;c1f'stJal hie, . aI hierar"by
he 'cdesl3S
fl
C cd
tl t n.ne writings
on CbrntlaD
a sJ8TlifiC.lDt I theological aad
thcologv .lDd th
n
of (be Middle:
philosoplueal 0 .....
""
and the
providing a source of mysl1cal,dt';I<;,
the writing." of the r .<;l' udn Arc()
pagilc also led 10 a dcpt' rson,tli / 3'
lion of God thus <I pr e
requisite for the d,"-' vdnpmcnl of the
philosophy of panthf'ism.
DIONYSUS, in the mythology of
Ancient Greece. the god of vi lirul
lure and wine-making. The cult (I f
Dionysus was onen orgiaslj(,: hy nu.
lure: the feslivals in his honour were
accompanied by unhridlcd revelry.
DlPlYCH (from the Greek " dipt y-
thos" meaning "folded in two" ), ( I)
icon in the form of two panels,
usually hinged, hearing an artistic
representation either cmt'lllsscd or
engraved on metal, or painted 1m
wood. Diplychs arc found in hOlh
Orthodox and Roman Catholic "c
ligjous an. The two parIs of a dip-
tych can he linked (hut nol nccessar
hy a co'!lmon suhject or religious
Idea; (2) a 11.'i1 of names, rccmded ('n
a hinged lablel, of li .. ing and dc.
parted. Christians, for whom Ihe c,"ln.
was .asked 10 pray in Eu.
.scmccs. Originally the
In It Were of those who haJ
contnhuted the bread and Ihe wine
for the communion s.crvicc and 10
these Were later added names of de
<:hristians whom the com.
WIShed to commemorate. In.
liuslon of a nan1(' Wa' 'p I
'h' 'h ' ;J fly) egr
W Ie could be taken ",way if a; per
Wac, SUSpected 01 hl'rC'sv 'Ind tx
t uSI.lln ali tl f>ign 1)1 eXt;:om
murucallon.
DISSENTERS or NONC()N
FORMISTS. In E.ngland Ihis
I
wa.-\ used 10 denote member ... of ,".
JgiOu." as -. ...
'WkIahons which had s r
aWii\' from the E.'tahlishcd
In Ihe lIl iddk ' If Ih1. I"th ('cnt
, .. r '
C:"' 1n nll n(-on I" hl .....
1m
,
- - - ...
wilkh' lI ...cd, whi ch Imillicd n
h I '01
'TI lll '.' ,11 people hatJ "plil frolll -he
ma in ( hUI 'h hUf mr rd v Iha l thcl'
\'ICM . ... r 'g.lrds some ' pcdfi" I' u(.
.. 11(1 nlll ...:(lnfllrm prl 'p')g;lt l ,j
1,..- ,I hi ... h(' d ChurVl . brc'
"gam' t a h.ld.gmund of in<"r(' ,t si"
s(Tular'}',l1 il
l
n, and more intul"
l''' mpaigni n!! for the sl: paratlon ,,'
Slall,: and ( 'hun h and Ihe
li on of privileges enj oyed hy Ihr b ,
tahli shcd t ' hurch, Ihis ( (' TIn X n
alsn used 10 C() \ cr mcmhct :-. of the
so-call, 'tl Free ( 'h urch<.:s (su(' h Ihe
Rapli "ls, ( 'ongrcgalionalisls. ,lnd
Mcthodi sts).
f)I SSII)ENfS, 'ho:-...; who disar:rc.;
anu holtl differcnt VIC': Ws from th,1'iC
.1 ..: mandC" d hy the' "He (hurell . In
: 'I t t hc term was alreadv
wctJ 'n the Middle Age,". hut
i'a!l: _ul"rlv ,-,"ldclv hcginnmr 'rom
the 161h and 17th c,- I'ltunes. Wht'll
Ihr pmhlcm of dissidenl s :md i fl6r
\.I\'I C righh in England (rhe
tell). France (the Hugueno[J) :tnrJ
Poland (all non-Roman ('atholi\.1t.
i.e P, ,ji:-.h Ppd:cstanlS and OrlhodllX
in ,I sl,lle where Roman Cathfl/id.wn
W<lS the oflkial religiun), bcclm(' :1
c,lntTlWcrSI<II is,"u(" in Ihe course o)f
,",ourgf")is revolulions_ Latt'r 1 he
wllui used 10 dl'n, ,r.;: all who
',\nd out, Ide the dominan! or ":th'
( hUll h, or frcr Tilinkers, who hal\'
rClrdrd Illlf,l"U<. faith
T",lay Ihe word lJ,,'d ,n :.l more
penn,11 .... ('n'c II> ml':m qmply rhos.:
whl' hl,ld diffnl,;ltI idcas ir,"lm
.ffi(ially aeu pled
DIVJNA.TlON,. and \.'ari-
11US other types o( finding oul the
unknoWn or ptt'dieting Ihe future.
At early stages of social develop-
j
I

DC BROI Y' nov
'"
-
rml and be :1:men c-.!
menl -'
h l'IOoolhsay ng (r .Jr.termmc
throu
g
Is for he harvest and the n
prO:pCor ,h"'r In dass-ba.'i-Cd
c C,Il'iC . I
-''V there emerced protcs.sllma
sooe
.. n ,ueh IS Ihe fll:cromanters
diVU1C , n ttl
in Anl'il:nl ( eec, QU;.:'-ln, a , .
, 'n Anc cnl Rome ani
DU:es I .
rs chirnmanl:-: <lnd phv: I(JgIlom
med"" .at r Jrope he r:: t
I'!S III _I" 'h
famouS k nds .. u.' nalum :
followmy' o. j1('tlon n
mnvcmc",s (If 1;,1 h rJly jle (c;
I
La' j on thl p ..:tll :I 01
(roo
N
,", ,
-.:ririe al 3mmalj l'nlrallS hilru-
sa h"h",',
icy) b n t e Ig I inu Cit 0
p,'" h ",
hll Js (au p,('e , t.:d n 1 ...
th palm llromar y . -J on
;Jndl nt '!lymr' 1 hapo;odlc b
on v iI coni' With
.. 1mts of .. !I.(i reT"'" (1lecr'""1'
I), '>_ -tJ .. '" re f r.-= J
hv 'Tlt. ..:d W 1-'1(. 0:' f d:
he 3r- o..ard: c::: grounds -:j
nuch d- Id, .
D1VINE RfV L'T, iI rclilr'
L L
, e, lee. eo.. .;1r
ho were pwn I, 0-. h ... "
. !'. n 11 fl r-' nf . ,
IO(lOn. \dhercnts ) .... , , ]
thai l' O/U "e"l ....
revc L11\': Il r.:" h., ( , J!
( hri: ''In' n r pn
01 d Ib "'.' J
, '" 1
' ..
Mo, I
n
md
I riplfa
n r' \1
, ddt:: " "l r (; f
,
n
,
"n II
'c h
Ix k
,
, rem( Jllur I
,
1m
, JOllb-
In ,
"
" r
,
nd
,
r
. 1
aut .. rs., v
nll ,
"nc -
( p
,
IllI.! r
Mal yr,
,
..
In -,nl t rI, ,
n .' , 0 ' )1 ,:ne ,lIen-
\t h .1J ", 1. "1. I '.1-<- 1 In
,tWit LI n.: the :hcnI11('1-
-
dn .. of the "Id PrOirslant in
Ihl,; Pth century) hCld Ih. t n the
Bihk not ,mly had the content been
by (iod. but f.Jl;h w!,."d,
c,al'h letter Ot er the 11
If)rix'l, [pirh. RlUs., JC"Jm1,; St
Refit Ille (jrn' and t. Jon'! OJ'}"
Sf om mtcrprc' d c flam
"es. m thl Bihlc a' II A
t"urd pOInt of V1 w", Ih t put fur
Wal I hll le Modern. Ih 11 .Ian.,
wh ough I limit Ihc Imrwu-an(
of the Book (:1 'lc1ibll0 ,ho
r: f L: .. 1., :c JI In mUff' tb,n
o ,;: nt. k
Il NNI,
An
,,' 0( P TI; II
r.: ok '! Ide it
," ") 1:- rl JIld m T 'aln_
uld \! e hur. n or
LIlnuen 'C -:n '1 bv n
powv
y- 8m. "4ikolai ( J6.
1 till tv JI ::.l0-
r phi
,
,
,
-h


, ,
eTiIt
lh 10m. n ,n ll1
01 " 0101 (71 m I'r' fb .
- or th CfOa! <;0\-.
T._ t onhmp" ry,
J I J. 11 .' "'ltc ' mil:.
d! PI n he (; '.ore.:!
l \. In .:, r _\..... ,f "c
k r
I Jj ..... on ).:>-
I ogt, ...
r rclvuh W 1 d1I a<! .. , t"l
T ... 11: Ie'" Whli ...
" I. JI f .:- !aol' l h, <lb
urdi t\- of th r: ., . h:il . II 1<
I . " :lake un>" oul of
n.'!: a .. :tj,l .. lnl,(, th:11 oul
ldl U :C" no C-ll1 l'lJ-t. tbat
"110 S :' :rrtmt roml or
n: .' .. I I t i' 11 ,Ind IhJI in NalUn:
J
'\\hnc ('nt' and the
e .If" ,1'([ ,
m ,'l:tth'r. ,1nl.,. ,II ul cren
-<- II!!. "f Dohro
Ihu ... refule ... the eJOslen b,!f
(jl1l1 the Immortal soul. In 15
a it";". of r60fU monIlity, Do-
broIyubov defead. risl!1. to
iMcpc ..... , free actiOIL Religion
I ... DobtolJ4b<N is bistori<:al ptu:.
_ tile cause of wbich 15 10
be ro-t ill die soci,- rebwoos. To
.--tile iallueoa: of religion
............... in Do-
.. ""....... mw, ODCI freedom 0{
__ -oed to be assured.
IX>SI'OYEVSkY
called False DeeIYtClis of Ilidcw) on
Ihe bac;is of which the Emperor Con-
stantine in the 4th century i5 alJcgcd
10 have granled Pop< Sylvester , and
power ow:r ROUk!,
Italy and the Western provinces of
the Empire and to have acknow-
ledged the superiority of the Pope
over other rulers. The Donation W1tS
evidently compiled by theologians
from Rheims and Aachen on in-
structions from Pope Nicholas I and
for the whole of the Middle Ages it
was exploited by the Papocy to con-
solidate its theocratic claims. Doubts
regarding Ibe autbenticity of the D0-
nation (and also other of the Fake
Decretals) were voiced by N_
o/Cwa. In 1440, Lomrzo ValIG d,,,, ..
onstrated irrefutably that the Dora.
tion of Constantine was a fake dOUr
meDt, but the ROIfUIII 0IfI0Ic
Chwrh defended the .",kl.
L
it) ..
tbis labricated decotal risbt ap'"
the 17th century.
Ie
DOL KIIOO< )R,."i_
__________
of Man and hi.story
d Icd an idealist POSlll(lO. society
b
P
d on moral principles and
IS asc f
morality in its turn, stems rom
faith. DostoyevskY held that, the
for religious and moral Id
7
as
was the people, and scparallon
from the people he as the
main mis(orlUne affilctmg the edu-
cated stratum of society, the cause
of its lack of faith and its philoso-
phicaJ vacillations. of
various reactionary IdeolOgies ex-
ploit the weakness inherent in Dos-
toycvsky's view of the world and at-
tempt to present the writer as their
ally: to this end they play down the
exposure of capitalist social prac-
tices to be found in his novels and
stories, his faith in Man and a
brighter future. Allhough Dostoyev-
sky siressed his adherence to Rus-
sian Orthodox heliefs, he was a
long way from accepting the official
tenets of the Church of his day that
reflected the interests of the ruling
c1as..'\Cs.
()()[;KHORORS (F;ght." ror the
Spirit). one of the old
sects, that comes under the heading
Spin'luDI Clm'stiorH. The
Doukhohors appeared in the Yoro-
nC7.h Province in the mid-18th cen-
tury. Their teaching aml 'uoted Ii: .'l.
rellgaou!) form of opposition on I he
part of the mainly pea",.
ants oWned bv the slate 10 the
r'-ariq autocracy and the' Rll.tsian
Orthodux Churrh_ The 'i
relelted the I1lQ1JQ.HicisrtJ.
("\.fan is the" (t;mpi.:- of
(,od), ,acramrnu, Vent;ralilln of
the ieun .. f'Man i< the living
ICon ,. Ft.)T the "inner
I' v-..:lation"l i!l more import ant ! n;ln
:'hc Bible_ Their "HOlY BOOk" it, Ihl'
Book of Life", a collcctil '0 of
-
psalms <:ompilcd hy the Doukh()..
bOTs themselves and passed dO\\l1
orOllly from gc.:nerali(ln to gene
ati')fl. For !hc Doukhohors
was an ordmary mortal possessin
Divine Reason to the highest dig
grce. God they interpreted as
"world love", "supreme wiSdom"
"elernal Good". According to thci;
teachings, God "is present in Ihc
family of thc righteous and is em.
bodied in his chosen ones" - in the
"living god5 and mothers of gods",
who lead the sect. The leaders of
the Doukhnhors enjoyed limitless
spiritual and secular power over
their follower5 and handed this
down to thcir dC5cendants. The rc-
ligiuus concept5 of the Doukhohots
renectcd the Utopian hopes of Iht
peasants for the estahlishmcnt of '1
just social order, which they triea
to put into practice hy making rh6
property communal and basing
their day-to-day lives on the prinCi-
ples of collectivity. (n the 19th C .. 1-
turv l.he process of class differenll;'
r .on wllhin the sect became more
marked, the exploitation of the
poorer p.:asanr nourished,.n',
individualist and entre
prencurial attitudes began tn
dominatr.. All thi5 led up to a spht
inll! thr. "Big" and "SmiJll' group
Ings, The T5arisl government and
the Russian Otlhodcx Cburch
:', ,:tec! the Douk:10,",orS It, ,roel
pr-r' ccutil,n In : 1e first half of thf.
191h century they werc fl'rcihly re-
settled fl' >m Ihe c- TIt. ai : ,rovinc. s
or RUSSia, lirM 1.0 th (nmc',;, on
the banks o! lhr Mol, River
Bnd latH 14. TranSraUCl! 1:1. Fearin!:.
.1 lalRt numhcr of 'he
t)4,ukhnbors ,.mlgrated tl'
(anJd.J. lfl HN8. 8)' i'Jl; lh:.:rc were
hctwr.en 1
7
.IX){) .:tnd .'O,(X)O in Ru'
!-la. Arler tbe Ocll ,ber ... t
1:'11 REl.l(jION
,.,
Rcvulution of 1911 and 5()Clalisl re-
f s in the country, the Doukho-
communitie!t wenl into decline.
time there are
oups of Doukhobors to be found
fn Georgia. the Regmn ?f
Russia and In
the course of their hlSlorlcal
urion they have developed .mto
ewhat unusual commuDltles
som f Iklo
with their own customs, 0 re
and traditions.
DREWS, Arthur (U!65-1935), Ger-
man historian md.
opher; leading m the his-
tory of early ChnstI3R1tv_ An adhc
ent of the mythological school,
DreW.<; demonstrated that the Gos-
pel figures (Christ, Mary, Peter ane
olhers) were not historical and II
e')unter the ecclesiastical point of
View to the effect that the Gospclr
bad been written in (he 1st centurv
he put forward reliable evidl. 'lee
their h_ ving been wntten :Il It:: ]ru
century. Drews tbe
por"ancc 01 Gno:;' (ism in connec-
tion with thl.; .. ncrgence of (hr s-
tianity. Althour.h Drews '" J
servd ''''I the ( mr_1
intcnrr:: liC'"n of sacred hi:-! ry-
ilnd were vidently iltackcc! by lC
olr-glans, Drews it the same
to use Lenm's wor:ts, n.me -ut 10
favour of rcJigil n, libel! reno-
vated, purilied am._ more subtle
religion' Work Vol. n,
p.2111.
DRUIDS (a '- til wor J neanmg
"oak tree" o. an Old .. h wod
nl nlOg 'Wl7.ard' J, .... sooth
Silvers.. healers .:tmong f,1.; Ancient
Cclts (bauls.. Bnlons), who .11 the
en!! of he ts.: millennium 8.( c. ....>n
Shtulcd an tribal corporation
of priests with a leader, who held his
position for life. The Druid$ exerted
a considerable innuencc on social
life: they carried out legal functions..
advised political leaders and passcc!
down traditions and legends. After
5C17ing the Celtic regions in the L:.
century the Romans banned
the Druid .. ' organu.ation, because
they had been fanning resistance .0
the ..:onquerors. Despite this the
Drui<h. were active for several more
centunes.
DRl ZE..'i adhcrent.. ..,r the \1O".Jem
"Shi'itc sed, onl; .J the of
Ismailism (sc.; Ismai/is). ThIs sec'"
emerged at the beginmng of thr. 11tb
c... .tury. The mULeS believe tn Jne
G, :l, v.: 10 ....n many oc has
peare.." .n "lr f, rm f 2: nan. The
T)rl!2 aLinowlc cte .. I sf 'n
c un' n of (.1 the (" ooh F alimid
(-!!ph, I-_..Jum. w_o JJI_d from
996 h,'o; lDd tbey expect hLS ::.:c
ond cl)ming believe that 'Ie
SOUlS f ,t ... ncmbers of their sect
",it! I;. n LO dhl boclll"".S "ftc'" th:r
de..::.:ll. Drules J"e inll>
tt: a' ...:..tu IR1ti.:J.h., .. t qqal"
,_Ic\le men or sage , ill':. thc' "'un
.niliatc_' mam mass : full
"'-crs J .. hil'" {tg'l:or nt\ fhe
[ t"J7 1\11; maml'J n the .chanon
md f\v
Dl 4.LISM IN RELIGION. the oon
ling by rdigion of the world 01
l' supernatural, (lther worldly and
with what .0;. earthly,
wth Jt e .. :'" and phenomena thal
... n oblc'-.:lVcly be Dual-
:":0 of kind is
0' ml 'nothnslic religIOns, m
God I!- presented ,IS Ihe to
dll that IS ,.,f thiS earth_ (melu m,
Man), a .. the .::upreme IRcorpore'd
essence, which creales
from nothing and guverns II. (.od IS
'66 DUBOIS
eternal. while earthly objects are fi-
nile and transient; God is the al-
mighty creator, while the world is
the rcsulr of his creative activih-'
God is the concentration of
and l'inue, while Man is a weak and
sinful creature. This contrast pro-
vides the foundation for so-called
negative theology, which asserts
that God cannot be known and that
qualities can only be negative
(,.e. they must be a negation in him
of all characteristics thaI are associ-
aled wilh Ihis Earlh and mankind).
':'et dualism In rchglOD is not intrin-
Sically for then it would
This is why mono-
thelSllc religlOm: have a mediator
God and Man. In Chri.,-
Ihis lly, provide')
Dualism alw manl-
f('sts Itself the existence in .. eli.
pon., of antipodes to God _ SUJlff.
natural tbat embody the
of F-':'II. The dUalism 1'( the
g lIed '7:! evil was propa-
L.. a P.trt!C'Ularty consistent
.IV _ur Zomartnonism and Mani
In God l<; also
stantly hemS! . h
thaI heMet 01 evil, lhe lk.iI. WlI
DUIIOIS ....
F,eocb (1250 B21),
the cam . r U partJapated in
against C'::::" the . monarchy
palUphkls a :oj In his
VIII and nf.! Pope Bonifaet
one of lbe I?uht lis was
F.urOpe to ach-oea7
1l
h: In WeSlern
of Churcb laMs a:;" I confisc.ation
_"chy. property by the
Loooio (1843-
1
022)
calc l.1$lical h I
obbor II "'os lhe author
- du cuke cIutt. ks
Or ... ", 0( "n" <The
Worship, 1889),
"Hist.oire anCiennc de' ....
(Anc,onl Hislo", of Ih I Egu",
19()726), in which h Cd c.1turch,
1 eaoPld
cnhca approac-h to the b C
. d H . pro Ie"" b
raise. e was emment th C
of C"'hrist ian archaeology. tn e field
DOH RING, EUg<Q Karl "
1921) c' . (18"
I Jcrman philOSOpher .
economist. In the unOs he II an
k
d
I
h I I . a at cd
e rna tntcrprctation of his-
lory. Duh:lng s philosophy was an
mIXture of mechanistic mao
tenalls
m
. and positil'i.f:m. on the one
hand, WIth clements 01 /Xlflthrum
t!eism. on the othl r. Charac-
of work is a sub-
JC<;lI:,st and voluntarist approach 10
DUhring demanded tb;, t
rcllglOn should be removed from ft:
socialist Society bv a decrec,
which would r ..:Occt hiS Rp
tn. phenomcD<.J I,f !;,(k:t.:11
hfe, In hlS work ("ntitled .. Anu-
Dilhnnr' - Engels ror.traslcc:l
dogmatiL athebm with
SCICDhfk dial r:tical-materialiS:
derstanding of religion amj the
means to (lvcrC('mc if
DUNHAM, BaIiO... (r- 19(5),
American materiali..,t philosopher.
He ph.ilo5(lphy as the theory
ft Ir the hhcrahon of mankind. Dun-
ham interprets the history of politi-
as a f>trugglc of
hcrest.c.s' against ortbcx1ox religioUS
!"It political dOClines. Af the same
tJmc. hov.'C'ver, Dunham idealizes
Chrilt, a..\c;uming Ihat the so-
Cally. part of ('hristian
teachmg wa.c; introduced into it by
the Paul.
DUPUIS. Chari .. '-'_0(010 (1742
ffkJ9), .French scholar and materia-
pb.i&osopbcr. He: crilici7..ed reli
f!IOD and the Churcb, rejected the:
-U.lIADlI)ISM
'" -
. 1 of VIew of the DeL 'its to the
thai I wzs es."'\ential to retaiD
Clle. I h
limon for thc pe p e, c re
rCet". h'
garded thiS .5 an cnc:roae men on
the lattcrs lie. s. ughl
to e:tpose the myth. r.egardmg the
divine f ac..ivocat,
ng the idea that liS source should
he !>ought in the impact nf th.e nalu
ral phenomena upon .Man.5o enn
sciou!>ne!>s. Together With C(msfan-
tin Volney he devi!>cd the o;w:al the
0'" to explain the ongms of
religion. He sought tl redm.... th.c
whole mythology 0
1
aoc. reh
glons to of
thl movemrnt of c
Ihe changes t .... be obSl vcd 0 the
stars. In hiS opinion. p 'pI were
dellymg Son un?'''. thc _ Wlame .o!
Christ. H,. xpl"'ml VIII(US r Ir.-
I U. (:onccpts n 0
1
thc "
tlli, naturc 0: th: -rocC'SS f r znl
In tadr:d t, light Jron the 0-
C'D/ root of relt:; on.
Dl RKIIEIM. [mile Qt I
Fren_:1 1 phllt so her .,d
hr.1 I, Durkhc m j
r,.lI:'] n (.. ndeed law mr r .. lilY
ern tions }Od hahit 10 Ix- cllllec
c nl: whll. tl mrn" ocml cn
Vlronm( " u n the n IIr. Ll.
signee: to II[;ion '1.1 Iml rtdnt I 1e
in I',.e lik f. etv A cor linr II
DUI k" m, rcliglt n would t ft r
as ong a' hum_nkind for n
rcli:J"loo' elv del lies II r "IN th
th ,OUl 01 n'" r 1f'"IOn nlv
changes Its fOi rn de. U."lng Jpon
th- tgc f de. 10. ml:11 f JnV
gJ\ 1 tv While pnnt ng nUl
thl.; socla:1y deter nm" n tu o'
t..f n.. ..."!1 CIC C ne Ourkhclm
cvertheh r lchcs. Idl.ll1 I con-
lOS. H maIO wrks \1 'C Ii!
divJ ion :lu travlil socl;I' (( '0 ,11C
l>iV1S'Jn 01 ')1 c...tl l.abour 18
t
H)

\Od l .. ft rmes t1eme ... dc la

viI.; "cligil:w (The E cmcnlary
Forms of Relgi(.us life 1912).
DUlY, an thu -'1 clleEI TV whlc:l
gives ,;pres on 0 man'_ obli
gation 0 ., C Cly, his d- 'SS. his oartv
'"If f _ al grouP. whit'" he carri!.;, oul
m responsc to Ihe (,: "-I.
conscience Duty jl e. lot
pus;: Clny fuhordinatioo, but
the free sell-determination f Ih" In
dividual Rcligi( ":1 11JIs Outward (kd
dnu 'lis c mmanl 'mcn13 as m 3
lahl::l fl - l utv an- '" k
nakl a :nor f c.a' .0 he
voluntarv ' m' anllv jjstmplJl he
.. ween de:, 0 God, .1 uty men
july tl 1 f, whlC'l ofl('"'
=:>me ntl c nni With ch '); r
De:y c.... :".... (} 1( an
t chmr ;::p<Y.: r th
t npt tio . a 101 J! t:ll JI Ih31
I( rl men v .... rom th poml f
\... of \.tar,. t the I m. -ju:v, I' a
ell I.; - ''l0 gac! ,,::pcru ,c
:t r n DC I ,al' _
t: It fI_ 1 t .... ( ,,.. Ie mcnl of
thl.; .JC _tv IT' ,IC1oa 1r. r IOd Ih_
SOCia: (n. '- .. he) :\,0'\ n
wh :1 he I' nvo: d. [ul
v
:l the
om haT' ,.an nc :-11 n.,
ld life II ,'r. on 11 11 will n'
onger J Ie lr 11 once Ihl,.
... la]rlC' 1 lalor. I
.. , h_ve he 1 clirrm, t _ 3nt. I
"-' II soclclv las 1 Ullt m
\\- ":uch w II n t m nd .. : f ...1:.
1 I I. r 1, scr Cl,. o. dut\l 01 lUmam
nl "n' the .anc 11m he ,1
'"lC ,n ')\\ 'rds the f r (:.,.tIOO ,,1
1"1 mdiVldu ...
'
llZH4..DIDlSl\l, b-.Jurge IS "!1allf"'na-
.t movement, whi(:h grew up
the Tartar hourgcdSlC 10
(10 the 1R8fk) anJ lhen
'-..tme wlde!>pl (:ld In <.. entral 1:.1 10
It"
D/ .lIAIH(}IS\f ___ _
the JRQ(k. Tbe original adherents of
Dlhadidism called for reform of
education via the CUTopcani7alion
of Moslem education, for the remo-
val ('If a number of feudal practicl'S,
which were holding back the ad-
vance of capitalism, and for (be
---.-
adap,latinn of C; lpilali .. ,
that II would ml,.' Cl the n ' . 1 lely '\0
_, ' " CCus o( d
A leT the OClnhcr ,e.
clail sl Rcvolutlnn of 1()17' R S"
m ' r h' In ll 'Sla
0 I IS mOvcmc t -
thc organizers of Wett
. S . op-
posmg Ovtct power. .
E
EA. Sec E"ki.
EARLY CHRIS nAN COM
MUNITIES, as.. .. Ciciali('ns of folio-
weTS of the Cllri.\-tioll Ch",..,) n it
initial phase. In the Re 'dation
}olm the D'I';II(' (1st \; " JTV A.D.I.
one of the "arlicst pieces of Umr
lian writing. car v t' hri' lian 'om
munitic!; in the town (,I \.1n- r
arc menl iont'1, :tnt n ll; F J:
St. POIiI 011e'- L mmUnili( I 1
('I cc md thz R man I 11:- r
Thc<;c c mmumtll rc c
ecc (it lj1v ... nor... ,
lnll nl (. -:':trcat tii n ::
lnl pI I re_ch rm n II
hem. Inf mal 10 ?,a: Irg J{ "t
lwnershlp f pro. Iv n Ih ... ('" r v
( lfi ,(Ian commun he I' r if1
reli: hit Ace rdi 1 l ("I P J 1
everyone had \.. nlr'pule 10 "
community mUL 1 1. liS .. ', l'
abl..: J him Ii 'ont ,but D{ , ... : l);'
wcrl. Sl"lCnt , n rnmtrun n II "]
-
and on pr" 109 fl '
Itln( lOt pi }I he fl:Jl fll t l
\Ians or the 011. p.lrt W '''l dl l\\ I
from .'Ie poc Ifrtla 0: hOI' Ih'
lThan am,. r JI al popul' lu n r 11
were S.ave ... (J, II ually per" ncnl
ciders r pre 1\ u su' \ n.
)1 I)nllOp.\ hcg '0 h lrrx 'r on Ih'
!"; Cllr, ,,"'In w_:: ter II a, Jme
..: dershlp f these ..;ommumlles.
EARl.Y { IIKISTIAN sf ( "N !;ccls
lat dUTlng I he pl.llod ""hen
h 1I Slian "" ;IS " $1 I.,!..,ng
ape 'n ' sl and 2nd c.:nll.lflfS.
(Jrmli .
. atlllv was rll'ver J. lnui
vi hie rcligltm. In one 'Ihe VCry
(h: sli; n worh, 'lc R.. \'('"'olil '1
of I. Jof ... IIII' [.1\111(" mcnlion al
, made \' regroup !
(hr I!' ne;: 'V,C Ihe who
hoi le 'I, m.. f B"bam "nd
worshlr. r L,c!x.' In he Fu
[ , of Poul II (I, n
refl 1C r.;; ... to lC Ji".
1(' r th!.: (hu' an' Inlo diflerc I'll
g-r' ups ('(\Ij thiS I ( v Ihll ,"v ry
... r. .. of)' .. ,I m n-'
1 or . 1 r: I (. eph ilnd I
o( .tl ... ( ....
e " )1 an l:
I , l (hrl, ... 1.
...... ..1l I f. '('n .....
I.r ,h I .. (',r,' rlflf, 1.1,;
to,.. r.,," .. J nol ,.:omplc "y
I .... - t,\ ,l .. Nho"ler
. ;j :t r' d ,I "1 ..
r 11 " ... rrec ( t h ;n sci\\.. . 'l e
,. " .. IBq;: : JI WS ,11 . '
If I lev c ched '" mpl te
rq :lIon of " rid, nokl j or
\\ard an 'mmln! nt ('::-n': om-
ju[' 0" t,; W 11"1 ,,':'ll. r lid
'e:: ('If"! f 'i) t1! htN\W mi n, n
"10m the DI\1n l ad c me
UI ... -n ""hen ':u bemg
Fr .. 2mi ... ts 0, ICWI" h
l,. h tH' SUl"V, d. In the
ur!';:..' Ihis [:roup .1 m(lVc,
ncnl 'aml II' the rill"; \\hl"h later
10 he Ih( dumln;.nlor llrlhchl'lX
onl B ... the lnd ccntun
W Ie; wtdc\prcad ,tOJ many
QUite scp.ual e .foups of
(';m ' {(lCS In Ihe
h:df 01 the (.r,;nlurv the Montan
isl seCI had appeared (sec Montan
;-m}. lis founder was Montanus, a
forne' pn"c.rt of '.be Phrygian god
O'hele fhc adherents of this
sec. concerned wilh
propheCies. expected tbat the Sec
ond Coming at hand, advo
cated asceticism and did not rccog-
ni7.-C the power of the bishops.
Fierce and unremiUing controversy
raged between all these sects. In
the 3rd and 4th centuries the num.
her of these sects grew still further.
In the 4th century in North Africa
the sect of the Donatists appeared,
which would not tolerate any devia-
tion from the true faith in the wake
of persecution. The left wing of the
Donati.q,,' sect. - t he Agonistics ,
t(lok part in uprisings against
Rome In tbe 4th century Arianism
""",,",e widespread.
f oorresponds to Passover
m .'he most important
Chmtlan fV'tval, which wa: n-
'htnted to commcmorate the "mira
culous of Jesus Christ
after hu. CrucifIXion. which is re-
IQ the Gospels. Yet, as has
I!.tnce been established, tbe roots of
Ea. .. ter c;an be traced back to a far
more past. Originally this
was a fe. .... wal for animal-breeding
and tribes of the Jews of
old: It represented an attem
to the spirit!> so as to :.
their and support in tbe
period durtng the spring lamb
later that of the "tart of tb tng
'p,n. H e
. - tnct: the custom: stiU r .
tamed by Je .... of bait, e

of ba>;_. ,,__ hans
cakes. paintin
cameetc As the cult of Yahweh
establisbed
to be ltd thiS .festival came
cd lQ JIj<'alsm with rhe
-
[xodus (:rom r.g I .
t lC CXpel:"l dlul'n of a Me.f.fi;:: I
.fig thcmselvc!> On the (' s
swr ies of Jcsus' cruci riltion and'O::OcI
t
d h res_
urrec IOn urmg t e days whe'l Ihe
t w rc n:k:hrating
( "ns ongtnally celebrated
t hclr Easter at the same time
Judaic Passover It was nOI until tk
year .12.1 thai the First OecumelliraJ
Council of the Christian Church
held in Nicaca denced that Easier
should he cclchraled on the
Sunday aftcr the full moon follow.
ing the spring equino;t, and without
fail separately from the Judaic festi .
val : this means that Easler hIS
beeome a movable feast". In order
to calculate the dar f the cclebra.
tiens special pc."chal tableJ are
compiled. The Chrl:ij'an Churcb
c 'ebr1.tcs Easier w' th greaf solen-
niry, using it to ,-ropagale the ideas
'f umvc- al remission of Sffi.\
IIlniversal (hr;st an hotherbl '1, ,.!I
cf which are dCSlgI1cd to reconcile
C hri! tians With the ..-ociaJ nequality
intrinSIC ,., antagonistic s,x;ieties
fraught WIth class ('.ooflict.
FBIONITFS. onc of the earliest
Christian Tbe comcs
from the Hebrew word "ebum'
meaning "poor" . Tbe .E niflnitcs livcd
in Pale-Slim:. According to legend.
dunng the Jewish War (iii> 73), they
rc!>etUcd of the Jordan. The
observed Judaic rites and
mOSI of them considt:rcd lesus 10 bt:
the human son of Joseph and Mary.
upon Whom the Holy Spirit had later
dC'>CCnded. They also taugbt (hal 1D
the world a struggle is waged
good and evil forces. which
WIll cnd Ytith the eslablishment of
the Kingdom of Good. In the Near
East there WCre &till isolated groups
of Ehlonit::S to be ount up unlil e
Middle Ages.
EtCLESIASUt;; m .. th_ (,reck
Hle'l' :'1.lcs neamng mrmoc \ f
church, or 1<" emhly f citi7cn<" ),
of the laiC'" work In the Old
0r:nc,oment: 1-,ditJon lIIr huted ts
. r I h
authorship t.o King oomon: ow
ever scicnttli( rc.:;:: If'" mlo ie
Bihl; ha:'1. that II was WIll
tcn in the 3rd eentury unt er 1e
influence of Greek philosophy. Th ..
author of Ecclesiastes chose the
form of a monologue, v.:'1icb enabl i
him, through the w 0 ' his hero.
to rev aJ inner thought.
Tltrough the monologu of '":It I "_
whlCl:i expcsc; bls klDt ne ..
sympatly 01 the oPi'rc tt:; ...
rellder IS mat e lW:t! oj the It:.... r
cunning Fc:: .. tes
bo)k ';thout I real sul-cct. It c :-
Ot plL Jl o 'u soc "y
wtuc 1 1e lUI l("r lived: I' .. 11 I
not a .::hl :lleler or rlY Wfl
he is r"thcr a 1IDk [eel
,
a ..vork of manv lay rs, ill whlcJ. rt;
blcnde" ogeth: .1ughtc o.
tion and smile; 0 ,rmatiC'lI.
quef.: md disar pomtment, sut"' e
observation and wil e g Ilerali al on.
Defying tbe chiml ra .. of ludohm th
author of E t,; pi
voice 0 Dc:,:]1 ve view cf th ... th
ory t'll D( WI r :U:
he'vcnly Judge nent k nc" r.: t
be. Jeve in the Kingdom 01 GGrl. aft ..
tb.
"E( lLESIASTICI\L IJISTOR'"
("Historia EcdC'slastica.-9), it WOl k
by the Christ ian writer and b' hop
of (Palesrine), Eu ,blU" It
... "ftcn ho<'ks and ,:over Ihl
p from the IUSI appcJ.fanl'e "f
tll (he 'If":).r 124. In dddi
hon to rral events tbe "History" also
,
inl !ur' n.:m'l r.. \!.J t 1 and
kgcnos.l u\Cbl1; dhcrd II th ur
thodox hr nch f "Ic t n
('lUi 1 hut in hi!> y' l: l d
"aru'y of (lj. II n SOUl ::t
-luAtng ypbJ on_
Ell LESIASTIl AL lIoW th
wh II -lOge of rcJ=,,\o' n..l lq,r11
nor TI"S whu h rc=-,ul I f'h.l ,
ana H.tiVl:Yo' 1C r 1.lh mor
th" St tt" U:' - .. rc;. n he ( hurch
ir. -nal ffau tt! ! L pro
petion fll Jr II os 01
found" eel w Un;.
_ ') I r j all JI
hm < Iy mcluding . 1:"IOU:'1.
c, ... n b rh
..t rp. . ...
... d ..... ,.. rul
o .J' ( ! :J

r
10
pow..r I
1
I I
"c "l!t :l
'rs. fnm
r. t the
>
plDU
c
of (hurch
c.
n wh.d: 1 t: dlo b
w (f ('I .t . L: art.:
lU pc J. n (hI;
"I pr t ' 0 U VI" laws. Th
e :11 I.: .. r .ng .c l hurch s
_.: ... r. !m: po! j pi (l und pol.
til Is ,.,." il m the
'\ av.: p. _Ul Ie by thc
t 1r"l":l ... d by .1., .. Stal c m:: .. I m
h r c ":l 1 the .. sho_' , not
mul,g' t .\ (bal lit Ich upon
rj 'f the C.u!" 1. E -clcsla<:ll
at n, -rng l'od' WIll I Ike
c I T'L ' means
p! 01 ltv ,vcr >tl. ! !WS. luI""
th .. t Ih_v.11 bmding fm the
while the' (. hurch can cht: :6C not [0
c ,mr1y Ytllh ruk<: of set:ular Idw. (n
realitv the:: rulc< which haJ'IC
withm .1IlV religious organu..atJon lIld
which arc nol approvcJ bv Ihe State
and not reLDforccd by 5tate coerCion
' 72
HTIL<.;'OI ,()(iY
can in no way he regarded as legal,
and ralhcr helong 10 the sphere of
religion than thaI of law.
ECCLESI()LOGY (dl'rin:d from
the Greek words "ckklcsia" meaning
"assemhly" and lat er in Church
usage "congregation", and
. " d"" "r " dl< meaning wor , reason 0 ' .
course"), in the Roman Catholic and
the Onhodox Cllllrt"hcS theological
Icaching about the Church as a di -
vine inslilulion. ahout its role, its
functions and prerogatives. This
leaching received its most detail ed
e1ahoration in Roman Catholi cism;
(2) the science of the building and
decoration of churches.
ECHMIADZIN, monastcr\' ncaT

Yerevan, which historically speaking
is the centre of the Amlenio" Apos.
l"lic Church. In its grounds stand the
residence of the Patriareh.Calhoii_
cos, the oatriarchal cathedral (huih
in the year 3(1), a theological acadr.:
my, a seminary and a numher 01
olher inslitulions. It is here that the
journal of the Catholicatc is publish-
ed under the title "Echmiadzin" ,md
Church Councils arc held. The name
"Echmiadzin" which literally
"here came down the only-hcgottcn
son", is linked with the religious
end. according to which the first AI
menian Bishop, Gregory the lIIumi.
nator, saw Christ appear in Ihe cllv
of Vagarshapat (now Echmiadzin)
and pointed y.;th a golden hammer
10 the place where the first Christian
church in Armenia shouJd be huilt.
ECKHART, J........ or "MEIS-
"':E
R
ECKHART", (1260-1327),
Dominican monk, repre-
sentahve of mediaeval mysticism. He
Was a-.sociated with the revolution_
"'Y-plebeian sects of the Beghards
- - -
.lntl thl' Rrolhns of thl' Free S ' .
<Inti he was (If hcrt.: i.\'
arc t'il' mC" nl.'i of ,
, d I kh ' . 0"
loun In .t art s teachIng' ils
h I . I d 'Pan
I Clst caning'" Cil t(Jthe cnnd" .
h h I
Slon
I at I C sou IS "one" wilh God and
that Man. to (jnd
mner IIlumlnalion, gainin
sab'ar io" and hliss apart from
nallhings"
ECOLOGY AND RELIGION
When it comes to religious
tat ion of questions concerning Ihl
inl erat'lion of MlCi ety and N;Hurc
(ecological prohlems) , the
provided tcnd 10 mystify Ihal !nlc', \)\
iKtion, to pui rotWard religious ano
moral reasons instead of social.
,,:Iass- hased ones for Ihe prescnl-da}"
predatory treatment of the cnv'rr'l'J-
ment. The essence of the unsalisfh
tory ecnlollical siluation in the world
01 'Ioday is explained hy rcligiou'
thlnkcrs wilh reference 10 Ihe disap
()r "(rod-given"
principles in Man's relations WIth
Nature and 10 the growing manife
talions of .selfishness and grecd,
Man' s sinful aspirations In self-deili-
ltmn hased on an exaggerated as-
sessment of the power of scienti.lic
:md technical progress. They
tain that Ihe price of Man's ahcna-
tion from (.ind is his alienation from
his nalural hahitat. Deliverance from
ecol ....gical l:atastrophe is 10
lie in Man's reconcilialion With ,
viewed from an cschato OgJ a angle
The way out of the crisis is !:.ccn III
lie in thc fos'r'ting of a new CCOlugl
cal awarenc\S, rooted in a "corrc(1
under"1aIl.i.IinR" of <JQd's cowman,rl-
- cnts, canahlc,' ag;ording J.Q.
In crs,-of ensuring Mans
proper "guardianship" of
For it is essential to hold In
check Man's sinful inclinations, 10
I lillY
'\
the pallern r hi' on leo;ll
review 'on' olioale hi' pH lual
nc '"h, W '". I reli"i! l: nnr s.
d
pari Y I
nc' I t rir: -,:.
. d In mp I ncn
an . scctid'm n PUt-'ll,; no
'C01n(10lL'" I I.
'. life. A!';, 'j e I'
Ihe ( 1un:h n hclp'" .1\1<In
ul Ihc"-c pr nl'll Ie nto ";tl
III r . J .,." ,r.'. n
. , "hc" m l' c..... .., -
.
'Ii "c(ulati(lR w lh ';II tn rco-
'II .. prl hkm... t' !llinl' Jp'lO 11
oglea '11 I--llh he 1\ r"
men of !!(ll WI I. ,
d
helir-yer" Ir to r.:lher
an non Pvt'n
in the "I ruggh.: to pr rv. a
natural environment
[CST AS\' (f film
"ckstasls ml ,"lOr
L (,rl k
Ji plan.:TI. nl
"Iranc ,'r"'n/Y ( 0' r
h ... h n r. f, 1
whclmin,g eml III 'fl, W _
in 10 inl 1\ JU:t1 s h.n
exc temcnt, I( s of L nHn: :
actions. Co hlUlTlnr h.: Jl\U , ..
line between thL (U' nd
al. r.cstasy oft!;n con tit J. -
clement of r \\, .. .,-
Among Ihe reli;;:,: U,I tech \',.11
ust'd to L 111 for 1 th., s' I!.. 11 c
hausline IS,., f ' nllcd dan I n f
flagcllatl{,n, mg.ht "gl: onr " ....
dc In Ihl.; 11 ( v ( j!1L f .. r
ow; p 'olles r II" }<l\C II<; lx'cn
used 10 produce \! T\., II r_
aClio"", of Ihl\, ",ho 1;t\l \\ k ...
Ihem:- \"cs up 11. n tl l-
ar a 10.'" f d " 0: 17.
"'pare, v ,u.1 trL U I, 'u
,jOlIt, of r. til v II i _10 etc
TYplCdI !'.ltU.Jlu C(.' 1 .. '1(
Siale p- <If K"I"'U,'/l"("" I, MIS
C lOduCl1 J y,' '",_ ,S " .! "m' f
ual f the IV fr , Ih.: A'r. w: .. .. _ ( .
thl Pi' Ill' 'C {t"i In 1(; lallt:' and
th, A sur r tU01I, n I 101'1
E"STATll RIT! \ L or "RADF-
NIYE", a f. rm \If sn;u <ii e " 'C' I, r
n some old Ru ,Ian ( hr: s-
lian cl' u 1 J..." fIIen HI Ii
Inthrl'). kprv \', "Ttl
r P"J:.IIH an l Ii(' nltl II
1h mcmtu r II .. c 1 n
mURltv. d' d n \\hlle fr' m h
In t1 .,d h. rdol' would ..... IH,
I iJ(I 1'l d IT Jump,"\! Ip
tI! '"7'1 I' Ii I Inti 1111 Ii
.. h ()h. r ...... 1 11 n
Co , ' ........
"
Kr'l (,I I
f llten It l'rt'mIlRl
n
'"
.11 II II
\ '" j If .. Ij 'Ibl n r h HL l
to fa ng .tnl ng n .1
, ,
"
nl'"," U nu tml 11.11 nll!"
Ii- T1 n nf I
,
... "tlltl
ln' porI u , , , ,
Id
"- "m
r
"h
"
P
ml \ I
'uo
..
I "!!1. n n h
c" e'
-"'
-,
w rc
u .. -
k , - ph
,

,
P , "
fn'
, II,
" ,
,h c
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,,'
,

P'
I I d,
- I
'"
0' ,I "o<J,11
( - II
nn I
, "

n: K KII
d' en 1

,

- ,1 ,
o \

t 'p.,' v Ta: ...
J on
on'
1 (rlh _ x "'1((' rlt
[ ... n ... fC th ( .1 I,
( L 11... 1 c c,
".
" ,n, \ r l l' rIven In
, ,. II \ rom th ... ,::: fl tll rn .. ,Jl
h
iii) 1''- C .ne fl 1
\;)( I ... r d '
_
an
I , Ihe c:u
c.{ II , ,
r
h
m,
cll fe rf' '1; d
\\
.. n lI re \d
, ..
I n. CI_ E L .. Otr r
LPI N
-- -
"c an' 11clhh with a Kev 10
the '\c 'plUtr n which he ex
poun ..:-;1 h_,. doc oc of the "f.prrl-
luallrCalrn( . I whll'l won
laT numhcrs f dhcrcnts. r lIS
c3l:hmg, which rcprco;cnts. a mixture
of . me ra,',et ignorant Ie' ... IS md
c;tlrcmc mV.i(,utlt1, till h.ad '0110-
WI.. In \OViCIV of
DEN. al'e Tamg IG ,I:tf' hclicfs or
the JeW!'. H di')c on where
e,l j . ul 'dam and ... and from
which 11:(" lalcr drow lcm nul ,
W3'\ m :,;nnce:', 3n\., o. I' -hul' us
t .;Iy and Ihundancc 511
somcwh, . Clcar ""le sources of the
n\ " T gri and E urhr Ie
Ur-.SU.:OEL. Johann von
(P .l,.-man Uro, an rna.
ria. t ph,. phcr and lIhel H'
ft Id reI' . n 10 tic pmduci 01 I
r"")t . tY.::: and d its tl-ld
d, c H_ TCJ( c _d Cil aOOut
n of Ih .. \\ rid an '1( m
,n IF y Ih.. '1UI md
mr.. I, y I n ie-del Jr optd Idea,>
f Ihl. 1'J.lural 01 f lirl an_
T' t: rl un I
'-']1 Y md 'SulY .:mli Ie
.. I ,'In Idl . conccrmr.t the 'ulurc
(,oldl T1
flO\j

\11,." ( IR ) Ii I;; ),
' . 'man hOff}
Ih
r tic ]
ph U
r n
l' of It!
. y
r
"
I
,
In I,
r
I
"
r ,
" ,

I r

..
1.-
-

m,
.. !,
k

,

I I
,
'n
m

"'
,
, "
,
h
nd
fl,'w,jrp
,
'.
b,lI m n'l't.!
---

- -
I-oc:lulv (\f the bv.'& .....f Nat'uc
urge which hI' or the
d ntl r.
prclr- em asprr Itle n gOlng'lC ..
the pc,,>onal. hnSlein inkc/\
of rl'liglOn with ) scn.'iC t.
rear ignorng Ihe .racial 'Ools -.I Ie.
.
gum.
F I hilially Wc.5 ',(. nam )f
L. oe tJf the prmcipal gods I" (he
Wc!;tern "ilmltic peoples n anne t
lime it,; g. the P"trenieians and the
Jews); latcr thc w rd cam(; 10
denote God in gener JI.
NTh RELIGION,
r menl p.s of n .. 1- n In j.
rcliglo., r ' 11 (")lkw.nJt e ._
ment s 'n be sineled UI:') r ,- _
II US . nsci. usnc ' (2) rei: II
aC" VH)' fll relahc, .: .
(4 rcligi oLL\ 10. 11: J: ons r,j 0- U
17<1(on5. fh ... c cml.nl'- were
Yo I .. v oped r. lt1", 'mm (r!:
f n In m( ... ef' advo:.nc ........ reli,ll:'"
I I--Inus L n'lOnl U 11 e sis .j ''''0
If vel" those of II col gv (.:n!!
p Rcliglc C ;U. \ Iy ":I , ,-
fe t, II f' )Itt WIt lin th ... c nt .. d lr
\\ r il;J and oul. dl worship_ Ae
";0, IO-:Jlv 'hue df'vc',p rc1igiCl1.!s I
.llion' hips cnnnl - led wilh wo:shlp
nd 11 e ""hili out-Jd ... ,fC
c ntcle' of wor hlp r.cligtOl!r7.'.n
I, 101 ,ude gr rt)('1 '..a-
tit "Jl 'I .. and",,!u.!1 c, n,? l:]-
lion- T l mmunllil dmlOl 'r 'Ii'._
, "
h-d- r. r SUPChl' Ie" Icnlon.lt Ir. ..
P' mll Hoal' ,n f r or
I: 'n. nd IOle rn 11( n;tI, tt :"
t'n rorh:lOflngcog'htr 11'
I,. n I. .. tir'n.<:
El. (den.,;j tr"T'Tl Old ""01
IIr I m ( ,erman nd ,.IOdin3'1l.1n
m\1hul. 'J.!V J 'plnl of "'al UJ rhn
r\ IW) kind ... 01 elf' onghl dH:<;
( th
l
r at (rc.lIurc who werl" klOd tt!
[Mr( )( (],f'.
, .
d J'II k i::IV" ,creal Jrc of
pc 'lre) In Wl(l liv mr'er
u,Il:IV BtdP)rc
r
:
v
\1 ... often oClated
gl In dw.u f'. fat: les and
WIth gNomes.
sVlpbs.
II'S DAY a fl tival nth ...
[ioU A l -"urch e I r Ie' n
Or: c I ) 10 ... ' nnUl of the
lUI AJ [., h nc or the n
Pn. ph, [1' .'h m" 11 I( 101 ch_f
salOl . 1]<1 I'
r Old / Homent III aturc,
Ie . 'd 0 unlle I" f 1111
W 10 '-cn_ <L I d r
< r numl rou' ,,'1 go'
1 ... -
C nl J(l acl1 , Itl Yo' c; \',11 .. 1 ...
An .te be cau ,C '0' 'ng Il
-. 1(" "ndm
(hTl j)n aLit on, h
, ,L .. r 10" and hence I e
(1(l\!fl1 l'
t- e 1 n<i( I r: him_ l us'
atv , r" ]It. llr huted
1 I
1.1 ' "U Ily Pc til 01<,' ...
., "".'1 .,
reI,; IJ.LIt. u ..
W,t lIerK
:,Io"r
tl Jminr
I di ul n I
0',

1 11'" r
" ,
vtdt d Ih pel. n 111 J
f (" ,.
D' Y
ndn, ,k
to pi..... 11 c:dl
J
w r:
,
V' nu gr t"ult Jr I J 11
r: ,Irk J I'K end 0: Ih h y tr tK .
and Ie nn r. r Ih_ rc,l r ' n
p, ely , <I r 11"':; 11,
thai) I J lr 1m rl<tn' 11 t 10 1
PI.: 'm pc' verJd l" P
aild c -rcuItJf. 1 l,. il
m
"
11\
Jr._ tlunk I 1e
t l:1 I l rUI
'h
I tt= ,t "til t-
w: d 'I
,
I I<
. ,
'\nci
"
A'
"
I I d
to
Dr'


L
, '
J
r
( 'J I

. '
, .... ,
,
1 J: C
" ,
I lUnllilv
wdl
1 C
, ,d
--
hc fI:-Cctco thr. ... r dillnc JI'S-
twc {r.. callI J lJoon thl tl l ' iplc ,
r I, U lot to udy (,.A lhl
uhJt ct, and t na' er l: .c' J1
trar' ..
I LOIIIM fHchr N w" J mCJnt
fl. J , n f th nam I
Yah"", 1: ID Ie )/d Te !Y1Urz(
ELOII', Til
SOUR'
me Ie h
fJ h
1( P,n
E 'o/um 'J name
us, d hy II ll'
om. r l'lc ac t
ta/ellh.
: t ha c
'holar I I
, "

ELy 1.\1 -ElY' AI ....
l:"l' III f An ,'Gre ..
th Id ' Y' n :'Ie era.. Ihl
w nd( JI fll' t th \\ n ;).d
of It- w Id r' ImmC'"' I eroc
r, J men r _ In
nv
r
I l , ' ..
. ,
d
"
l( plion
c erc... Ii': E
F d
E \HNA fUll" rmdam 'I C "1-
Jm.'m I";:
vern' t
,,"
, -".1
J. W.1h
" m,
"
fnm oJ. .. t I high d
on r I do,," 1 l l, :It w_r
- ,cr_1. mlr I LI thl
,0 fr; ati rt the t !Ch-
lIan .. r j
an
,
',rn .,mlll n
II C .: g c .' -
L h (In, , n,,' (,. .le lUt ,
r: t I
:. llrr',ll'
r Ji II .om I ..
t
.
,[
a'.
I nc 11
... IlU
L l1Jnatl{lO
rthell h; I
L ',]n ('14,
d .. , .
< holt: crm.fl IU\I;:(lIm
nil( 11.. d h ":J.n-
, r.)10 I - , .
(/II,rtc
thc, c a' c, /, J:n t. -rKC,a,
U 4'10 c '.10 B.l I
FMP f I\. \11("ll"nl (1f'CI.-\:,
_.1, op.a JI, r;;.
.. . d pohlil:.11 n
I\. l.Jn tn L., of Iblngs
a." till,;
E'\C''rTI 1(.;\1
,," __

-
" earth, air, I>ir/('mr, ,
which under the l'( .' '.neye op .. die nu fJIt:
h f' (If [.(I\'c and Stnfe ((lr. tumnane R.u'\onnc dc!\ SClt'nce!i. d
... say. attraclion and re' ,\rls
ul.
" '",n) ra<;.s a cydc of Or Dll"llUn;IfY of Ar". SI.:ienl'e
r ' I "',' in .l'=i ....olum. cs, 17'1 h . f m cnmp elc <'II.
diver:,ily of ,in Thl' team "! WT.llers mciudcc.. Ie dm
the world he explained "'1th. rda thinkers, snenll<,ts anJ puhlic
ence 10 the proportions, in whIch the of pre Rcvolutionary Franc
clement." were (V>tlcmhcrt, (jcnrge Louis de
made a number of s(:Ientliic predlC fon, I'olruif(', Hell'8i1H", /IV/hac"
tions, including one concerning the .Ra)7101, ROII,Bcall), Although
reasons for eclipscs of thc Sun, an IhelT VICWS on many qucstion<; did
other conccrning the survival of ,I he not coincide, Ihanks to the
"tillcs!"' Ihat of Did('Tot L'Enevdo_ t
ocing naturally elc. In keeping With pcdie hceame Ihe mouthpiece of
mythological tradition, Empcdodes progressive idcas of the French I
referred 10 these "f(loIS" as gods. In hourgcoisic in lhe slruule against
his religious poem "Hymns (If Puriri- feudalism, lhe Church
calion" he developed an Orphic-Py. and The En(.'yclop;lI;ji Is
Ihagorean leaching concerning the sought 10 prc!\cnt 0 the gener:t.1
(ransmiwation of souls and a non-an- puhlic in f(lrm evcrvthlng
Ihropomorphic idea of god, aimed that had heen achieved hv mank nd
against tradilional mytbology in thl.; of science an'd technm
(derived from he
Greek "cnkyldio!>" meaning
"gent:ral", "circular"), a circular let
ler SClf hy the Pope 10 all RClman
('ath Ie' or 10 allihe ( lIholics In a
par1icular c('unlrv. to the "aithful of
another rcli!!ior: and somclimt: even
to non-b"licvers, E1cvclicals arc
devOid to rc1igulUs
and moral of malor im
porr.mu: Acc\mling \0 the ('anon
hw ,,,' Ih. Rf'man Calhnlic Church
.,re not ::uhJ '("maul'
I r -and I,h
I g \l to C lfl'V 01 I ''1C inslruc Ins
Ihn elnlaln. elL rc
wrlttenn Lal n an:...: u:. rc erre " t')
-
I,; we or 'htl" words
I C". "
(.L C a Joe at e1fCl'c1ic!lf
C II p(;;J!JCy.)
gl "Jr f
Ftc:'!c h I:. 'I_
ogy. Thev criticiled the state of af,
fairs under the "ancien regimc" (old
reglmc)_ L'Eneyclo:-ttdic embraced
all r,lnches of 'Sek11'ric knowlc(]g(,
the ; j and tec'lnl logy, I.e th
wh Ie lual an<! natl lal rang .... "
hum ... n cuhUt It became 1 -.'
d jrl'(' h;IIkmJ: lni l1i!Jeisl1l n thl
I feu .-ili-sm an<! the
l hurd, that had upnl a ,hI soc al
fuundallllO' f the (e Jdal SOClet}
1; I wa" Ihout It swept e
Tl\.; rl(-v.lop .. w rc 'I
:ul e" cd 10 hal i' .!J1t".,c an'; I
IITii:lO 'J. ... 11:1(' author tic. anI "he
l lUI 'h I 1 17::' whl 1 1( 'C nj
v lum of. E" yL :lpcdi ... nmr Ill,
Ih I< (OU84 I PUl J. '-lop () .
n f\ol:ler lan17:"iltheKn"
,It d'{ -ound him ,e f ,hlig- 1'1
(" 0 Ihccmand' f'"
grc .Te c rdes n tl;Ocl!'lY anu (I lift
the h . n (10 puhlil'al un After I,. r' dn
o.lrtlclcs hv :)'Alemt-ert had lP-
-
-
J :0 fhl sevrnth volume
rc
HC
d the R,man
hoccle 'h
!>U"J 10 hiller rr,lw; m, t c
I" eel'cd at f
utuJn (Ir de' II
c .11 )Vcr am'ln, Yet, .. a
ilcuan it t ff" . I
b ,.dcc;. placed In Its Fill', y
'
heOs . [I'F
I Ihe puhiicahon 0 ' nl.-Yc 1)-
had be('n r
pC I d an c:normnuS mfluence on
Clcr cb'_quen! de ...elopment of pro-
the!'iU .- , d . I
philosophlnl an po-
ai' thoughl nut nly In France ul
IIiC . .
I 0
in othcl c untncs.
"'
END OF TilE WORLD.
totog)'.
ENGE['<;, t ... d.r1ck
Jne of the ft un de ll( c;.cu'" fl'
communism, fnl :u! md cnmr -d! -:
arms of Karl a cader of II:;; "
ternalinnal pr letanat E -:. de
I fundamental l. ntn. otlO' t.? '
co-, of Marxist analvs. f rc . n,
to Ihe hist("rio("", 31 h\l 01 rcligJC ':t.
the the 'Y 0: Ilhcisrr." :-.... o. '
sscrllial IS, '15 d 1e
world Qutll k. r 11"! dcijTIII ,n f I-
gion "hat E 'p'c fm nul.;llr p:
.. ides he hasls fOI thl..: Mar:""
ceplion 01 religIOn, It 1C \11
religion, hI W vcr, L"i ut Ih
it renee on m frm,'" f
Ihose external 011.. v. lIch \; ntwl
thcir daily ilk a refll " n In \\. 'lIC
tern strial 01 C!'. ,<;ume the fl r n f
supcrnatur II fi rces II,
Dii/lring Mn .j 1e;; r \(11 )
When religion nlcr retl J I
lal :ncn(ln, lis II c{lll cal
)Cd IS prcscnll_ a .... Ih cn,; 1<11 one
which. (.1. er nm" 111 Ihc rs In
udin,l! Ihe lal J. o'",or hll mt f
II {' lurch 1. n III Jilt,". II .
anla. II rencc on of realilv IP m
lOd for no; w 1llh are nol cr
Sln'l I ,c 11 "t.; 11 J supc !lat J'
,'1; I con lulr "c c,mlcnl ' r
IU,
- 17
-
rcll1";i' n_ dcfmitlOTl prm.idcs
(. _lr for di.<,tinguishing. bel
!"' en rehglOus 10n rc1iglOc
Id! ology, Acwrdtng 10 dt leclicll
matcnali: In, thl"! l nj, rsc IS nfln.
In time ;md spal'c n:! n there 31-
'0 ft or V.hlll lre nOl
t;LJeet to thl; aws of Ihe nllt:"1l1
W d and whirh all.: colly C(lnlro) iI,
In'l' y, -k Bnlfto Baur,. and Farlv
(lzn.ruQnily T'le nock R.e ela.
tlon ctr"H) md ,),. the H,WH'V of
l:. 'lrty Chn tlonllv r n ' ( mines
que fll n conn 1.1 d w th the hi It y
of fro m pri:-;li'lc time 0
'11) y, 1 (! V P rticularly Imp an:
r ,.f r gJ.rOi!11 Ih gin
...:."1 e \T ptr._':'It )t
r ,ri .;=-=. and a.'l::.lv' {r "t: fa-
mo_ '" k of .1J '\ (hTL 3n '-t"
" H \\ r.., W I: 11klng
p. (" .. ". 1mt\! 1 E
P d J\lbC
r - Ih I'
th ' harl hefa
,
bo
,
fl rm lIons
'U d JXr.
, ry.
a o _ l"
Ih h' Jor"
r
10 ,'nn ..... n .... th
o . , c rnamlv
\.u .1]1 E J:
-'"
It _.. r II . fl., U:
C 0:: . .; tt IV . porn)'
I-.:r ti(.1[ n \t::m< nls, l..c P..lS.lnt
\ .. 11 ... (rt. r.;, n' and lh ... rly
f (Iu Rc'omTDtl(':'n. T e ler
".\ Mar"(, E ,,:d' -c":
,,,
(n... l10g th! II IU'"
11 11.1 _gUlR. Marx
"! dcmt -= li.. ''''.,1 fhr
r narv ... 1';&"1 fi,r
St 'Tall' rc\nlutlor. .... ... , und up
\\1; 1 ag110 I ,de,llIgie h,'rn
[ I
order d (10 ,xr1mlJ:
o f - h d
lion, Ih idl)! "'hie pnwi C
1uslll 'l,tion I'm lh\,sc ';.
dcrs. At thl". !'.am( lime E n:.>;t rc<;{) .
ull iy (lppf'Sed Ihe lihcrtallan plans
I"
E\KI
(or t:-1nning rcligi()fl that had lleen
put forward by Hcrr Eugcn Diihrillg.
ENKI. EA. in the mythology of
goo of the waters of the
f1.tlh, Ihe palron of wisdom, who
taugbt mm arl!' and nafts, Enki ('"c
cupies the third place in su-
preme triad o( gods (after Anu and
Enlll>
IENMF:NT, (I) the attain
,men! of new truth and knowledgf.,
insighl or spiritual light
through sludy. the exchange of
or spil itual rcvelation; (2)
movement in the world
of idea .. al the time of the t:me,
g.lnu: of u;pilaJi.sm, linked with Ihe
,Jr the nase :It hourgCOISIr.
l:>opular against frJ.
and nstitulions. r .. c
f( aturc the Enlighten-
tTl( nl was the urg_ d the thinKers
.. 10 rc ';-ucturc all I 'ial
r .J.lltOn.. on a t- si.. (R
[I " . c elson.
.4 rILl us" 'c EQUalt d h
c ..;, ot I..
o r. nllpl Slr""Rmmg, In
p ruon" fro m '" 'IUrl,,; itself, from
mahcilJl. c r..:!!l1ral rioh' (
"an rh , d"
r b ca mr.figul,soflhcF"l_
tcnmt nl thc d"' "
of .. - l. !it; mlOollion
l,rOll1C$.'iI\, and k '-In
and \hc h n) ..... I .. ,,?c
til 3nc,:cmc nt 'f
Mandard.\ I" I .... th. t t Iil 'tal
I randoTm.m, 1 h la;u me. .IDS of
rrqicr" k I le.o soc: 'v.
Idt I ,f (he l.7'lnt:j ,ut, :lte
v: he -' men: n
n!lC other than Ill::
'f ttY. h.
:c- "m-L'dmn. t.. ur-
" '\ '!II 'W
I' r. (1 rn Ih
,'.r.., f h c
h. I I nlighten-
oVe. th re Wcrc
he n"tcJ he
, I thinkf. r In lhe
l fft c'cd by thi
'Oil<: , U,p..d by
I l
'C if'. nt
lhe: ..
tou ,
'""'"
---" ---
the "pe('ifk COUrse of lh -
I"h' , esc co

h 1!\lnncal dcvc!opmcO"
.n Ig Icnmenr in Enol d ' '",
I
' eo an for
s '.IDce, commg after th bo ,..
revolution of the urgcos
siood out on aCCOunt of '(
and the >f
{If Its goal.., which Were a ren
of the world Qutlook: of it I CCII{}rJ
figure, John Locke who s .. ' cading
,. , ' lQ rcli
glon, JUM as 10 polil ics l11<><' Ih "
fh ..
o t c c1a!)S COmpromiSl.' of I6&.
(0 Conrad Schmidt in
Berlin, L<lOtion, 27 October' :xl
JVcrke r
S. 49 ... ). Thc free-Ihinkino d ..
L k
. , 0 In
..(lC C S wTltmg and that d the
reprcs.cnfatl\'es 0: E
in England (such s
Lord John Toland) s
'iccn In their strugglc f4'!' 'C
IglOUS toleralion and 'h -
Crlli(:in'd religion 'mainly from
d
" a
,Clst standpoint. In France thl.; Pn.
. receded the txmrg OIS
re"l,luhl n of the late IRth ,'en' ltV
and ptJved a de 'ISIVC part In h
liko!Dglcal j!re-t'ar III n for th ... I ..
.:r TaI1c" or I he henei E 1-
Ibtllenmcnt were I "ollmrt and Mt-' -
Inqmt'.I and Is die' nellve
tic w :'I ItS. mi;llant
alttrc'c-lcalism, Is. wemnL Oppll
SUlon to the Ie man (alhl Ii ... ',Ii
(hUi 1, wtJich COr."" 'Jtd
th . pi ritual ""asli,;-o of the fe '1d
at- ")Iul st ('!'dn I 'le ml' t ngle
mmded of the nppone."s f n ir.l' 1
Ihe think rs f tbl.; Fr nc'1
nhJ!bl nmcnt w, : III mater. 1[,"'-
r (l Q Dlde'"!'Jl,
lIelti',m .md Holbac1t.. t1
'II d I .j-.lalanlly i". "I arts. ..
mOTlr, I hl TTl I ht 1'... ", .. f howe'fcr
f I Is Raunl'{Ju a<: w II and thin
c.: whfl w, r ( II.yal 1" Roman
h Ihoil
CHnJ
(t II( nor' (ondiJlac) In
l e [nlighlLnmenl In AmcrK3 a
ENIJI.
I'"
-
leading rnlc was plaved hy Ihe radio
cal. wing. i.e, those who
lOok part en the War nf Inde
pendence - Benjamin
Franklin, Thomas P'mc, Thomas
JetTers()n. Fthan Allen md others,
The philos{lphical ha'iis. for Ihe
WOI d outlcHlk of the: nhovc named
thinkers malcrialism in con
junction wilh drwlI, The P(lOrly de
vdoped nalUre of capitalist social
relations in ('ermany. its ecnnomic
and political hilckwardncs:- were re
flcdeu in the nmlradil'lory naturc
,f he (.ierman '- nlighlcnment. Side
bv Ide with the mode :lIe ml \'
ment wil'1 It: caning' I. wards
idealism, there war ab ) to he f, und
a "'110lrdlic t lC veermg tl wards
m If''!'l Ii..-..m and link cd w Ih the
protcsl f road 'rata f th popu,
lalion r Itr'l)I fl uc.: I 1 ule
the opore 'Sion unrfl"r t
regime cond '1 st, Ie rdigie '!l ,.
(hurch R 0: th
trr,,(' (SUI'" I' I t>umg. H"rdc'"
defc ldl d the eqc'alitv of ! I me 1,
JIe . f thci: ocial c lIu r
c d, and "., 71L 'mnl:J .
II Ier.lnc and fanatid m. In Ru
th deul' 1'!V f I h" E 1hr.hf U1ment
h ':}n I creal J 1 the ... od ht l
of 1( lnh C r'lturv (tv kolal f\J(lI
k Afexolldt, kal'iJ/tcl,e), 1 1L
CJI1V IQlh o,;nlur, Iho.; r nli[ 11..: 1-
me I n R U la rl'pl nil: v
tWf" ' .... :" , thl 'el' t maL
Ir, t' (Ivan p.,m an I rto,," A y-
:-: .... - l ubku" ct .. J.) 1t na-
II 1= t th I trend ( v n "y 1-
k
m
,. Ale x"'nd Barv r. ,.
Vladl., I R Y v kv), l"'l Jailer. ,-
hr d me 1 v. I had b( , ml ';"1-
h f th rc lUI r'" It nn
mOVI Plent f Ihe r cnlrn nd
.1 or I mark:_' ,: rdi!! c
(1 cit I -l '" ai- tn u .. "I
I 0
1
hllo phy Ir. the 1(11"
-
Enlightenment (Danilo Vellan.
,kyo Mikhail Pa ... lo.... Vladim.ir
0t!0yel'Jkv, and
thlnkcrs Ilf the Enlighten
m,nl 1n the 19th century wcre
$o:,on . Bcliruh", A If-tont/I" IIrr::('n,
Nlkolm Dobmlyubov md 1.,jikolai
O,en! v.(/tc\'.'Ikv,
,
ENUGIlTENMt:NT TIIROllGII
E'DliCATION, propaganda of and
attempt<:. 10 pUI inlo practice the
idea that the main wav in which 10
surmount religion is to
ur knuwlcllg to !'prc'!d c"llightl "
ment, ,C (,) hr ng innucnc ... Ie bear
upon men 5 Fnlighlcnmcnt
through l'duc lion, t" ... rting out f. Jm
an nlerprctatll n or )elrtv
an:;: thl: on 1, I "glC, if
hOI 1 maIO\!; Ignorane I. nhl
In 1(' of Ihmkers of e
I 11 In 18th, en'ury
I r<:lnc_ m the Idl of te
th:: Ru:: i ... n . olul l103rv ... .;m0C"1t"
o' th Hlth -.:ntufy, anL also in on-
temp r rv th Ism md frc 'hlDking
r. tt-:; We I, . l!XI' Ih sm! I
11 .. knv thC' fact th ,I
the t-u.le ... <; of nallral 'nd (leal
-:11 men OJ 01 Ihl.; I IS o!
' ... hut. 'itarting ul from a rna-
.. ialj" ntcrpretall()O f S{JCH Iv. it
hi Jdc t he m in WJ,V II sUi mount
r liglon s rar'icatlv (\ rhange those
" :1f.1il l)O I SOCial life w'1ic'l gl\lc
tJ'!; n.:!igion nd en
w
" I: ontl-
nued XI" l( e c ROC!" v; re
'
;-
t- : l.
F IL n ,C m\1hl d '>umf'
na. the ,r:nd (llr .,,.-In..J and
I, Il.r : .e \ f the 1. Jrth anJ fL.1'
t1il", r With h1.'i fat hLr the
pi ' ()I ! n.c he ." ... m trill, ,lnd fhe
iI" of \\all I t. Ik., up the
upr _fit !, tau 10 ! he Sumerian pan-
I heon,
""
ENlllROl'il/AIlON
F:I"THRONIZATlON, the
hy whicb a newly elected Pope (m
the Roman Catholic ChlJ.'''Ch) Clr a
Palnarrh (in the Orthodox Church) is
put in rosscs..<;ion of his The
ceremonv is carried out to accord-
ance \o\itJi a special ritual.
01' OlIR LORD INTO
JERliSALEM (Palm Sunday), arc
festival which the Russian
Orthodox Church numbers among
the Twcil'f Great Fea-fts. It is cel-
ehrated on the last Sunday hefore
Fasler and it is devoted to an event
in the (iospcl story-- the triumphal
enlry Chnst into Jerusalem, whose
1nbatlilants greeted the Son of God
hy casting down palm branches on
the road hcfore him. The festival
W3!-. hy the Church in Ihe
41h century and was used to impart
1,0 Ihc the idea must
and receive
Chnst, Just a.'i Ihe inhahitants of
Jerusalem 'If old bad received him
:n the RUSSian popular tradition
eSllvai wa.'i lenl .l new name: it came
to be known as Willow Sunday he
for its ritual

hran(,hes of pussy willow
r I would L_
t" r IJIC commg OUI at that
took the place of palm
Was thai\' A furthcr reason for Ihi:--
POr'ular long existed the
at pussy willows
expected to gJ powers: tbey were
spirit'i and -r:
n
fr?m evil
and Lalamities. A m of dl.<>a<.Jl'TS
toms a\SOcialed _ of eus-
\'\"tved Iht u of lNIlh Ihls fe<;l ivai in-
h So These 'o\l1low !"Iran-
Wl >u1d thea be Once blessed
liu; f.lJlh(ul. PI tn the bonu;s of
HIS
, goddess or h
mrth >fogy 'If A I C dawn in the
flOen! Greece, Si.!oler
of Helios and Selefle moth -
, 'd d II' e'Orth
our WJn S.1n a thc star E C
depicted as a Was
wreathed in sun rays. Her
drawn hy winged horses <tnot,
each morning in the East '. appears
. h' . nnnunc
mg t c arrival of Helins .
Roman counterpart was Eos
EPARCHY (rrom the Greek ..
'h'" . . " J" epar.
e la meamng ru e or "sway") th
name used for an ecclesiastical ' e
. . h provo
Ince t e Eastern Church. It is
supcfVTscd hy an eparchial archp .
(
f ne.f(
metrol'o lion. archbishop or bishop)
(0 the higher Church
for activity and rhc
state of hIs cparchy.
EPHESUS. (Ol NCILS Of'. Sec
Oecumcnica/ or General <. Ouncils,
EPICLRlIS (3412/" n C),
AnClent Greek philosC'phcr, wbn
adoptcd a m'lterialisltancc and
. religIOUS lonQ.:j1'
110m; time. While recognizing
'If the gods. Epicurus
theIr c1racity to intervene
m rcal.lifc (according to him,
dwell m thc "spaces between the
worlds" and have nothing whatcvt'r
to do with human affairs). Epieurus
attempted 10 overcome fraT 01 the
and fear of what may happell
to onc aftel death. He also de-
veloped tbe atomistic teaching of
l-euc;ppus and ()emocn-tus, In coo-
In pc')Simistic vicws of life,
_ .plcurus !Cated "prudent l"ll-
JIl}lJJe I" h'
( n, w Ich provided a pretext
aO:d him hy idealists
clh' t I who distorted his
I Man: and Engel .. who
Wr()( lh hIgh opinion of Epicurus
h atheism CQuld be
ae .. to him.
1',PISI1:\101.0GY
, -
-
EPIPHANY ((;rcek "manifesta
tinn"), second n,tmc fur the
tian festival of the Boptifm of Christ
in the Jordan. This name served to
underline that, when Jesus was bap-
tiled, there was a manifesta
tion of all the persons of Ihe divine
Trinity. Initially the of Epi-
phany was held on January 6 (Julian
Calendar) 10 mark three things
Christ'5 Nat;l;tv and his Baptism,
and Epiphany, -OI!; descrihed ahovc.
From the 4th century (nwards
Christmas was out <:I S: "-
cial festival in its own rielll ut E pi
phany as before was celeb:-11 on
January 6. At the prcsent mt;; II 15
"'llv the 4mlf'lIiall ApI Holle <. 'Iwrc11
'131 continue" to cf'lehrate Epiphany
it the same timl as ',r Nat v'tv
(Ill RCII, the !n;;'i-
c:m Church n the l SA W11Ch be
Lame indl nucnt in 789 If
W,1'lhops arc elf'jted the iaiflJ
':lVS m actIVe part In tht "dmmi<
(r"tion at .. II ltvcls_ I ml
lihcral 11 5 r prommenl n I
theology. At If' hCgJnning c f the
"t ccnturv the S. rial r;OSI'I't
group wilhin it I lmc prommf'.,1
nd the II ca! of CirristJall socialism
gamed ,,;onfidtr<:lhl gr ,und. As re
gar
l
1( social 'oml oSlti0n
I c pal ( it s t l( :nlclli
g 11- __ w'uch redomm le _
E Al ROOl'<; OF
RE L1GION, See Roo. oJ '<:/1 on.
EPISIl'MOI,()(,V or nE ruE
ORV OF KNOWl E O<.E bflnL1 .r
philosoflhv n y.; 'lId the t:.', nce,
purpose and mC"lnS for. t:pHlI lucing
Tl ill,IV 'n hum ... n ,ue
:"dled. From the 'lcirtllific matcria
TX)!ot OJ vi "-.N, knowledge i .... the
I in man's hrain or the
-
'-
w.orld <IS _ it ex.isls mdcrcmlcntl)' l!
his which takes plac
the of m,IR's practical ar.:tiv.
uy. When thing.'i imprint hemsclvc,-
upon man's organs. he
bec()mcs aware l,f scnSalons nil
perception' rcnc(.;ting the various
propcrtiC's :md com hi nations of
properties of things, and later on a
basis Qf gcnUil!in)tlpns nn 'f..
these and perc :ptil'm,
man more prufound imap.es
of n_tlitv e neepts, udg":nC'''lts
etl _ whieh rencet thmg: 0: objc:ts
wlllm Ihc cont,xt o! thr.... various
linK aoO I ltlOns t-cIWL .. 1 hem.
The of thl for
m.an lies In I!le falt that tht:v
him to find 'lis be 11 ings 10 thl world
clod uc _" fully 10 change 1,1. t
wo:-Id 14 U_ he: his interests. Im3.f:-';''>
o! ling:; mrl 01 tl1einks and rela
tl' ns ween thinr", which take
shaf> n man e on' c,ousnc. s.. 'le
cor el ... tc wth ''lc aetuJI objects 'e-
1. 'Ieu 10115 c nSClou.<n'-; thanks V
to rat...:U cq;nlne: whIch nol ,
onlv pi "Wi.. .::' the b:lSl'S md 'al of
k but .1i.:.O se1"Ve.> ;tS the
cr. I lonf truth. whll..h '!:cT"l.ITltes
Iman:es givinr 1 eorL"ct tL.::tion of
- those which prt.:\--:Jc Cl
di. 0_ d"cction I f ,_ Iil),.
uus- de list theor: uf know!cdg(;
T\;sent to dlst:"rted I)IC,:]I of '1uman
-lh\kdr,e, II, .. oai and the
... :ttain il Thev declare man's
dico\tt:TV \ f (he i'_.tlnC\S of God
,:td \1,.1\; I1(1W III Clod as the
nam purJX' 0 "f and they
streo; 1I1.d the true path tl)
kno\\I .:dftl: i!' r,lith in the rewlolio"
of I he Hc.J/}' Saipillres. whid allcgc:d
I) pT\lvide full and ((,ncluslve
ano;weh It 1 [he mo.st impor'.lIlt que"-
concerning (jpd, the
and Man. In the that IS
necessary to satisfy hiS earthly needs.
_Rl,--_
H'II1MIA
man is a .. nf
commg 10 undcTMand the malenal
world afllURt,: 'lim with the help nf
his. sense organs and his Reason.
ftlcoillgians and rdigi('u!; philoSl1P,
hers. howncr, deny that man is 'Ihle,
Vo11h (he hdp of nil more Ihan scien-
tific In rind anSWlTS to the
(
(unda'!lcntal questions rclal ing 10
his di!"crcdiling (hI.:
cogmllvc JX'lcntJal of science
Greek "('piti
rntOR. meamng 'punishment"), pcn-
Imposed hy the Churl'h nn the
faithful fur \;olalion of Church o.
nDll.f or religl'('u-f 01 n
s!ructlon. ... from a priest confc"sor
Types of .. ueh penances 'hdude'
long prayers.. IDlensc fastmg,
Ir,;1l 0..... bdor- Icons 1 the \.' 's
Tirs practice IS j hy the, -Jr .. 7.\'
,rde!' If' .c?J1"u'idatc thell
over the lallhful and to remfofee
behevers faub, (
[PITRACIU:UON. the [ntm 01 Ihe
Slolc WI'rn by. () h
A . n It pdox pnt <:t.
n i!i a I)r'lad hand of
malenal worn 8fllunu Ihe neck th
two ends of which hang d . . e
h IS worn henealh
Dnlderi (14691 <1{.)
?Ulch of the RCrrOtf'
ThIS Humani!\{ Ihinkcr m.lde
attn to bnng log lh
dol: prcuccun::o,- l er the
naJ r- hlnc; 1...1 'ht Re
ptl"ll\amr.tcd
and
ca,rl
y
('hri";Of1tf\' He
""-eo- SCI. U aT .
form (reed 0: In a
1_' 1,.1- '1ftlIIftht' Indi\ldual
JJl:rahun, , I .
!!10ft., knnw1cdgt or Rca
He Ulhcilcd dignltv
cum and $( hoioH 1lI'Ch, "'onoft!
accept the Rtfnn/aCl.11I Ur did nol
lhc tdc. of Man'r. :IIf
WJ
, expounding
IfU WIll to COunttr
---
- -
--
the (uthcran ll:a chil1
prrd('Jtmalioll I! ra. .. m
g
concerning
(;red, lran!ilal on ,,( N;:adt a
ment 10 (: lassic }1 La, ' Testa.
1ft and WI'
commcnl a n cs upon II wh' hOle
Ihe dcvd \'pmCn; If IC pro..
(" IIIClsm ( Ihe 1/0/)'
mtlsl faml U!i work j " " P .' H,
Folly" ( t . reuse ,)r
John Scolus (l- 81()'
c. X7 .ldvoc ,1(.; 0
the Irene: in I (
h'
' . 1 Ie
!\ U ani .:lI eu Ihe nee,' for a r " I
I . 110n,
In f the H( I. SOipture
r
1n (d 'l Oll (lOd can
onl y he rc\ lied 10 men Ihrou"'h hi s
cre.dlon!\. Be C' ught ' .J rccone Ie Ih
N(' oplal oni Il::ca of emanalron w' "
the l hri (" lia n of crrat;j If . E
na rcc "'="1117cd 1 he (reedom ( kJ.
WIll ; I'l(! mamtaml' d that 'f. k.no\\oi.
Jgc IS th maIO p.afb In pure nO'
. e nplation f (;, ( ' rrp! .1a pr.
: he, .. !u idl l ' wende nned I
Ihc. Romall Cathj lie C1lurrh. liT'
mOlm wI,rk war "0, Dlv; II 'nl.!
lat'" jOn Ihe Dw Illn (NaPJI ).
.:RINYES, In Anclcnt (,rl., k m\'1h.
lugy : IlC R;lodd{ ,cs of rev Ilgc reo
Irlhul,," lind of Ihe l,..\Jrsc r1' ....
cd upon cvd ,"",oc. Pdrtu.:ular
in Dor::) ,,0'.. ndcrs again' t ble,'.1 kin
ey, m{ (I rth rr'lm the I'\ood of
Ihe C! rrJ.h.d Uranu . AII.lo (!.In
c-. I"mpn J,
(I'. ngcr ,r mUl,lcrl. qcal
Ihe tl.Ue Wd5 c,msolJdaleJ
ahn t-.lood lK-gan (0 die "UI.
I t [rrn
. veo; came m<.fl'ad 10 repre
nl Ihe pang-; o( conSllconcc Ipl"
mcnllnJ! perpetrators or Re
pcntanC'c and rcligU''Iu!O puririwllon
Wnt sccn a th ['
tht. crlm I e ml;an<." freeing
Erinyc from pcrsecul II ,n by Ihe
. grxtdcs"C) ...,( revenge
-
were dually r('ph,ced hy the r:
oJ

Jess' "lCncfactre'" the f. 'Jnlf'nuies.
ERUKH. KIIAN. rlG'Jrc in thc
mani t.ic myt'1ology of Ihe
and Mong<liian P' pi! S or
and <.cntral Asia; thc or Ihe
Umlr world, where the,:, ul, of the
"hlack ar decmcd to
hav: undergone Iheir prc?alalion
ror initiation.
[RN. Vladimir (1M 191'",
philusof'lhrT, lie put f4 r
war J CllriJtion sociali,fm 0 c unler
sCIentific !iocialism: m his point 01
,,:w It was possible tu build ( hr s
ti .. n on the 0; ()I an 1m
:'"')vcd v . Il" o( lirtiou< com
-nuOllv. In thiS conneclicn [ 1 paid
p cial ttt"":'it on to the c abor 1114 n
: Ihe pllnt Iplc r sabor"
IJO.'it (IInt1" in ffl'cdom), 0: l'le occu
meOlcaJ idll. (Vlal"imJr
and Ih c necrn"ng 10[ f
expounded bv Trobrtskov
EROS, In 11 mytholl gv f A04 ot
th! god r 0'" who 01 gm
II" pi. S!i j cos:no ("l1ic tur'"
Jid Ch os. (at' ( r 1), an ...
ToI10"1J. In Ihl; 1:ml":l1. n f AnClnt
R4 me liS C unll.rpa. W<fr, ('upil' r
Amo.).
EM IIHOI 0(,\ [rom ,It (,
wrn.. lain TI.. I
and logos ml 1m w rd', rca
50& 0 di nUl C f liR:IOU
IL lchm onl er 1Tnr ,.... rmal
1101 It;, ... w( d :1t T\.I :1. ( cli ..
toJ< 'Y 1; '" .. I In nCIt 11 c n
(: . n!i of 1(' em, j.!, \, and dl
Jl110n ( 1 .1.. " l 1(
"I den or Ie '" Ihm h
e :J Ihe rm(.,p' . .f (.ood nnd
1. I (I \ I, Ihe forcc'S '-'( light and
()a.rknc5.'i. l., II ld"anccd (orm cs
c laloll i"j IS 10 bound In JUdaitm
Oanstlanrty an'" hlum l hn!Ol1an c .....
chatr Og)' rc:.'cals Ih( mnuence .
Zoroattnoru.ml, thr. fl"js;-on 1'(
(,1( 1t'1I( t. an'" in pitr' C Jtar l. t
of MI'SSraTUtm a fuun" in IJd ]<;m
The main Idea,; 0 be fl unr! In l hri
lian c'Schall logy :m b ummar led
.. 1"'" 'oncerninp, lhe 1t1til'lIml
1l; Sec nc r omine or ( 11 lhe
cnc-....r "le WOI d, 'le Day (Ju gr'.
m4 11 <limilar motir dre "') be ouml
in 11 c5ch:tIOlogy '- ( t . J m. l od.v
eset, II hr.v h.. com4 n4 d the
I "cmr n th W or re
l,gl(lt,; JturOingi. Tl( 01 1Z-IJJ'!'
prnVld! 'node. 11 d verSions . II
religlou' II un I'J... :;'IJCC (thr'
c :1' ")1' n . In the
n " Inde , nalun.; o. hi o.y
nd It(lW In ov 11" lat I 1: I.
to Ih en w, ... rc :11 j ) . '.
::-h d n ture f .. tor I pn
. limit 'Jf ) r-'\u d .)
, Ii .1I:l nd 1( Ir vl l bu .. y f
(,,' JI J. ,r.:- 01,
tro ....... '
[SliM ",. '00
IClan I 14 n
cnl!: -1 him w Ih
h ... al .
Th
I Plus.
10 .1 C
(",reek
'lIlt' rSSF",(f OF lIiRIS-
TlANITr' \ D OW .. :1 ""_ ( hri<1
L. tum H .t), one f the m;,,'n
work . ' ud fr m '.l 4 rJ which
w I ar. ble ni l v rr u I uro
p n 1 hI., fll sl R J Ian
Ir 1 tum (' tmc 1,:;: n I " .. tm In
I r .. W k:l'Ycd iln ,mr: rlanl
Ie r. th' hi D1Y' f nlo/('T1ollfm .1nd
oth" f u h lR" " "inls 10 the
deot 'IOnl !i.jmllalI" 01 md
Idl,ili m R lir. In I .. ,t fincd hv tum
l' ,1 \b' lm'W;rnarv rcncction r the
real ",olld. Hi " ,r,llc.al analYSIS of
religion g!' S h:md In hand with tl.l
c<1ndu.. .. lon to Ihe err\" ,t \'lal' tid in
".
-
(od must he eradicated. al
'cnlion IS [cK'll<;scd (In I he ongrn .1
(hat of (7ms"
Il(mi/r 'ID --he Es.."cncc of Chlls-
'"miIY" F u,:""ac':l
hll Nalu"l'c mdependently of
human CORSe ... and thal there
L" nothing outside Nature and \Ian.
Pi:spite the malcriali"l and atheist
pnnciplcs which permeate this work,
Fcuerbach al"" puIS (orware.: in II thc
Jca thai a new rc ligion must he
foundrd, 3 religion of universal love
This major work. played an imrxxt
-0
1
}art in promoting pwgn:ssivc
.,uhlic md it exertc i a
p<lWfr.ful :nflu 'nCT on ''1C repre-
of -he progressive strata
lr Germ;,n heCoTe the 1"1,;\'01
ullOn ...)( 184," (This is borne :11 n
941rt; =ular. IJy sue 1 w.Jrks as rx
and s T1Jc HI Iv f40mll... I n
gcL'i F,,"crooc" and th: E"d
it lasSJCQI ( erma:: Philo.foph)" )
E.';SE'IU OF TIlE. C
.ar. ,I m"'l hay \1:\Cd
"Ie con 'crnlflg he lCo r
il,s l' ';u: and p!-':C in th,
I ftl vTSC p. mil" ,
, .t; m ,,ah! 'on,
I.:ep .... Man a." 1 pal1 of ..
ar: an mlnnsic" :enur-: of or I p
Jar tndillon n'"D I I' \ opu
op
b, " h" a eTiCl. I 1 ,)hllos-
tal mg f the An _
\\ mid, In r Jll)(' , ...."'h Ih . 1
_. .....", l nf
p. " .:f In'" C
1 v ...
l. 'mr 1C.. 11!.:d j-.\, th addil'
1 .. " lOr.' t':'1
.... ' r_ m:--r-t".. ,
.':-r, In W11 1 .
"':l . ,I': f a ... n fallur
n'he: ."h "" ':1 he pl...,,,
"I ,"" an
)03: ' , lC
n - n-
"I.,...,.' til
.. . n-. f'
:'I.... It to- .n
.. Man
'0",., '" Ib pc,
11 r ( ;
ken "I,
,.
f ,
.,. J ana
"
In;:]
1 al
natUral man
ur<rr,aluf.d dOuhl
e

(semI), In conneclion with h '
grncc of the id II (' erne
I h d
. eOl"Wrur
C 3SC SlK:ielV lhe "I?<-' 0 'he
I
r h'
ccp Ions 0 t eS."enct Cori
ckans(:d of nal\'e 'dan e
I
, . '.1, 1n dl! I
In rc.: IgsOUS allllJrn{lfll ' ' .
firmer root. \Vhile blurr'
cia I c,scnce of Man I'"h
g
II e .Ii).
t.' co ogia
f;eparate I"fan s qualities d M
itics from himscll,' I.:hl-
(0101 them mto absolutes 'Je I
them 10 he .lUi ihules of' an ar-ng
In conditions of al
emu nf rrlig;on a numhcr or Ih y
I"h cn,
oglans ral';'C I c queslion as 10 hl)w
besl to prescnt "hl'olf)(l"ical h
I "e>" aol to
,as a separate ]cademil <!! .
ID Is OWl right, "undam n.
!.;JI!y lmpo:tanl . "'oth the
J?hJl'lSor
hv
.Whl!e reJecling thee
h&!l)U5 and Idcahst ":I (,
the es.o;encc o( M fXl al ,
r lIe nc Sided eonlcmr 111\
cXlr hlstorlcal nterpl t
M me wrolc -.1C c" nc! 01 r.:.;i;'l LS
no abstr cli,n mhcrcnl In c.c
smelC mdivldual. In its real'y
, 'lc cnsemble of II ocial rei. lion
M rx., Engel';., C !1('("1{'1 Uones V
oCj; p. changes m 1C C illst
;) Ihe }('t!\e Iransf, rmation of Ihe
W01 d, Ahc drvclopmt nt 0: produl.;
lIVe forccs d the r:'alions f :JI )-
n, sum of pi iurtl\c
orc .. capital fu,d!", !nd soc I
for-n f inti rc ur whir"l everv I
dl _u.,,1 and c v gcner"tim
In ,.- .-.....
- ...... a" me' '11 n- ,v .. ",
the rc-al ")' IS of 'lal phil -sop
'one '(:1\ d ' umlan(
'C'C of man.}r. wh T Ib 11
t:_ .... Jr flcd and a[ JI ked, I,.,. C
p. '>.I).
e
FIl'RNAl. WORlD
'"
-
Elder, Philo of .-tlC'Xtlf1.tina, fhe
f'lrmeo l'(lInmumtles, \0 whl<.:h
a rule there was no privatc
I d
property,. COOl. I.. llOC
'lnd phY!'ll- II bh(lur wac; compul!WP'
in LI of w'lich trading
was forhiddcn. PI my the. r..lder wroTe
That (he ESSl'n('S lived in
from olher pel1plc, Ihal Ihere were
no in their communilil , thai
Ihey rejecled ani usr:d
nn muncy, The ('Ilmmunes of the to ,.
r.;nes were and it
difficult to join them. They plav"d an
.Iclive part in Ihe uprisinp:!"
Ihe Roman Empirc in Judac' in i"li"),
73, 101.1 for Ihis, nccmdin(:, 0 ae
Clunts f 1m J(l"cphw llaviur, Ihe
uhjce1etl l'S. ...,'1 . nroner
to rrucllOi Ir\! Mt sl c ntrmpor ry
idenlilV I'll f w th
lhe nemlr ... s of lhe Qumnn com
mumtv

ClllROI ,"".
IOU;; n, whm ... ominant
prnilllt.n in d 'Jrticul-.r 'ountry I"
c liclal d "''1 Ie: ,f Ic-w -otion.
Offldal rl '(l"nJlll n I f arlilll.Jr
uem nun .. lIon 01 h c .. Ih: hed
(hureh s 101'0: pm ncd nto lh . con-
I Jtu ns f 4' JI ' fhl,;' }fl
1t d (hUi 1 t kcs n;lIl n 1I1 'Ling
mOt" 101 mailer 01 I",le. nll II
namlami d c Iher enl rdv 0: in I 'trt
I y thl lIe :-.U 1lOVIrn j.!re.ltI.;1
pnvll " th n r u rr n
lIalu n' 1 ';'1,; n:v lufo, v ru I.
I hee ( lUfh W1 11 I U .
,,' h 11 l lUP': u., I,: )1
f I", II L 11.": IR JI .. I d.
IX n n 11 h I I,. I. d
I r Vol p f;). \ _I Iq",la
lion '31 nd f n lal 11 J
( h tnl, J: I' u n'
n qU,I: r II J,U
-11 ng , '1 ,,: tli': l' fr((' II m "J
f"'"J.'P'
TRlITH, 1 com.:cpt
'rnatmg what remains immutable
,!fld irrcfutahle in the e'"'ntcnl of I
in course llf cognitive
3t'(tVlty and faithfully rel,,
tion .. in the real world. The:
of Iruth plesents scientific
them c .. as relative truth'S., in' ofar s
1 hey do not provide cxhau. ...tive
knowledge .)f the ohJee under ;nve
lig<ttilln :lnd ,:onlain cit whieh
at tht: uhsequt.:nt slar,es n tht WJ!:'
11Ition proc 'If'suhjec to ('lange
IOd an' l'peeitied, thu:
mo:e pr -<"nund. In cae'l c entirlc
the rv there .11 C clements 0: immul
ahh k lov.'l:dgt which rcliarty rc
Ocel rnllty. They cIlnc;tilule I tiny
'''I'ltlIC e r f lbslliute truth name
l
C' c mr1etl" knowh 'J.
r Ihe t,;.Jn he rdt J ,
: e131 truth Statement I 1
C concret" farts and relallons
(f lr clWmplc. Ihat the r-w1oon is a sat
d1lt... 0: 1( E )fih \ rc 01"0 phe
nOQl"Ol W llCh w II not he 0
cbng m 'ltur Th ... Ill?1ans
,,11 11.: eXi "'nc lJ c. er 1.1
':'I In " 'l 11 riC Ihem " um
1e clf'!'n.J1 truth or rl. :"'{lUS dogma.
Yet dv nl.: 01 plletlcal C'I{-:lCr
ne and SCII lilfie l(lJ;OII :J ,-omt'
thcul 'Ians, ,,'tilt- 1111 c I ... r;a 'nd-
n,l!: Ihell inlr pretat on 'II
n o. Id'ec tu chanp! the '- ":1.lenl ' f
1(" latter to H"II' them t. Ihe
J f c n"('11 J"nl.. ]Ualnl d 1"''1
I Ii . f tllla" ani , ,namtam
lh IllUSIOn f Ihl r .. cr 'Cll
n RNAI \\ORLV. (1 nc, .11 Jcnnl
If" It .. X II \If the V.)I:o. that
,III 11 y\.r \oe tnd 1.1:ll I\(lt
k H Yo I tRy "I" cnumn 'n
lime tlSIl,;'1 .ndl'<;lruclihle natm. (11
mnv." malkr th,n (' IRm'l tx- \;1 .
II .1 <.lnd I !.t(' ali' thule (lfthal math;r.
I he c' rl 01 the d ,':l.11 wcrld took
,..
REI.JGJONS
-
sh vcinanocn: rime5 n
Ih (trugpc ofthc mater ails ... :.gamst
rc'1gJOUS assertions 10 the tfff'l1 that
... world created hy God. The
Anc 11 (,reck philosopher
11: d centuries ago '''al the
world hadbccn created not bygndsor
people. hut tbat it had always existed,
and ever shaH be an cvcr-li\;ng Fire
"lOW naring up and now dying down,
In a s( .. le of constant nux. Atomis,s of
the Ancienl World (such as Democri
nu and Fpicun.Jr) rccogni7.cd as Iran
s ::11 I:xistrnce orthc worl& filling
Ih1 l OIV.rsc, 'ike ours. nd
CJn.\l.drrcc! the l mverse as som!
thing elernal, pcrrn::ncnt, wi, ., hac
always emted. and will 'x: m:
t:"ali- ts or th .. f1 E fa (Giorda-
no Brun"" \Plnaza, DidrT( f, Ho/hach)
saw the wlrld as somcthin$!: that
had not been created md CJuL or'
be Yct in Ihl re of "Ire.
Man:t. ... llhlnkersthe lndcrstandinJ!: of
th tcrnal mv he::! sr-me .11"
men' that dIStorted realitv hevaL'
thc immu' hltltV f 1C
W"lr a \\ ;011 "c ex]' cnee (If c;;
har. m ,TV mal'cr and immut
'hJ_ unlVCr!J.llaws., Kh ''"the laws of
"11 ChlnlC'> ""-':rc '
1 .. n () t:onslltutc
'he tJl I, c' ,,-,d"nalr' I:' .
, r L '- .". Interrre
-n, 'nCC'c ,
I, rn.a w" a ... k;'ow,
"'fS"'s th phen m 10n of C l' nt
tun, ,lthe rC'lC\'!I W1' d
In 1hc contantlv ell .
k
........ 3nRlng'" .... I. ,
..... - no '- ...... ,.
In ''Ie:. onl ._.
lar l.,a 1 fl' and:'r ... "Vc Y
r
" "
:J , ..... r
'- 'ou:" ,-.. L_
" .. '" r I'
" if ':h'LrL I r -lu. tao
n' L" . 0 t ml "P. ... _.
n", (ilr "I.,. "r.:=" '-
1 U' t:T<I1I.,. any . '1 r I r pr.o-
Ji au oinJ for f I, 'ltenhal
1lI ' tlJrvt, l'lLnl
Ie RFULIO r ,
fl 311VJr r . 'nt '. rhe
cI
""" r 110-0 Th
udeJuaal.,., n' t Ift-
( ,.1fttUIIIJ '" ShmlOl..lm,
1lJ<.. rdigi' on,;
have ...
Wllh clan-bDsrd and trib
n
/ tornillo'
r
L . D I'CliPi
some.o file Images and r' ('\OItt
wor!l:hlp from which Ihev ;,t
uals
of
worked anG .lJ.ssimITalcd 'u reo
bar rcligit)ns, ethmc t C 'ri-
'wd evolved in the per:
class-based sociI y Was
Th n d
. emergtno
cv rc cetc the t>'
V3110W elhnlc groups )f
- r ..... .aler n'
lIODS. .. ... usc the words of II
, r - , r h 'he
re
r
'!l"h
on
0 l ancienlS wa<dhc
J 0 Clr natlOnalitv' 0' 'h
state'" (Marx, Engels"' C:'ll ell
J_, V I I ctd
0,"", '!., p. 189). The rep; 51'
lor t's or lese ethnic.: rdigtons Wt rt:
U5,Jally reprc: 11ltiV S of ,L .
t' I I" .. Ih- Jar
leu aT 1m, -'!roup "'r nalionali 'i'
questll n, LlI"1 ugh
or I (her elhme J!:rouf'" can also
(er .0 Iml!'
lyPe of religion. Dl .Ied rll
,atJoo f men S \..vcl')'d V beha\iour
,. _ ",;, .. :-l("lcn .. k 11 Jfe of such:
- II DS ,Ihe')e i"p!y vcn 10 Ihe
wav food shou! .. he ('LlI 1. 'le ID-
s rvanL 'vf uks of hv "If'ne 'lc xr
fl rm';};. or ithlul on lies ... TC),
are fic ril JalS imL it str _' y:
II 'T1 f rcligil us res pi ons .and o
,.. T, \\ llCh mr licat: contal. wllh
adh ten: of .. Iher faiths.
!TIINOS \"10 RELI(.JON 1"11-
, -
,n clhno 'dC1I' 1 J)(O) 'e' .
spc; rIC t'1X 0' so<"lal ..:omm1Jmlv,
ha' tak n larc Within l n
d .J,c :n'" tLrr ry or Ihl
!m" "lC1()-.cconomlc c, 0.11: 1 m'
wI.. '1 h, I: wn Qamc for I' ,rr, d'
0';:" angUar,e . nd C ... It:.l1 cI bar J
ef me 'f. 11 11 - whIch em
bl 1"'"
- amonr. other iI ..:00
pT10n f. harc'.i or'gm. "cJhcrcncc
J L-I.)rnml n f .111 b 1'<: not an esst'nlJaI
r tJ1 ,r an elhnlc eo'mmunilv. Most
'l:l.zc3bl r .
h c rc Igl( 'il:'; c, mmuOlhcs em
rdC" a number (..Jf dilTerent pcvplcs,
l'I OAF\10:-'ISM ,,-

d the other way (I'und,
nd the fame rcligH n
eras(' lce'S betw:cn peo-
lies.
flr 110\ Y (-OMMI-
NI(lN ('rom 11 ", U' '1au
e'lninD' thank!<.gJv ng ). ont 0: ''1c
m. - R
sC\'c
n
10 1(' oman
Cot/IOU(' and ortllOdar In
which the faithful arc given rel('
and wine, thai were '1l1cgedly the
"hody am.. hlood'
of Christ. According to Chili .,
I ... achinr. lis enahled the faithful
become parlak f thc : _-I
Bod\' and Blood f <. hr r of
Ihe "div ne senc_' 11 I to Jest:
'timsclr Ih: I 11 in:,1I1 JI on of th(
Euebal sl is ltributcd. In ldual
"act It a vc'lip;c f lhc ent
"u;.tl-m of ell ng the fic" itnl
drinking 11 I I( _ d a s3C'rificial
aOim. L hes cu tom'S. c1'y
link 'd WIth II I('mlst'\; belie (
1ot"'mum), ,.,\Y.: d
:l Ihe '''ny, h,rlt " dedinl :1 tt
val OU"i f-O& mal lly m or t:nl I H Ii
f:' . many lemenls 0: oN :lid were
l - wl,d L. Th" F_
( calk thc maIO ';'
In th
n
(l1IS n relic on. It c ..1pU
e ...1 11 I: e" n Ihe ';r-ll '\' L!r
c: :"Itl)' th.... rdc,- of .. "c ft'-
e nrlu\.. III [uchilr n Or
Lt)(JOX (hUI 1 lad 1
t 10' 'lluk. 10 l'li man I .1
I( (hurch \Jhllc 1( (r lr
fo:. llul rec v Ih L It ld
nc 1t th Ec han'l I mat <'dth
olic I: vnen w",rc nlv allowed to
) rtak: f the re (t JOI I 1'1 ..
:ond V 11 in { unCiI W2" i: dt
Idt d I th' hnuld t>. allowed
o fl.,: elvc fh {'on "''''' ate wmc
well In P'ot lant ('lurche, rh
r .JI'h nit: r.slder J nt I
much I }t r =ncnt ' I symbolic r,t
uat wil'lOut mysllcal
anc
I ONGRI-:SSES, '''-
tr"nal nal 'on r 1.1m,,"
( th' Ii thC(lit .. on\l n.;-t 'Y
thc 'OtiOIl verv our
ycu' in v r. u town' of 1C r\d.
congrc !:s were RIV n thiS --. r
ticul:u 1. J'T'It' hec m
r
1ft Ihl
grcat mp rlanl'c h,u
l
en !lta! hc.l
to Ihe a( .:n_":.' of !h( E uc"ar 1.
\1 \nt (".,ngn. \ ill
t"'1(I.----1 V hlfh rdnkmg r .
of l( ltV'\ quc!'.tlon"
drc Ji u d th=ll 11 n .he cpurse
): th c1;:hOl IiI' of 11 '1' I 0:
Roman tholic. n In
..: ,nc tion \\ Ih the ptat n or
Rom :1 ( '0111 doctnnl d rat
ti('e 0 It- c - II n f' JIOI::
II..; ('mtl r-.c . w d !nd I
1( "t' ':u I:: J( han
... ....
-- _.
, . , don. fl.;
lan ;; oc.. on r r p .. ti ..
l ::ru I ilnti-e m. At It:a E J-
Ch"lll _ ( :l n nO':: 1a
( 0- I ) ;1 p Paul V
-;, _ it pc 1 -ondcmmng fl... 01
.' lln!'. "'. } rnt of 1..'"
SOCt I In]..
[I elll m.lo,,_ en e
,k
'In lC Off/l 'J. 'r. '11 1
.onl ." . 01 v'u C t'or ;:rc
mc .:: .. n: C. 1 E J( har
..... ordin on pru sts. II
del I. :t,mtlr. :It thtnrs Ih orde:.r

o. crvlt_ f _ l1.0.
n
/ l' QL;S
nIt f.
ElO,u'llONISM (d, _.0 "11_.
l :r. _ :mn mt.. mnJ?,
'hal plnC ). iln ethll.al (i':;::
ory i -, the Id\ I '.131 the "a-
\ ,nu' ryl :nan ,determm d
st 1\ l. g lacr ppme" 1S the hlg
h' t aim 10 lile, FlJdal ,anLn \: 1mc
'"

mlo Ix'ing u: the ... jcal world and
choe ... o( il are 10 Pc found In the
I( of Sl)("ralc ... and Ari.f;lnlle.
In the Moc.krn Era the idea ... of Eu
were carried further in
Ihe clhicalthcorics ('I( Spino:o. They
were also shared h\" the French lXth-
"" 11uI"\' nah:riali", ... Hcl\'etiIlJ and
nldrm' rudaemnnism was inter
preted In a rather unusual way in the
ethical a henries of Utilitarianism
("etl'my Bentham. John Stuart Mill).
Bemg fundamentally different (rom
('?ris!ian ethic .. , in which supreme
bliss IS only allainable in Ihe next
world, nl'V 'r
5uffns from
* limited nature from its
fatlur::: tu lake nlo aCCOunt the c1as.or;.
based o( moraJily.
.:UIfET\tER" (1amcJ 3fter Ihr.
Anre:nl Gr.ck materialist phllos.
a ;ournal puhlish-
e by Ih4 P 't<'" \ocict t h
Sludv)r'Rr' YOrie
os. ( e In Warsaw since
'UI Jangu'tge). It PUis
) vrlleJc on thc1re'kal
'ns v,.ith the Slu-;:!v
r j .. gton. the.hlslory of the World's
gJons.lhe hlstOrv of fret: thO k'
and athll',m, Ih. sociol In mg
cbology of rellglon. ogy and psv
El HEo.trRISM
.at.l,lllaliM"ln;nn fl r : 'le
'ru uf ,.re allOn < If lh( ong_
.tnd hcrl)C and f
Qtcr'U <)f m"h.\.. wb h o:!Je
%poYndcd In I.,,, hoc k' wcre first
I 'N!"llIen hv he h Sac-r d I-I,s
II rn fl "at 4lh p lOs; 'ph .... Eu
I\ltv B ( ) _t.. arl.,.. lre ':"11.
nd i .J t. h e born In SIt.ll
ling f \tac \Jf1 I
I
d rr ftj. f hUileS ar(
a.r the f I he pasl .Ind
<>1 ,f Ibt: 'lCnlah("ln
J)oL<.1 rhe nan
conccplinmi of Euh '
cmcrus' r
"'Crs nevcrthC'lcsor;. rep nil}.
t
,- resented
empt to prondc a nat I an Ii
lion (or supernatural ph
ura

cnotnena.
EUMENIOES (Greek
"well-disposed") kind word
desses and hcncfaclre' . god
h
So"es In
pant con o( Ancient (' ,
" . II h 1recce I
dla y I ey were hC'ld to be' n_
dcsse5 of reven"e _ En', god
'bl b n)cs. later
nod revenge had he' '
I.'ihed, they hccamc Ix: en ahol
deities. nevolent
t:{lNOMIANS. Ion t.xtreme
. h' Ooup
WJl an the Anan m. v.::-nenl f)' d
after their leader .. me
(d I
r, nomlus
. 94). Sec alsoArianmn.
n OF also
known l' Pusehius Pamrhili (c "":of..
c 140), man ",. iler on cee c' ...
cal questl('"n..'i 1nd historian. He was
Bishop of C'acsarc!:t In Palc$tin
(rom 311 till his dC1lh. m,,11
wrrc ".Praeraflto c"'mg".I-
ca. o:r he Gnsp.::'j,
"a l1islory of
up until the year J:4),
and Vita Cnnslantini" ( 11C
['nperOi ('om1'1nfinc). E IJr;.. '"tius
Was JO" (r the til st ( hr $tJan W' t( ':'
to p"csent 5 c....:mr1l1bl
e achleve-nents of ... ,Ical seil 'nc_
anr" the :nterCSlS 01 the.
( hurch
nmnlES c 4'1 afrN
mondm . ,
lou d
an ( on.-tantmople, and
n .:;;( II h"
tiled th ,'",an( P Y$llrsm. He
L. I ! he manhood of ( hI ,-:-1 w IS
4:onsulJ:<.l nl" .
o.l: lal Wllh Ihal of .rdlOJ.fV
men. \cc, 'T ,.
ulfig E utvches' leal h
Ih .. h
been I nature In Chr I 1 h_tJ
llalur OIal Y iltn., .rhcd by hI" diune
flnh e:
iJ
fhrrdor< hiS hum.1n
f,J appeareu..lS suu,. This
I':V A1'\( il] U AIlON
1!IV
- -
- .-
meant that, EutY('hes recog.n!/ed
(Jlld and n("lt as (,od
made-Man,. as orthodox. Church
leaching duJ. At the
council of 451 Eutyches teachmg
was eonLlemncd a'io heresy, and hf'
himself was deposed.
EVANGELICAl CHRISTIANS,
(lne of the Irends within Pm(n(allt
i.nn, closely relatcd to the Bop/isU
Unlike the teaching of the latter
that of the EVilngc1ical
hased purely nn the Gmpel.L Evan-
gelical consider that sol
\'otion ha<; heen accomplished and
that all who h ... vc come to be
lievc in Christ arc salvation
i<; U -nted to man without my on
tribulinn on hiS 111rt, pur _ V on th(
strength of faith n ( t,risrs rcuemp
s..crifce In Russia move
mcnt began () f om Ihe
rRlddle of the' n 1 .:ent Jrv nd it,
dherenl: wer rcfcrr:J 10 as Red-
srockiJI lorJ (.renVltlc Red
I ock, W'lf h_d v Sited ""t. Peters
In IR/4 anr- prcpagat'd :lIS
Evanr.c1isl J anu dtl;r
POJhkovtsy (liter 1 If"ll? 'r of the
mov .;11\;nl in RUSSia (uil nel V
ilY P- Silkov). The >:a er th::
Evangr'ical Chr "lians W.:. il
tnw_rds Ihe Oe her R
hut in the Iwenlil, l( y aLor' d 1
loyal tan('e Wit' r liio
\ te. In 1Q44 the
(hri11ians 4.-lIb.. thr n, './ with
Ihe ml for ned Yo'13t now
opcratr 'i 'lr I Ii. tf f E 'an .... 'Ii ,
col ("lin lians Bof}tJ }U.
EV""'C.EUlAI. em Rl
0)..1 n' me for l uth m ( lurch:
Ihe .arne nam" 15 U "''1 10 JI notc
varlnU ii' roca.al on' o! p. t .. tant
( lUI hes. Which ddhuc II Luther-
anism.
-
according to
Church traditIOn. the authors of the
acc()unts of the life of Jf.HH Clu'iH
the GospelJ. SS Maffhew. Mark, I.uke
and John arc hdd to he the authors
of the canonical (iospel!<o. Historical
had ...ho\Olf\ that the
were prohahly compiled at the end
of 1he 1M and beginning of the 2nd
century A.D. I.e after the period
when thos. men. tl w'lom the 3uth
orship of the (iosp ') IS attrihuted
by Chri!\lian tradition, were alive
EVANGELIZATION (rom 'he
(ip'ek "euangdion" meaning gOO<!
ncwr"), a er-n J' cd to 101e
ity alm .. ..1 at 'onvi tlOg pc.ples and
IDllVl?uals II (If In order
10 such c v ty the (hurc':!.
tUi"":l!" 0 Iht;: made I)y
I t( hI' I in lhl (ic pel
rding to _ \fotthe.... (j, th(; ..
0" ana:n c disCI;""lcs . 111 l( K
ons, baptillnr them ... " ('Ai '.8:1'.i
Dunne; the per od f colonial anm .:x,
at on And ri;'11 up Jnt I 'le see nd
hall f thl C ... ":.: J:Y, th (hurch set
about 1e k of cvang_ 17.3t on with
t he "Ie p f lonaz zs. who propa
gate j Chi uamtv md sought
conv t the DC 11' P PUlatl("l or the
(ounl cs wh( thev we. c w. rking
the t an faith. The eollaps.
f 'l( imPf-'Jli t 'olomal vstem in
,--uce_ ':!.r ..I new
m( lC-.i. f ''''dnr,clint; n n rller
tL al apt t;- le new \. politic.al
c nditium n the c untfl! of
dnd Ai IC..a. ree l!'V rated from
coil OIal o;"pre \rtel' V.orld
War II, Ih ... lerm !llaW"'n
'lad I.!. 0 b 1 J< J'o den- It efforts
on the :)a: ,. f the Ie m3n (alhollc
to con"ilirlah its poSition
.. mong Ihi oSe S(',-Ilons of 'he
.', 'n whcle the ['loecS-.'i 01 sc('Ulanza-
Itl ,n J.dvancmg mosl r Jpidly. (or
po

-
n.lmplc am(l".g w(lrlcrs \'ou.ng
peOplC' OUl'SI1l1nS wuh
t\JngcliT.allll'l wcre dIscussed .]( the
'icc ":1d \ "c n Council One of (he
(OD,l!TCgJllf'I'1' .n :'lC is thaf
l"onc'cpnc.d 'All' cvangch.7..3lton of the
people-s.
---..
rdcr rnf h\ \ Uho;; lihll ' --.,
h ' )I ' . IOn or "
t I on the pnn<..'iplc of I
k'glC"-al l' \ltlCnl'C' Ihal hisl . OUt o..
d ( II
' ntlCal fOt';
jt rcople .. havc Ind h
rdlglOn whid hears wllne ad a
l'Xisll' nl'c of C, od), Ihc
dence (the in man uf a rc
CVI

IOU5 scn<;c must stem from an Ug.
EVE (from tht:' Hchrcw Hawah"
me mnt! "'source of lift .. ).
() the Biblr, the fiN \loman on
Eallh. the v.ire or Adam. and the
mother d the human race. Lcd
astra" h) 'he SL' rpt'nt, Eve hcrsdf
.Ill )1 the forhiddco fruit from the
Ircc of knflwlcdgc and persuaded
A.d;t,m to do likc\\.;sc. F(lr Ihis dis.
obcdiC'nce God cursed the first man
and the Woman and all their
prog .. nv The BI:--lical story of Eve
Clt'l he rraced back 10 a
mjan ICgcrld.
l""ERIASTIN(. "'ORI. D. See Infi
lilt< World, Iorld.
E\.'Dr'llU t"OR THE EXIST.
OF (600, a '"VStem 01 11.'"tJ-
1:: ... , a rheology and religious phil.
JI\(),phy the logical substan
Iallon 0:' the ClL<;tencc of God and OD
of the nccessity of religious
a . c mOSt Widespread of these
arc the f4'1I0\>."M' (I ) 0
tn I vld .... n
1ltb e ence fonnulated In 1 he
10gq ccntul'\' by the schola.<;f,jc rhea-
Archbi.\hop of
. IS 3.'iCd l'O the co
" fkPtI?';.;: tenee uf a
... I, In gilt P:nlO:t in
t..'VI in real j .. hlcr-- U!\Pl g.
lie (iUJ 'h - - could onlv
1.... . I (V, "'c ... ':-,
uy Sot .. .,0: <TI!
ll17
.cO
ftlan\' < r Ib /(0111 .tnd
IDe t 1lC", f TIll
the r .... '!'tallh hat cvadtncc hes In
p ,1 (,od nee nf a (On
utcac ,1 for the lll:
Iotoc lhL\ l\
I
h' h "
causc. W Il" an lis furn mu:;, he
C,'?d) evidl!l'h.'c
man .IS the Image and liKeness 0
CJI)d. means 'hat God exisl<)
C d) ,arc
Iase ; (2 ..'al cvjdenq; fuz-
O} "TluTo dri.fJotf.r
Cim -txr summarm,"d as ackogw.
rcdgl'mcnt of the ' l'(' of !...1'!i
(lr a pnmary mohve force
as the Impulse hchind any heginrurg
or movement. In the works of LeI(Jlfitz
and ChriSlian Woff( the eXlstrllce of
God deduced from rC("ognitlon )f
the cX1f tcncc rf an uncondilional...:
scnc ..... r d all kind .. of Cns(.
encc Ihal cannL'I be reduced 10 arv
final causcs. Kan, convinclOg'Y
POinted oUI tbe l' ntologJC3J "phlSlry
In Ihi. .. bi.
romt 0 VlCW canno' 1).-- demon
It::d' .... fa
smce it is nol an aSJlC,,1 ':
!hat conccp[ DiaTc(.: Ical malemJ.
Ism, afler rcv::1hn,e; ''Ie Inconslslency
, f conccptitms of Ihe pnmalY :n:
r 11.15. the srccial cause, ,lOU rCJet.:tlng
Ihe oVl,;tsimplificrll view, ,f Ihe inler
aCliOn uf caw .. and efft'ct. d( ml,n
I he I 'en(itic and mel bodo-
loglnJ ert .. ness mhl'rcnllJ1lhe
rcc<>r:r!Uion ,( fupc:rnalural C.lU$l S.
CR mological eVldeDCt". (01
.hc eXISlence ol God; Il) rclc(,llogtl..1l
01 Ph\"t,IC3I-lelf"t,logical cVldenl"C lhal
Can he summanzed oilS (he at k.now'
It dgem nI ,,( tbe Cllilence "f aho;o
lute cq:,cdicncv In Ihe W(.lrld, which
Wa\ forth hv a suprcmcly
\\1!\C. CU"chUC('1. evidcm'c IS made
partlcular)v WIlle USC of In modern reo
f' XARClIA'111
-
- _.
.' s anC poclicc Pro
"il doc$ tl distorted IOlc"'pre
VlJlIlg lh . h I
' of expcdlC.:ncy, I co ogy con
tatl
ct
n
a mehlr () .... orld Iha rulr
)
<;lrU S 1"" . t 0
\ out the man! estatn)O!"
oTiI (('roal f" 31U.i.,\I. .I;
(bri:-' w s alleged!v crue fie"
After the at.'qul'Sllion" Ihls ;.:r(Y'.,:)
was "raised IJP" on "e Mount of
fir Igotha 1(.!r Jeru.o:all n, LIlt.. - on
the ite where if w r f{lun'" a
(:hur h was IJuill that Wa c ru
("pIC""" on Scptcmtlc. .. H, II t'ias
"M':,"'I (slallishc ," t the ory ofth ..
.. cqulsillon of thl.o:. c S Wil fleti
tiou" !!ld t hies l r the HY.S unly
began I ..... appear in ,.,( I
ne
4th md
early "ith e ,t 11 In. At lC s.. .. me time
the csti ....al of the F:talta.: on of the
Honoural-'-Ic and Lire ( ("ross
hegan to : .. ke root, o w 11'1'1 he
ba.lc idl 1 was thl1 man. lil .. Chn l,
\
I
o to , "f 1.' The theory of
oC
men
I d d'
(nor/es DtJrwm rcvca e
.) motivating factor Wlthm li ... ng
hul it was the teachmg f lit (
n,lture. . d b M
( rieal materialom rawn up y
Engels whkh to
tdeology from the SCICt?-cc of s?clr y:
thu!\ rohhing
flIT the existence of (,.xl of Slgm
ficance whatever; (4) moral
!lased nn (he roncept of the,
of a uni,'crsal moral ordcnor ,. fie
world. an abs' lutr and cle:-nal
law as 1C mamlcs: 1t on of I
pr nople In world. nmanue
Kant w"lo pr thiS aw, a!"'
that ':Ie universal '"l( r I law 0
liS C lpaclty as 10 onal t-ar.
se ,dental prest. II til r C":dc,e;or
ve CliO N!cc-mf' a un,v ... r
s1 nle for be 1a\ (lUi unl' when Ihc
eX!! trnf'C of (,oJ w: I '"'e rcc >gn --,
ThiS ev dence I haseo vn the ,_I :
c necpl on df ." c::xi!"tcnce f an
etc ,al rno!"alilv llat If .... J\' h
If rv .. od out II' c cia' c .... It nature
bemg detcr nmcd v In en_I U
. lUre fhc illu f"y nal JI ... 0:
such c nC\.;ptll os h'" been r. ...1DI
i.nglv deml or atcl.I I V Mal"Xl. L.
(n TIlE 1I0Nlll R
ABU AND Lit EGIVIN(. ( ROS "
a { .. n 1 nth Or
ox <. IS l' DC l "lt.- b
{ .f? .. t J;t'l!it s I"rj I ccl - r tl"' d nn
:"pte"bc 14 ( I I. Accor t'lr
<. hn! lian Iraditll n. liS Ie V11 W
in ! ute In memory of 'he cqui I'
lion In '11 '11 r- ' 'Iltury hy 'it t-I"'c
na, nOlhcr o! Ihe I mpc: r <. 'onslan
tinc d Rome. r :he ('t""'s un \"\'hlch
l' lies alc-,g the "Way lr Ihl,; (ro.
o 1:. lifl.: lime which kaas cvcnt
",ail. to hi' sal- 7tirn 1 ern n
prcJ.ch_ n lC -C n 0' r "
..... "1.1 SPCCl.2 k .JcI:'u d
t ,( r Ie. ,r lr cross and f t. n_ d
( rev f If}:' lWD
.... ",,>"';- did the idca IS
pr "Do'cd Ie t effe" thai men md
w-. r::_ '1 sho" re v eDlt'" .. the
Wi I c Iheir Sa\ our 10 \\o e tern
_"s.. t1:" f .... l; :nml .on
r alt.:; e '51{ .on of thc
(rO!: : J( usalcm h"')(). aft ... ,
It was ,:::;ov ... 'II ,( PersIan!
EX \R( n (r"D 11 l;rce,k 'cur
chos me'mm'" "PJI ' 11.11),
(11 in AnClen( reeC(: the hear' of
h
. Is t chcd It." 1 specific
tcpr _. .
h:mpl( ,2) n the I' VI..ant ine EmpIre,
Ihe ' lwcr lCf C a \ 0
t II b :m!' .. up unltl
\"\ onfrom'c ar r ".
t he '. 1 C : Irv a ! an charge:
or the ' hn ChUI ... h wuhtn a
di,l(' e . 3) 10 11C I )'!1.'rodlU (hurch
of odav, the hc ... d
E XAR( HA ffi, \. I' In the
['m III.; In Ihe l..llr bth and Ih cen
,url
Pes In atlmim,tr.di\'\: uml under a
L b<, or gov
mIlitary g.,vcrnor a.;)(J.fl '
,01"'" would be in dof
miIiI bees and also !;IVIUln a -
(2) iD the OttItotJor
Orw<h pr<Mnoe of the OIurclI
_.L:.... SQlIPCti",cs embraces several
...... . .
tj :chia aDd which enJO)'S a certlJa
dqpee of independence. An CD"
"' ... is beaded by bisIwp or po-
IriarchaI ......... who is subordinate
10 tile pucbth. The RussitIIf
do< 0uudI bas _os ill West
em ud Central Ewopc, Central
aad SouIb A "'P. rica and in the
Ukrine.
'ope ill the period
world wars. The
alions
of
of life
places upon
bility for all thl!
world. Within the
movement there are
at heist Existentialism
ItanPfIU/ S_
inus and religi ....
0._
Uv
I./RA
h J
...... of olt! who hitd hecome the
I f t,,,,,_, '.
lavc< of the Pharaoh.
oul of In accmdancc WIth
thr will of their god, Yohwt'h. by Ihc
pwphd who performed
. U'ii. mlradcs In thai end. and
varlO
-1\0 ('of how Yahweh cntru.c;ted 10
Mo'cs the Law (imJutiing the Ten
(;ommondmmtr) on Sinal.
The BihlkaJ !l.lory found. In
according to !'i,omc a
myth, which prohahly r.o .... e
fOUhoing in actual WIth
the hy the JeWIsh tnbes to
conquer Pale!'iline.
EXPEDIENCY or NATIJRAL
ORDER spe<.:ial form of causality
.....ithin the natural world or society.
The question of natural order has
been the subject of fierce ideologi-
cal debate between materialists on
the one hand and theologians and
idealists on the other. Expediency
manifests itself, within the natural
world, in the adaptation of struc-
tures or functions of living matter
10 ils environment, and in a certain
J"urposefulness of the processes 1D
living Nature, which was need ..
Ieleology to demonstrate the
live acti"';ty of God. allegedly dilCCo-
ling Nature towards SpeclrlC
lives ( argumenl from ckS'ih
!arly e,xpcdiency in soaety
Itself In the formal ion of
social systems. in the
livity of men, which
religious
Subslanliate the ide.
titHI. The: scieDl.irlC
Dalural order WE'
the of
'93
form of an overall trend, which
the of the intcrecbOIl boo
plants and m,m.k aad. 'hi'
habitat HlStoncG' re-
vealed the cauu' nalwe or the way
in which meful roo ii4 or 101:'" life
are shaped and the pwp'mfal ....
lurc or human adMty bued 00 &be
unde' .... ndins 01 obj1;..Jy opera-
hng wciaI !awL "Tbe Iowa 01 tIto
external world. 01 NIbIre
of man I*I'IXIICfIII
(Lenin, C,oIb:'c'd Wcwlb.
p. 187).
EXTREME VNCI10N .. AH-
OINTING OF 11IE SICK, tIto
Christian
the
".
bans and prescriptions contained in
the Boob of the Old Testament
knO'lr'D at that time. At a large
gathering of the people be read out
the Pentateuch. Two other Books
"r tbe Old Testament are attributed
to him that are not part of the ca-
-' --
nonical text: they al?P!=ar in tbe
of the Bihle as I
and II and thc)' are meludcd.
in the Vulgate as an appendix aft
the Nf'W Tt'5tamcnt In the
Bihlc, they appear as II and III
Ezr ....
F
.'AIRV.TALE or .'AIRV-srORV,
type of oral poetic "larrative banded
doWD in the folkJ<Y.c of many pe0-
ples. Fairy-tales can be: divided into
the magica1-fanta=-" c etiological md
domestic categories; in addition,
tbere io;. a large group of faJry- dr'S
concerned with animals. Many f3.1ry
tales can be traced back to a myth.
logical subject and contain of
ancient magical ntes.
FAITH, el) dogma, i. - "let of r lig-
IOUS ideas to by e .od;
ual Chrstian, ML"S.JCm, r.ud&t
,11.;., (2) a specific; at jtude towz'-
rc:al 01" m' objects 'I" p :
nomena (and the I5pirituaJ I5tate ap-
propriate te that .- u!.-'e ...."'lee
their authenhCtly truth ac
ccpled without leorehc j or lC;
:aI Faith f this so 'ID-
lind raith, IS "-"1 IS : p
JXlSlte of knOWledge, It 1::. ntl .:
\.4tegory that religious faith fall
lamely. faith n gods.. angel 11.:
dter death. tbe Immortalitv of :
and var ou" 0' ler ....le
FAITH AND RE\SON, .he c ,. '
diction t- lwe"') I itb an:: n 10
herellt 10 any r( I"on o.-m(. moc
10 lC forc In ('lar,' lar. '",
which declred I; 1 in rod' 0 toe
b-gbcst srI! lual t Jlth f M n f
)Iogy which due cos .1C up 'tiC'" ,)1
bl man rea. .. on ) Ile mC"'.,.,- . '\tan
f formal ogu,J1 OJ'll " !If'll:'
Je:: ar s t to ' DC 11 it 'c Dot only 01
ICnowltge ( ,1 bUI llso 'f truly

QOW"ng the wo:ld \f,;.'h.('UI ' ,-ours.
, '
10 f .... In r ligjon human renon
contra'\lcd With absolute divine
!:"":I, which 10 realit)' cODSWutes
burnan cognitive faculties in an
lute form, presented 4,\ an indl
p; ,dcnt entity divorced from Man.
.'AITH IN TIlE SECOND WORLD
inter 10DlInauflnai ssociation of
c: - call9'oups auned at
unc!:..-,ninmg lC socj",li.t
lenc.;.1] rnli-c, orgaruza
lions I )1ft IS c Jnll: S are affiliatl'"i
Ie I; Amor.:" the _ '. t.Jc Cc I!'"
fl - ... f R tigtOI" and l om
e; - - m ur 11 "ln1aJD, '-e Rc..
; b \. -t :K' R Jgion and
I- :;UD 11 gilts m l j ....
(l,A - _ _ - R;g: &:
\.. 'J.:J ... -! "'lI R of
(err. Th ... Falll:: in the ,nd
\\c _ Ih:::r 1 I \\:!h the (abr.-
c lion o( slane.. ")05 - !:.w re
':ling re
1
' .as _ "CU' on
which t!..... .A,... ,,-... pi c- .n Ill.: ....
c . c e'.. and se lUt 1 IlL!
inlo' :1 _(lIe :) vDatt :
IhrOug JI we ' d rnd.n 'tu. way
I wblp 'Jp ,n'.- }O'1cl
Th .. Ass: s heldquaTtl.:-: .. _s.n
ZunI.. .... ,Sw: , _ :-:.!."ld).
"o\LSE o\POSnES, ,;r:,..!l by
Ih..: ,', :trly hn-Jians
nnghnt; OCl'o\'CC'!1 thems:. hoes Ie
Ih "",," will wbl m the"!
Judaeo-Orr. \ TUI1U, fl' r -'X.:anp!1,; l'on
!J_l". rl C;;t. PauL to be l LIlsJ:: o'lpotrle.
iT1 Ihe nOr! canonical 'T .. aching .l(
the fwclve.t\posllcs" (Didac:he ')
aJ ...-i :c IS bIveD ror di:>tingnisbing
,,,'--
fALSE DECRETAl S OF: IS([)ORF
II
" from false apostles. In the
apos D' , f
Rt'\'da/iofl of St. fohn thr /\'Inc rc -
Crt'nee i.e; made 10 tho:'>c who call
Ihcmsclvcs apostles, but who arc nol
really apostles.
FALSE OECRETALS OF ISIDORE,
a collection of Church doeu,menl,s,
mainly false, tbal were compiled In
France in the middle of the Q[h cen
tury w as to claim early authority for
the supremacy of the Pope in the
world-wide Church and to
lialc his independence of secular
power. The False Decretals pro-
pounded the idea of Papal infalli-
bi/irv and served as tbe basis for
canOn taw, In the Middle Ages they
were widely used by the Papacy in
the for supremacy over the
$ecular sovereigns of Western Eu-
rope. The compiler of tbe False Oe-
crc:tals is ao anonymous figure, con-
ctaJing his true identity behind the
pseudonym hidore Mercator. The
author included in the collection
OYer 11) epistle.\. Papal the
So-called Donation of Constantille
and other documents, the false na-
ture of which wa'i demonstrated ir.
refutably at tbe beginning of tbe 15th
century.
f'ANATIClSM, RELIGIOUS, blind,
cxtreme devotion to religious ideas
and the, to follow tbem
unswervlflgly lfl evcTVday liC .
tolerance of adh' e, 10-
faiths and all those of ?lher
ent beliefs. The hi': 0 ?
( hurche, in Particular iL.'?Chva.rI?US
t.burch. flShan
examples of religi ' good of
10 be found . fanahclSm, It is
In particular' th "
'-If !eiigi<)US A .lD e
which this kind of fa way In
tests itself' L. natlC:Ism Illani.
IS toe predo .
emotions over reason T llUnaoce of
. yPes of ana.
- -
vary: the .
f"nalll:, hy w:.y of
mystical, . the CX1
r
l' llli!
fanal1lbm mani[ ...
, If ' "
li se . In . vanous lorms: in the Un,
qucstHlOtng of rcligimt\
rules or vows ( for example, monasH,
V(lWS) , or aSl'l' tic cq'lioits (long peri.
ods of isolation in the desert Clc.) In
the foi sting of thc "true faith' '<In
people mund about ctc. The ex.
treme expression of religiuus. fanati.
cism is rrliKicJUs en/elt\". Religious,.fa.
natical moods arc somctimes ex
ploilcd by the clergy and the ruling
strata so as to fan hatred for thc rep.
resenlatives of other denominations
or faiths, or 10 In!;ligate violence
against
FANG CHENG (c. 4.50-515). materi
alist and atheist of mcdiaeval China.
In his treatisc "On the Dc.or;trudion
of Ihe Soul" hc spoke out against tbe
Buddhist leaching regarding the im
mortality of the soul and life bevond
the grave, stressing the importance
of rejecting life beyond the grave for
man's, ability to act in this world.
Fang Cheng developed malerialist
views on the dependence of the soul
on the body,
FARMING CULTS, See Agrarian
cults.
religious proscnptinn.or; or
limitatiOns on food altogether or
certain types of food. They are used
:n variOu.o:;. religson'S, one of the
major means by Which the Churcb
regulates the hvc!i of believers and
Iheir piousness. There
exw one-day fast! and others tbat
last for several days or even weeks.
:: the Onhodox CliUfh, four fasts of
Fe IaUer Iype are kno\lm: the Great
1St (Lent), which precedes Easter,
I AlllJ'R
I ..
-
-
Ch islma., Fa.or;t (t>cforc Ofri.nma.f),
the
r
fau of Ihe Apo<;tie.'\ (hefore thl,;
festival of SS and PUll) and ,the
Assumption FR.'\t (hcforc the festival
f the same name). One-day fa I-
o laid down for Ihe I'aithful on
and Fridays rod also
)D other da)'5 of the yeal (e.g. on the
eve of Epiphany and on day f
h feast of Ihe Em/latton of Ih,
and Life-Giving r,roj S
During fasls marriages may lot b
c1ebrateG and believer:. mav not
in secular entt"":
menls. In I.-lam considerable. 1m
porlance t5 lC st
known as Saum dunng which it I
forbidden to -ake 'ood betwt".en !Sun
rise and sunset. In Judalfm, 10
fmm public fast.: (:r!I It: )ay of
Atoneme ;II or on d_ vs wt: .. "l r- mo-
rable vccasions in It:: I: ..... e
Ife o, ..mmemo::''It: .... l. md VI(]
uaI ... !ISO k.. I: r. ur
'lOWS m. de by indiVldu. txY'"V ... r
and OD the Ja) wh J \J.. booOl.
tbl il -arents 'lleml -ry f"} t
a sp<.Xal al nosphc .. rei 1 ,"
ches, which heIr r '":11.
1
w
tbemselVes into:l r pc .. mood
encoura&= .. L:1I l.o ... it h.:onf ..
streJtgf.be'l, 11 n in C
that man left to hi ow. \ v:: I
not strong enough '0 ...... _rcome h-
"base n..1hlft; anC! lD he:ll ed.: II
place hi" hope In eJI an lh
Church lnd link hi. whol( lif th
the'll. Fasting IS an Important means
of )1 nging ide og" I md ';10-
tional-: ..... sure to "U" on bc.:.JCv
FAT.\lISM I onccption ), the
IJredc1ermined " haraci cr .f vent
In "Iature, s(, e' y and \n the life of
th individual . In onc or other form
t. intrinsIc to many [dealist It Jch
ings lnd occupies, an impon . .tnt
in the rebg.&oll'> world outlook.
AI knowledgemcnt of "Te
at4 T and ruler of (be wor!;j incvitably
:'Id\ to ncgation of MaD'S capacity
nnuc:nce the course of evenl!> lfId
coodemn.'i him to passivity and in c
tion 10 (he dogma of val me reb-
glOm; mRoifest$ il r 0"
rying dcgre s. II the
dogma of IJ/am. Th( ... \ of fatal
m rind cleat cxpn. Ion in CalVin'
ISm. In il of r ligJOu mO\'e
men! .. ttemp'. arc be' ng made 10
mO\'e !iwav rom fatalL .. m Peerl lfe
di _d With free will : I ght 1(1
take ( r.rg- 01 theu wn 1-
Ih bowcv..:" th , ::y
armc t.:.II solubi c)ntradic" .l.
f r It II out I IOC it' .,1 .. of
,. _ C n...- D' n wtJ wUh 'd s
ree wi :It I r; I .-al llo
-'r
"
a .. opm I n oe
t _.,1 tb Ii hi "lity. ID c n
Ir r 0 that fa. that men
at' d::_ 1)( II P r
IIcul..: fate WlIC ser. t perpc;' J.
aO 101" 11 lftd 1""1 C .,..,nc
h. ) that I e l'tern '.0
rc:;: _ Ie tt:.:msetve tl . l.DeVlta,",1
ClCCto:!'::;!.illC ,;).
t4.1T. Sc"" Vt'JanyorF.uror!.ot.
F4.THER or P4.TER (Latin
r.llh::,"), pnnr 10 the (alh-
"('4 O.urch. M3lDtaIDing thl.'i of
adJre 'S for the priesl bv the
tbe Church sought to fosler ID belie
wen. KT q: 01 rei.,. humility ud
11IE CHURCIL See
: - --
-
Animism) gradually creates gods.
which in their lurn terror into
the faithful and demand propitia-
U()n: The fear thcory was to be
found not only in cla\Sical times
(DemOCrituJ. Lucretius and othen;)
hut it 8151l won 5Upp:>rt from Hob-
bes. Spino:a, Hume. He/vltius, Hoi-
bach and The latter, ad-
mittedly. pointed our that fear is not
suffidcnt grounds for explaining
religion. that it is only one of tbe
components that go to make up
man's "sense of dependence" on the
external world (Fcuerbaeb virtually
reduced religion to that sense). Mar-
xist theory also recognizeS tbe effect
of fear on the proccs...; of tbe emer-
gence and later that of the consoli-
dation of religious cooceptioos.
lLnin referred on several OC(ISiom,
to fear before the blind feNee or
capital as the root of modeiD rei-
gioo: Marxists, however, do DOt re-
gard lear as tbe prime cause of reli-
gion., insofar as it can itself be cs:-
plained with refercoot to die
socio-ecooomic and hislc;rl{ II pk-
Domena.
FEDOSEYEV
trend within the Be 4 .... nllly POIIP
of the Old Belinas tUt .. eIIIb-
li,bed at the e.d of tbe 1M
by Feodooi VusiIyev 'I1oIa
sion drew its suppcwl .....
strata of sode:ty;
pellS8Dls, be",. dIeir
attitude tbe
the penuasioa WP for I
long time a community (0" ... 111
tnl in Moscow at tbe PDetbpp' 'i-
skoyr Cmatfny. where tbc,e WII
both b a monastery and a OOU,t t. At
t e present time &maD groupI 01 the
adherents of tbis peilua-iou arc to
be found in the Baltic .. publico and
in a number of the ccDtrai rep., 0(
the European part oldie USSR.
FEDOTOV, <_.,.1),
Rncs;an teIicio- .....
rian of cuIt_ and poIitii:oI ......
ist. I. 1925 he ....... ed to "'-
.mere he was oae of the I ...... of
the joana! "NoYy Gnd" (No.
City), thai "75 pobIiobed ia Par;'
Ir<HU 1931 to 19)9 ia ...
eIobonIecI his _
nature
gioa, .... irh
FIKH
. ___ -----.:.=:'-_____
t'lJ}t;lSM ..chc "(jd,cs"
meaning 'ftlllh),
ovcmcnl hascd on Ihe rccogrnhon
Ihe need fur rcligiuus failh hand
"n hand wilh knowledge, In the pre!!i-
()f i!, the social and
"phcrc of thiS Implies (h,e
oUlwardly 5cicnhfic defence of reb-
gion with thc help of arguments
drawn from idealist philosophy. AU
the main trends in modern Wer.lern
philosophy '.-
matism. eXlStent,alum, perJOfIQlum. cant and apt ia
neQ-17wmiofm, anthropology. philos-
ophical- arc dosely bound up wi,th
fidcism. Those schools of fidel5t
philosophy have become particularly
famous., which, while acknowledging
the achievemcnls and ncassity of
(
science, nevertheless proclaim that
1 Man cannot confine ,himsclf ,to
} science and cannot do WIthout relig-
ious faith, for science is coaccaucd
with the phenomena of NIhIre,
while religion provides aanvaa to
questions concerned with M..:
spirituallifc and is the only basil_
morality, The very study of Nature,
in the opinion of modem ..
nents of religion, demoaatnl die
limited and absolute re!'tirity 01
human knowledge, Ihus .........
ing" the main prcmices of
faith. The infinite raap
edge yel 10 be o1taiaod I
holds oullo us aad Ihe
acter of modem
edge are pruIIored
in favour of
limited
which
The
n.ooo
..
time: the: majority of anlhropologi"s
thai the of man_
kind go back three mdllon yean. At
the same time all the most ancient
types of Man (such as Homo babills,
Atlantbropus and
Heidelberg man. Homo sinanthro--
pus) in a whole number of signifi-
canl respects arc markedly different
from modern man - Homo sapiens
Origin of Man). Particularly
striking were the differences in the
structure of the brain, which in tbe
case of ancient man was consider-
ahly smaller and had less developed
frontal lobes than the brain of mod-
em man. Proceeding from tbe low
level of ancient man's lbinkinc aad
his limited capacitiC5 for at "cacha ..
we can as."ume that althal .......
did nol yet know religion. 1'IIiI ..
sumption is also bot DC out bJ
cbaeological and
logical discoveries
duvai and Lower
which provide no
existeDce of
tcdly, some
the opinioa tbat
may have bad sc+'+e
ious ideas,
Decrophagia 115 a sod
Yet the eating of
ably the result of
tion and doeo DOt
evidence ror til
Homo
s ..... ",. lint
r.:-rr
Mapoa-.
Clnurh "''-' 1210. cmto.JCJ?B....,.
ranks of t 5::'::--=
proaed 600 to to __
_ -I.. .L_ _5 tJ JU.
""'''11 ..." of -
also 1M(loU ; 'eel
and Aouhp
prac6,ed
their
PORSIEk

nomic!> wa!> only possible via the un-

conditional acknowledgement of the
truth uf !>uch doctrinc5 which had to
be presented to ReaM'lD u self-evi-
dcnt Florensky also wrote
other theological works devoted to
the of olceticum and the
wor!>hip of icons. Apart from theo-
logy Florensky intere5ls in
physics. mathematics, and the hu-
manities.
FOLKUlRE AND ATHEISM. The
oral tradition in popular literature in
the form of fables, fairy-tale" bal-
lads, legends. religious verse, songs
and sayings always contained both
elements of fiction and mythoIocy
and of Man's advsIDcing scic'4
if
.c
grasp 01 the world. The rc. .. of
folklore which took shape over die
course 01 history wac .,.....,
linked with the rcligiouo
look. At the same time, ...........
were also to be fo"peI ill.
such as criticism of dID
world outlook and
even atheist motifs.
folklore became
BOUnced in the
nection with the
stmggJc
mid
talca
who
""
fRANCiscANS, R_ep
mendicant order. It liT:
. o { A . r ~ ~ .
St. r"nPfCU .u. ID
1209. but 500D who
"""",rico or WCllera
lou .... r 01 tile --
c.,.... it the Order of die
MinOI' and it was appioucd
por: under thai ren ill
inSldence on p<YICrty iD tile
Rule applied DOt merely 10
vidual Irian but oIao
,he Order. The
live iD iDODsdaie. but
they
10 a
system as a whole. The
,hinking" ("yolnod..-.o") ....
peared in Russia in the 18th ees ,
aad signified a critical atld" to
Christianity. Those: woo adhred 10
(he official ideology ref'eiiecl to
critics of autocracy aDd the R_
Orthodox Church .. Iree-lhiDbn,
) ( . I h i ~ lerm drictly IICpIM

FREE-THINKING IN
SOCIE'I V, foa iii of
struJJde of the social sin'
to i"iudalis
m
against the
dictalorship of the
upheld I.uda
l
rectcd a.
tic rcti8loas.
tianity and 1_
1 .. _The"""

I118m
the

.. ' '..)
be bad cJeYiaed \0 the
of cultural and soci,1
includiag religioD.
10 religion was I
as a free-tbiDk ..
gion tbe enemy
add \,,08'e .. , but It the a-
be tned to ."",oj. iI ....... of die
individual poycbe, of the --....s
desires aad iDIIiwtl, H. cIohed
religioo --of
-
""
"lllL (iUtMI\:\ IIWOLO(iY
an ChUf("h. AI the prescnt lime Ihe
Georgian Orlhooox Church consists
of 15 dioceses \\-ilki" the territory of
the (icorgian Soviet SociaJist Re-
puhlic.
"TIlE GERMAN IDEOLOG\"'
a work by Karl Marx
and Frederick in which his-
motrrio/i.rm is expounded as
an Integrated concept in the frame -
work a cri.liquc of German pOSI-
f-!c,gchan Thc prereq-
ulslles views
arc outlined for the first lime and
Ihc also prO\idcs a study of
the of productive forces
an.d productIon relations. It is in
Lh,s that thc formula for thc
hctwccn social ocin
and social consciousnco;s first
peared. On Ihc hasis of this cneral
!l1Clh1ological standpoint
15 c.va uatcd .as one of the f"rmc:; of
snoal conSCiousness. The f d
of Marxi<;m re', d nun ers
and 'd 'I' the theological
I ea lsi Idea of I
something with "re 19/(m as
senee "nfits ow "a scp,aratc" es-
a.nd ahove outside
liOn to its carth.J>o y rewaUcn

. . und fOOls
rcliglou r " .. as
one of th r s a ICnatHln a.e; J'ust
. e orms nf Ih . d .
alienation in .. C In IVldual's
which the condition<;
man the of man hy
work Marx and E day. In thie;
the natur(" .ngch examine"
h
' Social '11
t C moment h I m,I' 'os,. From
W Cn mc' ,
aClIVllv was "n-I d n!'i l'PlfllU<l1
hToP r Out is .
r- 0) OCcuP'I' ,a SpeCI
.. I"n c '
COIJ rl":t1ly nallrr i onsclOU'nl.,'
somcl.hlng OIher Ihal It Ii
of eJUMing p'aci < con\CloUSntss
rep lC(; th I' . .
rC's':nts. sOmcth- - ? II 'co{(\,
ft"!iCnling somelh Ing Without rep,
on con 109 n-al' f
.("1. 'IJSnC's.,\ .. ' rom n'lw
emanCipate itself I"r In ;j p<'5ihnn to
rom the World
--
- --. ,
and to Proccl' d It) Ih' (
" h curlll'
pure I cory. theolu ' . ;U1nn 0'
tI c"
/c( U or(J. VIII. ';: .ngll\ (0/.
rclH!I(ln. likL: olh . . , p. 45). Y I
I er t ....pcs f C
(lgy. only 'r +' . t,) ().
P
cndcncc ' IS d . I t.: .1I1\e IIldc
. C\ C opm
depends on the de ....,.1 cnt ()\"i:rall
Sl' I ' r . .. oprncnt r
'. s t.: m 0 "Ot'lal 'I' (l thc
h
h . rc ;'!llllns -
w Ie II takes shape B .
Ihe social rools of ,'II' y C:o.:p1allling
. Usory fll -
Ct lnSt'lousncss M. of
h . " .lrX and E
s cd light , in general . 'ngels
how the lauer might h .oulhn
c
on
followino Ihe rc'-I'U.I c. (lvcrcnmr,
f"' <. unng If
clety along commun,'si I' ) so
. meso
GHAZALI (al,C;IIAZALI)
HamId Mohammad ibn ' Ahu
mad (105R-.1J II), Moslem
an and His
mous works Include "lh ' I '
r Ph'l C
o ,osophcrs" and "o r .
from E" e Iver,mce
th I rr.or . AI:(jha;tali dcfended
c leal'hlngs concernin the
creatIon of the world C (. d gr
h
. ,.y 10 rom
nol mg. 10 the effecl Ih-'I (. -"
I 'd M ' J{!'U cre
an hndy and soul. thaI
n s snul IS clernal. and thaI (iod
can work miracles ctl'. AI('h 1
went f' ' ,t7.a I
h. (lut 0 hIS way to dcmnnstralr
is possihlc
h
e . c p of the mystical philos
op y of .\ufi,I"I1J
GIAOl'R J' , , . nngatory term lor a

cSI'''ccialiv a (hm-lian.
sCu m . I '
I
, . pall,cu ar flv the Turks, Set"
a so Coffer.
DE IA PORRtL or (;II,.
11'4 S POKKEHNUS (c ttll<O-
'1.), bend philos-
0p'll;r a d h'
1101'". In Ishop, He allacked the
110 lSI" If d
defend d { Ahelard, an
''''1 C Ihc Uh,CCII\'C cxiSIC04'C of
taLl c 'n'''e I r .
of m )(j '- p s rt 1m a slandro
ldt
, crate realism,
' ________ ________________ _
T>
legcdly "'xgan 10 speak with other
the Spirit gave. them ut
tcrancc, (Acts 2:14). ACCOfding to
the of the Pcnte_ -1s, glos
wlaha IS the culmination or the bopt
'!tc Holy Spirit, :me of
Vl51hle gtts , a !i.ig'l that )ivine
1IfOCt: has b ... cn grantl d
,hat direct communion with
('od taken plac: RI"':"igious ..; ....
dcsl!pled 10 bring 1bout g10s.s0-
lail., which !i.f'lmetimes gIv: rISe '0
lervous disorders lmong the
fallMu!' m: t>annd am tiCll m
th: l SSR ':rj the lc.w: conc rrung re
ligious ".
-
EOenne II.nry (1884-
1978) french ncO- phil05
ophe;. who held th,at phi1c:s"phical
roblem5 be hnked With reng
fous sacraments, since only ..
faith leads human reason to Its hig
be.''it cognitive .a
n
under
standing of God. HIS mam works ar
devoted to the tudy 0'- mediaeval
philosophy,
GUlCK, Charle. (h, 1919), Amn-
can sociologist and "Irofcssor al
University of Berkeley n California.
In the late 1950s he. began tc rlat-..
ate a methodology am:: tf";j'1niQuc;
for the cmp,r e 11 investigation
religiosity. pattern d method
or measuring religiosity lDc1ude
measurement of religIOUS xocr
COCC, religious faith I!r wor
ship, rf' Igtl as "lOW edg" an lC
consequrnces f r Irosily m 1('']'
religioUS bebav" ur l ,dc 1("
rlpel'Vl.<;ion a number of ..
surveys have been 'ondul:'ea te
rdigiosity in the llnited
(JLQSSOLALIA \from I Gr
"glossa" meanmg tongue md
lein' meanmg h.l bahh ); !
Known :lS the "gift f tongucs , " rl:
tholDglcal . Kmcnnn c n
r
::::
ne:mingle.s r.aUin
l
oul I)\, th
f. itbful V' r OUS me 1t mund!
and words. ,,,n lC ... JI 'I1VQ un
tar IV 'S aft'" ull )1 e'" eme Derv
tf'"lSII"'!l Jndc e nOue le::: of ex
1aW:"ng rraV'ng f. r veral'" urs
end, religiou t.':: '{Co"", "er .,.
.munarv fa: ng md -:l, ...
Ila cillth'al d In C lin
(sllch c; lal f h_
n -
, c
b,
an,l s suh<:. halcd bv
1 J sh -v re al ..I in[ d nl
:h Hoi.,. r t UpC"l1 the l\ptl 0 '
be oav l f.., -, '-c"'st T l1J1tv).
rt,. 1.111 of whlch the Apc.-.;tlcs tI
GNOMES. ") tales. I b=""lfi:. n"-
uperstil" 1l! md n me poerrs
,f Ihe Cjc" mamc pc_la lh Ie
m:tg1.D rv atur _ "t Jar'"
md ore e y .
..... ually depu t:l or JJgD
tw,"
_"Jr !VI
ti '"le r.' _I tt..... ., kr Nt-
d... epr\.: " t ' _ f .a reb J.e;
md ' c.:ol '1\.. J mo'/'! -n ,1
me into pronun __ e t 'ld d
tb :-d JI JI) -\ 1.). !l 111L"
t kr. \lID ( osuo:: n r' OJ
' . rc}; n be we Ju:.t,:u.
-,c m. ar: r. and
at _I.atc wi' 11" an -IV r'lC
htIJ "': t. In, nn b dl' de'" mto
.--,ular ind -':.tiC!''''!fnl,1 vue 'i,
L ,t f. rms ojc
0"'1( d 1:"" I'" \Cl c r; 'Stlch!'l<;
alcntmt, )r
... .1: T,l(l 11",
, . u ,h Imkl J :t:rtJtf'l dClS "I
(" I :'mlnsonnv . tk .. 1l m.11D1v
rom '1r of
r.a IoU lke'l ;'om
. tern Jigwn-s. T'lf ,-Inc al
till C".C.i.'h nee of '1 su-
preme Di ....ine St log mllOtalll
ed
__________
that between the laUer and the sinfuJ Son and God tbe HI. ..
material world there existed emana Is/am it is Allah. . 0 Y SPirit)
lioas or "aeon.s": into some meD Brahma"
there had allegedly entered some ZoroastnanunJ - Ahurr, M,V(z, and ill.
spark of divine spiritual substance so on. The concept of Goct'41 lad
enabling them. through "goosis" (the sonal, supernatural bcin . as a per.
revealed knowledge of God, and the cial aspect of the' g IS the Cf1l.
origin and destiny of mankind), to 'f . urn. In /'Q7tIht'
tbat l'>ubstance (rom its sinful I S oppostle, God constitutes lS17I,
personal force, inherent' a
material environment. Christ was and sometimes identical IQ Nature
one uch person. Typical of the tur I po/yth with N
h c. n eism, the a
tcae mg of the Gnostics is the hundreds of different g.1. can be
duality of the good and evil prin whom is u!mally s; ...... led one of
ciplc, that of light and darkness and 'od I "-eY out as the
X1r I' n,'am g , n monotheism, beli f
an e erne y pes."unistic view of the smgle all-powerful God' h e a
world around Man: the relif-' ous doctrine. Once t e chief
(.,n"",.. cs also tended to stress tbeir of t e proees&
fi ' torm. a.lIon of the main mon
sagnt lcance as chosen followers of the sl Ii 0
God and to extol the mystical ways I IC re glons was complete th -
for knowledge of God and emerged ,8 and pbiloso
If t I cal teachmg With relation to GOO
P
,
":" - c taking a ncga- th I
\'Jew ,of rallonal cognition and ogy, becomes not only the
SUDplc: f31th., The doctrines of the object of and worship, but aho
Gn06h?, which had much in com- a concept m Idealist philosophy. The
mon Wltb the teachings of the New concept of gods emerged in the pr
Tutament nevertheless differed of tbe.evolution of religion
from Ia,tter in their sophistica- 15 With the transition from its
on, their disregard for the Old Tes- pntnillve forms (fetishISm, tolemism,
rejection of the redemp- a,nimism, magic) to the pmoni/ica-
trve mlSSlOD of (allhougb they of forces of Nature. The dis-
hJm as Saviour), their mtegrahon of the prnnitive-commu-
dtXetiSm and certain other features nal structure of SOCIetv and the
The teachings of the Gnostics of alliances between
to ex.cn strong influence on Mani- tnbeS. classes and states made
and dualistic heresies of the the establishment of
"AiddJe (such as Ibe Paulidans theISm. namely. the pre-eminence of
the /losomiLr and the CathDl. gods from those tribes wbich .. '-
sumr.d a dominant position in the
(.oD, :m. illusory J,c II? endowr. nvw commumtics. MarduJc. Osins,
'!'.tb qualities. who d Yahweh. Zeut, Jupiter, Perun be-
'" 'JIaJD l Jed: ',f wor.;hJ 15 ('arne the supreme while the
all rrllguNu. All p m gods of other tribes e the pa-
attnbute to Goo', of vanous typr .. of cconorru(
perfect per: n ties of a aC1:Mty A t
world and who, erelte,:I ':he - (empls fO explain the rea-
___ ... ,( sons for the cmcrR:{'nt:e of the idea
With hIS WD --"e Inm of God "ve be d d . e "''''''I,1J ,IJ.iI en reeor e SlOe
YoIrMleh' 1Il ('1."";_ ' m, ttme imme . I .
Tn.nuy ((,od th,ul.)tlam/V the HuJv W mona. In the Ancenl
t' Father, God the . ond the ,emergence of conapls of
God WlS hnked with man's inability
(;QO-8U1UHNG
-
-
-_.-
- lain elemental phenomena of
to exp This idea !>lemmed
Natotilie deification of tribal chids,
nn'NCrful military leaders and
tbe of God was
po ted as a curuung wvenllon of
priests. who ,it to
tb ngthe
n
their own position In
Many outstanding thinkers m
ish I>ub)ectioo of man both by cnt:
nature and by the cla5.\ yoke
diaeval times and the Modem
regarded the idea of as Ahe
que
nce
of the decepllon of tbt;
con"" I wh
then ignorant e, 0
ceepted as reahty tic hnb be-
cause and effect, In tht:. 9tb
and 20tb centUf'iCS in bourgeols
ing on religion the, mythologrea!
school gained e:ucn5Jve ground' t
beld that the concept of God was e
result of tbe prTsonification of cos
mic phenomena; there wac:; also th'"
animistic Jchool (Edward Tylor, H,,-
bttf 'ipencer) which interpreted the
<lea 01 God in the lieht of tb. evol
ution of concepts of lC soul, the s0-
ciological schrol (Emile 1.
that God was 8 vmbol,
in whicb society :1eifies itself, r ruit
Cui attempts made It veal e
psychologica1 I ifls or the em '
gen"'.... the idea of God (l..lldM. R
Feuobach), AU tbear es r nanling
the emergence of the ide f God
opposed theoh tgical pO::' Jlat
concerning the ide' f GO(. lS som
thing eternal and innate in m vet
which cOfUolidght tbat subjec
lion, lull to slup the cla
(Lenin. Works. Vol. is, p
128). The cns.u that all mocJcrn reli,
gions are going through is directly
linked witb the loss of faith in (jod
try thc broad mas-tcs, Wbile acknow-
ledging that this process is indc-d
under way, priests and
are suggesting means for injecting
ncw life into traditional theistic con
cepts and aJ coming forward with
mtJ<! 'Dired <JoeepOons 01 God.
GOD-BUILDING. a philrsc::'UcaI
and ethical trend which d n
the mi<b of Russian Social Democ
racy after the defeat of th )
1907 RevoluuOt: Its r scotatJVCS
indud:d Vladimir Ram-' , Pave
y ISbkC ch. and :natoly Lwu;:. lull'-
Jky "Jaxim Gorley was alSO 'lC1
aled with the group for a but
Lenin's influence later brot
witb t. 1"1:. God-builders atte pi i
t c soentiJ:l . 'SID with
r ligion ano d be f("tOler e
'haraeter of a rctigi('lus ere ['bey
W('tc very much affeeted by t
of religious altitudes
the h\1urgeois intelligcnt!>ia and "I
hy Ma<hist philosophy. above all the
1 was only Mare lthe m (see
hrism. Mar::t'" wh' rev lied with
rdeence to romp lve SCI l'
tiflC data tbe soc al md steml
logtctl reasons for the emcr m.: of
empiriomoOl sm of Bog
danov with his notion of mdividually
and C lncctivdy organIZed expc'"
cncc_ AmocalCS of God-building
ugge ted that the ethical value of
t Marric;1 ',1; rid outlook would be
Ie comprchcnsihl t th
I the peasac faithful 11 d
the idea of God, caRdlllOn n
whic'l th' Ilea em cd d n
odie 8\\ OJ Us lO("on ent nd
ie lODary n . Jl I al I nd
(I contl 1t W(, s (10 tory
and in rcalli e fir t of al lh
plcx of ide "lC ted the br It
Were 0 < umc eUgaous fi rm.
d lh (od builders to t.k
f Cosm nd e people as
new l\'lJec s atlOn, nd t"l
deLly he p pie ltivitv ,tOd, col-
....uvc emC' n (sut ':I 3.! patrott<;m .
>'"
GREGORY OF NAZlANZUS
usI by
two and sometimes even
neo y 'wh posed each
three popes. 0 op
oc:bcr with fierce ardour. Great
Schism seriously undenDlned tbe
aulbority of the Papacy and that of
the Roman Catholic Church as a
whole. The Council of Constance
(1414-1418) pul an end to the
schism. It deposed the three popes
then reigning and elected a new pon-
tiff-Martin V (1417-1431), which
marked the end of the "troubled
period" in the history oftbe Papacy.
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, SL or
GREGORY TIlE THEOLOGIAN
(329-389), ODC of the Fathers of the
Ouuth, a prominent ftgUJ'c among
the teachers of the Patristic age.
GJegory of NaJianzus was the
author of orations written according
to tbe rules of classical rhetoric and
twelve hymns, fragments of which
been incorporated into Church
...... Mics.
-
through the of .
grau, Only on this basis did the his
emerge for Man the ......... 5.ibil. r,
. . h of
commUni on WIt God. He made
contribution to tbe la l
borallon and formulation of e .
basic tenets of Christian
dogma, eugetics, )
mental state in man, wlhcb
is sparked off hy some personaJ
social loss (more often than not tb;
death of close friends or relatives)
In tribal religions and the
of early classbased society the bor.
ders between life and death were
blurred (death was viewed as a re-
turn to the land of man's ancestors)
and grief (or the departed did ooC
exist In Islam, Christianity and to a
lesser extent in Buddhism the gener-
ally accepted moral code made grief
some kind of institutionalized ca-
tegory and special for ms for its
manifestation were elaborated:
involving special dress.,
and rn a number of denominattons
even special hair-styles; special pat-
terns of behaviour dates for remem-
bering the departed etc.
GUARDINI, Romlno (1885.1968),
German Roman Catholic philos-
opher (Italian by origin), His ideas
are close to those of Christian airt-
OItiaJis"!. out from a thesis
tbe contradictory nature
of life, he elaborated the idea to the
effect that man is incorporated into
the !'OTld by God by means
oI
t
his Christian faith. He attempled
o. Ulterpret Christianity a5
thiog separate from religion
:nIl 4UME DE CONCHES (b. in
,.. d,.c. 1145), FrcDCb phil.
In.his "Dc phiLJ tr-
Ibllneh" (Philosophy of die
GUYAU
--,'"
Wid) and "Dragmaticon philo:<.o-
h
C?r.. (Dra<rmaticon of
P
.ae /';1"" ed "d
b) he resurrect ccrtam 1 eas
Y,he clas."ical atomi.,,"! an.d
't'M/cd orthodol( Roman Cathohc
crll.... \ ..
bilosophy. When fin \'tng
Pd WD from the natural 5Clenccs he
ra ..
demanded that the an'ilng
should be argued over. With refer.
ce to logical dcduCIlOns., rllther
aJlu ...ions to the Holy Scriptures.
He was binerly anacked hy SI. Ber.
nard of Cloirvaux and other theolOgt-
ans.
GUILT the violatioQ.... of moral .m
the Jinked
-WJt this feehng. Religion .lends mys-
tery to the concept of guilt, presen
ling it as a link in Ihe relations he
tween Man and the fantlSlical,
supernatural element. In religious
ethics, particularly tho$e of Chri.f-
lianiry, guilt is secn L'\ a primordial
feature of man's existence.
GUYAU, J ... M.rI< (1854-18981,
French positivist philosopher
Guyau saw religion as providing a
fantastic explanation or the world
around us by presenting us with an
analogy with human society. Reli.
gion, according to his vit..W'S, changes
together with the of
aely and wit! in the future disap-
pear. Yet Guyau held that it was
possible to propagate a new religion
based 00 lofty ideas
IIARUSPEX
'"
HARUSPEX (pI. Haruspices; fr?m
'h
word "harus'" meaning
e """....-- ." ..
.. t" and the LatlIl.
gu, "'0 look") a pnest-dlVlner
meanmg , d"
in Ancient Rome, who made IC-
tions on the basis of the entra.-Is of
sacrificed animals and also mter
preted various "signs" (such as
flashes of lightning, the appearance
of iridesccnt rings round the sun,
sudden epidemics or dreams). From
the 1st to the 5th century a spcciaJ
collegium of these priests was or-
ganized.
HARVEY, William (1578-1657),
EngJish physician, physiologist and
embryologist. He expounded a sys-
tem of blood circulation which re-
futed previous ideas on the subject
that had been accepted by the
Church. This gave rise to bitter at-
tads against Harvey from tbe
ciergy.
HASAN (c. 625-6(9), Second Imam
of tbe Shi'ite dynasty of imams elder
son of Ali and Fatima. the
of Ali he was proclaimed Ca-
liph 10 661, but in return for financial
be renounced the Caliph's
favour rule.r of Syria,
H
08vnya. The Shi Ites mamtain that
.san was . ed
ate L.:_ po1M)n and tbey vener_
IQUI as , martyr.
lJL.BASR1... HASAN Ot"
a"ottr- of the first
ta .....,. mystics 10 Isla r
runner or Sufis H . m, ore-
Moslem doct.ri:' e reJected the
titUUictJ and be predes-
pn$lcued/rtt tbat man
ilASlDlSM (derived [
brew "bB''dh'' me . .the He
.. - anuag PiOUS")
"t">\IlI IDO'iemeal a.mo ' a
of Poland and
-
emerged in Ihe early 181h
Initially Hasidism a
rorm of soc.ial protest hy
classes agamst the domina!' tlWer
those wielding financial of
. ,., .. "r lR th
community and Supporting", c
b
" S h IS"ab
IS. ,oon, owever, it was to I ..
initial character and to bccoos
e
Ih
, me an
opcn.IY within
Juda/sm. ThiS shift III Hasidism Was
promoted by the so-called tlQddkj"
(" "gh' ") h ' m
men ,w 0 had COme to
a still authoritative
tlon In relation to the faithrul th
the orthodox Rabbis. According
Hasidic .beliefs, Gpd (Shekbinah)
present everyl.hmg that ;(
man. ThiS rehglOus-pantheist view
was used to lead on to the conclu.
sion that :'wreet contact" (Devckut)
was posSible between the believer
and Shekhinah in prayer, which
makes Talmudic scholarship un.
necessary and likewise mediation of
Rabbis. Hasidic Jews regard Evil as
the lowest level of Good and link it
too with Shekhinah, These concepts
were brought together and sum
mari,zed in the doctrine of joy, which
mamfested itself in the songs and
dances of an ecstatic nature that
were part of Hasidic practices of
worship,. also in their rejection
or asceticIsm, The main centres of
at the present time are the
and Israel. Hasidic mysticism in
Its modernized form (Neo-Hasid
ism) is propagated by mod-
ern apologtsts of Judaism.
HASKALAH (Hehrew "enlighten
ment"), a movement for enlighten
among the Jewish bourgeois
III e 1gentsia in Germany Poland
and R " " '
. USSla In the 18th-19th cen-
tUTles. of HaskaJah came
Jagaln."It the reactionary ideas of
e ews as an eXclusive ethnic relig-
----"-
lI! 'AVI':!'oi IIEI",.I,-" __ _
_-..!:rn
unity oppO$Cd
ious the di.\..o;.cminatinn of
8f1,d a.:. among the
SClClltulC
man's behaviour on F:.arth, the realm
of the dead that was originally <me
JeW$,
"OR. in thc religion of Ancient
sky goddess, protector of
d p;oddcu of mu!tic and
the was depicted in the form of
love, c a woman with cow's horn .
and the 5ame for all men was
divided into two: the
realm of tlernal hliu for the righ_
teou. ... and Hell--the rcalm of t(lT'
ment for sinners. Yet these <;nncepl1
of Heaven and HeU dId nollmmedi
atcly merge in the religions of the
ancient world to form an integral
concept ()f life afler death. The
ancient Egyptians. for example, be
lieved in a life of paradise for the
righteous in the holy "Ficld'i of
Reeds", but at the &ame time they
considered that sinners were de
voured by tbe cruel goddess immedi-
ately after the last judgement '{)Cr-
formed by Osiris. The ancient
Greeks believed that mosl of the
dead came to a gJoomy Underworld
ruled o'oer by the God Haths and
only a chosen few went to the Ely
Stan after their death. In L;
fOQJtrianism or Aiazdaism, tbe reli
gton of lhe ancient Persians, the
conceptions nf Heaven and Hell
mage together as onc_ In world Ii-
gt01lS, such a<; Chri.stianity and IslDm.
c,ow or 'd .
cult of Hathor, who was I cnl1-
f! d wlth the goddc!ts Sekhmet, was
not only in Egypt hut
beyond its borden.
HEAVEN. See Heayen and Hell.
HEAVEN AND HELL. to
religious beliefs, places to which the
souls of the. dead .arc. Hen
igitifies the place where smnr:rs an.;
to suffering after death,
while Heaven or paradise is the
abode of the rightWu.s after death.
ConceptS of life beyond tbe grave
evolved becau!'>C primitive peoples
failed to understand such phenome-
na as life and death, and believed ;0
immortaJity and the continued exist.
ence of the individual after death.
Finds made in ancient burial sites
bore out such beliefs: the dead were
buried with their weapons, food and
domestic utensils, in other words.
with aU that was essentia.l for lifc_
Later views took shape to the effect
that only souls were immortal, not
bodies. In the era of primitive so-
cieties, life beyond the grave
thought of as an improved version of
life on Earth: there the dead would
always be sucees. .. ful in their hunting,
and he ahle to c('ilIeet an abundance
of edihle fruit and roo1!-_ After cla.\S
society had emerged, complete with
Its rl'pressivc machineT)', and after
there had taken root of Tt'tribll-
tio'! or f'CHOrd in the after-tife for
c It:arlv defined conceptions of the
w(lrld' bcvond the grave, or Hcaven
and Hell arc already to be found.
hl1 centuries the social func- 'i
tien of these conceptions was that of A.
reconQljng man ";Ih a social order
nased on the ,of
class hy another .. m promlsmg
rewards after death for all
lations lie sulrcrs during his life
Earlh. Modem theologia!l:'- in
efforts to reconcile tradillonal
lUres of Hen as a l\ubterranean Ire-
filled GchtllnQ, and as a
beautiful garden v.ri.lh the Views of
modern Man, maintain [hal Heaven
and Hell should not be:
literallv, not in any physteal sense,
not as real 01 torment, but as
!em calendar, which ,also came
knoVl'll as the Hegtra. In ac
\\;tb the lunar
calendar the year of Hegl.:e
a

came to an end in Nove
m
r
and the 15tb century began.
HEGUMENIA (from the Greek "he-
goumcnos" meaning or
Mother Superior, the nun In charge
of an Orthodox convent.
HEGUMENOS (from the Greek
"hcgoumcoos" meaning "leader"),
(a) a title of accorded to
hierodcacons or hicromonks when
they are promoted from the lower
ranks of the monastic hierarchy; (b)
the monk in charge of an Orthodox
nIOfI4SIery or his deputy.
HEIDEGGER, Martin (1889-1976),
founder of German existentialism.
He viewed human existence as
threatened by anxiety, desertion, de-
cadence behind which is concealed
the temporality of existence and so
on. Ch,ristian teaching on the subject
of .Jill IS transferred by Heidcggcr to
the "'c:nsaential" of man's guilt, while
S4lwuiorz be presents in terms of a
for true existence ("Scin und
Zeit and Time-(927)"
,.,.. . later to slart
sear
d
.... uans.cende tal "
_ n eml-
te e ID. poetry and myth, but the
7.. be declared 10 be the
the world, when man is
God mdDpOO to keep about
. meetmg for him.
nDtaee ' modephitosophy was to in
..... and
H.Ij"NUICH. Kart
Gennan
I
tlreach COn.
,
siders the philosophy of /(
the standpoints of, firM, alh::;f rron:.
then, theism, The " LeUers" IJ1
what is for all intents and p COntain
an apologia of atheism, an
tion of the superiority of
morality over religious heISt
HEINE, H.I"rtch (1797-IR56) G
man poet and revo!uliona'l' d' 'Ct
h
" k cmn-
crat. In IS wnr he combined '.
" [I" trltt
elsm re Iglon and. Church 'Nith
and satire. He
etltlel7ed. creationism and
the docttlne of dlVme expediencv r
Tcleol0&y''' ), Christian
(tn. On the of Religion and
Philosophy ID Germany"). H
p?ured on the
disputes of religIOUS fanatics in his
"Disputation" and "Testament" and
singled out the reactionary social im-
plications of sermons relating to life
beyond the grave, advocating in its
place man's fight for happiness on
Earth in his work "Germany a
Winter's Talc", Hcine linlted
cism of religion with the struggle
against feudalism, the monarchy and
philistinism.
HELIOCENTRISM the idea ae
cording to which the Sun i!i the
around which the planets, in-
cluding Earth, revolve. In Ancient
Greece this concept was pro-
pounded by Aristarchus of Samos
centuries B.C.), but seien
hlie confirmation of this idea was
first provided in the 16th century in
the worh of Copemicus. In the sys.
tern devised by Copernicus the role
of the body central to the Un;,oerse
Was ascribed to the Sun: the planets
move around the Sun and
Ihem lie. .. the sphere of tbe raed
stars which prOVIdes the outer edge
of the Universe. The discoveJ'icl
I
I
111.1' 111\1 ,S I'\.iS
.. ,
real cnndilillM of lire This led
him putting .In cnJ
tn d1S.ot.atl!'.factlOn required more
than Just the enhghtenment of the
, that feudal tocictv had tn
he climm3tcd and replaced by " '".0-
clety (1f rea<oon, His main Were
"Dc (Concerning the Mind,
1758) and "Dc rhnrnmc" (C..,ncern.
ing Man, published poc;t humously in
: '71)"
-
-
- (iatiki, Kep/a and ""(' .... tol1
fTlad
e
it'llc to dcvell'p the the
de It po!'.s .1 k"
fTlJ r hclioccntri ... rn ;lnu rna e It
or)' 0 ,.,'!'.e. 11 dl.:mnn .. trated
re prec ' " I
fTlO the tU,rn not a elf(': e
th
a
\ II an elliplll.:al Ilrt'llt and that
hut .0 () S the fnree that hinds the
''''Y wa, " h
gr et5 and the Sun, t e
plan of their movl.:menl. further
discoveries led up tn the
that the Sun is the centre
c1 he Solar System, and not of the
o t rsc as a whule. The elahora
Unl
ve
, [hI""
, r the concept 0 e locentnsm
tlon
O
I""" [
undermined the rc IglO.usll vtCh'w ()
k
"'nd's central, specla y e {)fien
fTlan .
role within the UOIverse
HEL10S. the S.un 01 AnClcnt
Greece, who the I light o[
the sun and the hft: gIVIng ,orcc oj
the sun's warmth.
HELvtTIUS. Claude AdMen ( ; 711',
1711), French malcrialisf
opher who held that matter .1nd It!'.
movement f(lrmed the of the
world and rejected the existenc-' (If
the soul outside and indcpcmkntl,;
of the body, Helvctius' nmtrit'ul1on
to the development of atheism W,IS
his suhstantiation of the idea III the
effect that religion is the fam;lstil" re'
flection in men's 01
their real ex.istenre. He .',aw rcfiKiPfls
morality as somct hing thall,;I lnt r a
dieted common sense ;Ind thl: idea
of eivic virtues. lie was an
of freedom of worsllip, whil'h he In
terpreted hcinp; not (lOlv rdi1!ious
hut also the right Itl rC,ket
of all kinds, In n,piana'
tlnn for the origin of he
came ncar to the f.let
that religion came into he ing OIl!
onl y hceausc of man's fc.u of the
ckmental for ce!i (If Nature hut abo
hccausc of hi s dissatisfadion with
b
HI-:NOTUUSM (from the Greek
"hen"', "heis" m!.:ani ng "onc" and
"theos" meaning "god"), one of the
variet ies of polrrll cism, While
t.heory the.;
l,f many gods, any g.iven (Tibe ,,'
grvup of Irih"'" would cC'T\!'.ider onl.,.
one 1"' them to he ItS. 0'0\11 panit.ulaT
rat ron and wuuld worc;hip that god
ga\'c tn the 'pc'
nmecpt amtlO(?, thc mcmhcrs of
thc give 11 dhni(' of a union he
tWl' l' 11 t hem and a "rccific god and
\ ,I thc wa\' in ",hich cach W3' chosen
(pr Ihl' oih..:r. ('onl'epts (If type
\\,,;rl; tll fi nd cxprcs<, ion in a number
01 hllllk ... of tht" Old in
... hi.;h the l)f h rad and one
"t' tht lIlt "c1ohim'") named
lahhdl l'ntcr intn a contract Of
",(wen ant" ,
HEI'HAESll IS. in the Il{
Anr icnt ('recr..:. thc g(xi (I f fit !.: ,\OJ
metal-working.; he ",as worshipped
,is the patron llf naftsmcn. He was
t hl' snn \) f Z ('II" and Hrra (or Hera
aill ne). He was ugly and lame 10
tlolh this not
him from takmg as a WIfe the:
ful AphroJItt'. Hcrhacstus WI5 a skll
ful craftsman: in his enormou<,
undergruund smithy he forgeJ
thundcr and lightning ftlr Zcu!'.. The
myths concerning Hephaestus re
Occt the high level of arts and crafts
HERA
in Ancient Grcece. Hephaestus was
depided dressed as a
with a hammer or tongs 10 his
hand. His Roman counterpart was
VU/cQII.
HERA, in cia.("<;ical mytbology, the
daughter of Donu! and. Rhea. She
was al50 the sister and 'Mfe of Zeus.
She was worshipped a.'i the queen. of
beaven, queen of the Olympian
gods. She was the of he-
rocs and citie!i, of marnage and fam-
ily life. The cult of Hcra influenced
tbe devcl('lpmcnl of the wor!ihip of
the Vi,ogin Mary in tbe Christian
Church.
HERACLITUS OF EPHESUS (late
6th to early 5th century B.C.), philos-
opher of Ancient Greece who be-
longed to tbe materiaJist and diaJecti-
cal tradition of the Ionian School. He
viewed the world that bad not been
created hy the gods (the Cosmos) as
pcrpetuaUy burning fire that flares up
one moment and dies doVo'O the next.
He critici1ed the traditions of mytbo-
The graphic way in which Hera-
cbt\l.<; expressed his ideas and the
traces to be
found in his wnlmg5 bnng Heraclitus
e't'enlually, as certain fragments of his
work make clear, todeiry the primary
dement - rue - and tbe rational pro-
which constitutes the law of the
Later this ii..<ipect of
era Ius' philosophy Was taken out
. in the re-
of i.n the
teaching of OmstlQl1ity
(In. 1:1-5)_ tbe Wo,d-God
HERDER. JohaDIl Gottfritod
(1744-1803), Geonao ph-I ...
and author. From a I
standpoint be ... panthelShc
ttIllCl7.ed traditional
-
-
theology and tcachings rcgard
non-material nature of the the
also denicd that thc world had he he
created out of nothing and re. cn
the idca of Qriginal .'fi" and rcIJ,C:tcd
- I 11 g!O\l.\
1010 cr.ance. . c camc ncar to r
the Idea that life and
ongmated naturally. Thc ideas H
der lert hchindfhim were
tory: aspects 0 !n:e-thi"kinR are t
be found side by side with an
gia of religion.
HEREM, . in . JUdf!ism . anathema,
excommWlIcatlon hnked with a hu-
miliating ritual. Herem made a man
the object of contempt from his fel-
low believers and condemned him to
social isolation, while his works and
writings would be destroyed. The
free-thinker Uriel do Costa was
placed in herem for ten years, and
SpinoUl wa.<; also anathematized by
tbe Rabbis.
HERESIES (f<om the Greek
"bairesis" meaning originally "action
of taking or choosing" and later a
"teaching" or "religious sect"), relig-
ious teachings deviating from the of
ficial doctrines of the Church in
questions of dogma, worship or ad-
ministration. In the feudal era when
religion dominated all spheres of in-
life, heresies provided a
rcllglOus form for the expression of
class contradictions and conflicts.,
and often served a.t; the ideological
banner . for socio-political move-
duected against the existing
SOCIal order and the official Church
whicb ddendcd that order. The con-
is u!\ed mainly in
to "anous movements 1n Chns-
althOUgh it l.o; also applied to
trends in other religions.
the heresies often reiterated
I eas of Chri.<;tianity in its orig.
-
. al form, the idca!l nf
'f" -,ts formative pCrlod: N/("o{u/
rOtO . ...,
E
bioni/(,.f, Mnnlamqs, '''01"0-
tonS, . M-h
- - IS (ino.slfO, ame aean\,
1l(H1/S , L-li" TI:.
M01l(lTl"lIiollf , S.alll;; l<t.n.. elc. . I""
content of vaned accon.llng
to the stage dcvelopment of so
. ty the speCIfic nature of the
in the rc,o.lm or slate
in question according to the
da..<;.ses or ethmc group!i whose
ests a particular
On the basis of the foundall?n
of the various hereSies or the s(lC.lal
strata in which they spread, hcreslcs
are classified as pca<iant, urhan
(bourgeois or plebeian), bourge'),s-
aristocratic or pcasant-plcllClan.
The first set of ideas providing thl"
basis for beresil:'i was anlt r mta
rianism (Ariani-fm, Nf'stononl-fm,
Monopllysitism, Monotht:litism, the
Novgorod-Moscow dual-
ism in religion (e.g. Pouirclans, 80g0-
mils, CothoTS, Alb'gense.... Wolden
se!), mystical po.ntlleism (A.'!'.olri
cians), mYSllcal Chl/losm
(Joachimiles) and so on. The frt
lhinkil1g of certain heresies went as
far as to acknowl ... dR,r that math. IS
eternal and not C ltCe. (f)o"id of
Dil1ont), that thl" word h,,'i always
existed (TheodosfUs KosOlI. On the
basis of the above mf''!11 prinl.
pies orthodox t: ,chlRrs wcre re
jected on such suhjec1s.s th" trini/V.
Christ, the Incarnation, redemption.
soh'alion, sinfulness; worship anu so
craments, Ihe "holincl'S" "f lflC
church, m. noslic n: the
of the e1e-gy were I clc..;(cd; the
wC'-"'d on C"L-".l wa.:: {'roclaimed lI' be
th- kingdom 01 eVIl. or the fkvil. "'r
th" Antichn t. (hur h ant..! stale
':utbor:ties :0 S;JiJ1CCt hcretic ..
ocru ... II-' ,;:, utlc'n t.nevdu-o!j J.nd
bul/os wcre drawtl up [0 dcal with
;bell\., Ihey wcre condemned ;ll cu-
, '
-- ."
"'o,ical Itnd local cmmc.h. thev
were excommunicated and oflcn pUI
(0 death. At the heginning of the
nih century a special Inquniticm
W3<, oct up in Ihc Roman ('atholic
("hurch under a Rffihop and 'hi
lalcr was replaced by a cenlrali:lcd
Papallnqul"ition. The me-hoc! Il..<;C J
in the struggle against he elio; in !hl""
Orthodox (hurt,;h were DO kss
harsh.
HERMA or HERM, qUildrangul.1.J
pillar topped 1:r) a -ulptured he.lll
(or ginaJly thai . ,r Hermf'! In
Ancient Greece IhC5t; c-.cd as
Sign '5. objects of we! con
to have m aglul .lower
gu ,.rdians of he fronlier j
m,.rkc"
r'lm he <ired.
"he tnt. :1cutik6s" - _ ,ning "'I:xperl tD
r-: talioo"), the vi. and thl-Ory
of interpreting teXls, \\ _ origiR1.1
meaning is not de r bec3\Ke of th ,r
great age .. b ,1 j1 '>Cf": .i-
tion. For thc IDtCrp: tall, 'n \"( sucll
text. e""lmmatical in\eSligation l 1
(he I.! undcrtakt;;D and ,J
malysis of {he [:-'Carie psYCh! hlglc II
md 'l8ckground a .. t
tht jc ;um{nt under invc
HOll was c, mpllr..;,j. fbe .jnc"cnl
sa.ene:..:. of m 'lleutics dcvdope:l
in lhe Helknist\c in c. on clion
wjlll the lirlltifle in'cstlr;..ti(ln
: il was als...'1 mploy.:d
for the intcrprctatldn of lhe Rjb/f,.Tn
relatiorl It \\ hit h
means oul the' hteral, ab-
stral.t mor3lisll{ and I
ca.1 of thi" (t:xf.
HERME.'i, in the of
Am;ient Greece, thl wn of L.eU!
Maia, daUghter of Origtnaltv
he was worshipped .is of herd
'(iIS I US
244
n and shepherds, the patron of
and nocks, but latcr he W3}
also worshipped as the palron ;d
roads, travellers, a
d
Hermes was considered 10
Ira ers. . I'
be the messenger of the 0
gods and the conductor of the souls
of tbe dead (0 Hades.
HERMES TRISMEGISTUS (Hrr-
mrs Thrice-Grt'atest), legendary
author to whom arc attributed works
allegedly dictated by the god fi.cmlcs
himself who is also equated Wlth the
god 1110t,h. The of
Hermes TrismcgJS!U5 are mainly
devoted to the occult sciences (sec
Occuflism) and in particular to al-
chemy, astrology and magic, and also
to religious and philosophical teach-
ings close 10 Gnosticism.
HERMETlSM, a term used 10
dertOle tbe philosophical and relig-
ious-mystical views expounded in
the .so-caHed Hermetic Treatises
composed during the Hellenistic age
and the late classicaJ period. The
authorship of many of these treatises
is ascribed to the legendary sage,
!'mnu Trismqistus. Hermetic writ-
Ings (such as "Poimandrcs" and
wtUcb incorporate both
oneataI and teaehing.(', ex-
pood of God and his
(1ft the spirit of the
of man and
IS (SOferiology), and fi.
_of the World and
UC ) H '.
n . ennetlSm In-
uenced the culture of the Middl
and the in add'
C
bon &Ome of the H . ' 1-
provided the b .
.. : FlU .... , VIews of
HERMmc LIFE, .. ..
life wide.o;pread in a ftu:e.,."orway ,?f
- r reli.
-
gi(lOS. It involvl;1; sl'If.isolatill
n
.. r.h Id ,re"
u . c. Wor .' and
famllv. and .1 S(liltittY life In rc_
' . . "'Ole
areas. The Idea of thl: hnmitic life'
t)1lical for thc religions
the East; Brah",olJl.wtI, BUtidJlifTtt,
JutiuiJIrI (for t.he of the
E.UCflCJ). In. (hmhamty II hecarne
widespread m the 1rd and 4th cen.
turies. initially as a result of Ihe per.
secution to which Christians were
suhjectcd hy the imperial power of
Rome. and later as a kind uf a volun.
tary feat in the name of faith. Her-
mits. or anchorites, set
apart from other people and lived in
caves, suhjccting themselves to vari-
ous vicissitudes and voluntarily re-
nouncing food and clothes, In Ihis
way they underlined their disdain for
the nesh and for the secular life. The
official Church strived in every way
possible to encourage and promote
the hermitie life. presenting it as an
ideal, truly Christian way of life, as a
means of aspiring to religious and
moral perfection and finding salva-
tion from The hermitie life was
practised on a particularly wide
scale in the 4th century. Many her-
milS' settlements were to he found in
Egypt, Libya, Palestine, Cappadocia,
Armenia and so on. Later a new
form of the hermitie life was to ap-
pear on the scene - mmroslicism, or-
ganized on the hasis of the monastic
rule and accessihlc to more thor-
ough supervision on the part of the
Church.
HERO WORSHIP, Ihe veneration
,!,,hological pcr!;onages and real
indiVIduals renowncd for heroic ex'
plo,ils or various outstanding fcats,
which look root in Ancient Greece.
It c__. .
uccame WIdespread in the claw-
world. Initially, heroes-the
ren or descendants of a god or
IlII lA,R( ,.
- -
. -
--
,I wl'r' }'I.
mo
rta
They were Vlf'W d a" media
and!':.. d 'e g
nclwet:n mcn 1n ,
c:trried (lui 1(: will of he
1 h 'Yarl Anee!iilorft Vt'''l( llc
lnd 11"0 1 lIu,>1r u,
In I 1(, "" the ,uphers
h
. . and I r "-
Plaw .h' drama!' Ie; A. '1ylu
Homer, C
"nd Snphoclc<;. Teml ks were
" ted in honour (11 the!iie heroe
cree d \ r u
, Ii )ft their aile 'r' grave!ii
,n '. were held. he l1Y, '101 hI
contc!ii s h .
roes ilerac1cft (Ihe cn .
Asc1epius and the Dlo, 11 ,r,
widely veneraled "" '., - s heroe ... ar
. ...t " .Le SO('lr'y f \"clcnt
g
ous In --, ,
.' H wllrshlp \10... 'c 0\
'- ,reece I... \.. ,
h ee
hehin. th_ (hi" ,llan
c snur
f thl,; sainh.
HE R(lIlTIIE (;RE H ,. o. I.
King ...r Jda( ... f m 41 to q f I
acceded olhe throne w "11 ,1 f
Roman tn ops afl cru linE! I
represcntal v S I'le .l,Mal..:ll 11..
dynaslY. This .:.roU,.. ,
'rom u. sew la I 1 I I:'"
countrY Ll the 'Vi' \. r ::, '
mas.>;,aere of tit Inn ,1
,
,
trihuted 11 _, to t; ....... .al nt
of the ,""rth .... f Jesu (hn
UEROlllAS '7 W), Wli 0' II ,1
Philip and lal': hi hrother I, rud
AI,: 'OI ,Jinp II 'll (, 't:'
HI odia.. Ul. . eCL.:'L n I ,\\1:': , la
the Baptise xceul.J. \\ ;11 ' "
eu'-:.o her " i.. 'mmll,ng
She lchlC"\ thl' "" ,Ih 'ht :'(.r . ,f
'ler huo.,hanu and her daUtlltcr SCI
; 'me
HERRNII UT.
tllf't'n
HERZEN, Aloandrr (1 S I
Russian revolullonary d..:mocrat,
I1hljllt;.I'ph,.
urnalj, lOti 'NTltcr H, ,,' It
he lic rl nl I
tilln n j, - .. t ,rn ,t "f
Ih III \likllU/1 I )m II, IR
o/rt/l'r (' he WI I
, Ihl lX' ,-0 .. 1Iur:o- If n
F r nc jOd ,: Ilc-iJa. :t. I .1
tHmg (n lC' \' 111t' " r
Idl Y In n;m" , I"lt:
,
t:.:: w 01 JI ler . l;,n hi pH.
\:Iaf' n2 II f ,.. " II I 01
11 opm 11 of 1' .. 11 'H
mel nCll'lv 11 r. 1 ," ';I io.-,J I h\
m, n t.:;n I,f h ;'j.!H1ti "" ,rid
L
W 'h i. J(IOII/ m ,
1\( d: :l ,.-)r, I r .nJ 1\ 1\ h
-
.'f lh_ Imm{l! lin r .
I, 'cn OJ n II. nr \;)1-0
1

L
,
, '
r

n

. ,II ltTI f II. 1 In
-
"

. Ir Xl'
-

n , 11k <, h
,
"
"
, 1('
JOdI ' , n ,,;",
JOd '11 r Ie
, . 'i1 rl" rk
,
, J 1 l SPCI I il n 1-
J:
.. ",
I ',.. n ! :nl
d '_ nl ","puld. In
h' , lu U{!t time , ''0 (0,; ',
I
.. \\ JI put n cn..! k d. ller
U,,- d"
Iw
,
t. ' ppro \t;:' a L u
It (f
,,\ In \\ ' ,i II rellg-. 'n mlgh!
, -" n 'untt J. .. _ ..
lIillnF"I IMAM. a4"e" n.itnp.
h
. ,'nc' om" thl,; shl lit ( . _ In) " . ,,... . .
h
h 1m3m who Wd-' ,I dl '
Imam ,I - , F
rcc d ...c,nd3nt .,f Hi lInd !Jflnla.
<I n..! \\ h0 alk dl" Ilid in \ nc qth
t Uf'. hut c"ontinu\" III he thl" lead ,
h
, I.".,. When hl" c"mcs hack
... d.
to !:.arth wi.l1lf1umph an an
'I,.T:.1 ,'f prosperit" WIll begm .
HIERARCH {(rllm the ( ;rcck . ..,
ws." meaning'holv" and "archt:
the "fOUllder
through their
tion of the
beore,
Eisler _
the eWtcace
Grm: ud
puifCWc of
Christ',
&uccotd iD
Supporten
mlde I
search into
particularly
theywme
011 the
story
MIN'"
-tiD
__
and its hir;lory to be the develop
men! of the r.ocial which
religion represents i':l fantastic
Marx to write any
"history of rehglon ... that fails to
lake account of , .. malerial NUlK, is
uncritical" (Capilal. Moscow. Vol
ume I, {'. 352). Yet the
of religion on the malc,nal baSIS 15
not dired or straightforward.
Among all ideological "upcrstruc-
tures, holds Engels., religion "stands
furthest away from matcriallifc and
seems to be most alicn to it" (Marx
and Engels. Selected Works in three
volumes, Volume Three, ('. 372).
When researching into the history of
.' .... .
rehglon It IS Imperative to appreCIate
the relative independence and inoer
logic of development tbat religioo
At the same time, when
considering mass religious
ments, it is vital to single OUIlhIl
cial content, which in thedl
religious form. The history of le6--
gion provides rich material for .t-
heist education, _ it
does. that at various SbopI of ..,.
ciety's development the .-,
role 01 religiooo. boIdiDs beet JAO-
gressivc soria' de'leiapwal. -=-eo
the fore.
DOBus.
English
founders
Oft the part oftbe stale. .....
It the people. HdJbu' .,.
2!he'" aDd _irl Plio'
.... he a powerful iaJh rRW _
t z2 fA /IN-
rhinldng in Europe. r
HOLBACn. P", Ikart DIeIrIda
(1723-t789), Freach _ pIoiI-
osopber aDd .;Iit", M'Fh. Ilk
main work rtF us,aa- de II ...
ture" (1710), ill ......
brous/ot ........
the ide.. 0/ doe
IISUNUU
hy peter I aller the PlItrillfChtlle bad
been abolished in 1nl and elled
the Holy Governing Synod. II was
headed by a government ofTtciaI-
the Chief Procurator who luper
vised virtually alilhe adivilic:1 of the
Church. At the present lime the
Holy Synod had eigbl membe ... 011
of whom arc eparchial an:1tptiaU.
and il is presided over by the Pa-
triarcb of Moscow and AU Ruuia.
Of the eight member" rlYe uc per-
manent and tbree temporary. The
Holy Synod has various dcpartmenIJ
concerned with education. publish-
ing. economic affairs, tbe Church's
e'lllernal relalioos etc.
HOMILE'IICS, the art of preach's.
or writing sermons.
HOPE,
lion of Christians
them SlI/wIIiott and
yond lbe gr .... J .....
as .he guarani.,. of
aod Ibis hope ;.
through P'tryll aad
Christ's te .... ing
lbe
'"
- - - - - - - - ~ .. ~ ~ - - - - -
IIYPOCRISY
cortex is inhibited but only
parts of it The inhibition
hypnosis is similar to. tbal dUring
normal sleep. HypnOSIS. has ,been
kno\.\n about since anClenl times.
Right up until Ihe of ,the. 19th
century retigious and Idealist inter-
pretations of were pre'
dominant, in particular. el!0rts
.....ere made to explain hypnOSIS as
the effect of special "magnelic
waves
n
or "nuids", which allegedly
came forlh from the hypnotist. The
works of /I'On Pal'/ov and his pupils
laid the foundations for a scientific
and materialist explanation of hyp-
nosis. From the point of view of
modem physiology of higher nerv-
ous activity, a process of inhibition
is whal underlies hypnosis, inhibi-
lion which affects the cortex of the
large cerebral hemispheres. Hyp-
nosis achieved by the impact of
rhythmic, monOlonous and faint ir-
\'ar10llS organs of
the .mdividuaI under hypnosis
(stroking. quiet soothing music,
monOlonous speech from the doc-
tor etc,). These irritants are sup-
try suggeslion from the
. which can on ..... lake effect
In VlCW of the fact that Certain parts
lbe cerebral cortex in the indi-
MuaI under hypnosis are still
awakc., thus making conlact with

the <;Iill pOM.ihlc N
hypnosis i<;. used as a' III .(......a.
for curing a number of
H\'P(KRISY, mor I '
. . . .1" a CII"'I
actcnsl": mUICatrng a L
tween 11111U'f exhibited by y uo
odh
'- apcr
s.on a. Inner esc;cncc:
hOWl pIety aimed at the "public" ilia
dclilxrstc gleaning of advaDl
ilJld
from the la.lter. In this is
mao;querading as Good.
HYp<!STASIS (a Greek Word
meaning or "found _
lion"), in theology a co:.
ccpt characterIZIng Ihe special na.
ture of each of the three persons of
the Tn"nity. Orthodox theology as-
serts that the difference between the
three persons constitutes a mystery
to logic, but which
Introduce man to contemplation of
the Most Holy Trinity,
HYSTERIA, mental disorder Ihal
de\',el.ops on the basis of religious fa
natlClsm and superstition. It is to be
found mainly in women and finds ex-
on the onc hand, in fits of
triggered off by religious ex
perlences and, on the other, in the
long-term changes in the individual's
personality, which came before
these fits and gave rise to them,

I
IBUS, in am caching he.de\ 1, a
fallen angd who laG bet.. 1 dm_;; out
of paradise: by .-tIIah for to
bow down bcfc-e Adam the fir
man, created hy Allah ff( m d l.
Iblis endcavoun m ,vcy w. y
possible 10 wreak vengeance for IhiS
fall against men on Earth hy encour
aging tbem 10 ndulge m fIT,"
I
IBN EZRA. Abraham bn Mrlr 11m
Ezra (lOQ2-116,,, J Wish phit --
ophcr and poet. One of the first ra
tionalist critics of the Bible th'l Ezra
pointed 10 earthlY ngID) 'he
Holy SrripfllTl"'s and to the fad that
the Pentateuch could 'lot have en
wrillen by MCfef.
IBN RLSHD. .\bul-Walid Mo-
hammed ibn Ahmrd ibn Mo-
hammed ibn Rusbd, or A\'ERROE.,COi
in the Latinized version t 1126- Q8),
Arab philosophe MI Sf I the f .
nwphical work. .. bv Ibn Rwbd )0'
of commcntanes on "le .. iti;-fT'
of Arise' It _ Following in <,;
footsteps, Ibn Rushd expounde_
idea of n Ibstract ... -orld "'as n
a single impersonal sub-
stance common to II men and t."<f,..'
ing its innucnce on nr'i\idual., !"
without. In ke PlOg with thiS
Idea he rcjccled the mnu l' . ..tit\' .)
the .ndividual soul, holdlOg :n,,{c,ld
that .71, nkind as J. \J, hole YI-'aS lOlmor
tal, Ibn RU5hd was ,"'Inc of the initi'l
tors I the leaching of "tK'Ofi'!1
tn'ch- ''his was an of ni ..
endUVOUl 0 !.iberal.. s. tcncl' J.nd
p'ill :>opby from oppression ,md
'"
control r rcliglOn Un R shd's
.J <; exerted a Uri ,g on
e .:k. .....t:!opmcnt or nticic-caJ and
matenal:' , Ih ughl
IB"'II .\bu All al-Uusain Ibo
Abdallab Ibn Sib, or AVltENNA
in the LatlRll d 'n '.. mJ-
10:;]), a philosopher and
pI:- iUl rrom l e 1tral At.c
c rrting t t,is. e C'U':Ig, the \\.. i
c.a.mt. m[o b _ l rougt an em :'11-
tion (.,. ulnow rOfT God. but
Ilot 'Je _ w n. but
IN nlmlO mevrtablhtv
',:.::1 b, o 'x: I-;lrr :ldl and
:"'._ 0 _ -tn:l
j 5 , j hunscf.
.,.
:':'I .. - C" I:.
::rr '_" aft(] It: \\ Ij a pll
n "'hK- n turaJ I'" lie,,: swa,
t a(h ... CV<!.1ooc ... ',
") :.It dingreeing at Ib-:: ume
'II ""tb c.rtai'll _ > 0 s )f
1.0. Ibn StDa atD h: re""'t;ta
:l .re: .. thinker and was uh-
Je_1ed 0 harassmt:nt )y r a( tionarv
MI .. Jem authoriti('-s.
ICON (fr('lm the (Jre:ek .
mear:'ng ":.m3ge ), a paintt"d reprl:"
!\enta'l0n, <;0mC'flmt"S in rc:lJe[, of
caints and (llher
ht.:.ings tbat are tbe object of rdig
10U"- \-entration. Icons are used in
lbe ROI1l3D Catholic and Orthodox
.. hUTches md by Buddhists. The use
,"If It-:On..<; in worship found its way
into (JuUtionlt)' from more aneteDt
rdigions., sance ChI isti.lOity had al>
s\"lrbed pre-Cbristi.an popular be
10 ...
..

m ' ~ _ ~ S e e

..-

mEAl.
(
from tbe Greek word
IDEAL . " od I" "pattcrn"
... <tea" mcanldg me ,
I" . tt) in the most general
or notion ,
this is wbat a person, s;ou
p
,
d:: or a whole society regar as a
as perfection, as supre'!' e
aI r d
esires and practical acttv-
go 0 r I I
ity- tbe perfect model or rca.lty. n
advanced society there . CXl stS .. a
",tbole range of ideals- SOCial, pohtl-
cal, economic, cognitive, moral etc.
Ideals are historical. by nature
tbey can be progressive or reactIOn-
ary depending upon whetber tbe
of social relations that con-
stitute their basis are in the ascend-
ant or obsolescent, albeit still domi-
tlaDt. Ideals, which are something a
class or group sets store by and
which constitute an important com-
ponent of tbe individual's world out-
look, bave an important part to play
in the regulation of the activity and
behaviour of the individual or group
concerned, particularly with regard
to the way in which tbe individual or
group selects means and methods
for accomplishing his or ils aims
Idealism the regula:
tory role of Ideals In the life of man,
as a rwe, idta1ism rejects
the dtpeDdc:nce of ideals on the rtal
This view coincides with the
reI!pDUS coaception of idtals, which
-:UIltIllllQ the dna1i!.m of the celes-
tial IDd of tht material
aod tbe ide,!, 50 that eventually the
Slipieme goal for tht individual
becomes the aHainment of th King
:: .;
.. ..:._ '" of lIIU. To live in
"""'- accOlanc:e with the beb
God (absolute Good) t51!. of
Iat '"*- . and 10 emu-
... msofar as that .
UK; mam e, IS
. ideal tmenl the rel;R_
K"IUS _ tr OYer(:()n-j "'!';
ness and making low: Ulg self WI.
the nonn of his
-
obcyin.8 the commandments a... '
down In the Holy SCrifXUrtl (Ih laid
.c; ult of which does nOl lnfre c. rt
lead to Ihe adoption of an
mona.c;tic way of life and rcjecti Ie or
the world), can render
a worthy reCIpient of divine
and enter . tbe Kingdom of
Taken I';' all the ideal
a pessimistic and anti-humane ..
, . h C,
lor It concentrates t e attention of
the people nol on action, but On en-
duranct: acceptance
of any livmg conditions. Marxist-le_
ninist teaching rejects the apologtlic
and speculative ideal set forth by
theologians and bourgeois theortti.
cians: it substantiates tbe ideal of
Communism, that can be im.
plemented in the course of the revol.
utionary transformation of reality
starting out from analysis of the
of social development.
IDEALISM, a philosophical trend
!itarting oul from the resolution orlbe
basic question in philosophy to tbe cf-
that the spirituaJ principle (stn
satlon, consciousness, will. a supra-
natural God, world rt!oson etc.) comes
first, as opposed to the material prin-
In the philosophy of the
AnCient World idealism assumed its
!llost mature expression in the teach-
mgof Plato, and this led Lenin toreftr
to tbe whole of the idealist tradition as
Plato's line, which stood out as irrec-
oncilably opposed to philosopbical
materialism, or Democricus' line (Col
Works, Vol. 14, p. 130). There
main types of philosophical
Idealism: objective idealism, which
lends the ideal the nature of a supc.:r-
buman or !iupranatural principle (the
"world ofii:lea .... in Plato's work.. the
in religious-philosophical
or Htgtrs .. AbsoIUle
Idea ) and bj . . .
, SU ectlVC Ideahsm, as-
1001.
I
-.-
crihing primary to onc .or
oCher a'ipcct ur actlV'
, .1 in from 11$ rna enal sub-
\ ,IQd diamel ncally 10
, :\ , .
the laUer (e,-pcnenct, conSCIousness,
will). Many teaehmg5 com-
bine within .e1c""!enl'& of
objective and sub,ectlVe AI
though the hi!';toncal forms an.d types
ofideali!im vary, they 1111 have In com
mo
n
the fundamental principle to Ihe
V effect that th6 firM. Suc
'\ cesscs JQ
clearly demon.<itrate th?
of the ideali!it explanatIOn f.or N.ature.
society and thuught. Ide llc,m IS Qot,
)
1 however, mcrely a delUSion ':'01'11 of
ignorance: it has profound eplStem
logical (theoretical and
and social roots. Human cog- , IS
a complicated dialectical prO(...!!
with many different features and s--
pects. "Philosophical idealism,
)1
wrote Lenin, 'is a onc-lidcd. eJ!8ggt:r
aled .. development (inflation dis-
tention) of one of the features. 15
peets. facets ort.nowledge mto an ah-
wlute, diVOfCcd from matter, rom
nature, apotheosu.cd" (CoIl cd
Worl<s, Vol. J&. p. 3(1). Theorc c J
thought, for example. is rooted in ab
stract concepts and categories, which
often bave no direct connection with
pbysical objects and possess only
relative independrnc Th absolu'
zation ot 5uch Independence leads to
an ideali.<it interpretation of orns 01
thought and reality, becaus.e inhcrC'"}t
in even the most elcmtntary 3b.stral:
)
I\. tion is the possii-lility o(idcalism as
result of the departure or fantasy from
reality. This pos..o;ibili:v becomt s r
.. Iity when the idealist error :.5 .. an-
clicwd by the cia ..... intcrests of Ihe rul
ing c1as.o;;es" (ihid.). Idt":dism C:"Irrt'
spand .. m().';1 closely of all to thr.
deolosjeal requiremcnts of rc:ac(tpn
.ry 50eUr l(lTces. hi pre5-
tMng their dominant position, but ,
not in gaining adequate kOO\\.lcdge of
reality and tren w.be
observed within it. It L\ DO cmn
eldena: that. i.n the context of Im-
periallim, irrational and agnl'4l.ic
trends within ideallil philqc.Llphy
grow more dynamic and their 6deL .. t
fum.1iomi come mOlt to the fore The
philosophy of idealism and the rdig
iou.'> world outlook have always been
closely interlinked. ideal-
:;;m has constituh:d a feattlnn to early
form50f materialism and/ru-Utin1r.ing
and had manv mythological and relif:-
lOW ele'1lcnt$ I.ncorporated in it. Re i
gion is a form of idealist mte.
prctation I rto ,Jity. mature religiollS
consciousness .. rvcs to promote the
appearance ! rtligious-philosophi
:a1 Mi( alist teat (Neo- Thomllm,
-proc, thrology"', pmnnlliism ' Thr
philosophy.A idealism regularly pro-
vidts tile wllh allcgedlv
5:;. -:tLi.i ... nrgument!O m (L re':lCC of re
us fai h. ntis also applies o !oub-
j<;c'lve ldl.:ilism. whose adhen:. nt!.
sometimes deny thdr link with reh-
poe -\rgumentsof a subJcctlVe
l;. :","r(lurl" howe" 'ften le Jd logl-
uily 10 t pI. nly theist conclusions
. r .. I-' .llso no denying that an a tlve
! .. ugg.t ... being waged again. .. t malt n
llism ;s also directed agai nst at h(. ,sm,
.... make" of subjective idealism a
most impnrtant all y of religIOn. b
nally, man\i sut"lJet,tive idcalilits, who
ar, sceptical about a supranatural,
""me1 aphysical" (ind, nevertheles.o; dC
knM\Jr.: dge the need tor a God ali ;)
ff ....-US for M:tn's ineradicahlc religious
senc:e (pragmali!1tts, a number of rep-
from the field of psycho-
analvslS. IinguLSllC philosophy et as.).
IDOL (from the Greek word "eido-
Inn" meaning "small imagc"), a ma-
terial object depicting or 'contain-
1D00An:RS
ing" a deity or as a
deity. Alternatively, . of
veneration in polytheiStic rehgJOns.
IDOLATERS, term usually em-
ployed by theologians to ad-
herents of religions (pa-
gans), who worship idols.
IHRAM (Arabic), (I) a garment
worn by a Moslem pilgrim consisting
of two pieces of unhemmed white
linen or cotton material which cover
the chest and back. The Ihram is not
taken off during the Hajj and after-
wards it is kept by the believer as a
sacred relic; (2) the special state of a
Moslem while he is performing his
great Of kMer pilgrimage (Hall and
attributed to him by Islam. In
thiS state it is forbidden for a Mos.
lcm to kill living creatures, to pick
Oowers, to feU trees., to cut his hair
or nails, to wve etc.
UMA word meaning "con.
), In Sunnism. tbe agreed
of theologians on religious
legal. and everyday maUer:i, that
touched in the Koran and

IJrna constitutes one of

...:: ,pd'mental . . 1--
Moslem" pnnaPtt::> on which
tl . cd.. JUIlSpntdeoce, or [iqh, is
IlI1IIAD
.. .. .autC word meani
or ":eal") h ng
cipIc of iade 1. ,t e pnn
religious ad pendent jUdgcrncnl in
Middle Ages ::-'. qUCStio.n;;. In the
enjoyed ODIy by right O!" I Jt.lhad was
km lawyers a:
boritahvt
Mos-
...
,;, .....
In the 10th 'Ie>'""'" s:-
U-Rt1OD with the r cc:nbattury, In
SIInnice 17lIIdIuWib act t four
had bee. set hcbooh 0/ law)
lrine bad h:.*'t an IslarnW;: doc
doors of Ijtih'Ci ...;::
meant that the further devel ...
?f law, moralilYanre.mt
IOstlluhon ... wac; recnrn.; 'cd ">dol
. .1 as he
lmrossllI c. The era tn who 'lit
concept of T080lid was to d(lch. the
had begun. AI the lbUnatc
theologians con ...idcr that ea m:
lem has the right to
other!> ...ce that right as en
L .. .....met I""
tllal , ... enjoyed only by the high:-""Co
echelon of religious leaders deS!:
third p oup defends the ;
Tagalid. t"
a secret masonic S().
as an order), founded
In BavaTla In 1776 by Adam Weis-
haupt, who concentrated bis intel.
lectual follower ... ' attention on the
tbe "illuminal_
Ulg . S! ace of Chnst residing in IDen,
tbeologians. !iuch as SI.
Augustine of Hippo and SI.
(!lit, maintained tbat the natural
f<;lrcCS of human rea!>on were insuffi-
Clent to enable Man to understand
"eternal truth". For thaI the iUumi-
of human reason by the light
of dlVUle Tn'eiOliOl1 was necessary.
ILYINTSY. a Russian religIOUS -"Cd.
that was founded in the 1840s in the
Urals by N. Uyin. The heliefs of tbe
.arc expounded in Ilym'!> works
o( Zion" ctc., and they con-
a mixture of Judaism and
From the whole of the
BIble llyin only reeogni7cd tbe Rf!W'
IObort of St. John the D,rin!!. Accord-
llyin, (hc !>upremc being was a
Sin c g?rl. Father Jehovah, and 001
Trulltv. Christ. he held. was
of God horn of a heavenly
on and he achievcd sainlhood
fUlfilled (b;0n
g
men. Anyone who
Could, of the sed
ItChieveaecordlng 10 Jlyin's teaehifts,
a. state of "holiness and
IM:'Yt,o\.NENT PIIILOSOPIIY
26)
- -
moral perfection" and become \ikr.
Cbrist God incarnate. The Christian
fc.o;liY3'I.o; were replaced by the llyint
sy with Judaic nnes (they celebrate
the Sabbath. and rerform the rite of
circumcision). Services conwed
only of religious
erature and the l'olOl?Jng of to
(unes taken from folk "1gs. Al the
prescnt time isolated grQuPS of
Jlyintsy led by preachr:n .are still to
be found in the USSR
"IMAGE", representation \,.11" (hI";
face of JesllJ Christ, Our 1.4(/Y,
Mother of God, or a saint; an 'j'on
According to Chi s(ian ev\;':l
while Christ was still alive the
Church was in J""m on of a repre
sentation of his fe ltures. mpresse
upon St Veronica's v -I Wl" 1 wbi( h
the SaviolJr Wipe" th to DOC -_
sweat (reTl His r ce "] the way to
Calvarv (C oigotha).
IMAM (AI Ibu u
"Ieade r"). st:::ul r leade r of c 1-
greg. tional pray,.r (or ::mo;; fOi
the Sunni Mo.dcms 10 Ih l :1.
imams arc pr _ elcc __ or im t 1
by the community III II lubl" c
worshir, to P'" fOi n r lu, I
and to preach non TI:u
also denoted the supre-:ne !dcr of
all Mo lems until 1e umty of '
original t 'aliph'lte wa!> hrc en. For
n lC word m_lRt
leader of he linp 01 :\ I. b . r., _
divmetv afi... nd b nR
guded a lUI:e 01 ru Iual n
culu guidanc fc the c Imml n :y. I'
]s .. Iso an honorifit titlt f. , r 1t
Moslem c)d rs.
IMMACULUF LO/loLEPTION.
"!lyl.11O ':' e c ' O1:ernlTl' th,
nuat.uJou up",' natural concl" pll,.n
of Jesus ' y -\l a1\. whulrtl: r
-
baVing c :nc.:i'tl,.;d er wn by the
Holy Spirt remain! d a virgin (moM.
most chastc In way
Christ, the God-made-Man, W"""i
made fn:c: rrom oridnal Jlt; 'll
rn't1h or tht; Immaculate conc ption
has paralic' in pre-<'ll1istian reli
ginn .. (for inst.anc..;, 5C'IuaJ centu" s
oc'"ore Christ ther!.! a mytb
c. 1lC: ling the immaculate concep-
hon 1.1' Gouramo by the
May J_ "be immacu1, tl conccptl ,
became an )rlic-al <'huro doctrine
after the Tbira ".lmen;cal (oune II
h '- t r phesus . n 431 Greater em-
pb3.'" )0 of the Modonna in
Roman rQtl1oJic'
p
m led 0 10 h
a
-
nn .JIlt- ";1t,:-t m, c-; h\' Pop=: PIU.o;
IX in 54 "l. c 'M .ry
h, d ill 0 I:le 1 Irnnl"aln: te c
_d 7'j t:._ mOIl: r Anne H:
E'I: -"I rr:pI to .
prl ph c)OC :l(; th IIflmac
b I ... ,n _plion 1 th_ Via Te :;om
( '_"'1 -:lc,"aUc
a !>On, and 1 c I'" 1"me I ,ma-
n 1,:11 ,Iiok:'" Ih_ v. ,,.,
tb en' of thl,.; f ' f . " .:tfl'oII
... 1: ' ::t F r$ ,{" rh (/1" ' 1 h
e _n t ):." Eclogue .. !
lin V. J'KX VII i i n thIS
n C:1\ "'rJit '\-rg
l: my: J ( fad r ... Joc
n ... 1m .... 1.,lL
hletu ... TIt I,
11 n r: OC onbvth
othe. rt ' "'1('; "
lhlOk rs.
on er' .1
j Q more
ldr, er;t ..
and ' rt::
'M"' 4.NE IiIrIT 1 ut,
J c. ',c d':ll" t t : . I'd . n I,hdosnphy
: the l "d f th ... n th rnet
of : I'I c ""hh cenfur ..,. It" m,llR rern:
'oIo crc \\ilhdm \ churpe,
RL h.uu vun chuhcrt ':i(,II. rn,
Ant on \,)n u;"l lir lod I.{lt.haru
K .ufmann. Imrr. Lnt' .,t phllosuphv
1 Its (lut fn ... m t: f alily of only the
INOUI ,OFNO:
INDULGENCE, a document
by the I'opt and testifying to the re-
mission of sins, both those already
committed and those n(l( yet com-
mitted which would be issued in re
turn for money or specil:ll favours to
the Roman CD/lto/ic OtUrr:h. Indul-
gences were justified by theologians,
who mamtaaned thaI the Roman
CatboOC Churcb allegedly had a
[l'<cM: .of kind deeds carried out by
Christ, the Vlrgin Mary and the
>- Saints, which could be used to make
up for men's sins_
INFINIn: WORLD, EVERLAST-
ING WORLD, a concept whieh took
shape in the course of the struggle
materia1ism and the relig-
IOUS mterpretation of the world as
God's creation. The Greek thinkers
Aruuimander and Anaximenes (6th
century B.C.) were among the first
to expound the idea to the effect
that 00 limit to the original
of the world The
from the Ancient World
Uudppw. Democntus. EpiCI.I./Us and
convinced that the
=se infinite, fm within its
uIlit css VOid there was a countless
m. ude or eternally e"lris,inn
CDIIlute and indivisib
aloms., . . le particles. or
aM"''''::' and
en 00ter <UIU with
, thus formln .. '" II
WlIetclll worlds I un ess
Giordorto Btaua n Modern Era
jected the idea; [band re-
ins thai (he basis VOId. maintain_
constituted by a the was
CJ:teadable mat n. Infinitely
end,l subsr.
vated from within, wbi ach
to. thine. Th cb gaves risc
thii ide. in the form CXpreUecj
qW h pi' lented Nal PtlIItht'um,
0IlC aDd the '?me, God as
11th cemwk::t. el!Jdef the and
irdIucEwe
of scored in the Ii
mechanl(.:.. .... and Icld\. ol
the conce"', phr 1'>,,-
fi
. ,.,onoa,
Inlte came 10 he aece til-
the maJ.tlTlly (lr materialist tt::n
ed
by
Accordmg to Ihis concept" kers.
was space without hcginni lOll, there
with 00 end io time
It s ext ent, within whieh werre 1001t.tQ
. hod' tnOVln ..
ICS and s)'!>tems of bod:'I!!
consisting or indestructible ItS
The mechanistic conception atolh$..
I d
. Ifi repre.
sen e a simp I Icd version of Ih
tl
. fi. cae
ua In lmte world. emphasinn ...
. . -----0 Its
quantitative aspect and neg! f
the qualit.atiye diversity of
Maoost of the
fiOlte IS in a synthesis
or the discovenes made in all fields
or natural sciencc. The infinite e
I
. ,ver
.astlng itself in the
divcrsity of types of
mOVlng of the structural Ie.
vels or tts self-organi7.ation and in
the diversity of tbe rorms move-
intrinsic.to it within space and
time, fi?aUy, m the diversity of irs
r,ropcrues and patterns and in the
. acl the existence or matter and
Its attnbutes hac;, no beginning and
no end.
INGERSOLL, Robert G .... n (1833-
American atheist author. In
. IS lectures and articles he sub-
Jected religion and the Church to
har h ...
Criticism and propagated the
achievements of scienet'. He was ao
disciple of Darwin's teach-
He categorically rejected the
of God, tbe divine nature
af
Chmt, ideas or another world
ter -'- Ih.
. and preckstinatiOll; be
subjected the Biblical myths to
mOCkery and "","",,,," .. A I .
moral . re J810us
...:. Ity. IOtolerance and fanati
__ m. Mat":n/
._. ... um rooted in n(ltUMl
cu
vuued the subsrance 01
- -
-
Inp;crsoll'll
wilh hi!' idea" on enlightenment and
philanthropy.
INmAI. B cona:p1 e:ll:-
pres."iing the recognition of divine
force as the primary ClU5C and
source of the m,wemcnt of matter. II
came into e,aslcnce in the 17th 8th
centuries in connection with thc en
dcavour 10 e:ll:plain the phenomena
of Nature on the of the laW"i. or
mechanics., viewed generally and
universally applicable Newton
played an part
malion of the Idea or the IDlhal un
petus.. French materialists such a
r
HoIbDCh and Dide1"tJl C Juntere i is
idea with the thesis. concerning
movement an intrinsic property
matter. Yet this 'lesi could not
convincingly substantiated from tbe..
mechanistic standpoic' ,
thinkers had adopted. J=. on th
point or view or the dialcct.ic:lI na
teria.li!., interpretahon the Wl (]
movcment 15 viewed as cbangL m
matter whieh m llifem iiscC n a
multitude or -orID!"
INmATIONS, c __ -
ated with the onset of adulth =.nG
somclunt's thaI or sexual rnatun J
well. Initiations were one the
main rmms of public links hetwe:"l
individual:. .It the ear v tribal stage \ f
f :le PW i.... !)Chlnd
these C\..: 'mome W3'S to a,lftVCV and
lass down 1.0 a :1CW gene' atl ' no (
lad rt"c"led ":')Clal .naturily.: il e I
e ,s of bchaVlour c, mmon tu ' ile
ribc as a whl,1c 1 he nalUl ,," "f .:1
tutiocs was dctn nincd hy thc ua-
ure of thc div:t.I&n ot" I.tOOur that
vari"d to age and 'x :tnd
by the. level of d\dopmcnt or Iribal
woruup and the specifiC rratures of
a tnbc's religIOUS and mythological
,.1
--
concepts. file -ommon fc or
- _.. r
'",ILahons ound vanou! reo-
01 S if "lC rllu. I +sntahOD of Ihe i-
for a period (v.iKKc length
vanes), Ihal l se for croo
ceremonies.. 5Otn..; r ... h'] consi ...ted
of moral and ph\'! c I Ih1.t
W\.. - _ s.omc roes of an elClremely
oncrou'i lature In lh world ttll-
of toc!ay vcstlg lch initia
q art:monlC ltire proVld d by
onrlmUJliOn ror bovs and gi rhi In the
Roman Catholic ani Pwte.<;tanf
(bu che th Christian fa( ramt'tU (I(
b3ptl m, . _ rite of -irnl1ncl ..non In
Judai!m and Islam
INNOKENn'EVTSY membcs of a
(hr"'Sti.an ft'C" \\'lI, b apJ'lC"af d in the
nrly 20lh antul)" in M loa la. Its
r onder.,. \e "'.it romonk In
nak . DU. who pruchcd thai t'he ,.-..d
f'f .. .,.,,0:14 .. band OCrlmng
"fUm;;.:. '0 be an embodiment of be
Hoh; S- int Bv people
':torrors -'!te DO} o( JUdgt ili ...,/ ) I
.4 to v.: lD foIl wet:- trom
-. .. and neglected
'"1Dk3 of the poor The bead of the
l' Its members be im-
pi.: b
l
ern be tCwlutwn
thw. ent ...... : 19Jng
rno 111m.. H::to.; tbe
bostilit)t w .:1 v.h llusC! mel ttit.
011 Revolution c. i. ( ruel
. Iua . wt. ' "",:""'lc, out at g.athe ings.
, tt: <: sc.t md SUicide "\\'a!'
fe.s: ..t5 <Jm ...thing ju:t\ciflaNe.
In SPC\:1 1U ... arran& d . rooms or
(-L ,dh m ny of the rail tlfuI were
sub.Je.1ed 10 bc <:t ial tortures. After
Oct :mer 19n Ihe or the In-
n 'k ntyC\1sy communities Waged)
anti-Sovilet rroraganda and encour-
aged the faithful 10 engage an anti-
)ocial .l.cli" ... Their actions were
exposed, and Ihe sect virtually dioiD-
tcgrated. At the present tiFF e dIere
-. - - - - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - -
, ;"'VFSm lJRI I __ _
any otber qualities, arc "selfevi
dcnt ", i. e. need no proof,. .are
cogni7ed only br means C!f
In religi ous phll.osophy
ism is alhed to mystICism In
it s acknowledgemcnt of the possi.
bility for man to bave direct
mediate knowledge of a deity Wllh
whom hc can be united in Ibe act of
religious ecstasy.
INVESTlnJRE (from the Lalin "in
\leslio" meaning "I clothe"), a me.
diae\lal Roman Catholic ceremony,
during which a bishop or abbot is,
before his consecration, present ed
witb tbe robes and insignia of his
rank by a lay ruler.
IOANNES fTALOS (second half of
the I Ith century), B}7.antine philos.
.. a rationalisl standpoinl
cntu:l7ed tbe Church's leaching
WIth regard (0 Ihe incarnation of
God, Christ's the Virgin
Mary and Ihe SaUlIs. the creation of
the from nothing. The world,
aCCording to him, was created from
matter in accordance with
itkas as for things. He ac.
cepled the idea of the transmigrotiol1
di!:iDg
"
_.I l'd7ibutrOll or
' ... a= ...... that of resurrect
'M2 _ ancrthmto Ion. In
oa _ tea thing and":
er'C4I to. mOm nery. Was
"The Enli"'"' -
. 1'>' 1 Cner" _
agaln\ t the anti feudal /11, ' 31rntd.
MO.fWW hut'S}, he d r.
1 . c cndcd
pnnnp c of the inviolahT the
properly belonging to the
and the H ",cb
. . e fOl... L.
a.gamst Ihe Grand Princc'
lions to .c;ecularil"e the la!d aSPlta_
talc ... to the Ch ehd
agai nst t he NOI1-Possess:
c
and
movement in Church and
affairs headcd by losif
thai came to he known as On '
Slvo, was SUpported by 'G
1
yan
p . 1 Jrand
nnce van III and the Local C
n l of the Ru.ssian Orthodox Ch OUnch"
held in 1503. ur
IRENAEUS, Sf. (first half of the 2nd
century-early 3rd century), Bishop of
Lyons, one of the Christian Fathell
o/ the Churrh. In his work "The Re.
futati on and Overthrow of Gn05is,
Falselr Called" ("Against the
), he aUacked the Gnostics
and laid the foundations for Chris.
tian dogma.
outlook accord-
109 to which the cognitive potential
Man's reason (potential for scicn.
and theoretical thought) is
which, therefore, means that
It IS Impossible to comprehend the
essence of reality on notbing
b.ut reason, Irrationalism is an intrin-
SIC part of those idealist movemcnts
tha.t renected the crisis of bourgeois
rahonalism; il is also typical of vari-
OUs trends in modern WestCIll
as "philosophy of lifc",
. .ltronalUnt, praxmatism, aisttn-
PSychoanalysis and philosop-
anlhropology. RepresentatWcs
cho- 8S.'iUrne tbat tbe P'Y-
lactor (,be urge lor
00) pia' the libido, vital energy aDd 10
ys lhe ID05t importaat aea-
,

"
__ ____________ __
vc role in Man, determining his be
and cognitive .hililiC5_ Rea
n can only help Ihe individual '0
dapt to external ohjects or 10 jusliry
type of behaviour by
hm. II is only tJy rnean$ of mtWllon,
or emntions that It is
pos.<,ible for Man In the unde
I . ng proces.'c;c$ of lire and everyday
[vents. Irrationali.<,m supplements
the religious view of rea.son th.c
"father of sin" and serves to
dale fideism. As a rule, the
ologians, and ..
inevitably prove susccPhble II j.
lionalism, for the majority of bem
place (like St. Augu.rtil1e and St.
selm) faith and :J.ngma abo..,. reason
Kierlcegaard he,d hat It IS """lIV
possible 10 find Goc 'or !:lim w'lo
nounces reason. Irrationalist tbco-
logians of the nco-Protestant hool
of dialectical theology (KJui Barth t.
al.) came under Kierkegaard's in
nuence. philosophY
irrationali.sm. While the
rights of rea.c;on I assumes that a
rca.v;)nable explanalion lor ar: 110 :U
phenomena, to whic" .rration:lhsts
refer in tbeir arguments. C.lD ulh-
mately he found within the frame-
work of
IRREVERENCE, in the utthodcu
Chllrch and the Icgisiatl<lR 01
Rus.sia Ihis ituted, togeth:,.
with bloJphemy, one of the form'S of
offences against religious bt:licr. In
the code of punishments ml;:led out
for irrevcrcm..'c it is defined as .. of
fensive mockery, demonstr.lting t-ta-
tant disrespect for the rules and fil'
uaIs of the Orthodox Church m
('hrisl iamty in gcneral". Irreverence
was als(\ se(: n III cover c03.tSe ex
pression of opini ons relating to !". uf"t...
JCcts of ()rthudox CTtcd, the holincss
or which (be aecused docs not ac
0:"111
c-.pt in accordance WIth his O'N:"' !)C
ids Those accused or rrt::7ef ee
lr talcing the name of <.od In vain
couJd be scDlenced 10 erms If im-

prlSOnmellt
L'iAIAH. tJld Testameflt prophe .
whom is aUI Ibuled Ihe aUlhorshlp If
on:,; .. r tbe Boob of the It has.,
bO'NcV1:r, I:>cen fit blishcd lhal III
Iht. Book of Isaiah thre., differf::lt
wurces wert:: U M wbe-o il wa.o; com-
I led in the ljth-4tb R.C.
areh rtrs.! "'C:'I)O (C."hap-
1 datil g (rom the- 8th
f uy, tlk . c)nd section or l)cuter()-
Latah (Cltapters '5), dating from
tbe 6th :nturv B.( and tbe third
-r" rit I (I:..:.pters
dating rrrm the "'h cen Jry
BoC -'"he.,. are t :.:,. bv lbe
fae th.:J the disa.<tt rs beblbng the
. ws fold _ ->Cribcd in them
_ .,e: . U J PUnWtmcDI
frlm G d ,'or their proraDll. and by
tht I)fophe, .... 0 th," effect tbal
haf1JY fli'uc l\W;ufs 'boo;e who pay
to lahM:eh.
ISIIA.."""I Pc;ian. ('r teacher
of 'siere of a Sufi
per..ll.l.<iiOh. '.,,!.:>han, ft( m the- tdig-
I Vlt ....1', .. nt, er. alkgt dly beal
dme" and foretd-: th'..
ISHT4.R, :'T.Iain femalc dClty in Bilhy-
l'ruan-A",yr:.ln mythology, the god
Jess of krtililv and carnal love., of
war and strife
ISIS, in the religion or Ancient
Egypt the goddess of fertility, water
.lDd y,; nd; protector of the dead aDd
mother orthe god Honu.
ISLAM (Arabic word meaning ' res
ignation", "surrender") or M,h ...
medani,m, one of the three __
"!. ________ ----'''IA''
"[',
--
.
called world relilftrms. came
into being in weslern ArabIa al the
beginning of the 7th century
the patriarchal-communal
order was breaking down and c1ass-
based Arab were taking
r.hape. The tcaching Islam is
down in the Koran. which, according
to MO!'ilcm legend, was sent down by
Allah through the Angel Jibril (Ga-
briel) to the Prophet MolJammed. It
is based on seven items of faith: faith
in one God - Allah; in angels; in all
the divine books; in all Allah's mess-
engers; in the end of the world; in
prtticstination and the resurrection
of the dead. In accordance with Is-
lamic teaching, all that exists in the
world was created by Allah and all
phenomena and events which hap-
pened and will happen in the
Universe, right up till the end of the
world the Day of Judgement, are
predestmed by him and happen in
accordance with his will, Islamic
'WOfsh,ip !s hil'>ed on tbe five "Pillars
of : tbe profession of faith-
:eotal tbe Moslem creed-
There IS no God but Allah' Mo-
hammed is the apostle of God';' pc"
form'DeC of ..c...:__ ' '
, .... worship five
hew 5 day; fastis d' h
7 ph aI II.' g urmg t e
C na i .i ... (Sawn)' com-
ph.,... ; 4!vms (Zakat);p;lgrim_
?:e to Men,. if at aU possible (Ha ")
_ "'PiIIan 0( Faith" ue most
-iDS of t"
Itr ! z ,.. re ammg and
has d: thal religj?n
Olber reIi.prJT - rituak with
the Ide,_: btivak, and
aldoe aI
did nol remain unchanged
sponsc to changes in m ,IQ 'e,
1
'1 I cn!.
I c, Is 3m evolved as well Th:"'\.131
Vcil)pmCnl was reflected ,IS des
Sunntl Ihe bodv of tr.",' III the
1'1 ' ul10nall
amlc :IW based on the WOrds $z
of Muhammed, recounled
series of legends or Hadith A ',n a
tt'll,n
ltn
por an I 'hln"'d
u
us or tbe
ment 0 I e I eology of Islam r
I' ' ' was Its
sp dt Ihto hram'hes 's the SU/I';i
an h e I l!l'S, After the four
sc 00 sore IglOUS law, or modhabs
had,been sci up hy the Sunni and
lamlC dogma had been elahorated '
the 10th century, it was recognU:d
as impossible there to he any fur.
I.n theology, law, mor-
a_illy or SOCial Institutions, This posi.
tlOn thaI has remained intact right
up until the 20th century could DQt
but exert a negative influence on tbe
economic and cultural development
of those parts of the world in whic:h
Islam traditionally held sway. At lhe
present time many Moslem theoh:Ji-
a,ns recogni7c the del.
effect this conception is
haVIng on the whole of public life for
the peoples of the East and t!pey
openly declare that it is possible for
social structures to be changed by
the efforts of men, At the same time,
the majority of theologians from the
countries that are within the orbit or
the capitalist economic system either
call upon the righteous to revive pal_
terns of Moslem communal liYiDa
from the time of Mohammed the
or to regard Ihe introduc-
lton of the Sharia legal and mortl
as tbe only possible path to.
( ounsbing society, Moslems, or the
of islam, make up tbe ....
of tbe populalion in mlft)'
of Asia and Africa. In
fouad tbere are Moslems to be
&IDoog the populat_ f1I
-
A.MI( __ _
-
,,,
Central ASia, Ka7ak ..... ""an. A7.crhai'
jan, Ihe Norlhern, Caucasus, -ataria.
Oashkil at Oeorga3 and Armenta
ISLAMIC
inlcr-stale orgaml.allon to which 4.
countries II was ')tt up at
summit Meeting of Moslem HC'1ds
of State and fJovernmcnt held in
Rabat (Morocco) in 1969. Its su,
pre
me
hody is the Summit Meetilllt
of Moslem Heads of State and Gov-
ernment, and a confert'.,cc of
foreign ministers from the same
r.lates is convened annually, A Sec
retanat headed by a General SeC"'A
tal')' conducts its affair between
meetings in Jidda (Saudi Arabia ,
The Organi7.ation defines its aims as
"to promote Islamic solidarity
among memher in economu
social, cultural, scientific and och:'!I'
vital fields of activity and CUT)' out
consultations among state
in international cn
deavour to eliminate racial segreg:l
z
tion and discrimination and eradi-
cate colonia1ism in all ils forms;
ncces.c;ary measures to support inter-
national peace and security founded
on justice; co-ordinate efforts safe-
guarding Holy Places and sUPJX"rt
struggle of the people of Pal ... -
lIne and help them to regaiD their
rights and liberate their land"_ An
part of the Organization's
actiVIties IS the propagation of Islam,
Supplementary bodies have
been set up, such as Ihe Islamic De-
velopmcnt Bank. he Islamic Soli-
darity Foundation and the laterna-
tioaal News Agency. While
proclalUung as their ideals the "unity
and brotherhood of aU Moslems"
!be .member countries of tbe Organ;
11.alJon do not have a common stand
fn many important political prob-
em. ... of tbe present time. This is a
,.
reOcC'ion <)1 tbe difTc,;renccs m the
SOClO-ccon.-:nic 3J1d p"Jlitlca1 ')'S
le-ns to be found in them.
SOCIALISM, 21 teaching
s' OUL from th(: fJct that 1m-
main -)rinci.E!.cs 01 1oci.a1istTl arc to
round 'in Islam and began 10 be
Implemented a.o; long ago as tbe timl.;
of the Moslem community or the
Prophet Mollammed Variou.. ... social
groups lend a content all of lhl.:iT
)WIt 10 Ihe concept of Islamic social
ISm. and revolutionarv-
c':IlOCI'atic often use the 51::"
gao of Islam to spur on tbe social ac
tivity of the Moslem masses., and In
order to involve them in the strop
to build a new society, Supporten of
bourgeois and feudal versiODS l1f Is-
socialism prime
pr'f'pcrty and o:peak of na-
ner r('Jed the class
md l.ttcmpt to bold back the masses
from revolutionary activity. Suppors
ter" f tbe bourgeois version of Is-
i;,mjr socialism favour Ibe creation
of thc:r ()W[I t\JI'C of capitalism. Sup-
porters of the feuchl versioa of Is-
lamic socialism, on tilt.' other band,
oppo:!>e cJ.pit ,ilism Jnd seek to retUf'l1
10 pre.capitalist forms of exploita-
tif'n, Both poups declare that tbeir
!;, cialism is better" than both capi;
blis.m and ct'IDlJIUJnism, but tbeir
main artarks are directed at com-
munism and declare that il
'\;ikcs away" from
West also support soci1ism
as a " .. ddlc way" ro< the d",e!oping
countries, eonlrastmg it 10 sciealific
and rtgard it as an effecz
live means for keeping Moslem
countries within the orbit of capital-

ISm.
I
".
JAMF ..'I
clad" or "naked"), who hold that no
clothing at all be ",,'('1m and
who turn Iheir on allthc
lations in earthly life, and the Shve-
I (or "white-clad", from
plain white rohes), preach
a less approach 10 bfe, Each
trcnd dcveloped ,corpus of
literature, much of wh1ch IS devoted
to the tbeory of Karma.
William (1842-1910),
American and
p-;ychoiogist; one of the main
of pragmatism.
with its dualism regardmg the
Creator and creation James con
eaeh individual
through his experience
communion with di .. ine forces, and
himself paths 10
James was one of the first to focus
attention on the need to study the
psycbology of faith. He saw the suh-
conscious ego as a mediator he.
twten emplrica1 and
tbe sphere of the other world, By
strcuiog the practical value of
Man's rtligious experieflce James
sought to reconcile science and reli.
!ion. His main works are 'The Will
to Believe"' (1891), "The Varieties of
Experience" (1902) and
Prq1latlSlD: A New Name f(lf
SohOo: Ok! Ways of Thinking"
(1907),
JANSENISM, religiou!; and politiC<&!
. movement in the
oman C4tholic Church in France
and ".ollaud in the 17th and 18th
teDiunes.; the ideol ....... r
ated DObili ""l5J' the edu
0( the urn ty and richer strata
an population Ihat wet
:-"ed tQ lbeofticial R.oman CatlJe
l."hurda, ..-hK:b sanctified '
dcspotisaa of tbe: ItlOaarch t.he
aples of Jaruenism __ . The pnn-
...... e expounded
- - - -
-
hy the Dut ch thcnlO(tian Corn.'
Jansen Who had ca d.-Ill
one stage further the te3chi" 7eu
Augrwine of /{ippo on the qu 0 .SI.
of p,rrdrSlinoti(JfI. In !'.ome
veered (ow<\fd .. Protrsta '
(reject inn of fin . t<.1II, ad'::.
of It" ad.
vocates for stnct efrons II).
wards self Improvement in matt
f r ' dh'
o re IglOn an e( ICS and they t('
garded the Jesuit.f as their most
ous enemy. On a number of 0Cc.1.
sillns Janscnists were condemned by
the Pope and they were persecuted
by the King's councillors and thO!ie
in their service. In France Jansenisn!
had lost its importance by the
middle of the 18th century. In HoI.
land the JansenislS set up In inde_
pendent Church.
JANUS (from the !.atm "janm.'
meaning "archway" ), in the myth/)-
logy and religion o( Ancient Rome.
the god of doorways. passages, brid
and all beginnings; Janus' bless-
ing was asked, therefore, on the be
ginning of every day, month and
year, and the first month of the year
was named after him (his festival
was held on January 9). He was also
god of contracts and aUianecs. Des-
pite the fact thai in Ihe hierarchy of
the Roman gods Janus occupied an
important position (wllcn the
were addressed his Dame was men
tioned first and the priest of Janus
Was the chief priest in Rome),
worship did not win a wide folJowing
the masses. He was depicted
t.wo faces, lurned in oppos1tc
dl1ecllons, and holding keys. The
fact lbat Janu,'i had two faces was el'
plained by tht belief that he Dot only
knew what had harpc:ned in the past
but also what would happen in tbe
future
.I11l0VI'-li Wrp.;:
'"
-
-
-
..\SPERS, ,'.19(9), (,er
J r Uc
man e.... f
rdcd tht r.:;scn.:e r man _ n
in3cc s.slblc to 'J c .e
. Cvcstigation. sire. d t
with othcr "eno;l,e 1C-.
d most importaot of all the
i.e. with a phdosoo-
hil:aliy intcrprct( d (ioo.
cal faith, in hiS opIRl.nn. nan
the chance to drclpber nowl:!.
'l:oout the thus h
. freed from he hmlL tlOO= inherent
. h
in religiOUS [alt .
JATAKA. in any of 'T1"
550 stories or narrallY:''5 of the meal
nations of Gaut.ama Buddb.
Iccted in Buddhl t acre:t lmg.'.i
and designed fm he em, ,rtallOn of
those who hear rr ld them. Th
are distint1ly rdig!. U' ae In
flavour and their contI Dt ma:
..vilh moral Issue Tb
may be in tbe form of a paroble. a T
mon, '"yth or a fabl Sc-- of th
Jatak t Iso deal witb the life of ti'!
Bodhisattva; and 'ell th r s
llJe c=-- gim I w= c mpded
by b 5th 2"d c ,tunc s B.( ami
J. ter hI.' stones y, Ie t hI II Ill.;
lary orm nd '\1 'bl.: sam!;
time .... h I tah' wen" be ng
lated that wcre :liftcatu l r
lations of he aI. ht; !;; I.: 1 f
the h tier an he 01 (l to th lit
er ure ....f many Orienta' -,
aIJd ILJ the tilth h 'en' 11 tt-
arc 0 he 'mt J n " w, k ,( II.
numlle of rope 1n n m r 'J
write . J.taka: rc hill1<: r c
tbe'r tradi "lal form an " {Ib
gatorv moral nun hic,", POlOt hI,;
waylo 11 on mit: '1 II f
Bnddhl 01
JEFFERSUN, r oma!'; ( I
Amerie " philosoph d- lIor
politil i :t and ;mblil figure author
of th" >CC:laratiOl1 .. Indep n"i! nl:C
of thr 'SA tru.:t1 Presiden' of die
l'ni' ..I S' tH ( SOl-18m). DUI
lh ""mefle.n W r of )Cndener..;
lC :amp'f:-.d for the Stp: .' 1 of
5tote ana (.hun h and for the; 're
:tom )f I"\'l =v ':'Ian to pre. any
r itb l,e wt:: hi ill! J C me OUi in
j! fc lC )1 re don: or atadrmu Ie
- rc' (or adt nec of
c clhure In hIS wr11 lngs
and lett rs h _ ;Jrop .aId ht :l a
d he E'tgli Il .nd F .. ,. 1 tl rt
Ii' inG c . _'7_ J bl; T:J' ble ron a
r ' I' ndpolDl }-lIS 1deJ.s rl ne..:t
tbl ill n:: ! t:. mi.
JEt OVAH.
JE OVA""
Ie -'" . -:t ! I P
JOn.; :Hhc --
l5 Iy, I
r JDder _
I

J
I n

J u 1ion
er'r ,. i fr -
roru 10\\
'" ,
>
h al:ti .: oft h
11'1 ao tio
J . 0\ WI' .",
n (."
OU JT n
:1 :u.;vr_
.. e t'le I' )wn

. ,
) hI ' I. J
thr l! lIU
t \ r "_.
>.
rlti ... 11 n,
, ' t 110 I. _ _ I,\,l.' In 1e ';'V ...
I lC!::-,. rr v n o f' re
tbt ll.!SU II r,.J. hac.; x
F
"
I Wlr:_ :=', . em s
denv h u.; .11_ 01 God, ..( -
cI " n ('JzTiJI .n I.e HL y
JUDAS ISCARIOT
Judaism (known in Christioltity as
.he Old Ttstomtfl/), was compiled,
The next period in tbe history o(
Judaism lasted unliJ the 19th cenlury
and can be defined as Ihe rabbinical
Talmudic period. In Ihis period. on
tile basis o( inlerprelation o( the
Torah, adapted 10 Ihe new coRdi
liom of lil'e ror the 1e'ws in the (eudal
world. tbe mbbis ("Ieachers o( the
-'-Law") compleled the compilation o(
the writteo source of Judaic beliefs
second in importance 10 tbe Bible -
Ihc TGimud (3rdStb centuries
A.D.). 10 the Talmud new religious
X
icier ""'!!+d Clpl'CSSion: belid in a
a Aid .wJ the grave. in retribu.
.... _".d after death, in tbe res.
.... iR of the dead. It expounds
die '*h ; CONeplions regarding
ng,h aad de ... , (angeIoIogy aDd
""""""'), 'e COOcepIio.. of
IDOd ad e.iI deities, _ iD
...... 1ft: ID echo of poIytlu:istic
..... T .... ud IaiiI down iD
.. detail tbe of
Profcslanl practice in its -
form, In Ih,C' early lOth celli CXlera..
appeared m judaism tL- lJry:dtert
C DC 10
. trend. Coo"': en
declared their pc ::
altllude to religious traditiOas
a close link bet I8d
Judal.\m and ZiOllis". . "tea
"Jewish
shapes
, .
lallons .
enjoy (he strongest
Israd. where
lions play a role
countrys political and sociI'
the USSR Judaism IS to be
mainly in its Orthodox fOIiD.
JUDAS ISCARIOT .. , ..... ,.
BibUcaI ...... d of iii.
Apostles 01 Jesus CIuist, Mit
trayed his teacher to the
authorities for 30 PIeces
The rJgUre of Judas
come to symbolize betrayol
dIery,
J1 IlC
[IAN TIlE
Jullanu!I, 33 ... 3(3)
Emperor from 1(11. H a
Roman .
pi d 10 relR.\tltule veneratIon
old gods and nppose.J Chn
'. ", He returned property to the
nanty, hhhd
temple" W Ie a en
pagan ' h (
(i.\ealed from them hv IS tu,
e,on I n,1e Emperor ('on t ,ntme
lIanU, h
d h 0 allowed haek In Romc t fiSC
an poncents of who had
sent into cxile_ He also fo
bade Christian t? Ic eh m
In his phllos?rhu ai, VIoC\1o'S
Julian had close affimllcs WIth th
Neoplaloni<;;t", He fe'l ID }61. lfl
battle against the Persians. II' d
ficendanls reintroduced ('hris n'l
as the.,; stat... eligion,.r the Rom ""
Empire rOlC ref d . ..,
this emperor 8.! J 'Jllan th A..,.
I Ie".
JUM'A (ArabiC or Fnd In
hlam II IS Ih day wbc n at mldd a
so emn "'Ie - I held 10 the m
al which worship ohlig tOry
Vlded a quorum of 40 Co prc$ nl and
at which a sermon IS pre hcd. In
the modcrn h:iamlc world -I h s
become an official holiday, bUIll is
'DO! of neccssitv day ()f r t.
JUNG, ('arl (.usta" (lR7S 1% n
Swi$S and phdrn;('ph r
found\;f of "analytkal psychol
At thr: hcgmnin of Ih 20t h ntu
he wa" an achvc upparl r of lh
of ""I:mund F. ud In I 11 h
I!laboratcd hi.\ own k
Iheorv. He count r d Ih ra
j m and /rte-tJunlung of Fr ud
proach wit h a teaching root n u
abashed IrratlOnalnm and '!'!,
Ihal came cI arly tn lh (.ore
conception or th U d u
$clous" rOoled m lhe humaa
The coUecllve UDCODIC1OUS
;,"- ide
JlNO
R m
KAUTSKY. Karl Ger-
man and economist, onc of
the leaders and theoreticians of the
German Social Democrats and of
the Second Int ernational, the ideo-
logist of the cenlrist camp within it.
Kauisky devoted a large part of his
work!. to questions of religion and
atheism. He put forward the oppor-
tunist proposition to the effect that
the Social Democrats should remain
neutral with regard to the Church
and tbat Christian teaching could he
made compatible with the goals of
He rejected Karl Marx's
)( interpretation of religion as the
1\ "opium of the people" and main-
tained that it could playa positive
role in people's Lives. Wide use was
'!lade of Kaulsky's views on ques-
tions of religion by Right-wing revi-
sionists of socialism.
(Gtb), in tbe pantheon of
Anaeal Egypt be personified the
Eartb and vegetation. Keb was
called tbe father of tbe gods. tbe sun
and tbe 1IlOOll. He was depided in
tbe rOf!D or a goose, or as a bearded
min with a goose OIl his head or
mi. bisb' a
oa .1 " over whom.
wa;..': his wife Nut, the sky
e- c : 'WI5 DO temple dedi.
!,,,w&hip ad the main
... iafhK''NX' was Helio-
-
......
-
failh " and 10 them the
,rall'ario" t hrough sufferings ':i
lh
. to
life on Earth. uflII@
KEPLER, Johann ( 1571-1610) G
man astronomer. While Je,.
supportc r of hellOcenlrism, Ke'\ a
on the basis of his
scrvatJons of the planets' move.
three l,aws. of planetary mo-
thus It possible to spec.
Ify Copermcus' Ideas as regards the ,/
of the Solar System and
brlngmg nearer the subsequent dis.
eovery of the gravitation law. Ke.
pier' s discoveries helped to under.
mine the Biblical view of tbe world,
although Kepler' s own world out.
look was not free from religious and
idealist overtones.
KERZHENETS COMMUNmES
Old Believers' settlements that
set up in the 1680s along the wooded
banks of the River Kerzheoets (.
tributary of the Volga). There tbe
adherents of the old faith hid from
persecution at the hands of botb the
secular and the Church authorities
They were mainly Old of
.he Popovtsy group and also l/ap<r
po"'"'! 01 .be Spas and Pomon/cy per-
SUasionS. With the active involve-
menl of the Russian (}1fhodor
Church, the Tsarisl government tried
on repeated occasions Co destroy
these settlements. regarding them as
hot-beds of schism and disK.t.
KllAMBO LAMA (TibetaD _d
"mentor"), tide granted to
. . occupyiog promiDcat pas;"
tboocilODS the hierarchy of the pr'.e st
---- m l.tmuJism_
(from the Arabic
.. I .. !"e.ning "ODe thai do-
patu, di"coter"), supporters rJ
KJIRJSTOVFRY
-
---
of the movements in Islam l:hat
into heing in the m,lddle of the
7th century. They were In ravour of
c uality for .all regardless
o?their ethniC I'lr the
their skin. Accordmg to KhanJlte
tcaching. any adherent of
elected by the Moslem commurury
could he Caliph. They also heM that
the coromun.ity had the. ri.ght to
remove an madcQuatc (ahph. A
characteristic feature (If the Khari
jiles was their tow;)rds
their political and Ideological oppo-
nents, whom they declared tf"' be
"apostates", who needed to be elimi
nated. Nowadays Kharijite
no longer as intolerant as WeT their
are 1.0 be round 'D AI
geria, the and
Oman.
KHLYSTS. See l<hmtov,",
KHNUM, ont of the maID g .. in
the mythology of Anoent Egypt. H ..
was regarded as the create r )1 :, ne
world and menmd the sowce .. -
fertility.
KHOMYAKOV. AI .... (1&14-1860l.
Russian idealist philll50pher and
theologian, poet and drwnatist, one
of the main thinkers behind lhe
m?vcmcnl knu ....-n as Sla\'Ophilism.
HIS work betrays the innuence of the
Writing.s of the Falhers of tilt' Clwrch
and classical Gennan philosophy.
lie developed a teaching in which
the was viewed as a thing
body lent h[e bv God as was Christ
and in ",n ich. on a basis of love
sOOomosl (unit)' ill / rdom),
SDtnlual fr eedom and brotherhood
could grow, While idealiring the Or-
Churrh, Khornyakov believed
at II would be accepted as superior
to the authoritarianism of Roman
--
Catholicism and the Individualism of
AC4;ording to him, the
....lU of COrutllUlcd
the of I;xistenc;c and it
was only In harmony ....ith the 1atter
man's whole spirit which his
.aath was. a cruCIal compctncnn
,ould aUalO Truth. KhomyuoY reo
garded the RUSSIan peasant t:om-
mune and Ihe Orthodox faith R$ fac'
tors of cruci.aJ importance fur the
developlMnt of Russia. He cam
paigned for Iht abolition of serfdom
hul within tilt framework of an autO:
Ollie state.
KHRISTOYERY 1.*:0 Men of (;od
or Khlysts), members of onc of the
old sects that grew up in tbe
sec' Drl h.:ll! of the Ptb l1:nturv in
central provinctt, of RUssia
a.."1l1.'Dg n quit-rent. Tbe
pe :,sant Daniit Filippmil:h from K l)-
$tn mJ wa<; as tbe founder
dtbl: sec. ",itb regard to tbe social
tmpliuti0D5 of KristOYtry teaching
that was di..unguished by extreme
ascc"ti.'iJm and m}'S1Icism, il ex
the protest 'of some sections
of the pea.c;,antry against tbe land
owner!' lnd tbe Orthodox clergy.
The Khrisllwcry rejected the auth
(lritv tbe Churcb in the name of
tbe: . aut bority of the Holy Spirit.
Their gatherings for prayers (ec
static rituals or rodeniya) constituted
collcdive dances as they " moved
.ith the Spirit", dances that involved
self. flagellation, glossolalia and
ptophecies, as a result of whie:" tbe
faithful worked themselves up into a
state of religious ecstasy. A typical
feature or the sect in tbe early days
was extremely strid asceticism that
sometimes led its members to re
pounce marriage and their family
and come together 10 form WiIl-
.. n... (or "vesseis") beaded by
_ ",God.,.. be
kORAN
-
contcnl of these the most
alO
A
being good WlSbes. celebl'allOD
and various sptllJ.
KoRAN (fro,.. Ihe Arabic "Our'IUI"
meaning "reading"), the holy book
of the M06lcms. According 10 the
teaching of the was DOl
, created but 15.- pre_mateD' to 'he
)\ world. The archetype is in the keep-
ing of Allah and he transmitted it to
the Prophet Mohammed, in a ser1e&
of revelations, through the ...
Jibri!. The Koran is tbe major
of Arabic prose, written in 7th
century. According to letead,
compilalioD and editiDg of the
Koran were begun under the SIIPC ,-
vision of the rust Arab Colip".
"sing tbe notes made at the .j
n
4 of
(
the Prophet oct ....
fact, boM:ver, the of
the caaoaicaI
stoos f. CWD tIae fa.
"",. dahoyed, lilt ....... _ ...
acoowots to tho elfed t1iot diIrInoI
venioas of tho Koru ItiII .......
the 9th and tilth no
of the Koran
I by the S...,,;
, pletc by tho
the ..... U4.-
Icoaths voryiag ,,-
...... ) in tho
three-sa: 1)'1'
The lint
lA fONT
r!
tbe Soul 'd ed tbe origins and
God"). be rt;Cusslig1on, revealed it s
it s role in society,
tbat the characteristic fea-
of social
lure rcligioow: o;:esentation
consaousness .. of
of a distorted. fantasOc picture
b Id
Warane was tbe author
t e wor. .0'- . I; .....
of many talented.
phlets eThe Right.
V::; .. "Pius IX in Paradise. The
:eligion of Capital" etc.) .. He ten-
aciously propagated Idea that
tbe struggle against rehglOn should
be subordinated to the overall tasks
of the revolutionary struggle of the
proletariat and that doing away
witb the problem of religion once
and for all goes hand in hand with
tbe elimination of private property
and exploitation.
LA FONTAINE, J... de (1621-
1695), French poet and satirist. He
advocated Epicurean ethics as op-
posed to the asceticism preached by
Christians.
-
kctcd togethcr undcr the heading
Apmtolate of Ihc Laity. "
LAK.."HMI WNd ptean.
"wealth", " hcauty", "splendour")
Hindui.rm the . wife of l'i.rhnu, g;:
des.e; of happmes..e; and pror.(lrrity
ideal of female beauty and conjugaj
love. Her other names include Sri,
Kamala and Indira.
LAMA (from the Tibetan "blama"
meaning literally "highest"), Budd.
hist monk or priest in Tibet, Mongo.
lia or among the Lamaists in the
USSR. The Kalmyks in the USSR
only give this title to the spiritual
leader of a higher rank. A lama i.e; reo
garded as an individual pos..e;essing
supernatural qualities and the ability
to commune with the divine world.
The high.rank.ing lamas during the
feudal period constituted part of the
feudal upper crust known as the
"princes of the Church". Before the
October Revolution of 1917 in Rus-
sia the head of the lamas in Eastern
Siberia was known as the Pandil
Khambo-Loma. Now this title is
used by the Chairman of the Central
Religious Board for Buddhists in the
USSR.
LAMAISM, one of the trends in
Buddhi.rm.1l grew up in the 7th 14th
centuries in Tibet on the basis of Mo-
hayana BuddhiJm and Tantrism,
which incorporated elements of lbe
ancient religion of the Tibetans, lhe
Bon tradition (a variety of Shamall-
ism)." is still the main religion of the
Tibetans and cmhraccs a number of
5tsand schools. In (he late l6Ihc:eD'
l!'Iry Lamaism to the
Iians and in Ihe 17th century II pene-
trated as far as Russia. where it ac
quired a following among tbe
Buryatl>, the Tuvinians and the Kat-
- -
--
uupalsm Which rio
1Tl)k
s
. In . tenet of FJuddhlsm. a
all
1he
m
a
l
tn

n
Man 5 sa!\'Ot;on I
al
roel
h h
SpeCI }lheLoma.<:, WIt out w 05C
tribul
ed
heliever is al!cgedly
belp ar able to enter paradlsc and
pol on Y but ('V_ to live
b
levc ''II....., . .
ae bl
n
the given remcvn lion.
loleta .Y IS of holy writings KanJur
Colleclll:'es) and ranjur ( 25 vol
vo u . L r
)
vide the canoDlcal "}C" S 0
UlTl
cs
. pro Characteristic of Lamaism
and theatric.:al nr s
cled out in dat.fan.s or
lenes
a
.1 'I
' manyeverydaynWa
tenes, . . d t d
elements and IrCdct
he . I Iheangcr 0 theg.-sln t
agams .. F 1 _
. I gues of evil SPlTlts. or
In fluestioning obedience to th-
and secular i.r held
to be the mnst mpr rta.ot Virtue
l..amaistssmgle ut IS t le ten blae k
siosmurder, theft. "improper copUla
1
'00" Ivins, IOlander, scandalous r.
," ai' d I I
sip idle talk, greea. n Ie an c
The adual api toac'! by tit-
Lamaists to :valuat"on or these ac s
reflected the class inte- of the ruJ
ingelite in feudal Mwdcr, o
instance, was Dot conSidered to be :.
serious sin, if the king had ..... , ,(I-e
one out to commit if V' rtue was sc 1
in terms of abstention f . m in Whll
wi ll make po!: iblc 1 better reinl- a
lioD. Terrible torment he n 'A lit fN
the sinncr in lUrne'-l us hot anL I.: 'd
bells. At the present ltml; Lama!
monks in the lI$SR laVt; c m
together in the (en! IJ K .I r I!'S
Board for Buddhl Is p. ide:i vc I' : 'v
the Khambo-lAma who . r. icf nee
is in the Ivolginsky dil tsan (in Ih Itu
ryat Autonomou'S Sovie Socialist Rc
PI bucl,
K.Jran Raptis dr' I #
Frene h 'latur ,I SCllnll"t \\-hll
CViscd Clle or the hrstdl-crnbr .Ie
- -
-
- --
-'"
ng l"OIM,;Cpti"ns of-L- .... .-.-1. __.,.,
r . UIC .1....... )D,e,t
T". ng B: matntau)''''d that
hvmg bodlC5., 5lartmg ";th the Yc::
Simplest "Val"l( tics. wbM:b ha1
CTnlrged from llIanimate matter
were capable of adapting to lheir c;'
vtroruncnt, of changing e:tpedicntly
and tbeir newly I1quired
,'laractemhC$ to subsequent ge le .
at tl!" He h '.d (hal Man evolve:l
from hlb'lcr r pc:; " I La-
prepared to accc) thi,t
thIS evnlUhon wac by what i:le
saw as a Ol'.lDe pul1)OSc:
lAJII BETH COSFERENCL>; u
tm Anglican (hurch
onvetM:d iDee lR67 C'llrv
h. 1 I ;aTS by ......_ All hb !-op of ( lD
Ie ...LUI Y lI: hts. r _ ... 'lC , Lambe
P lace 10 Loll' D. fbe rcn-
'- 5 co:; . lte IlK.. --t me: b'Kh ,,{
the: an ... 1011, vel their
de\. ar ndmg.
lA"l E ' fOlkl'" Rob<rt de
(1 c;.. French R...,man
<. OIIC r ilS..tDJ politM:..tl
-itcr one l lc: of ('Ivis.
han "11 lit ppost:d tD.1tena.
r .t . p"" .tIl:d oJIhri..",. The pc>-
Sit .... .. adoplt d in blS ..u;fCDCC and
.)f rcltp.lUs dogma
WlS n . I ( hn.<.llaD "'ropkIton.iun.
1-1 ... foughl rrllgrfJUS indi/Jc,
en C"m. prcachmg a li"'lOg fanalK31
. I n. and in lalc:r year advo
tr:d tht limitation uf Papal po\locr.
H idfd. and "'I1Tk 10 propagate
them were condemned by (be
( hurd, leadership in 1834 and soon
1ft ,-ward .. he kft tbe <""burch. Th.e
OCIO political .. of
ar inronor.istent: aruh.ally .his Ideal
had heeD one of a Chnsllan . mon
an.:hy. During the July Revolution of
pn() he: adopted in.t;lead a stance of
t-..urgcois republicanism and called
u\ MliTI"RIE
for separation of ond
universal suffrage and other bour
geois-JjberaI reforms.
LA ME 1'1 RJE, Julien
(17C1}-1751). French phIl -
osopber. Togelber WIth Dlderot, Hel
litius and Halbach he drew up .a
consisleDI e:qJOsition of melaphYSI-
cal and mechanistic malerialism. In
his main work "L'Homme machine"
(Man-Machine, 1747) he put for
ward the Ibesis that the human or
ganism conslilUtes a selfw:inding
machine reminiscent of a clock
mechanism. He critici7..ed the relig-
ious world outlook, rejected the con-
cept of the initiol impetus, opposed
tbe Christian ethic of patience. sub-
missiveness and asceticism, counter-
ing it with Ibe idea that it was up to
Man 10 secure his happiness on
Earth. Yet La Meltrie, like many
Olher lSth-century materialists, as-
sumed that only enlightened and
educaled people could be alheists,
wbi.le he saw a religious outlook as
even being useful for the popular
maSSes.
leachings regarding the Un ....
of the souJ and /rre "''ill. mOrtality
LAO TZU, ancient Chinese hi
ophcr who allegedly P los.
. at the
same lime as Confucius (61h
centuries s.c.). To him is au 'b ,Slh
the philosophical treatise
"Tao Te Ching", which the r
damentaltext of Tooism. Most
lars of today regard Lao TlU ().
legendary figure. . as a
LAPLACE, Pierre Simon (1749.
1827), French mathematirian as.
and who made an
Important contnbutu::m to the prob-
ability theory, parhal differcntial
equations and to celestial mechan.
ics. In his world outlook he bad
much in common with the Freach
materiaiisis and defended the belid
that Nature can be with-
out reference to (he idea of God, OD
the ba<;is of the Jaws of mechanics.
Independently of /(ont Laplace pUI
forward a h}1>othcsis to the effect
that the Solar System evolved natu-
rally from a white-hot gas cloud.
LARES, in the religion of the
Ancient Romans these were di-
vinities who protected the home and
the family. Images of Ihese gods
were placed in a special lararium or
nichc, ncar the hearth. Offerings
were made to the Lares at every
family celebration. Romans also
venerated public lares -. palrons of
cross-roads, streets, lowns or states.
Among their number were Romulus
and Remus, the shepherd's wife,
Acca Lareotia, who brought them
and the legendary king. Titus Ta
llus. AJtars Were dedicaled 10 the
public Lares. The festival beJel ill
bonour of the Lares who pi"
trollS of Cf05S-roads was kn.,..a
I
I
J\ W ANI RElJGIO:-,;
- ---"-"----- -
-
Compitalia and
January.
look place n
R(J('IInOUCAULD .....
LA 16n-1(80), wr Ic"!' a.nd
dt. ( her-cum-morallst. He crill
Ph,JOSOP . J' Ih
. d mora Ily. c me
of the feudal aristocracy, hUI he
alilY 'dcred that il war roote 10
n nature Ihal tht; me;; v .. ff"rc;cs
huma ' .
hind human behaVIOur e 0-
be 'ndividual Q'ain, amhtlcn. ThIS
15m, I P . LaR
U
ntcd for hiS pcs.<ilmlsm. 0-
acW . k "R'
chcfoucauld's maIO wor wac;.
ne,oons ou sentences c:1
morale,," (Reflections or DIf;;
turns and 10 whlc'1 hc
expounded his VIews In the f1 rm f
aphorisms.
LAS CASA.tiJ, de (14 1-
15(6), historian. humant
aDd missionary. He look part In (.;
conquests of the 'iO:pani"h C rowr.
America lDd becamt; E '5ho"'l of
Chiap<: in MeXICO. When he rc
turned to SPl!In, nc c qJOscd the c
lonialisis in his writ ngs ano rCJccli :l
tbe Church's 01 14 tb
Christi: D rcligum on [he pel ,'lcs f
Cenlrat and South Amr"!"ica lly or e
Las Casas' allcmplll it c I.
ony in Amenca Jased n '\. btl han
virtues" failed rll ....ugh.
LATERAN COl NCII S. CUe.
menicol or Cif'nC"I1 '.,s.
LAlTR"N TRE" IT, an Ilt
"'gil Cl n 'he "alae 'n Fe
)ru ry 11, 'Q '9 lwe n lalllan
Ild th h.tliJn fa"\(,lsl u\ ,nmt III l)f
" nn.o;.lstcd pf Ihrt:c d(l'
DIs: Ih, trc.Uv, whllh l
.. thf" ",lltt-.m (Ity d'i .:t n -n
epcndcnt sovereign sl .lle; !he (on -
'}ft/ot, whIch defined the relations
I:lctwcl.: n Churt' h and State in Italy.
0101
-
'"
llscche c;,,)hgation\ "hto; d
PJIIltl4 ges or the RontQn
and. 'inally, It financ'l1 co
vcn' :on, which est ,blisbed t
L
." n
the 0 . ... sv,e
mpcnsahon 0 I"e paid ror the
suffered by th PG/Hlcv in 1870
when tb Pilpal cr 'J nf th
"hun II .he. isbed. f
LATONA, Se ' to.
1.oub 1'*'3-1'>51,.
r "lch R 'dl.:ahsi
PhIlosopher, 'ne "r th(' rounders ,)f
lh phI' ....ph of th pTnl, the
matn ....a or wluci w: :Qs!
en(e dean c:: f ,II thai Vt, ''later.
al 'I." of f J). c
ling ::l 1\ \.t:l
h P of lCai C)1l pi "f t:
" \Yuh G Id and
,k, IX I m H na1 '0 I QC(
Lavcl .. - '#, re tbl\'ie of
rg< c.: .. and (. Tan 0;:;.!!D11lU "
1 '''RA or L-\. R.\, name 10
r .tnJ m I Important Or-
t11-dl 'x "'."0 t"nf The oldeSl Iav-
f1S were r,Jund.cd in Pale!t.line in Ihe
Uh cnturv. In the Ruuio1J Or1hodot
t hun h thi" !IIle \\'as accorded to the:
JolloWlng the Kiev-Pe"
chnv Mon.l.<"t erv of Ihe
l J\C", in 1598); thc Holy Trinity
I ,t'tgtus Mona!iil cry in zagorn (1ft
I 44) the St Alexander NclUy
(ia 1797)

'"
LENTSMAN
An important in the leg.acy of
Lenin's writings IS thaI occuplcd hy
his criticism of religjon, and his ela-
roTation of questions of atheism,
Mor.xi.st . Lenin held religion 10 be a
form 9( inlelledu.@l and
" orlbe popular masses., held
down by capitalism, economically
cn.slaved and bereft of political
rights. Lenin's book "Malerialism
needed for Work with . ...
de,fines the nature and sl. hchc\lt1l.
hClst propaEtanda in co or III.
lai!,ing 10 the transilio: Pet,
tahsm to socialism. In rorn Cclpi.
religious devotion LenCornbaUi1lK
\/ QIId Empirio-Criticism" (1908) is a
/\ model of committed criticism, pro-
viding an exposure of (he link be-
tween philosophical idealism and
religion. After summarizing the la-
lest discoveries in the natural scien-
ces Lenin shed light on the incon-
sistency of the claims to the effect
that empirio-crilicism represented
the last word in philosophy: he also
revealed the idealist essence of
Ernst Macb's ideas and their closen-
ess to religion and subjected the
IDO\'emenls of tbe Godseekers and
God-builders to harsh criticism.
Lenin elaborated the
foundation for
Ibe
' I . ,In all ...
crucla Importance to th . .....Jt.S
men! of the failhful in SOc'
c

activities, i,!
slrue'$le which IS going On in
and IS educating the {1f'actiCt
and beuer than anything
Works, Vol. 15' d"
Lemn also
anee to the establtshment of ge
freedom of worship. The concer;a:;
of worship as defined by
Lenm was consolidated in 0-.
I
'I ' xmel
egIS ahon and the COllStituliOQ r
!he USSR.
LENTSMAN, Yak.v (1908-1967)
SOVIct <?f the Ancieni
World, rehSJous historian. He reo
searched into questions of Ihe his.
tory of early Chrislianity. His main
arc: "Proiskhozbdeniye khris.
(The Origin... of Chris-
tJantly, . 1958) and "Sravnivaya
ycvangchya" (Comparing tbe Gos
pels, 19(7),
LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-'
1519), Italian thinker and artISt
architect, sculplor natural scientisi
and clIgincer, a suprcl11e example or
the genius. Leonardo
da. YmCl:.s work. is. pCrmcaled with a
SPlrtl 9f free -thinking. He regarded
e"PCliencc as thc of bowl-
whieh af (he same lime be
ked up cl"""y wilh Iheory, and hit
Works reflect his belief in the spn-
wealth or tbe individual Willi
sard to questions conccrnins tile
e"ence of God and lhe soul Leotw-
do Vinci saw Ihese 10 he of IiUIe
lDIerea, 8JId his atlilude 10 die
II-VIAnIA'Il
-
-
.jnC erlaln tcncl r Cltri
clap;)!
. '(' was an ironiC :"Inc n the
(10/1/\' I h
h
'. )1 thc nalura Sl'lcnces (
II d'
was to anlklpaLe many OJ er IS
coverics,
U:ONTI'EV, Kl'nstantin. I
p,.'hllCal. JI ur
. hi and f ullllwm In
of .Nikiliai Danilc\lsky
he apprn<lchcd as a tlf
self.containcd ur,al: II
(e.g. Egypltan, ( hlncsc, f u
rnpcan, Sla\lonic anJ so on), wh{)!".c
development procecJt'd from pi
mary simplicily" .... ia "h14 mmp m-
plcxity" 10 the .:.,tage of Simi hro-
liem" when social speciru .. ty
and slK,:icly
Lconlycv rejected hOlh 'ral"}'
and socialism, for from pOint c.
view these led 10 a !
religion, He saw lion t Ie 10
the idcals the By7.antme E mr re,
to which we'rf' au' r cY,
ascetic Orthodoxy, fear r (ir i n,l!I
rigid social hier rchy I-tc wa ... 0
1
lh
opinion that In. ideal c uld e
achieved in RUSSia, Hi!" 14 "lS
made use of nowad' V'! bv lOlIcom
munist authors. His maIO works
were publishedn the collcc' n '!l
titled "Vostok, Ros"va i slavyan.
5l\Io" (The fa!t, Rus..c;la md the
voniePeoples. Vos.12 IRSSIR86).
LESSING, Gotthold
(I 729.1781), lierman jram;.(tiq .
philosopher or the lnliglUrnmtn/ 10
Germany, In his phlk''Ophieal W4 ,rk
"Die Eno:iebung des Menschcn
g,eschlccbts" (The [ducllion of the
Human Race. 1780) he expfL l' J
the idea that in the soci( tv of the ru
ture religion would be sup ... r';:edcd
'nlightcncd Rcaron All
Ind Uding O.risliani(\', LessiRA re
garded as stages in mankind' , moral
__ -,,"
de",-' ,
pmU In he .lire ..., (If
rcligwn" .Nh,c':I Will mark
Ihe tnumph JUMic and
lIurnan.:y. In his play "lath n
Wei' I"-:alhan the WISC 1, '9)
.... nfl. IPhnh,h. Ih m:c- 'J ur,_
tolero/ion nd TR.!"I'S 'ght 0
be ree-thinkL .
I.E ro, n th( myf 101tlg)' of Aonc 11
( fC_ e daughtcr e 'TIt at
<. 'JS lnd Phufh who t:l\I" , rth
to I\\'(" Ltldre'Tl of Zl'U, 4,,'1110 and
fftftm Th m. gL Jf '0 I! thd of
Ihe molh fl.txldc nat! ... famOl!'51V
her clotild, n Ih nythnlogv of
I\. lClcnt Rome the I.:quI'rdl 1 goo.
de ..... w '5 Latona.
LEl IPPl S
"
.,turv
B ), ,
Ar. , -I ,r phil
,
Tog Ih,-
, r
w,
Ihr.; foun ... of atom, H
"
aL",
It:_ fl th' L' I
, . .at
Ih .w
of
,
,nd Ih pr ile Ipl
d(.;t 'mUl' - ::':1 nth ' g pre
-dum. but .a 1 I
-
f ! a r, .0
-:'0
,
1y' J. ,
"LE\I\TH\.J'rIj" '61::), th' rnam
voon; ." E:1&II h matcri hq phil
;,:-ur i7lC'motHobb!\'. 1'1.Jtgl ....
. ", .. ,r...: Ion I ....' u.: ,n"...:ty \\lth rt:"f,.:u'd
'0 the ,"'ITipn l nj nc .,f l!lC
.l.tl' Tn hb auempt Til .!.u!>:>l\ntiate
1.'lC nt'c' of absulute power of
Sa .ttc, H I t. pelks l,; ul a.<: ,I
r .. ", lult: llpponenl < f clencufmPl (in
f"lt h,:ular. [hc Rom.ln Catbolit: var
lely! J.nd dccLtJ't..:> tht' SUte In be Ih,c
!; uprcme ;t.rbit er in matters of reh
glun. In "Leviathan' pres-
..:l1ls hi !> readership WIth a r3tlonah.!.1
tntcrpret ;llion l11 tht .Bible
doctrint' s and r racltc ... s of worship
art' aiticized and supernatural sour
t..'CS of bclids are virtually
rc:jecled, In the 17lh century"Levia--
tLVI-STRAUSS
311
than" included in I,he 11Idex Ii
f"vm
m
prollibitorum (Its! of pros-
(Titx'd and also condemned
by IhcAnglicon Omrch.
(,laud. (b. lQOR).
French ethnographer and folklorist.
He regarded Man's urge under-
the world around him
main stimulus behind human acll\'lly
at all stages of development. Myth-
creal ion occupies an important
place in LCvi-Strauss' writings.
cording 10 him, in as In
any sphere of human acllvlty, one
and the same set of logical laws pre-
vails. Uvi-Strauss interpreted myths
as the product of collective con-
sciousness and the basis of stable so-
cial structures. His main works are:
"Mythologiqucs" (M}1hoJogics,
Vols. 1-4, 1964-71); "Anthropologie
strudurale" (Structural Anthropo-
logy, Vols. 12. 1958-73); "La voie
des ma.c.ques" (The Way of the
Mash. 1975) etc. His works contain
both extensive factual material and
interesting generalizations on the
basis of that material
according to Biblical
tradltton., members of a tribe which
desccadcd from l..c\'i. ODe of Jacob's
the Exile ODly inferior
duta u:' the Temple were aUotted to
tbe Lcvaes, who assisted the priests.
third of the
rituals contains for
_ .. t:-lbc: 011'-' of _,rup (re
ernDg of sacrifices the
--""' 0 the I'ricst,_l
hMI rcIII.ing to food and o.avuu, tQ-
pe"'l of b-':I'ic: life etc.). OIber as-
Uvy.IROHL, 1M
Pre.d. phik-opbu :a
dhnographvj, who ' and
was l.fUII!Ie to tbe
positivist school of Emile Du. ....
but at the same time ad tIo:hl'l17t,
stance all of his own. a
drew the conclusion that;'
patterns (If COrte arlOus
variou'i social types. With ::;ond 10
the thought of primitive to
Bruhl used the term "collect' vy.
, " Th I\'C Con
c.ep s., ese concepts Were e .
tl3l1y different from "individu I""n.
I
,,' h aeon
cep s , slOce t er were gleaned not
from personal lire-experience b
r
"1 .,Ut
rom man S socia enVIronment
They are passed down from gen .
. . cr-
atlon to generatIOn and are foisted
upon every mcmllcr of SOciet
Among these concepts are
beliefs, m)1.hology, moraJ rules and
above all language. Despite a certain
degree of over-simplification in his
theoretical idcao;, Uvy-Brtihl made
an undeniable contribution to re-
search into thought-patterns obtain-
ing in primitive society.
LEWIN, Kurt (1g<J().1947). Ameri.
can In Lewin's Ibeory
coneermng need as the dynamic
psychologically tense system striving
towards a releasing of tension (sat
isfaction), in the category termed
by Lewin psychological "field" (the
sphere surrounding tbe indi-
VIdual), and also in the experimen
tal method devised by him, despite
certain touches of idealism or for-
malism, there are fruitful ideas 10
be found which can be for in-
the psychology of reli-
gIOn (particularly religious needs
delusions), Lewin's work "PeiD-
of Topological Psycbolcf.f.
while leaving some "scope" for illu-
sory needs in man's mealalily.
an impact on modera boUr-
geOis PSYChology of religion 01
bon-theological trend (Jaun
Leuba, Gordon AUport ot ".J.
I JI1'
-
-
ERAI,ISM,
LIB .J' Innv whKh eaml 1010 ocmg
nd I . r d I'
a. h _ agmn'" eu a Ism.
-=- dur .. I illS Ihe indi\;t.1ual who S
Inhl ....
ra
. b h hi
. the f(ltcfront as 001 I SU cct
In d hi hc.st instance of any kind nf ac
a.
n
. gwhile the state needs to be
liVid' uhoruinatc to the interests of
ma d
S
ividual Behind this demand
the 10 . r h h
the struggle 0 t e .ourgeols!c
lay. st feudal political pnvllcges, In-
'h
galn
., ',n is also faith in
eren r I"
r ress and a demand or rc Ig1t1U5
)to- 19th century the
Christian Church as a whol.c ('PPo ed
liberalism from. a
ing the of
Germany wa.s dommated by
the Kultllrkamp[, which was clash
belween liberalism and ultramontan
ism a reaction to the ideas of th"
Enlightenment thcrecmerged in l?t
h
century Protestantism so-called Llbe
ral Theology. Basing thcir ideas on
the teachings of Friedrich 5chleicr-
macher, Liberal Thcologian.o; AI
bTl'chl Ritschl, Adol[von Hamack md
Ernst TTO{tsch) raised the question
as to the relationship between f'e"da
tion and They the hiS'
x.. torical-critical method in thclr ap-
proach to the Biblc. The correlat' , n
between religion and culture was dl-
cussed from a histnrical [Klint of VICW.
Bourgeois progres. .. SCen hy t h"m
I
as Ihe path leading to the reah7-<ltll'ln
of the Kingdom of C,tlll,md It wa<o;, on
ethical doctrines in Chris:iat!lf'o thaI
special empha!\is placed. l.at
when the ,'lruer was fat Inj.!
II theult't")'! "t 11,
IOnuenec A.'i U( negation ('ISH Tht '
logy emcrgrd In: !le lQ2fls
lIBERATIUN TlIFOU)(;,\, .)11\ of
lhe tone, pIlon.. m illudern
Roman l athulic thl "Iud, hJ'S
been widespread In 1.Jtin Ameru.:;l
m
Since 1960s. Its main propo
nent IS the Perm.ian priest GutiCr
;JUthor nr a hook entitled "Libe.
ration Theology antl the Filture
This. kind of lock shape 3.\
a result of dlsllIUSlonme.:nt v.1tb the
C.hristian sociali..<;t mO\leme.:nt, that
not call into question the.: carital
lSt s),\te,m as <;uch. Thrst.;
L hr'!hon Theology came out in -a.
of revolutionary chang n
Lalln Amem:an Society and of so-
ciali..<:'m. "Liberation" m:'mt
lhem first and foremost
of colonial oppressi(lR. ehmination
of exploitation. i.e. social revolution.
At the same time "liberation" alo.o
implies "lii1erati()n from al the
reason for poverty. ard
opprt"ssion. From !.his point of VlCW
the cia!.'; !'.truggle L<:; essential for put
ling into practice the commandment
that man should love his. neighrour.
but inadequate for "spiritual 'ihe,,,-
tion"or 'ibera' 'D from sin. u"lCra'
tion The('ologv alc,;:>IS re\'Olution a,
M inMrument of "truggle ag.lin<;t in
jU51icc. the King,dt'm of
(Jt.: : remains l . gift frpm on hIgh
lnd 1: :, nr\(. "ecn a ... somclhill that
hf'old 'x: iJI,.-nliJied with any ir.md .:If
OCtat ,,,ostem: to free him..c;elf from
SID a man should entrust himself to
God. The ".:ry existence of Lthera
tion The(llr'gv r<fleets the rev\ 1
utionarv Iltat ha\e taken pbee
in the minds "f m.ln ... Christians lnd
,t facilitates hetween Com
muni ...ts and b<..'iie\"ers tpw.,rds the
, t1ing up of a united ft0nt in the
s1l uggte for peace and <;ocial justice:.
l,.f f, ,"'ne of I he for m" of existence of
m.lller. qualitativelv highcr
physic.}1 lnd 'hemical forms,
regularly ID condl
tion. .. a .. mailer develops, , Ife mam
(csts itself in indi .. idu.t1 hic10gJCll or
oodia....".
came
he called
view of lhe
goages men
S'me word 10
nomeaa; when
of the _d
people bepn
words U
1.1)( AI, ("OUNUI S
- for the end
It IS al"'-l recited
of funerals. of rcmem
dUring r the dead and durmg fHV'"
brancC (If
ctJsiQns.
RGICS, Ihcolngical discipline
Cothofici.fm and Olfho--
'" . wh',ch against the back-
dron} 10 ' d \.
......... d of various histOrical an re tg-
service.s are demonstrated
IOUS an U;dispcnsablc means of com-
lobc.
ng
with God. From the general
munt .., lasks are
pt
of a scrvtce lis maID
CODCC \ ' ... 'caI
deduced: doctrtnal-c,cc CSI I -
to ropagate a particular dogma,
P
al
- to substantiate the eternal
mor
of Christlan lblW ..... ,.
d, fmally tbe myslicallask-IO ...
::re that the faithful cillerve
thesocTGmOIts aDd the ntala ucl fa-
tivalscoaaeClod wilh Ihe !aIIer. Uta-
gics scls oul to demon'l,. die
necessity for such ofc&-
viae service I'f:IIId..
Ihe
'"
gants the. the great mys_
tery, IDaJDtaIDIng that it was in-
&lituted by lUlU Ouin himself at the
l...uI Supper. la the R'M,ia
a
0rtho-
dox Church there are three p"iil
for the c:ekbt Ilioa of 'be
"''' u.urllY 01 Sl.1Iari1 III<
the of the Pr"n'di.
rood and the 01 S1.lohn au,.
lostom, who thcGd'[ of
service. Fa
LOCKE
,16
lices of worship, Church adminislra
lion, discipline dc, In the Russian
Orthodox Church Local Councils are
im-csled with the powers of the
Church's supreme legislative body,
in which the bishops are called upon
to participate, together with rcpre
scntatives of tbe clergy and laymen,
LOCKE, Job. (1632-1704), English
philosopher, He critici7ed the Pla-
tonist theory of innate ideas, and in
particular an innate idea of God
seeing the laUer as the fruit of edu:
cation effected in the interests of
tbose who wished to rule in his
oame, The mechanistic nature of
I ie's mllttrilliism leads him to ac-
c:cpc. the existence of God as a rea-
ISOO CO! the movement of matter,
Locke IS an advocate of IIIlIural reli
1JI000, to He supported
as essential tbe septllTltion of ChuICh
tmt! and a moderate degree of
rc190us tolefJItion, which he did not
:CDd r Roman Catholics and at-
ISIs, or they. according to Locke
preseDled a danger to the Stat ' e,
l:'x:,1A (plural 01 'he Greek "I
8JOIl meIDmg"sa''') , 0-
IIhed to J sa_ aI-
of wi'" A:':;:::':: records
_ia
.., .. J ..I "';'''1''''IIYIUS in
........ _ ,tlA g from what
............. / there are
_ I OIlmd .. .L!.L '
.......... _" W""," In
die ..... to ",-"ride with
New Tar' die Gos,:'Elr in the
.. to die:': re-
_-;aa1
...... Greek. t. are
... ia "'tbe Laoia
....... <looaie ... to be
_ "'... ,?pe. '" St.
--- ... ':':r.. -.-
"'tbe
llldaeo--Chris/ion r TIt ' -
' h '. Csa
Wit the words' .. J . flDg.
wh.ich (e!'.tifies a c CSIJ.\, &lith,.,'
umformity of the tqJ;atn
would appear to be ' The. I """'" -
. a eoDca'-
saymgs that are scp too "
' d arater
m ependent of the ,rom lQd
I d h' <aJtorueal ,,-
rc s, an w Ich Were used
lime by various Chri" , or a
So"?c of the Logia groups.
ancient oral tradition TIt ,Pl"esefYc<l
, ' Cit exatn'
almn provides additional
for the scientific study of
Testament, making it .e New
that there to
trends lD early Christianity, VIrious
LOGOS (I'om 'he G, .. k '
or "rcason"), a :'"'''8
"':ldcly used in c1assicaJ d ep.y
philosophy, which w':
of meanings in differeDt pbiJ-
and religious tcachi ..
Heraclttus of Ephesus understooCi'Ly
Logos a general (world-wide) ""
lanty or rea\onable foundatioa T
the According to Atisto:,
there eXlsted an inner Logos (OIa-
pres.sed thoughts) and outer Logos
(wC!rd as thought). rbe
StOICS .considered that the Logo5 was
what IS present in all things ud
makes possihle their developmelll.
The term. also widely .KNI ."
,G'!-ostrcs, tncluding the GDQdM;
Chnsllan sects, which majnt,jned
thai the Logos was God tho s.a.
mediator between God the PI"""
and 'be wo,ld both visible .... ..
created by him, "tho w .... til.
and His wisdom", The .... til.
tbese beli f . .
timl e 5 15 to be ....
J-=r:.. tbe Gotpd sa.
bndimeat <fPi<:ts lea .. .. tho_
t ...osos.. lhat a
the 0 reroeal to men ' ....
lIDs WOiId and to en1iptea'-""
- tbe COIICcpIioa or LallI
.'( MONO""SO"V!-__ _
317
-
was used by tphe 0/ tilt
(hurr:h in the atn"tlc Me
diae
val
scholastic. lhcolOgJans at
tempted to reconede the two .:on-
of Logos, as found n the
of the Fathers. of the (burd!
and Aristotle rcspectlw:ly,
LOKAYATA. CARVAKA. onc of the
philosophical of
in Ancient India, Early mformatlon
on t.okayata is to be found in Budd,
bist canonical text$. the n
the epic pocmf. of AnCient India,
According to the teaching of Lo-
kayata. the Universe and all that
exists came about llatural1v" v.rilhoul
the intervention of sup=-natur J
forces. The four cit ner:: ear1':1.
water. flre and air arc ctem J an
constitute the fundamental bel'"
allibat exists. Complex fr,.ms of lif
come about as a result of long evol,
ution from the simplest form ( D
suousness constitutes a special com
bination of material el mt.'lt me
only rourcc of reliable kno .... ledge
(Pramana) is perception \ia the 11'
scs. Man only ive once od mll!..:
therefore !link nr,l ibout us ut ure
life but aboul his life of the mom
He, must ry to live happily anei tu
satisfy hIS [cJsonabk ntcds and n,
terests, R.c1igion is presented 10'
consistent and harmful and (,od 1
an invcnt",n ,r 'lch people IR' 1'tl-,
to deceIVe he i)' ,'r The.: soure of
e.\<11 t linked WIth cruc!ly ami 181U<;
tlCt ,n <:0)( U tv While rCJectmg th(
whole yste:m, 1 ,-,"nt pt
he CX1stto('e ,r hlc after dl:ath.
soul Inu, leading on from thaI. the
1Unsm'&7Whon of III '. Lc..k ,\' t
Was '-trongly oppmcJ h l tht, h achmg
01 Karma and casle diVblon.. ..
LOLLARDS (term denved from thl:
(praye"'S)' I, 5uppc"le" of an anti
Roman (alhoJic tD England
n the 14:'b md 15th ccntunes. which
gave VOlCC '0 the mtcrests of the
pelSants and poor lown--<iwdl no
tht; day, FolIOWlDg tbe teaching Qf
John Wycliff' he' lards <k
tbat tbe F1leg>; of 'le
Calha/ic Church be abol-
t heG, and likewise corv e 'Itb s
and taxes. :u::j ( burch property
be sec Jlari7..ed Two groups t:.merged
n be Lollard movcJrn"llt the l'\th
..:cntu/y. :me witb more prosperous
the Wycliffitcs who
bmlled ''leu programrru. '0 demands
or r _ forms he (burCh art':! the
'culanzatlon of ( . arc -
nd be mm: meD1 of the try
and he .X)()fes( C de
m.md_. n .1 I .. ..:>mmon 0901l r
hip properh r1.e 1 lard O\"t-
=itt plavcd on port an' pari '"
r vms tb o,a,a) for he R
o 1" and:h_
R. - rrn tir-n E g d It
rl mfl (on social mln
m( 0 >ther countne
LOMO osm. I'll
5), tI mat rut q sch .U
poxt He,; m d I \.lrge
number II s:;: \ 'I' e 'n a .an tv, t
dtscipli.. tht;; ':n I 'mportant of
c.,c lth(,ErC'(tl'V.1
I. n -.. m.11I r lnd mo\(mcn1. wruLh
ltl l blow al 1d
i
IV
l
\ U"
nccpllon!> ..,1 Ihe Jivmc creal ion of
he.: w\ rid, t m nl.: \)\ advocated a
a r alist tl on ma , r
mOVl,: mt" nt and it.. a"", an atomtC-
molt: cular hypothe is for the Slrue-
tun or mallcr and Ihe movement of
atom . While sbaring lhe mechamc.-
tiC eoncepls of Ihe day which ai'
tnbut d to mailer such
lerisllcs as duratioD. '
Dutch "Iollen". meamng to mumllic
and divisibility mlo
318
LONDON CONfT.:s510N 01' '-'Arl1f
parts", he held that it possessed
mert force and movement. Thanks
to this idea. the explanation of the
world\ diversity acquired a materia-
bask In his materialist reasoning
Lomonos.ov slarted oul from the
theory of nvo/o/d lruth. As a scholar
and educationi<;( lomonosov Cought
for the liberation of science from the
tutelage of the Church, calling into
question Biblical myths and religious
riluals.
LONDON CONFESSION OF
FAITH. Il was adopted in 1644 in
England by the Particular Baptists,
who had split away from tbe Ana-
and who. believed that
Christ s redemptive sacrifice
brought SO/\'Qticm only 10 a chosen
part of the human race, which meant
the of the "saved" was
IimJled. This "Confession" pro-
the doctrine of the Ana-
blphsts to mi..guided and, while
acknOYr1edgi,ng. Baptist riles and so-
Inststed on Calvinist
ogDl.3 as the foundation for their
practIce of worship. The political
:ogramme by those who
the Conressioo" can be
J .. dema ... 1s for
..., hUnlf' and the s .
Om ell fMd Stak _J..:-1...qJfU"tIlJOn\ed of
_ II ..... IIIUI to per
'*' of GIG CromweU during
1658). 1M P ...... "'... (1653-
to demonstrate that th ..
not depend on God" e dworld "doc\
"not inherent in all I Ihat (iod ij,
1 f h
... ,s Cnc('''
resu lot IS criticism of . l
for
author draws the conel . Od, the
there is no God The c us:on Ihat.
k he . . ontent of Ih
wor ars WItness to Ihe IS
the aUlhor was acquainted that
bach's "Le Systeme de la NW1t Hoi

LOSSKY, Nikolai (1870.1965)
sIan rehgJOus philosopher H'
grated in 1922 e cml
his ontological' he.rrh
cd
to
h
' ,WIC had
muc m common with th d
Plato and Lejbnitz as "e I cas .of
d 1 I " , ' personalist
I ea rea Ism ; eplstemologicall h
fO,remost proponent of
In Russia. The ba. .. i'i or
ahty, to Lossky, consiS::d
?f an system of interacting
Idcal .. indIVIduals,. "substantialized
created by God- the prin-
Ciple beyond and above the world.
!"ian comes to understand real 0b-
Jects with the help oC sen.. .. ual and in.
tellectual intuition, and God-his
nature and his adions - with the
help. of mr.;tical intuition, through
religiOUS experience and rewlotion.
Lossky's spirilualist philosopby rep-
one oC the aHempts to sub-
the Chrislian world view,
. include "Obosnovaniye
(An Affirmation oC In
tUlhVlsm, 19(6). "Mir kall: organi-
tscloye" (The World as aD
Whole, 1917) and "Istoriya
filosofii" (A History of Ru&-
.... PlUlosophy, (951).
""'dlmlr (l9OJ.19S8),
lhwlogiaa who
. Idea thaI piety ihouId be
. thmugh a camp'''
IrIQInralism and IlIhtism. He
eel the adapt.tioa of meDdier
LO:tJN$KY
--'"

il1 keeping With

of life,
modern conditions
T. Bihlicd tr;,dilon a n .. "hew
LO whom, Ood spared
of ther with his Camlty wht '1 he d ...
loge cd the sinful city of 'iodnm.
stto,Y wifc went Hgainst the Lord
Lot not to look back al thc
com .. .1 .
bing city and she was turney anto
ur;illar of salt. Lot's daughters
:nXious to .father's
cd intoxicated hIm With wine and
sons from him, Mo: b
Ben-Ammi, founders oC the Moabltc
and Ammonite tribes,
LOURDES, small tovm n rrance,
one of the centres oC pilgrim_ge or
Roman Catholics. According 10 the
Church, Our Lody appeared 10 14-
year-old Sl. Bernadette in 18"8. rhe
that rose in one 01 1( cave
not far from other Loun!!" co I rmgs
was declared mirac'e-workmg, Ru
mours of "mirae est> 01 bealing
leged to have taken place in Lourdes
began to attract crowds 'JC pc - e
desperately ttl be hcalcan
Iheir turn. The Roman Cathl 'ie
Church was ahle 1 result of'"
merely to it revenue '"It!'
also to step up its influcnce over chr.
masses.
LOVE THY NEIGHBOUR, one 0'
the religIOus-moral precept"- Cor
the Christian, formulated as .1 di,",nt
that IS rec. rdeJ hot h
\9;\8) ,lDd
In the New Testamr-1t (MI 1.--:. W),
Lovl)f ,Jnc's Ccllowmcn is viewed
among (hIlS! ii.ln.. .. .)<: somt,thing that
on from Man's love "C Goo, a
\'lew that would allcg.cJly to \1n
?IC.,tC. Iht primacy 01 religion mcr
Leniral to the l"hri<;.lmn
;3.Jth 1<: thOlt Man, when told to love hiS
- ---
IS .,1$0 instrUded to love
l'11s em.mICs; L'J\'e your enemies.
1 Ie tht"m that cu ..... you, do good to )\
the.m h;.tc y"u, and pray fc: the,."
whICh sp1lc'ulty usc you, and pet
cute: you" (ML Socially, thIS
ld:a cootlnuou.c;;ly nploite:d II':
re ':onclle I he oppressed and the ot)-
pressors., The poor and Ihe ricl:l and to
con "Ci l<'rdcL
Tile "{ 1 itself 'tt''l C'lough
.\Ied thIS commandml nl lDt ac1i
vitks.: i' cr Icily persecute d herCl1CS
who split lway Crom iI, fanned and
waged rell;;:.,:IS .. Or" and Ou odes
filling the 'lrts and )f I S fol'
Irwers with' ltV and .... er again t l(l
'J.erenfs f :lifkrent f3lthS.
LOYOLA. Ignatius, 5t (c 14<}l
"'%), f undt.; of tit- u . It \10,
fl - a familv .. r h
n H(. sen. d an off"'-r lr.C
IT. r b--" . 'Wl ::Idea,
tUffi!'.j hi' h,1( k 0 I'IUlitary
and Jt ._ r.'%:".s.!f II h ...
... ,t _ F\ orr ... n .,fir
e .IU . In I:CW 'VO I nd 1"t.,ltus
lik min;..;,_:1 ...'Orr.p3.Dlf'm (orm -d a
SOClcty th:l' l1med 10 r tpre Ih("
c'- the p, .?t'i and Ibe R man
l thl.!IC In 1<::-40 lhe
.1 Jt.:.Sus he had t lip .... lne
lalned bv Paul III ;1": ,I tflt,'laSzic
,'Jc". and ht betame It!. first
(lc:neral. fhi .. \I, IS later
tll hccnmt' the m31n weapon 01 the
Roman Catholic COItnltT Rejamla
non For str\1Cl s to the Church
Lovc.la was (3JlonucJ in ibn .
LOZINS ....... , Samull ('8'4.1""5),
SllVtel historian. His main .... orh are
dC"\otC"d to (he hlslury of thc Middle
Ages and the Er;) Anum.
ber tIC historical InVe!.tl
galions dealt the histl'l"'( of the
Roman Catholic CJmrch md the Po
LUNAOIARSKY
321
IIJQUlhtsill,
cMIist. Services
M
MAC,uuUS (14821563), _
poIMaII 01 Moultcw ~ All ..
(after 1542), pr"""_ CIIwdt
ood political Jeoder. AI doo a.nIt
eouncils of 1547 aDd 1'" lie ...
cured lbe CIIIOIIizatioe 01_ R ..
sian sainta. AI the CcH"*'g f1l ...
Hundred a.apten (1551) .. _
..... 10 ... rt !he 01
emment PI mme for
irllliotl of Churdl',n He
oIlbe writers iu ....... d Ia
the MmoIoJj4ft, ....
Cluooide.
MAGIC
I
10 be used for any kind of 2nd ccnluric. .. 8.C'.. II lell of ..... -
alercame . . I d b I be ... ....
sootbsayer, magtClao. astro ager or cn ary aU e lween hwo .,.
families -the Kauravas lad Ue
exorcist. dava..... .. a..c; il PI.:
MAGIC or SORCERY, actions of
rituals performed in order to bring opftical teachings, of
inftuence to bear on natural logy, of tbe social
DOIIIeoa, animals or human belOgs institutiollS of Ancient
by supernalural means. It is difficult this epic were drlwn
10 draw a dividing line between ideas of Hinduism,
primitive magic rituals and man's fullest expression ia
everyday practical activity. Thus the) Gila and the Shauti
most natural classification for types from tbe religious IIIld
of magic collesponds to various as- thoughts, it contains numerow,
peds that practical activi.ty.. heal- and that smack of
iDa maaw (whose roots are similar to matenaltsm, and also
1M! e of folk medicine); black magic dualistic concepts.
(to CIIII Ibe evil eye on enemies or
_ cl aooIber In"be); apbrodi-
_ .,pe (IIvd to "Uewilch" or at-
..... ); Inmliog m'8ic (act .... by 0
hllnrlmlP 10 lure or calch his prey);
m'8ic (magi<: riluals
... caDjng forth aD imaginary
ioIIoeace on lbe ba ..... ) and SO 011.
.. wU'irM: literalure other classifi_
CMioos nl magic rUuak are also
"Experts" usuaIJy perClb U.
riIuaIs, ""'" as wilcb-doc!ors,
; .
. ...,-
de-
of
of
...
..
MAHAVIRA (the real
V.nlbo_ ... 6tb """
of the main ideologists ad.
of Jainum. AccordiD to
Mahavira was bot n iu the
of Bihar and belong.:d
triya caste 0 On accouat
way of life he came 10
Jino (One Who ..,..
Mohovira (Great Hero)_

-
:'iSIon f01l' livmg creature.'\,
g their Kamla fnr a more
chang
m
t
one. According to
rcac.:hing the world is illu.
hayana t ' h I N
the only thing t at rca IS IT
sory, ''':cwcd a." the Supreme
I'ona, Y' f DI
the world 0 pJlmary larmQj

concerning a
minent place. According to Ma
teaching. there arc sevcr;J1
these arc
P 'bed in the sacred literature In
sen .
eat detail and also In thc
fr the Lamas. They. are In
'cons and in three-dimensional mod
and the idea. is far attrac-
tive for an ordmary. hehcw:r tha.n
some abstract, hazy NtrVana. AU lhls
helped Mahayana leaching to
spread not ju.c;t all ("lver India but be-
yond its borders as well. In the
teaching of the Mahayana &hool
Buddha is transformed from a sage-
teacher into a typical deity, while
bodhisattv3$ are considered his
emanations. Two schools of religious
philosophy emerged within Ma-
havana Buddhism, namely, the
YOgacara and the Madhyamika
schools. The Yogal:ara School only
regarded Man's t:onsciousness as
real and believed that this con-
sciousness gave hirlh 10 all objects In
the external world and Ihat once the
activity of Man's consciousness had
been extinguil\hl-d, then il would be
pos.<;ible for Man to set himself !Ir.c
from the chain of reincam.hollS
(SOMoro). The MadhyalRlU School
d.id not even acknowledge lbe iDdi-
Vidual's eonsciolLVless as real FrtAD
their point of view nnly lite Sb.
(or void) was real It bas .t
tnbutes., deftes dcfini'toII_
he understood on the bu'
Jl<rience alone, buI oaly widI
help of m)l5l.ical intUit The

Important representatives of the

Madhyamika School were Nagar
juna (2nd century) and Araydeva
(5th century), and those of the
Yogacara &hool were Asanga and
Vasubandhu (5th century). Ma-
hayana Buddhism 'l't'as the hasis ror a
numhcr or other $.Choo!s and trends
that emerged in Buddhism or later
period.." outside India, including La-
mourn.
MAHDI (Arabic word meaning the
guided ODe" or "divinely pided
onc"), lhe Moslem Mmillll. Coa-
cepts of a ,""si.h first CFlii(rged in
Shi ile conununities (see Shi'ism).
The dream of the enslaved popular
masses ol a soaety in which equality
and jU5lic:e "I: C"crt. was embOO;"d
in the belief ol the immiFcDl
ofa hiddcu'hld"''' wbowoaldllelp
his folk .... c!lS to set up just sU(h a s0-
ciety. Later a teach .. rcp,diiltg the
Mabdi was .oo.,JIcd by the Swuti
wilb an "Ii ...... I<DI reptdi .. the
lome cl !he ea...ias. _ _
D.,,<d forwud ..... !he ......, of
Mowld The .are of the Mnm
L
was "sed dunlll ....... feDI lIove-
mew of protest for (""41e., tbe
leader of &Ibimr Ali MoII"m;-cd,
and. Moham,,-ed AIu'k>'I, lelder of
insurgc nt IIIISIeI ID the Sod,n (late
19th a::n11D'}'). were rcprdcd IS
m'Mos
..
(M ......... gdO
"Mini-
of doo lIoptiou Mol
oIYed'" doo
...
MANDAEANS
biped (0 spread (he m051 ignorant
and obscurantism and it
whipped up religioUS fanalicima.
the highest level of
the: de:velopment of life on Earth, a
social being who produces inslru
me:nU of labour, transfOlUiI Nature,
possesses consciou.<iness aad bas
command of articulate speech. He
diffe:rs from other highly orpnin:d
animals (primates) with regard to
the size: and organization of hiI
brain, his ability to walk uprigbl. tbe
free movement of bis upper limbs
tbat are used in his labour ac:tMty.
Y aDd other characteristics. Not oaly is
/\ Man tbe product of social labour eo-
tMty but be also carries it <NIt: he
creates social relatioas, "'fel s0-
cial and cultural rea1ity mel doo ..
lorical process. Making use 01 die
pi iDcipic of ma1cri,Ijst iIa
understanding of Man. ,."..""
m."-tI/ism prOCCA fhm tile
01 MIa mel N_ ............
Man's mind tad . I.
property of
Iei' - the bnsD,n
h
( who pointed (he
supreme prop r Ligh')
'3 10 the Kingdom 0 .
Abraham and Moses arc re-
garded by (hem. as false prophets.
M com
munillcs of Mandacans
any "h '
made the (tansilion to MQlUC Mum.
MANI (Sanskrit word
Jared as "magic rod"), m TanlnSm It
denotes the male sex organ. The
word "Marti" is used in the incanlo-
lion known to every Lamaist ("om
mani padme bum"), which. is
or painted on 10 stones. which IS why
these rilual stones came to be
refehod to u MIDi in coiilimon parl-
tlr.NI .. MANES (c. 216-277), pre-
.'WI ad rounder of NII1Iichuism.
Ia the ,... 242 during ,be ooroaa-
tioo 01 the Persian Shah Sbapur I,
&ow the Swenid dynasty, Mani
10 lor the lint time;
cbarac:ta izcd by pa_
- cuudemnahoa of avarice.
....... "" - with aD elI-
&00i the
-
iah. Mani was venerated 1&
cnger from I he heavenly..,.. U
light This religion was fOOled . Id c:(
roaslrian and it
two !'.umlantial principles of h.1.....::
two kingdom!l-lbal of IIbtt --.or
and aUtha. is !lpirifual
that of darkness, evil and aD
material. God holds sway in the":
and Devil in 'he second,
between these two kingdoms will lid
in a as. a result of 'W....
maller penshes, while tbe sphc is let
free. The accordi,. 10 .....
chaean beliefs, lS tbe embodis ... of
evil. Man, being a dl"'istic
(wi,h a soul ,b., is born ofliak_.
body horn 01 dark .... ) en ........
lorces 01 light in the &IrugIe
tbe lorces 01 darkDes, The CIIri60
Cburch decla<ed Maaic:hooitoo III lie
a hcuy.ln Asi. Minor tbc ...... 01
the Mqutakiln reflcded l1li ..
flueocc of MUK:Jl'eism
MANlUSRI, one of tbe '!OJ II _
lied of the bodIrisGtnw .........
/ulytma school 01 1JuJIdhiIM,
boI 01 wisd()ll!. be
gardedlSoae
the &"""uI ShIkyo
limes as his main
cording 10
B!!ddbato
Th'rst and Delight, again in
IC
n
\ tempt him. Siddhartha.
orde d'd not to tbe
hawever, I
cb.anJ1S of Mara.
MAJlA. su JUkjmOTO.
r.fAIlABOUI'S (French word
d . d from the Arahic ",mu-
meaning "he hves .In a
'ba'" or fortified frontier station),
rl I "'" I' members of a Mmi Jlary-rksc
. order of den'lSh- lemon m
Africa. In the 11th and 12th
centuries the C(mquered
MorOCCO and founded the feudal dy-
nasty of tbe A1moravidcs. Later the
word C3"!C to be
to denote Moslem S3J.nt&.
leaders or founders 01
rraternities or orders of dervishes. In
its broader sense the word has come
to be synonymous with dervish.
MARCEL. Gabriel Rooon! (1889-
1973), French religious
founder of Roman Catbolic mstm-
tia/ism. He developed the anti-iald.
lectual, intuilivist trend within
Roman COlholicism. For anracting
people to religion he ascribed cru
cial importance 10 the individual's
emotional and mnral experience, i e.
his "existential experience" Marcel
attempts to defend and substantiate
religious dogmas from a st.nd of
subjective idealism. by conlrasr1D8
man's inner world, the iadividuaI s
consciousness, with the v",,1 as--
peets of his exislcocc. His _pm
_ks include "Jouraal
physique" (1927), "&" d A_"
(Being and Having 1935), "Le My.
de I'flre" (The Myoaay cl
8ej'8, l'lSI).
illARCION, an upirins .....
!be ChristioD Cburdl tile 2Dd
33'
tury. He was botu in Asia Minor &ad
was a rich IhiJMJWner, He rU"Sl urne
to Rome in about 140. Marcion
called for a complete break. witb
JUdaiJm, regarding OaTistitllUty a
new religion, in no Way related 10 the
Old He abo deDiedJrnu
OVlft'S human nature. Man:ioD
wrote a Gospel based on a shortened
version or the Gospel According to
St. Luke and commcntarie& 10 ten of
St. Pauls Epistles.. RlXDan Chris-
tians eXCOfDmllnkaled Marcioa. but
he bad maay supporters in Italy,
Asia Miaor and other plKts. Mu.
cioo's was closely related to
tbat of the GMStia in some re-
spects, although be ascribed saIva-
lIon DOl 10 bov.iedge but to faith
MAllCUS AURELIUS _
MAIlDUIt, tbe <h ,I God 01 tbe &I-
by/orIiGII ..... &_ tile 'M. thai
Bab,to. bec:a.e Ik c:mbe t:I. Mao-
::a
l
':' ===-::r::'i Mor-
of .. ",Id .. cia ....... .....
the lIkOWL4er r..,.., ... ..leld
the gods; in mlll1l lor this, lie _
accorded a positioa of A'I-o aq
I. a grim battle Manfuk deIcIIed
,be lM'I'Ior, cui his body .. ballad
mede the Heaveas out of oae W
and the Eorth 0IIl of the ..... Mu
duk IS lite O'MmlNP 7rt of die s.-.
,... god E,,'j'
MARETI'
332
cs" (Dictionary of
New) he exposed incoaslS!cnclcs In
the Sible, belililcd the Cbrisllcgend
and criticized tUum.
prascd the idea that an organl74-
lioo for albcists might be sel up and
be approached the of God
thai 01 deified man, linking as be did
so potCDtial suc<v-s in su,,!"ounling
religion with tbe CODlDUlftiSI trans-
fUi .... Iion of society.
MARE'IT. Robe (1866-1943). Brit-
ish etJmograpber and historian, who
c:ooccmcd himself mainly with ques-
t.. rd';ng 10 the origins of reli-
P.- Marett aiticized many of Ihe
idea a. die orW
ns
of religion cia
.... vd. by Edtvcd Tylor.ID conlrast
to .... oops by TyIor 10 expIaio the
C .... li< I'CC of retigioa with reference
10 UICNS iD tbc: thioking of tbe "sav-
:;
... -.-e of rdigioa. He wrote:
........ bad DOt beca tIoousbt
-d'lIQCd oat". As be saw it,
- .:; of doe
the part of the Christian to" .
the Kingdom of HeaYeD b .. t:
e
10
linked with active efTon to' 0 be
life on Earth. Allhough Mliil'!ttit
critical of capitalism. be
cialism ali well, (or it
pinges. Man's
5eS. HIs mam works lIIc1ude -Aiti.
(1922), "DisjDPtt PWi
urur, ou Lcs du II'Oit ..
(1932), "Hum'QIS_ _ .....
(1936).
MARK, SL, accordi,,!! to Chriotioa
legend. a disciple of St. Pel. ....
author of the second canonicel Gar-
pel, over whose date the cu ......
opiDions vary widely. Tho GoopoI
Acoordi,,!! to St. Mark, in the ...
ill which it has -anne down to
today. dates DO further bact IIaoo *
middIc: of the 2ud "'"lory.
MARTYRS
__ __
'awn liturgy and clergy. they tbeir persecution, and of the
ing .bel
r
der the juriwiction of the 8.f.1d executions they endured.
Ca.holic biJhop$ Un?er.lying . aU Chri.sti.ari martyro-.
(J'."" IS idea of tbe heroic: feat of
JUlIA(;E IN mar WItness, Le, the martyn' readiness
union &andlficd and sane- for the sake of "great reward in
d by the Church In the name of heaven" .joyfully to acc.cpt ridicule,
IIOne According to of perseCUllon, poverty and death in
God. hmen only marnage an chun::b the Dame of Chnsl. and the true
chure aran'tee durability, happiness faith. The most famous are Martyr!>
of the In vari logjum UoiversaIe (UDiveBal Mar-
:'05 religions the marnage cere!M"Y tyrology. 1536) m RonuJn C4tJtoIi.
. ccompanicd by well-established cUm and the MtnoIogion ID the ()r.
'a1s aDd rites specially elaborated thodox 0twtIt. c:o+upiled m the 9th
ratu ' .. ' bR 1 .. doe
for this occasIon. In t e oman cenlury. a martyro,cl'n Kluai
Catholic and Orthodox Churchcs details of the ptrsccwon of early
marriage is regarded as a sacrummL Christians an: exagtraled ud leal
mystical meaDiag Tab rrom marty.
MARS, god of war in the Roman roklgir 5 are for the n"" put leg.
pantheon, his Greek countcrpart endary, espeoaDy ill ' aK5 where
being.Arl!'s. He was venerated as the miracks arc i'-hoded ,m.1o are.
rather of the Roman people. the kg,d to baC die
protector of fields and herds. Later de" .. of tile Idy .....
he came to be regarded as the pa.
tron of horse racing. The dancing MAIlTYa, tile .... OthcFr
warrior-priests of Mars were kDOWD aad
asSalii.
MARSILIUS OF PADUA <_
1110 MaloardlDo, c. 1275-c. 1342).
Italian politician and philosopher. In
his main work "Defensor PIKIS"
(Defender of Peace, 1324) be came
out against the prelensiom. of tbe
Papocy to secular power. (When his
authorship became known. be Oed
to Bavaria,) He also held dIM the
State emerftCd as tbe result of
cia! contract: lIe drew diicIia& Iiae
between politics and Il,oJ 'ID' mel
dereDded tokration He wu e'lO"
mlJnicated aDd COIdemNd be
burnt at the ..... iD Ioia ..a.o-
(1327).
334
MARlfrS
invorved as well. Veneration of mar-
lyn; is used to the in
a spirit of devotion to tbe Christian
faith aDd religious fanaticism. Ideas
of martyrdom are used to instil inlO
the faithful the idea that "sufferings
for (be faith" j<_ tbe way for the
"choseD" 10 achieve
MARlJTS, gods of the winds and
storms in tbe Vedic pantheon, who
were originally friends and allies of
t"drG. According to Indian myths,
they kept tbe heavens and earth
.part and CODlrol rainfall.
MARX, lor! (1818-1883), leader of
!be iDIenwioaal proletaria. and
to.Icr of scieDtific communism. In
iii aaiyIis 01 its social
i 00tI aDd: ways of surmounting it
Man started out from a dialectical-
maten,lisa world outlook, from the
d'S: otaives of the proletariat.
He his a ibcism of religion at
tile I L i 4kL of the liberation struggle
king d,S' Therein lies the
dilii- bYe 'eat-- 01 M' be = II ... ...... n at _
.... After pijgling out the laws of
":" II which enabled
... _ai,E
r
iDler-
..
0110-
MA. 'iSORE I es
d hypocritical, and the
(Marx. Engels, Col-
d W",*, Vol. 6, p. 231). M ....
criliC:.km of religion with criti
li,n of politics and the social prac-
c:': of the exploiter classes and he
I--.. .... fjed the forrn$ of
religion aimed at.
tbi'i struggle With the hbc
k' I and
ration of the wehr mg C
I
f
elimination of t c OIla,llOn 0
mao by man: "To rcligJon as
)<
the iliusOf)' haPRines-,,, of the:.
is to demand Its real bapplOcss
(Marx. Collected Works, V<'JJ
3, p. 176). Marxian atheism 5larts
out from the fad that the stFUf,gle
against religion shouJd go hand-in
band with the struggle against other
forms of social consciousness of the
which provide the-
for religion.
religion mould
be of an all-embracing character'
V "The criticism of heaven turns Into
r/' the criticism of the earth. the etili
cism of into the criticISm of
low and the criticism 01 intu
the criticism of polilies" (Ibid., p.
X
176). The stnlggle against religmn is
shown to be an prerequisite
for the formation of the gcative per
sonality: "Tile criticism of religion
frees man from illu!;lons to make
"> him thi nk and act a nd shape his rc
ality like a man who has heen freed
from iUu.-;ions and has come to rea-
M>D . . " (Ibid.). Marx demonstrated
that religion is not ctcrnal. In "Capi-
!a1" be pointed out that "the rehg-
reflection of the rcal worki can.
\ In any ca .. e, only then finally vanish.
when the practical relatiOll5 of
life ofTer 10 man none but
'0
MOScOW, Vol. I, p. 84).
lion of religion., wrote Man,
the cteatiQD of
om.1e prerequisites and "'C:Ulia! ma-
terial conditions. It will ..
gr
adually . . _ppcar
' LD with tbe e1imina_
of. tbe 50ciaI order Imcd on 0..
plolt
3t
tOn and parallc:l to the ad-
vanc:c of 5OCia!ism. Yet tbe .lisa
parane-: of religioD is DOl. !:
process Here an unport-
ant IS that of education: M&Ii.
"Dr! '!UapTNIlT to the degree in
which soculism advance$. Its disap-
pearance is to take place as a
resuJt of social development in
which an important role belongs to
educltion" (Man, Engels. CoUtcrtd
WOrt"kl, VoL 45. P. 474, Ru;an edi.
lion).
MARY. See Our lady, of
God.
MASS, tbe DarN! used for the
in .be Roman CtJthoIic Ouut:h. The
rna'iS iDelodes the readiDg of
prayers, can.de<, ud pn )ms oritb
Jewish ",hoI''')(
who hNiscd lbe Old Te.R'GmmI pro-
.;mas critical DOles and detailed
tea_
warda
ollllo
.. 1901 Loooia
10
AND EMPIRlO rn ..
---- .....
. clive malcrial world, however they
X
not provide theoretical 5ubslan-
(or Ihls idea"
materialism takes ,lh15 Idea 81 lhe
baSis of its (heorelleal system. Phil-
osoPhical maleriaJi.\m f&nt look
sbape in society. Over
the course been. as a
rule the world of the for-
o
ward. looking,

classes 1ft SOCIety.
(crested in
knowledge oonccrnins...
society. The following are m.
historical forms of materialism: moo
terialism of the Ancient World; m,
tc:riaticm of tbe RenaiJlflllCr, boar
geois materialism of the 17tta.19d1
ceuluOes; dUdtical aDd h&lakd
nuIlDilllism. Di
a
lcd1caJ meterialism,
elIJ>ClUIIded by M"", ODd EIfIIIb ....
v de>oioped by Lenin, is Ibo ... II
.1\ con'inuation and furtha' ea.bonidaa
of materialist lrri .. ' oldie
The 1M';' of any 'in'll
is !he rc<;C,';'ioa ollbo
the m .erial work
10
,
l38
ROOlU) IN NATURAL
in the natural provided. a
hilosophical summary. of Its
and cummed
.' which physics was gomg
at the hegi .. ung of the 20th
century, out at the same
lime as to how 1l could be:
Despite ceosorship the
book also criticized rehgJOus Views
and singled out tbe close link he-
tween idealism and fidclsm, between
Macmsm (in particular, eropirio-
monism) and the movement of the
God-buildm. Lenin rejected the as-
sertions by tbe Russian Machisls to
the cffCCl that they advocated "relig-
a "hjslII", the deifntion of the
. ,"Uil
ln
poIentialilies" etc.,
IS be did so the incom-
. cl ad knowledge, of
.
V'"nce ..... redp)'l .
MABIUAUSM Roon:D IN
NA1lIItAL SCIENCES ( ........
_sturIl,.),
........... _erialist ad dialecti_
cal w.." of DIl1Ua.l stieNists Lmin
of materialism as
Wi.illing, UD-
solution for the ....
lion of and
of the f1llkll:'cld ...
In which lad irt
on the one hand. and the
and materialist approach to
on the other, 8re oppteed to '
OIhcr. Malerialism rooted ' tid!
scienccs gained a -:::
lowmg In the 19th and 2OI:b f4 ' ... '
(DoMin, Jll5lus YOo I ;,r;
Einstein et at) and it PI'OVidca tile
foundation for adtdsm "*M '
notu"fJl scienus"
considerable philosophical iDlporI.
ance to this kind of materiolioai, re-
garding it as a fouadaltua ....
which shaller "aU tbe eLla ..
strivings of the lho-"and lEd _
lillie schools of philosophic II ....
ism" (Ibid., p. 350). M01I" ......
distorts in every way
alism rooted in the natunl-.
identifying it wilh vnlgar ... ..
anistic materialism. The .... .
natural science today ........ ...
natural scientists should .. die
transition to a stance of diItI:Iitt:Il I
mlluriaJism. The beaeficial ...
quenccs of such a .. be
seen from the e>O!\IIioa cl ... ....
outlook of Pierre La ..... IWdIriI:
Joliol-Curie and John BA .....
MA11IURINS. name "wi ia
for the TriniUuimu. n..a
duiwed flow their dnIrcIt
dedic_cd to St. Joim
fooaded the Trinilariu
MI\TIl R "'I> CO'l.:S<IOt,JS:\T .'is
, ..
-
RIN Nikolai
MATO hi'., ex ..... rt in the fidd of
'ct sc (l ,'-. r I
SOVI . hy and thl; () ear y
cthnogr:rPreligiun. In he
charge I,f ethnographic re
was I; nder the au ...piees of the
AUcadcmy of Sciences wa'
USSdirecior of the Academy Mu-
the f Anthropology and Ethno-
sc
um
h
0 and ils Anlhropoklfl;y and
gTo;; y aphy Research Institute His
Et ,nogro
rks
werc "Religiya u narn-
maID
w
k
v Volzhsko-Kamskogo raya
i teper" (Religion.
ihe Peoples of the Re
'on: Past and :resc.nt, 1929):. Pra-
ll' I vi kult I (Or
vos awl', od
lhodox WorshIp and Pr UC1
1
0n.
1931)' "Zhenskoye b07hestvo v pu-
kulle, Ocherk po srav
mifu)ogii" (The'! Femal.
Deity in Orthodox WOrshiP, An
Essay in Comparative Myth"logy.
1931).
MATSURI (Japanese), any Shintoisl
ceremony, more oftcn than not. a
temple festival. Each has liS
own date for a Malsun and Its own
particular details, lJsua,ll)
a Matsuri festival IS celebrated Wlth
a solemn service, performances of
Kagura (mystery plays with
taken from mythology, somellmes
including interludcs (If farce), the
bearing forth of the symhol ,uf Ih_e
relevant deity (a hoard beanng hiS
name, a mirror or other holy objc,ct)
in a special palanquin. accompanied
hya procession of Ihe faithful In lhe
rituals of the Matsun not only
prie..,ts had an import ani part 10 play
but also the congregation of the
temple concerned. In the proces
siom. and mystery plar.; of the Mat,
suri festivals solemn clements

Were often 10 be found interwOlCll m
'"-
-
a peculiar way with comic or 5Ome-
times cven erotic mOl.ifs.
MA'I" ER A!"\D CONSClOliSSESS

clements of being viewed as fun
damcnlally dirrercnl by who
have a worll1 out.
look: indeed the lalter attribute to
con'>(:inu.;ncM a role 5u!!';rior to LhaL
or matter. Theologian .. regard con.
as a manifeslatic>n of Ihe
OIcli";ry of lhe immortal soul,lhallS In.
dependent of the body and givcn
to Man by God. Rcligi\ln tht
es.-.enlial role of human tnnscious-
nes.' a'io hcinglhat of enabling the indi
vidual to discover (,od for to
understand God'swill.md then direct
his activity towards the acromphsh
m. nt or that will Modern '" It nee
the fact that con.'\CiOU ness
docs Dill exi!'1 v.,thout a malerial
vc: namely, \.tan brain. all
concl'ptinns of an immortal soul IOde-
pc:ndcnt of the hody arc illusory. M ...
tcriali.... thinkers always regarded
ron.sciousne<;s as a phenomenon sec
(lRdary in rclalton to mailer but (! a
long time their actual ... tlllg
of mailer and re,
mained mcr-simpljr.,.d. Many ma-
teriali,ts of the past
sciou5nc<;s as a property mherent In
all mailer. No explanaltcn P!'G-
vided, however, for tbe ;ny which
this property cxpfC5,.c;ed ',Iself. and l,he
di\iding line between anlmale ,n,
animate Nature. between Ihe ':lund of
animals and Man's capaa,ty for
WOo' blurred. In the m!d-
191b
t some natural SClCnUsts at
ceo UZc. to identify conSCIOUSness
::r SOIhe subtle secretion from lbe
bram. similar 10 Ihe gall secreted by
the liver which represented a blatnl'
Iy vu"; interpretalion ?' the: DIIlare
of coasciousocs., Dcspte ... -
simplirlCation in this appall'*' 10.
J40
MAmu:w
{ C of
consciousness., materialist
na ur .. h
h.ilosophy and natural Ult e
period
Man's consciousness IS linked With
theactivityoftbe brain and is a reflec-
tion in the brain of tbe external, ma-
terial world. Tbe consistently scien-
tific solution for the problem of the
correlation between maHer and con-
sciousness was provided by Marxist-
Leninist philosophy. Lenin formu-
lated the idea to the effect that the
universal properly of matter was re-
flection, closely related to sensation.
In inanimate Nature this manifests it-
self in the changing of a body under
tbe influence of other bodies. In-
creasing complexity in the structure
of matter leads to increasing com-
plexity in the manifestations of reflec-
tion. Characteristic of the simplest of
animate bodies is reflection in tbe
form of irritability, whicb plays an es-
sential role in their self-preservation
and their seU-propagation. With the
appearance in the course of evolution
or multiceUular organisms pas_
sessmg a nervous system and brain
-.J emerged j menial and emo-
1\ (tOnal of refled.iQo, making
po.w"ble mteraction via SIgnals be-
tneea Oiganism and. its habitat. On
the bu. of shared labour .rtivOn. d
_ .... J' an
CI)i""!.m ..... 1OII. \lie. Man's
::--dcw:lopSasthe highest
'\
rI. " ......... , inYoIving thought
....... GIlly reflects profound fea-
twcaofdtUl:cxists but i", also bl
to .. ' '- ae
ac_c I'D-I' 5 for what __
....: 1"' _ _ ' not
........... '-AR;I I CI(!I-ness emili1
es men
with' ; the themselves
to

o aod
.. Des&e aU
_ . rc hltiN d; sec-
ondary factor, moulded as it i' ...
final analy . ., is, by thc alHm \ In t.he
of material
IIfc of society that of
forces and relations of ProdllC(:1Yt
St" aCCOrding to Chrit
lIan tradition, one of the t .
ApoJlles and author of the r. We'"
o I G . IfSlta.
nomca which wa<;. (j ally
compiled in the 2nd century Ul(
also Evangelists). see
MATZO. See or-
Matzo.
MAULID (Prophet', Birthday),
religIOUS fesllval to mark the binb of
the Prophet Mohammed, whicb is
celebrated on the 12th day (in some
places the 9th day) of Rabi' I, the
3rd month of the Moslem lunar
calendar.
MAUPERllJIS, Pl."" Loob
Mo..... d. (1698-1759), Freocb
mathematician, pbysicist and pbilos
opher. He held that all laws of
movement can be deduced from the
principle of least action wlUch be
formulated: the amount of move-
ment or action used for any change
in Nature is always the least of aU
possible amounts. This principle
provided for Maupcrtuis the most
convincing evidence for the eUstenct
o{God.
MAURIAC, (1885-1910),
French Roman Catholic writer. HIS
novels "le Noeud de Vircs" (Tbc
Vipers' Tangle), "TMrtse
roux", "La Pharisicnnc" (The Phari-
see Woman) and somc others CI
pose witb greal artistic skill the 81"
turc of modern society with ill
=:pra.;ty, 50000".'" ud
85 whose opposite M"
\,fA VA
' 41
o
. h Ido; up the norm' of (:hri.-.tian
n
ac
? which has been trampled
"hell on earth". Mauriac
011 .In that the modern dilemma (If
bell
eves
I 0 00 h Id he ro
"God or Rcv() utlon s ou
solved in God's favour-
MAURYA, one of the dynao;tics ,of
o t India (c 321c. 184 B.C.).
Ancl
cn
. 'd r
During the Maurya age the I ()
Buddhism and Joinism were achvcly
ropagated. Under the .emperor
texts were offiCially ap-
roved which later became part. of
fhe Buddhist Canon and active
mis!\ionary work was initiated bv
Buddhist monks beyond the borders
ofloma.
MAUTHNER, t'ritz (1849-1923),
German historian of atheism; po!-!-
tivist philosopher, of
agnosticism and !\ubJectl\'c
In general he was sr:mpath.ettc t<:
wards atheism, regardmg as. It$ P'J'"'I-
tive features ito; anti-dogmatism and
anlic/ericalism. His main work "D{ r
Atbeismus und o;eine Geschichtc im
Abendlande" (Atheism and lis His-
tory in the West, in four
1920-1923) containo; a wealth of im-
portant factual material, which, how--
ever, is subject to gcncrali7.afions
drawn from an idealist !"otandp(lint.
Mauthncr did not acccpt that at he
ism stemmed from social londitillns
and put forward a non-scil'ntific in
terpretation of a wh{,\c rangc of at
heist teachings, induding a Matxist
one.
MAXIM THE GREEK lho M;khan
'f!:i,"olis, c. 1475- 1556), a pwmincnt
thinker and (lHl pagator of learning.
was born in the Byz;.tntine Em"
pITe. In 14Q2 he travclled to Italy
whcrc he met prominent fi gurcs of
the Renais.fonce. In 1518 Maxim the
Gred wa..r; imitcd to Ru.o;s.ia to trans.-
lale and correct eccle!>ia.-.tieal boob..
a man. of wide learning he en-
Joyed con'-'Iderable influence in Rus.
r;ian o;ocicly and accompli!>hed a
deal toward ... acquainting it
WIth tbe works of c1as. ...ical autbor:!>
(Seneca, Plato. AriSfOllt. Plutarch et
al.). He al.-.o worked to promote
both the humanities and natural
sciences. In his political wt)lks
Maxim the Greek cx.poscd certain
social practices. brandcd the viccs of
the clergy, !>uppNting 10; he did so
the "'on-Possessors in their struFgle
against the monaqeries' owner!obip
of land. After that mO\ocment had
been officially Ctmdemned was
accused of haerv and bigh
(1531) and sentenced to \if un-
prl!Onmenl
MAXIM THE HERE II(. " Ru:-.s.un
poc;: imvl';cd in the NO\-gorod
herclJ(:3). an the second
half of the l."ith Thts mO\'t'-
mt.,t 9IilS condemned at the Church
Council be!J Ul M!$COw in 14Q(),
",-bicb an anat!'ema on
\bxim the Heretic and rune other

THE CONtESSOR, SL
(c. 580.(i6:!).
and imporlant figure 10 Church poh-
lit'S, a prominent of /"fnntr
'helill.tm and champIOn C!f Orfhcr
don'. He 'o\Totc commcnl anC!\ to (be
works of Dionys;us the Pseudo-AfrO-
pagilt. In 653 at the command of the
Byzantinc emperor he was
and !".Cnt mto cnle on accouDt of his
derence of Orthodoxy.
MAYA, (1) in Buddhism the mother
of prince Gal/lama. future 8ud4-
ha; (2) the In
various movements Within Hmduum
'42
MA7..ARS
and Buddhism: <3> an important
concept in Vedanta thought, the
cause of visibility. appearances, the
iUusory nature of the world, a spe-
cial strength of God, with whose
help the eternal, infmite and sole
Brahman appears finite, plural and
variable, i.e. tbe cause which makes
it possible to see unity in diversity
and diversity in unity; (b) Maya is
God's hidden desire to create the
appearance of existence.
MAZARS, shrines or mausoleums
al the spots where Moslem
rehgJOus leaders or thinkers of the
past a!e buried. Moslems believe
that SPints are buried in these places
IJ!d that veneration of tbese shrines
will ensure protection before Allah
In of pilgrimages to
shnnes livestock is offered in sacri-
f..:e.
or the religion of the
agJ, religion of Ancient Iran (the
Slale of the Medes from th 9tb
the 6tb e to
tbe A h centur:aes. and later lhat of
c lD the 6th L
t .. aBC) .L_
side: ' . ' . """"":"ed aIong-
of Iholl,:' and =
=.....::. ........ The holy
... sa Ar y ... i:'
... JIll\, tbe
dc:-ilb. of M . a. The
AhNnr .vEbts are
Good IIId ::. embodiment 01
Irna 01'" .", .. llyn::;" IIId pa-
ra.. ..... 15 fire-IDd' who man;_
... ' die CI hOOk c:" 01' AII
E
.,- Mai
-. of the A , ....... Later
...... of t-:a:..... ch h-'CBtds tbe

- .... BOd 01 .... ' IIId Mi.
PI!II)' (' tc to be ... -
'Ii }. -
mIlCh _ the hwro 8 7 ' - J, &ipo:d IS
herenu of Marh; 7 L ,.:.., 'IlIc N-
. -"'Zo.
roastrians, adnowlcd e ...
ou,cd Ir;bal "od, (0 g d IJId "-
b
. I o .evas) .,..:"':
una s m tomhs (pa r '
nobility and kino,) .' dleularly for t
L
-
. . n redUCt IJC:
mmunum the role of th d 10.
Zorollllwra as mediator e
Ahura Mazda and Ihe lUng. betOtc;;
MAZDAKITES, followers 01 .
IOUS and philosopbi I a rclig.
h' ca tea h'
w Ich was to provide the id c trig,
for a movement of th COIogy
masses (mainly the
urban poor) in Asia Minor :th and
and 6th centuries. This m c SIb
was led by the
for the elr,.,::
hOD of SOCIal mequality ideDtiJYi08
the lattcr with "worldly evil" (
Manichaeism) . The movcmCnl .:
crushed by the Persian Shah Cho&
roes II.
MEANING 011 LIFE. concept de-
nOh?g the purpose of life, MID'S
dcstlOy . .In various periods of bi:&rory
conceptions of the meaning of life
acquircd different CODDOta-
!lOns, depending upon the needs aad
of the various classes aDd
sections of society. The question IS
t? the meaning of life acquires cspc:-
aal. urgency in transitional historical
periods, in periods of revolution.
when new social ideals are takiDg
and old ones are being reo
In bowgeois etbical tbe-
tbe.meaning of life, as a rule., is
With Man's individua1jdic II-
In religious ethics the _
Ulloa. to tbe question as to die
::ng of lire is seen as dcpeaJ_
M",,' ..... wilb God. r.r
IiOfI . ' auamrnelll. of penon" IS".
tbc the DC." is pcreiled.
real &Ii hIS eXIStence. I .... 'filii
YIIhre. ". 010 .... ' lllripped 01
iISI ethics Iiab die

MI'.OrtAIlON

. , 10 the mcaning of life with

Il ona. 1 ' 1 I '
hole paltcrn 0 socia re at ton$,
Ibe W .'
i c, tralls
h
ID men s
lions regarding t e 0 Clr
existence depend various
te historical condll1ons and an'}C
varioUS stages of wcial develop--
ment.
MECCA, town
centre of the admlDlstratlVc district
of Hcjaz. Until .the of
Islam Mecca was a rehgtous
for a number of pagan Arab trIhes,
In tbe 7th century Mecca became a
holy city for Moslcms and their
centre for pilgrimage (Hajj). The
ancient shrine of the Kilaba with its
holy Black Stone is to be found in
Mecca. For 14 ccntwies Moslems
the world over have turned their
faces towards Mecca five times a day
as they pray. Mecca has about
300,000 inhabitants who for the most
part are engaged in the production
of articles designed for purposes of
religious worship or to meet {he
needs of the pilgrims. Between t.5
and 2 million people visit Mecca
every year.
MECHNIKOV. /Iya (1R4519l(,).
Rus."ian and one of the
founders of evolutionary emhryology
and immunology, winner of a Nohcl
Pri7..e in 1908. He came under the in-
fluence of po,firi l'ism. Mechnikov
criticized the progmati.ml of W,lliom
James, Bergson's illtuirionolism, leit'-
olog; and religious and my!>lic.al con-
cepts of life and death. Mcchnik(w
ideal i.fnl and rrligion with
the rallonal world outk)(')k" he de-
vised for himself. In his opinion, Na-
ture created the human bod" imper-
fect and disharmonious. Hc believed
!hat , old age prevented
he lDdlV1dual from fulfilling his vo-
calion in the world. Hence. M
. . ns
(lC'5S1ml<,m and fear of dt!alh. Science
can extend the active of
Man, who once he has rcali7cd hi'\
and achieved hi" aim:,; in
hfe In advanced old age will be ahle
to accept death. Being a materiali .. t
and an atheist Mcchnikov demon-
stralcd the incom.i<,tcncy of helief in
the immortality of the soul and life
beyond the grave; he "trongly con
demned bigotry and fanati-
c.i .. He saw the harm of religion to
he In the fact that it encouraged
Man to be 5ubmis..:,ive and not to
combat exiMing evil. His works in-
clude WEtyudy 0 prin'Klc chelo"eka"
(Essays on the Nature of Man,
1903), "Etyudy optimiz.ma" (Optim-
jstic Essays, 19011 and let is-
kaniya ratsionalnogo mirO\'onrc
niya" (Forty Years of Searching for
a Rational World Outlook, IQI2).
MEDITATION, mental of
the individual aimed al achieving a
state of deep concentration. Mcdi
tation presupposes certain changes
in the course of physiological and
mental that ri nd express
ion in a relaxed state, detachment
from external objects and reduced
reaction to irritants. There arc
methods used for meditation, which
for the most part have evolved in
the East, which include, among
tlther things, mental exercises de-
vised 10 achieve intcllectual coneen
tration. The best known systcm or
meditation is Yoga. Meditation is 'y
widely used in a of /'
the illusory world. Specific maoifes
tat ions of meditation include the
Jesuits' "spirit ual exercises" and tbe
,
MHllUM
leaching of the "path" to knowl.
of God through "stations" uf
Mlfldly renunciation and "stales" of
gifts conferred hy God ad
vocated by adherents of Sufi.rnJ.
The practice of meditation gained
wide popularity in the wake of the
....... of :un Buddhism.
MEDIUM. from the point of view of
the adherents of SpirituQ/ism an in-
termediary hclWeen men and the
world of "spirits", who is allegedly
capaille of "caJling forth" lhe spirits
of the dead.
main eompikr of the A
/t''uion (15.10) and q..
for the AIJ85h or or lbe
(I .Ii.l I). which eo..rea.
baSIS for the teal'hin ofO>ide<l
Mlh gtnlh
I,fm . c thon supportltiLi-
(Qb'ln 8Itainst the radi: Latr.t,
In l.he hurgher-Ied reformat' lit ......
agam!;1 'Thomas Ma IOn tid
Luther's death After
came the Icader or the 0 be
ew_
MELCHIZEDEK, accordi 1
an ancient Je:!:.i
prlcst-klng mentioned in the Book "'Ie
His name was wed cI
denote an early-Christiu 0..0.:
sed founded in tbe 2nd
followers asserted .":::f
chu.cdek. was Ih,: first aad "nit ..
pon.
ant
Incarnation of God. ...
was only an image of Mel--
izedelt.
MELETIANS ,
Melelius of Lyoopo1ia
326), who refused I.
lhe service of lhose: rio

DOl wiD wide-.ccale
rollowers ftre sooa
the rar IarJer Dllmiten
..... ofAriGnirm.
MINf)I(ANIORIlI'.RS
,os

h d the we!.tern of the

where he crcdcd the pillars.
wo
r
ock of (iihraltar) that later
(the r
tn
he known 8!; the Pillan ur
(Heradc!<o). Thi" t.ymhol nf
power the
nee
or a pair of In the
prese h d
temrles where he w:
as
wI"'d' hIPf'C. '
The cull of Mclkarl Invo 'Ie um,ln
sacrifice.
MENAION the
"menaia" meaning monthly). In
the Ortl1odox ClJUrr:II, of
twelve liturgical books
the variahle parts of the DIVine Of
fice for the immovable feasts.
MENANDER (Milindo, d. c 150
B.C.), the ruler of Greek possessions
in Northern India (the Graeco-Bac
Irian Kingdom). Menander adopted
Buddhism, calculating that it would
further his political ends by procur-
ing him the support of certain strata
of the population. In Indian tradi-
tions he appears as King Milinda.
whose dialogue with Nagascna con-
stitutes the non-canonical Buddhist
classic, Milindapanha.
MENDEL, G"'1Ior Jobo.. (1822-
1884), a Moravian monk, founder of
genetics. He was born into a ramily
of Roman Catholic peasanls and be-
came fa.scinated by tbe nalural
at an early age. After be-
COIlUDg first a monk and later abbot
of the monastery in the Iowa of
Briinn, he continued 10 take an in
terest in the natural sciences and at-
lectures at tbe university of
Vienna. Mendel came under tbe ia-
fluence of the materialist ideas of
the eminent cytologist. Franz U.,..
and devclupcd an inlercat in lMrwin
urn. All this encouraged in Melldel',
world oUllook a prOlNM'Ncd leur.
loward" maferialism motf'd in nafu.
ral sCIence. The laM Ilf heredity dis.
covered by it,
dlK'rctc malenal nature and scrved
promote it\ intcrprcta.
tllm and. undermine ... nn
that hy "f'Cciali<.'" in IhuJ/ogy
and advocates (If
MENDELEYEV. Dmitri (lRJ4.
1lXl7), out .. tanding Ruv.ian scientist
materialj<,t who comhatted my!-
IICn!". great scientific
was the di'loto'o"Cry of
the pcmxilc ror the da ...
cation of chemical elements (lHtN).
His Periodic Svstcm LS of tremen-
dous importance for the materialist
world outlook, providing as it docs
an illustration of the genera] laM of
dialedics and, in particblar. of the
law of the transition of quantitative
changes to qualilallYC ehanges.
Mendelcyev came out againsl en-
ergism. which provided aD outlet for
the idealist vaciUatioas 01 a number
or physicislS of his ti _ IDCI he
waged an IINXMhpromisals wie
Spiritualism I. J( spew Fe to
hlS initiative. the fhyU's Soady at
St. Pelersburg Uuheisity set up a
commission, which de"i01ttrated
the BDli-scieatific c ncDCe of Spiri-
tna
lism

'"
- ... "' ..... ordained by G<>d
a : = . . = = 1 E ~
MERTON
combine aneeal beliefs in water and
fertiliry spirits. and later concepts of
the "unclean" dead (for instance,
droUDC<l women).
MERTON. _It 1(1"1 (b. 1910).
American sociologist, advocate of
strudural-functional analysis. In Ihe
sociology of religion he starts out
from the premise that tbe main fac-
lor in social integration is tbe system
of values shared by tbe members of
the society in question, which serves
10 underpia tbe stability of tbe exiSI '
ing social system. Collapse of tbat
system of values and ideals leads to
.. . .. ' M
Le. an's alieaation from
IOOCly aDd. the prcdomiaancc of in-
dit
Ll44
'lbm and in individual
&Del soci'l This he
IS the inhereDt in any
misguidedly
aDtagonis_
to an so-
the inconsiste ...
10US conccplions C' Dey of reI:..
d h
. .nureb
a? . t. e anti-humaaist
Christian morality The IIIhart ci
in CbllrQ
to stop "The 'f, eve., -.,
propagated. A
lion was fmaUy publish d .... I-
1864. ' oaJy it
MESSIAH. See MusUuou",.
(Irom the H .........
masblah meaning .. . cw
one':). teaching regarding t:::
comlOg to Earth 01 God', .,.
M
. 'Dus
enger, or a eSSlah, sent to eatabIIIa
an order. tbat is just and ple#-Io
God. ThIS Leachmg was boo J
helpl....... 01 the ..:;....:
mas..... of th.ir illusory bopo b
from supernatural for u 0rW-
.... Uy. the king who .,
ceremony of anointing dW4""
was known as the Mal-
lab LD ludaism. Following the c0l-
lapse 01 the Jewish state dv, .......
ualJy tak .. shape in the _ .,,,,
ProfJh.ns the teaching oor:a:l". 1
MesSiah as the future delhuu of
tbe Jews from foreign opprel"icw
caUed upon to renew the
between Yahweh and his dlOC
people. Initially it was aa1icipo1ed
that the Messiah would wwe do ..
to '!I'd victory by ....
{i.e .. military) !llN!QI, ....
......... the LDtemmtioa 01 .....
lIIlunl for ... would oJso be itoiIIiI
After D11ii+efOUl Itt .. ",. tID
liberllion rc.. alii
lea, cw to _ .. ish lewilll
laid f"r1 .. L.
:..s: a;".t3<;;I;r


MEI"APIIYSICS
logy (he 5Ccond coming of
(i.e. Chri<;t) 10 f.ol .
the after the firc;t, dUring which
low. L had only carried out the in
Cbns ... d L
.. aI stage of the mlS'iIOn a<;Mgnc 0
by God the Father. The
of Christianity among vanOU$
tcxts. .lnlrin."iic (catmes of meta-
..... t religions are inten. ...ive
ml<;slonary activity and a
Dounced mterest in political and !M)-
cial The widCloprcad
are Soh Gakkai and Kosei
Kai (Society for the &tabli"hmenl
109 les of the Roman Empire
ahoul a lransf';lrmation of
Messianism. The co.mmg of the
Messiah began 10 be tntcrpreled a"i
signifying delivcrance for whole
f mankind from all suffering. The
sin of Adam and was
noW presented as source. of the
evil making redemplfon essenttal.
META.BUDDHIST RELIGIONS, a
term used to denote vanOU$ rel.lg-
iow> sects and
evolved in Japan after Its defeat m
the Second World War, belong to
the group known as "new
(or Sbinko Shykyo) and which claim
10 be showing the faithful the "only
true" paths to sol\'otion. Like other
"new rel igions", these arc far more
accessible to a broad public thanks
to significantly simplified rules for
joining the religious community, and
the absence of burdensome obliga
tions or large financial outlays.
These sects promic;e salvation in the
imminent futurc and during life 00
Eartb, as opposed to after death.
They offer each member oppor-
tunities for self -discovery and create
the illusion that the whole of the
given community shows concern for
the welfare of each individual mem-
ber. These religions evolved from
Buddhism in the form it was lent by
tbe 13th-century prophet Nichiren
and take a.<. t heir basic scripture the
mantra "Homage to the Loc.us of the
Good laW', which Nicbiren termed
the summatioD of the Lotus Suera,
ODe of tbe most popnlar Bucklhi"
of Justice and Amjcablc Relations).
METAGALAXY, part of the infinite
constituting an enormou ..
but Fmite totality of galaxies and ga-
lactiC sr;tems. At the present time
part of the MctagaJaxy incorporating
some thou'\and million ga1axaes i .. ac-
ccs,.<;ible to investigation. It has beeD
established by astronomers that sa-
huies move away from each other at
specds proportional to the distance
between them, and that there exists
radiation (some of whose charac-
teristics have beeD identified), whicb
is evenly spread throughout the
whole of that part of the Metaga
1
a')'
acce ....o;ible to investigation. Hence It
follows tbat between 15,(0) and
18,001 million years ago oc-
curred an enormous expIosiYe tran-
sition of maller from an Cllte,,-dy
dense hoi. state to tbe stale to be 0b-
served todav (a "Sig Sang") and it

was at that point that the expanSlOD
of the Metagalaxy began. The ideot.i-
fication h ... theologians of tbe "Stg
Bang" wiih God's creation of the
world is groundless. since the
galaxy is only one of lbe elements 10
the infinite Universe, and the cur-
reot state of matter iD the MdIP""
laxy <wived DOt & ... LIIIIIiLLI ....
from aa cxtrcwly dun" ..
state of metter .,....... daiI
trn';';';'" toot JIIIc! .... .. cool-
._ widllIIo ....
MEIAfIIYSICS (m. G'-: wo:<k
.... iH'." aad '"ta physiu" d
"tbc ..... attcr thC pbysjcs"), spool-
'"
lbe ideal!> or the
35'
MlllRA9
10 this day, particularly in counlry
areas. such as (be lighting of bonfires
and leaping over 5.'!me, the
throwing of wrealhs Info nvcrs elc.
This festival assumed (be name of
lvaa Kupalo in Russia, Byelorus.o;ia,
aDd tbe Ukraine, Ihis popular name
for St. John the Baptist originaling
flOm the Slavonic word "kupat"
meaning "'0 bathe". At the
time, although such festivals have
virtually lost their Christian associ-
alions, the day is marked as a festival
of summer and youth ill certain parts
of the USSR, such as Latvia (where
is referred to as Ligo),
E See
MILINDAPANIIA. See - I
81 ....
MILITARY MONASIJC
orgamlallons of a DIOnast' j
bringing logelher EurOJJelD ,1)JIt
who look part in the Ou
the t2th and 13th < "
organi7.alions WCre set up .. a
of the p0JiIC.Y. whicll lit
them m order to lied
ideas intrinsic to the ""fi&hi:
the infidels to set free tile
sepulchre". and lhis aim
one of tbe t.'OWS tHea
of the military
assumed by these
was (he carc: for
and sick piIsrima. ,.
laler in Europe. '.Ie
eDormous territories,
plunder and ClIp/oiIed
lion, coIIc(ting OV'el' tIae
wealth The orden
into powerful
eelled major
The "K'tl famous
den were the
pi",., the T",/oItk .....
Ad. The Outer of
Order of CeIIlI'8Wl
olSt, James of
paled in the
the Ame';""
... RI
.. ) wnl h Ih y r
1798' Th organll.ah( n
In d nil
(t II t r
Ouent.:
m It n
mer
U:NARIANISM or lit'
(from the I n mill and
Cireek "t:hlho' h m n
Ih dO') a UI pi 'n r i" ",
Ihou<;an , d
h
"O regaroin the Sr on
tcac I r'> h II
f Chnst an", I ml enn m r
n J .
"i of a thousan car "II Ie
. iP'h' Drl'elattnn (W lohn , Ie
to t c 1"""cO
(2()4) Millen,.r am 1 '"
\'/fIt' "
that Ihis reign would begin 01'1 E
1nd not in the afterlife Thl ' ''',
ing pnW!. s an 1m nary e"pr
Jf h", dre 1m of th orpr
h. v '1Ilght . rr fr m
ion and ufk Ing> nd r"nJ
a fu!Ur, thdt w u d he
hanpv Till m em n
\0 \d In th Ii d.
11aml}' was .. nnd mnl d
('hurch .n th(.. u
to fcsurl cc 'n tn U
form <)1 mcdl.l II (,
beian here Ie lh
Joachimll\.s, Hu It
in thl! dcmOCralll: \\. og
malion (amflng thl' 1I0\\. r
maj MWIJI' and the 4 a
and latcr on as well.
..
I'
MC):-I(mtl'lmSM
36\
--
-. membership of which i$
# ...... tatlo
n
God
cd the ide:11 waY,to serve ..
d' g to cede iastlcal lradl1mn.
acre: preparing to become
lbe m . !>0-
k lake" monastic vows. sym
J!lon his complete renunciation of
or fiin" and tOlal ohe
to the Church. Buddhist
dlc
ncC
I f
monastic h :0.
hut in the CbrL'\han fure 1 rc
O
nastic ordc.:rs or women
are
m
C"
)
as well men. ommumUes
(nuns, . da' k
of nuns Jive in foun . 1I0M Down as
convents.
"MONKEY name giw:n by
world public. to the legal
rocceding..c; instigated by tbe
in the Slate of Tenncsset ID
the US against the school (racher
John T. Scopes (or t
his pupils the evolut!OD lh.e>:Ay of
Charles Darwin. that It was (oLd
dcn 10 teach in several of tile US
southern stales. The trial .....
Scopes was held in 1925. aacI he _
sentenced to a fme. EYeD Wi., ...
are still in force in a all ......
slales which place rcstndll
F
5
propagation of Duwia
theory.
MONOPHYSmSM
Greek "moD06
"single" and
lure"), a
'eaching m
emerged in t
lheSth
'0 be

dcmned as a hfflry lind It, lUppor_

to be persecuted as here.
110.. BehlDd these dodnaal disputes
regardmg ,he natur. 01 \.'hrisI ..,
comple. onoaUc, potitic:ol ODd ....
cial contradictions. bet weea Coa.
Slantlnopie aDd tbe populatIOn III a
of proviNe I, wbe:re ICl*a.
tJSI peedlM
(Syria, Thuc re-
l;gious ...
.....
\
,
I anu
aspc I h
r
' ,
o rcilgul"l .

fori c"
magic.al
I
,
'on, ;j,nd tc
wide ,prcdd
"
the h:ncg
. '"
( 'hurcL.
~ c
376 ,
l'J')'I,
reader

a rC\i
I
The NCIlpla,on
the lO.... O ' : : ~ 1
\
'IlCHOIAS 01' MYRA IN IY('II\
the development of the natura] phil-
osophy of the RenaissonCt!.
NICHOLAS Of MYRA IN
Lyel,\, SL See Nicholas the Mlracle-
Won-tr, St.
NICHOLAS THE MIRACf.E
WORKER. St., one or the most
venerated or Christian saints. Ac-
cording to Chureh tradition .. he
Bisbop of the town or Myra IR Lycla
(Asia Minor) and was persecuted by
Emperor Diocletian. Hc became ra-
mous as a miracle-worker and was
canonized. Yet, as has since heen cs-
tablisbcd. Nicholas was a f.gure or
Ie.r ad and tbe story of his lire was
rEed almost word for word from
the description of the life of another
saint, Nicholas of Pinar. This saint's
popularity among the faithful led to
him. being declared the patron of
........ IDd traders and of farming,
... proIcdor of ,he poor and needy,
tM: IIdper of simple folk in tbeir SOl'
aad misfortunes, He was re-
saint of Russia.
considered lhe
them
(in the name uf "hc8\It ."
and property. n:ty ...
lOSS and way ur of the
tans their rrote51
the O.fcetlnJm and the h"";:;' ..
the Church, yet in the of
the Bohemian Nic(llaitan! then of
....o some early
10 he found, albeit witb .... l:...
IOUS overtonc..... '"""'5
NIEBI'HR, R.lnhold (18'12-1971)
American thcologian, one of
ccntury'!\ foremost thinken in Prot.
estont;ml. The crisis thai swept the
United Slates in the lale lwealles led
Niebuhr to turn his back Oft the
traditions of liberal thcologywilll its
intrinsic faith in prOSi cm lad lie
analyt.ed this cris.is Crom the It"'"
point of social pessimism dine.
(cristic of d;alecticaltluw:llo&J ...
work "Moral Man and ' .. + .. -.11 S0-
ciety" (1932) Niebuhr lUK _
against the optimiM ethicsofdle
ciol and stre ned MIl
"sinfulness",
of Man perfecting
5Ory. According to
oC Christitur;ty is to
de .... and hi, own am
and to reject aUempts to
the course of history,
ing more aware of his
God and bis
deeming,
other works
and Destiny
IDdFailb ....
_ NUIII Rll.iG!2l -'--________ .2".'
. o'cW1>ki , the (impel.f are work!!
,1 n pertaining tn Ihe dymg
(IICIO, . I,
o d' 'on of poc: ry
Ira III hiloc,nphy. 111.: held thai
and. oricnlal rclig;nn<. were flnc
anelhen ' '''urCCS (or Ihe myth 1)( Jcsus
ofl e :"IV k" h
Christ. Ni cmnjcw. I ce,ll)' con
. ."me rather arpltrary mlerpre
lamS , .....
tations.
NIETZSCIIE, Wilht'lm
(1844-
191Xl
), thlOker, who
h lantiall), IOnucnced European
and lilerature of Ihe 20lh
P tury. In hic, works such as
Zarathuc,tra" (Thu!i Spake
Zarathustra, 1881-1885).
lichcs - Allro Mcnschhchcs (Hu
man All Too Human. lR78). "Ocr
Antichrist" (The Antichrist, 188R),
and "Der Wille zur Macht" (The
Will for Power, 1889). Christian
ethics arc subjc(:tcd to harsh criti-
cism, as depriving Man of the full-
o( life, cmphasi7ing his power-
lessness and undermining his in-
stinct for
Christianity, from Nict7sche s point
of view, is more harmful than any
)<. vice. Niet/sche is one,; o( the most
sa\'age opponents or Ihe popular
masses., or Ihe herd" in his parl
ancc, which he. counters with the
ideal or the Supt'rman ("Uber
mensch"), whu himselr above
Good and Evil anti asscrts his will
for power. Although Nictz!iChe re
jeetcd the idea of a wurld heyond
\ I the grave, he cannnt he number
\ among atheists: his atheist views are
as the opposile to rei
VlCws., yet can only CXlst ID the
light of religinu.... views. SUICC lh
are a negation of tbe laU r The
World NietniChe sees as
..... .. thIS finclilll
pressIon In the Idea of lenal
currence" that in NI I

.
poMc m tical implication ....
Nit Ir..chc'! ideas ' ju'>tifica_
tlOn lor amorali ID and l glorifica.
lion of fOtcc,
NIf::T1..S( IIEASISM, trend In Ih
cull ure of Europe at tht tum of
e. ntury, whieh took 'l.harc under the
mnuencc of the idea ... of Ff1t'drich
11 i". character17.ed by a
radical hreak With trailittonal phll,*
ophy and idea..; of howgeots democ
racy: intrinsic to Niel:tscheamsm arc
a reactionary pnlitical5.lancc and 0-
treme indr.iduaJi rn. The idea." that
co fn<'lit ule Nicll;<.eheanio;.m were llsed
by imperialist reactionary circle in
particular the Nazis., to propagale
raci<;.m and the idea of world domi-
nation by the Aryan race.
NIGHT SERVICE ( .......... riIII
a c;crvice in the CJnhMio 0IUIdt.
which hegins after sunset and fin
ashes more often Ihan DOl after mid
nigh' 00 ,he ... s-, ad lite
major Chnshan i
lice caD be
tioll5 the
were in the habit of
seJ'V1CCS at oight
NIHil ,ISM. JlELIGIOUS
388
NIKAIi
humane stance and turning his back
on objectively operaling social laM.
The refusal 10 accept any positive
content in spirilual cullure and their
unprincipled cynicism made the
crilique of religion put forward by
the reprcscDlalivcs of religious nihil
ism appear superficial and also ex-
pI.ins wby tbey could so easily make
(he transition to mysticism. Religious
nihilism DOWadays assumes a variety
of f01l115: racists in the USA anack
Ouistitmity, by puuing forward the
idea of "qualitY', i.c. racial purily, in
its pbtcc, while "SataRists" recom
meDd "commandments of hate" in
place of the Chric;lian command-
'IIIeIIlI. dc. IdeDtirtCatioD of atheism
ad ....., Dihilism is a common
reature 01 !he wri'ings pili out by
tho&e who distort Manism,
Ihodox Chflrclt . At lh
Council of 16M- IM7 h .. e CbUfdl
. d "" ..... Cleo
but he repented In I ..
Jomed the movemenl or he 1582
dieT ("Slrelet s") dl''>enl cl'5 I .10&.
10 restore "the old piel .... R"....
H 'k
. 7
1ft
'"'1l.
C 00 part an an open ecclnis \:
cal. a debate CODce . h
rehglOus hche l). which took place .....
J uly 5, 1682 in the Hall of Facets':
the Moscow Kre mlin. He wu ...
and executed on the iPlbUC:
liOns of Tsarevna Sorta.
NIKOLSKY, N' ..... I (1877-1959)
onenlahst and historian oi
religion. He publi&bed a Dumber of
works which provided e4'1OSit1Ol&
and support for the coild'btn
drawn by adherents of hntClrical
criticism regarding the origi'.oflhe
Old Trstanwnt. He also Mdcd 01
,h. hislory 01 ,h. RussUm 0Wh0II0r
Church. His main wvsu Ire .....
riya russkoi tserm" (The ff15lory cl
,b. Cb,!,ch. 1931) .... "Pol-
ItCIDIl I mOOOlcl1lII v dreww:)C#I E2
koi religii" (Polytheism aacl Map
theism in Judaism, 1932).
NOAII
-
Mnna .. lery (1('4,) and
Ml'tmpolilUn of Ncwgo
He a
r . . wilh Tsar Alexei MlkhallOVlch,
whose support he bc:amc
'" ch in 1652. In nrder 10 coowh
Irla
r
.. rhR ()
dale Ihe ()(r.'illUlO () I e ,.
IhodOX Church and enhance Ill,pre
. ""ikon introduced rdorm .. In the
Ilgel" ( .. rh
order of services reVl<,lon 0 ,I e scr
vice books and icons in keepmg WIth
BY'.antinc models, amendments to
riluals, the introduction. of regular
church sermons etc.), which sparked
off a movement the
retention of the old rituals (tbe Old
Ritualists' or Old Befiel'eI'J' move
ment), and this development then
led to the Old Schum. The
attempt to make Ihe patriarchate suo
perior in power to Ihe autocracy
eventually led to connict octween
Nikon and the Tsar. Calculating as
he did so thaI the Tsar would not he
able 10 manage without him, Nikon
divested himself of patriarchal office
in 1658, however this hlackmail did
not succeed. The Church Council
deposed Nikon in 1(,66 and he was
then banished to a monastery in Ihe:
north of Russia.
NILUS m' TilE SORA. SI_ (real
name Nikolai Maikov, c.:. 143;\1508 ,
Russian church leader. ideologist of
the movcment and
founder of the small monastic rom
munity ("skit") on t he Ri\ cr Sora,
ncar the SI. Cyril Monastery by the
Lake Beloyc in the nort h of
In his main work, the " Monaslie 01'
rectory", he advocated ascrIK
reject ion of t he concerns of thas
world, rc nunciation on tbe part
the mona. ...terics of landed propc:ny
and the accumulation of we.kb.
all poss.c::s.. ...ions In t his way sa
NiJus had boped to eab.nee tile
'"
moral auth "If the Church and to
cot;'ccntrat .adivities on strictly
rehgwu'i wnaltc; . At the 1503
<-"hurch <.:ouniil In he sup-
poi ted the propos.a.l made by T
Ivan to deprJ\oc thr mooast nt
of their landtd po5SCSSlOns.. ThIS
howC'rt"r, met with strOlig
oppa"ltJOn from the Osi/lyant and
WI." rejed.ed
NIR\fANA (San,,1.nl word mearnng
literally "extinction
r
), concept cen
Iral to the religiou.o; philosophy of
Buddhism and Joinism. The term is
used to denote complete disappear
ance, final release: rrom tht bonds of
.50msoro, the highest lale of mind,
in which aU earthly lies bave heen
surmounted and which is free 0( all
daires and ion.\. Nuvaaa COD-
stitules a break In tbe: cycle 01II1II-
comauons. ahsolule and invioIebIc
peace. Nin,.ana deflCS aD definibom.
With regard 1 the: way in which Nir
vana should be p!UISlCIy mlstood
there bas aIwa been
between Buddh
sch liars. wh!!(h
Bl'Qhnultusm ad II,
is lDterpre cd as ccapIetc dUiP-
tion mto lInJIvtum..
NOMINAI.JSM
saved (in pairs) togethcr with him.
At the end of the ISO days of the
Aood all those aboard the Ark were
again able 10 rescUle on dry land.
NOMINALISM (from the Latin
"nomen" meaning "name"). onc of
the main theories to emerge in mc-
diaeval scholastic philosophy, Insist-
log that only individual things really
existed, advocates of Nominalism re-
jected the tenel of the Rt'oiists, who
acknowledged the existence of
universals in the Divine Mind, While
for the extreme Nominalists
ro'
moderate con-
c:epII were deemed 10 emerge in
humaa coasciousness in the course
of abslradioo, and the existence of
universals was acknowledged, if DOl
outside the coaflDCS of human rea-
.... 'h. at kart within lhat very
....... as it sought after trulh.
Ii!"";,d 10 Cbristiaa theology,
NoT JEW K led 10 a re)Cdion of a
Ii. Diviae substaoc:e CODSlituting
theThr ... Pcrsoos oIthe Trinity. The
... _ adiug Nominalist philos-
........ the 1l1h-14dt "'"Iuries
RClILem-.,. "ue AbelanJ
W"dliam of Occam:
problem or
Nominalism
IIId could
AI Ihe
directed
from
the
.. ural ....
-
n.on"}lfO\ided the hasi"i for the: It
sIan Kormchaya Kniga" (tbe r Ie Us
which houk was derived fro.: of
Old Church Slavonic WO,d mea
"helmsman"), that served as a
or m:lnual for the Russ;1III cnr::
Church, in particular for the 0uutI.
Court.
NONCONt"ORMISTS.
/ers,
NONPOSSESSORS, <eligious.
cum-polrhcal movement in Russia ill
the late 15th and early 16th CCDtlll'y
whose adherenls demanded tbal
Church renounce "possessioa" (i.e.
the acquisition of land and ofher
property), seen as coDlradic:t'DrJ to
lhc ideals or the aDd P.r-
mining the authority of the CIIw"-
The ideas providing 5ubs! .. 'htim
for tbis demand were 10 be f('lll'""
the works of, among others. 51 NiIIIs
of the SlNrI. In his "Monulic DIce-
tory" Sa. Nilus maintained dill. die
acqui'iilion of property was
patible wilb monastic "ows.
strict. ascetic way of life and
dividual labour
sistencc, His
adl'ocated the
eslales belonging 10 the
10 he subsequently divided
tween the lesser leudal
-
-.-
-
only ,llll'r the ( hurdl.
I1\'C
r
. HI f I:HI Ih.ll Non "u,>
("(lunci nrc finllly dde.tled. The
a p(lwtrful
N
n PO\<'c '" r h
o 'he emcrllcntC II t
, nuenec 11 ,.. r
'" . r. d I heretical movcmentc, 0
ani I eu a
Ihe 16th century.
NORMS, REUGIOIJS. a ":fl'!. of
. I ,ms laid down hy religion.
SOCIa no ,. d d
'h . nuence mcn .. alhtu C!i an
thcir hchavinur. Any
I
' ,.dudes a !i.et of rclll!IOU5
re IS,on h' h .
norms, with the help .of W}C It
regulatcs social relatlon!i.. 1
norms consist of rules of
(" struclions to carry oul certain
or the prohihit ion. of, Cl r.t am
other actions), and th7 mdlcallons
as to the means !'Iecunng all t h,e .. e
rules (promise of reward llf pum<,h-
ment from supernatural forces,
threat of punishment from (he
Church). A fCdture of
the Holy Scriplllrcs thfC scattering
. Ihrough them uf the mjunctions
dealing with religious norms. Thus.
the commandment exhorting man
10 honour his parents found, ID c
7
,-
lain pas. .. ages of the Bible .<, rCID
forced, in some pla('cs, hy Ihe
promise of prosperity and long
jf the commandment is kept. m
other places, by the threat of death
for those who fail to keep it. while
in certain other pa .... 'iagefo no appro-
valor disapproval is expressed at
all. Rules of behaviuur that are
tahlished by religiuus organizations
arc presented by thcologians 85 the
concrctization of diviDe Jaws..
(named ofter a
3rd-Century presbyter NOYIhU
of tbe early Christian sed,
broke away from the 0"'0
dunng Ihe reign of Emperor Dec:iaL
The Novationis's insisted dill die
(huTch ....()uld ut granl forgl\l.:nl
10 those (hu II n who, under
Ihl' at "I r prc slim frr-nthc RlIman
had m lk,; sa rifte 10
pag In god .. In-j hctrayed theIr
faith. "The ( hurch ,:nndcmncd th'i,
teaching ;1:0; hcn;lital. however then
communi!. s continued In cxi .. t ur
unlillh 8th century, Tht mf'l'V\;rncnl
, j th Novaliunists prnvidt"d an oul
let for the di ali .. raC1ion of the
Slrnnge!'iol in their faith
with the compromise, entered into
hy tht ( hurch, with "pagan pnwer .
The con<r.equencc uf the Novatinn-
teaching was the transition
throughuut the Chri lian (hurch.
which look place at the end of the
lrd century, rrom public ptntlllce to
private can/t: ion.
HEll-
renouftC'C its ICCV-
m
NOVGORODTSEV
mutation of weallh provided theore-
tical substantiation for the
il.ation of the estates belongmg t,o
the Church in Novgorod. This
meant that the criticism of the
foundations of Christianily was
aimed against the feudal state.
Novgorod heresy was supported. In
the main by "White" pnesls (I.e.
married priests who cannOl become
Bishops) and members of tbeir
families. The social background of
the free-thinkers in Mosco"," was
somewhat different among them
were also represented tbe boyars,
merchants, scribes and otber social
groups. They caned into question
abe wharity of the writings of tbe
F-' of iii< Ouurh, rejected
monasridmI and the teachiDg$ COD-
cerning the Day of lutlgtrhmt, the
resurrect ... of tbe dead and Man's
im" ...... Iity. The Oaurdl Councils
of 1488, 1490 and 1504 c:oadomned
die Nouguaod-Mosrow heresy, an
.. V"wlila was prOllOUDCed upou its
..... le"'II IDd. many of them were
e:II [ .... ed.
....
.... '"
-
perform .. lowty lasks ..........
church SCf"VItts aod in the .;::.;:
(cry's economy.
(from the LatiD "'''Miv
. pelihn-
diplomatiC representatwe ('CAp';'-
dor) of the Vatican in Slates, .. ;
which the lauer has diplomNIC ftla.
tions. In a number of COUntries the
Nuncio is tbe doyen of tbe dipIo..
matic corps. A Nuncio also IGpel.
vises the activity of the Ranum 0IIa.
olie Oturrh in the country .meae he
is resident.
NUSAIRIS, a Shi'ite sed of Mah
I. their teachin8S !hey ............
common with the Ism'i
tit
, bat "Ie
teachings also coat.;n elemaa m
ancient Eastern astral cuIta ... m
Christianity. The N'q'iriI.tNtie the
Cafipb Ali as God ....... " ....... S-
and the MOOD. They brBM tile
transmigration of souIa II1II cd-
ebrate a number of CbriItiIa faIi.
vaIs. The Nllsairis inhdit NardIcn
Syria and Turkey.
NUT. Sec Keb
NYAYA, ODe of !he
Ancient Indio
emergence
the name

-
. d the teaching of the
onwa
r
S h-
tul')' hool accepted t c main
rinciplcs and the
tolog
lca
Saishcshika
of the d in strong matenallst
was rOO
te
traditions.
SUTRA. the snurce
NVAYA N aya philosophical syMcm,
for tbe Y
h
r -,t held to be Ahhapa-

.
w 0 The final versIon was
d
Gautama. d d 4 h
a .\ d between the 2n an t
COmpl.C It consists of five hooks,
contains two sections.
each d. to thc Nyaya Sutra, the
Acco
r
cognition leads to an
pr.oc.
ess
,_ n of false knowledge,
e"m
lRa
10 . 1 d
b h in its lurn, cllmmates
W fflc; The wisdom contalDed IR
su eong. d h ,be
h Vedas is DOl deeme ere 0
t e rnatural. The Nyaya Sutra
an io<liffereot stance to the
m
of (md whom it prc\Cntco
nClthcr at:; th, 'e I of Man\
exi"tencc, nor a< the cause of the ex-
of the. Uni"erc.e, which had
come inlo as a result of thl'
Svahhava-vada. I.e natural taU5alitv
Later interpretero; of Ihe Nyaya
Sutfa tried to emasculate Its

NYMPH, Greek word used in myth-
ology to denote a category of female
divinities of inrerior rank, who f'Cr-
sonified elements of the natural
landscarc: seas (Oceanids. Nere-
ids), and
trees (Oryades), mountains
(Oreades), meadows., and
hills etc. Most nymph.c;' worshIp was
confined to their own
springs, groves or eveD iDdividual
trees.
o
OBERON, king of the Eh'fJ, a char-
acter in old French legends of the
12th century connected with Charle-
magne that were later assembled in
a popular prose work.
ORO (Mongolian word meaning
a beap of stones piled up
by believers for purposes of worship
on the summits of mountains at
, '
IDOUIItI1D passes, on roads through
the. by rM:':5 and springs.
tbey constituted primitive
sanc:luanes constructed to honour
spirits, who would he regarded as
maslen or the locality in question'
also the places where re:
..... rituals associated with Sho-
".....,. were cnacted (or Mongolian
some Turkic tnDes. As Lo-
nurrsm ,spread. these masler spirits
mlo the divinities of tbe La-
mnt while the Obo,
..... "
=
in an errort I .
L_I' [h' 0 rclaan old
In,; Ie s, With arc con 'de
eternal and immutable. SJ red IS
OBSERVANTINES, Fr'
monks, who unlike the C -
(
h o"'ttllIIIs
w 0 advocated les.'i strid rules
the monastic life) stridly obse for
all rules and rites laid dowa for .r:
!'rdcr. They arc headed by the M"
Ister The division of ::;
FranCIscans mto Observan1ina Ud
Conventual'i took place in 1517. Tbc
former were declared the tra
Order of Sf. Francis. An ofF,boot ci
the Obscrvantiocs is tbe CalM'.
Order .
OCCASIONAL Rt:LIGIOIJS
RITE...'i. (Rus.o;ian "Ireby"), pii)US
and ceremonies coodl\lded
by pnesls al Ibe requcsl of ODe or
more believers. They include rUI
(order for the recitation of prlJ'CIl)
for IillUgy. for the sQC1lllJltflltr for
and .also special SCIWOEI fur
vanous particular occasioas. ladla
prayers for a return to health or ....
log periods of drought.
OCCASIONALISM, idealist
10US movement in
WestEuropean tbought
ento of tbis theory
could be interact.ioa of
m"'u they held th'
IIIknrca ea to brio& about
-!Ita Pma ch'Sp
IIId VJCO -.
God'. ca.tIIIl
f )(M}YI'V'!i'KY
--'--
-- Id as the only of ,.11
the wo
r

oC
CllL
TISi'd (frn,:", the Latin "nc
1 .. meaning "hidden"). rnyo;tJul
cO lUSh' g the: Rudy of
Icae1n . 1 r
mat ural orc.:.cs.
allegedly cxi\1 in Nalure and
wroeh hU":lan form und r
h
',nflucnee of Incontotumf and
led h'
rituals and can he: ma c 5U Jed (0
Man's will. The "ourees of occult
ism can be hack to
belicfs in an 5pmluaJ
supernatural .f,!rce to
(}ccullism diVIdes . 1010
exoteric oncs that investigate the
outward form of natural phenome
na, and esoteric sciences that lnVC
tigate their inner essence.
cessible allegedly only to the tn-
iliated. The main trealise relating to
occultism is the "Emerald Note-
book" attributed to HenneJ Tm-
megistus. Many people were fasci-
nated by occullism in the Middle
Ages and alw during the age of the
Renaissance. In the middle of the
19th century modern occultism
came into being, whose supporters
declared it to be a "new natural
!'tciencc'. In the 19th and 20th cen-
luries many occultists were exposed
as dealing in deceit.
O('''OECHOS (Greek eight
VOICCS"), a liturgical book in tbe Or
th?<i0x Church with music for eight
VOICCS. It was compiled in the 9th
century and represents a cotkaaon
of hymns, prayers and CtlllOlU
"OCr()(;ESIMA
(latin" Advent of the
Lener lSSued
May 1971 to mark the
h1ven.ary of the Eoc;dlC,1
ttovanun '". In thIS docuIII em'
Pope lIpoke out again"it M.in:I \ t lOt;
olngy warn d Ihe rallhful
apprflVlll8 of fhe 5ame. -o--n.\t
O'DF.A, Th..... (,9t'-l"'O)
AmerICan. 5OciolQ(9Sl,. advocate nt
iD the &ociotogy Qf
rcllgKln. In hi works O'Dea al
tempted to 5mgle out the real eon
tr.adict'ORS iDbcr.ent rchgaon. He
ptd:ed out the SIX main social func-
of religion' COIl.\Olation, sup-
port for the social order. social con-
trol. the prophetic functlOll he.
cnLi(.:1Sm of existing social practices)
the function of the 50ciaI identir.ca'
tion of individuals and the fuDCtion
of their religious 5Ociali1..atlon. His
study inlO tbe functions of religion
comains a Dumber of UoportaDI
propositioos.
ODIN, upn:mc god iD __
mytbolotlJ bead 01 the Amr, h ...
band of Frig, farher of BcIdrr Thor
and many otber ()!' , the:
creal
'"
"ODYSSEY"
tbe 1830s and '4Os, he began to fC
gard religion as intuitive integral
knowledge and developed indina
lions towards mysticism. In the late
1850s aDd tbe '60s he moved away
somewhat from religious idealism,
advocatiDg knowJedge based on ex
perieace aDd authority rooled in
fad.
"ODYSSEY", epic poem which,
together with "Iliad", is traditionally
attributed to Homer, a wandering
bard of ADeleDt Greece (8th-7th
teoturees B.C.). Modem scholars,
holt'eVtT, regard the Homeric poems
IS the product of a pre-literate oral
""'itioa. "Odyssey" 'ells of 'be
b ..... of Odysseus, who bad 'aken
pGt m the Trojan War. It contains
many portraits of everyday life and is
OIIC of ,be ;::r' sources
of .... boar _n .... _of!heareb .. c
peliud of !he history of ADcieD'
_ .... .,,0" ... myIhoIogy_
Ot:CtJMENICAL MOVEMENT,
1DOVC""!*at for the UDity of Christian
awl, :''01''5. The oeo ....... aicallllOVe-
.. 'III is rc mit 01 the procx S5 of
""'"- !he life of .
SIepI tIkea bOOio:::7.;
die -.vaaeat repre-
to OYer-
.. le'lgioo. ne
mMjfests it-
Ahmed it
the "ai6.
CIIi hcs
,
tIoeWorld
-
....
liance constitute the 5eCoad ...
r:novement's work. 1'be btl or
wilhio oaf
ual countries. in their naf
cil!!; of Churches, ct .....
third level of Ibis work (e Italec the
tional Council of tbe chI- N
in the USA). The f!.'ih' of
of reliaioas inti
Clatlons Within particular rv :.a--
whole group of counh! -(i
example, the All Africa CooIi or
of Cburcbes). There also eris::'
1ICt
national religious associations cat cr
iog for specific groups of the tr
latioD (e.g. Ibe World
tian Federation). The World
Council of Churcbes keeps ill COIl-
',act an,d with thea iD-
ema 100 orgaDJ
7
ataoas. The VCi-
has actively iIlVOhed it"df
m oecumeOlcaJ work. The Sea.d
Va'ican Council (1962-19115)
adopled a Decree .. Oeameooia
Christian oecumenism i& also ef
fected by processes of inttgP..:'.
and differentiation at 'Milk j-
confessions (tile acti
Vltles of tbe Un;vu.saJ B .. d ... Fd-
lowship and tbe World Moslem Cat-
The work of many oeaaem-
cal bodies promotes a k
u
of
international teasioa and the
for peace and the sec:uriIy ." ...
peoples.
or OEM.RAt COl..'NCU.s
.....------"'"
- d means of comhalling
a.<..<..o;td;e laid down. The Chris
h(rt
S1tS
rches hcgan to hold .oe
cu

tian Cbu 1. at the suggc, ...lIun of
. cal cou
nci
' h r
tIIenL tine Emperors. 'II 0 () ten
tbe over them and lent their
the force of laW\.
of Nicaea (325)
The Ihe first veuinn or the
adopte Creed' condemned Arioni fm
heresy"; determined
as adatg fo; the celebration of Ear-
tb
e
. 20 canons including those
ttr, 10 the privileged statU5 of
relahng f AI d .
Metropolitans 0 exan na.
'R
be
e Antioch and Jerusalem. The
0'" , cal C ciI
SecOnd Oecumeni oun was
that of Constantinople (381). 11 was
vened in order to elaborate the
of the Nicene Creed and so
as to combat the heresies of the
ArianS. the
Sabellians, Marcellians et at This
Council also elaborated a formula
for the Holy Trinity, ratified the
Nicene Creed and a number of ca
DODS, according to one of which the
Patriarch of Constantinople was ac
corded the place of honour along
with Rome over and against all
. ' .
Kbool or d h
. . of . .an t e Nc\tO-
, II. 'tc0gni7.ed thc
a: role d the Patriarch of Con.
It also ratified tbe prin.
0 ....... to the effect thaI JCSlK Ch"' .
was true C,od and true Man
and of the aarnc substance 1.\ God
tbe that tbere elisted One
Penon lD TW? Natura. t::O&titutmg
one hypoJt4ru. The Mooopbysiles
refused to accept Lhis fOiwula and
,plit away 10 rOi m a separate Church
of their own. The Fifth Oc"''''lI(nical
Council (the seccod. to be held in
<.onstantiDople in 553) ... con-
vened in order to approve the edict
of Justinian I, who to-.::dewwd the
Three Chapters and 'heu
authors, theo&ogians Tbeodort or
Mops ...... ",,_ of Cytob ...
and lbas., &"'op oi Et-' aI, ,., did
not regard Christ God' WI W,
OT Mary 10 be the Moth pr oi God,
did DOt I(((.pt tbe ... +"+ 'IK 57 ItltOlcd
at the Co+,,-a' of QskedoiM ad
supported NCSI"- '!lie
. ofOti&"WI
5
_
'!lie SiIdI
other biShops. St. Gregory 0/ Nanan
z:us was appointed Patriarch of C?n-
slantinople. The Third Oecumenical
Council, ,ba' of Ephesus (431), was
held in an atmosphere of tense
struggle for supremacy among tbe
Churches. The Council condemned
Nesforianism and acknowledged the
Virgin Mary '0 be 'be Modw
God. In the year 449 a new cou...,::d
was convened in Ephesus, which
late, came to he referred to lIS the
Robber Council. at which patriardt
Dioscorus or AICQDdria for ...cd the
Church to accept MOIIopIIyJlli'mt
The Founb Oecumenical Congnl
Chalcedon (451) conde .. -'
Monophysilism of the
J98
OECLiMr;NICAI . or ( OUNCII .'i
eil was held in Constantinople, al
which biller coDtradictions hclwccn
the Churches of and
West came to light The decisions
taken al the Council against the ce-
policies of Patriarch
Pbotiu.c; of Conslanlinoplc were
revoked by the Fiflh Council held in
Constantinople (879-880). The Or-
thodox Chwrh and the Roman Cath-
olic Church. which came into being
in the I Hh cenlury, take different
views of tbe Fourth Council held in
The Roman Catho-
lics recogniTe il as the Eighth Oecu-
menical CoUDcil, but Ihe Orthodox
Church does DOl . After the split he-
toHeD the Churches, further Coun-
cils for all Ouistians were nol held,
lIdKMigh the Roman Catbolic
Churdl refers to Ihe COUDcils il con-
'I'eDC5 as MoccumenicaI". In tbe 12th
""'ary three councils were held
w. wac known as Ihe F"1J"St Sec-
... .... Third Lat..... C';'ncils
(Ud ill 1123, 11:\9 and 1179 ""pee_
tWdy) and which C<JnCemed them-
- with withia the
between Ihe
authorities
The SilCt ccnlh Oeeum_' I -
h Id " ... Rlca Cou
e In (nn<; tance in 1414 IItiI
concerning ChurCh atiopCd
.. ng In which the
we.re turned inlo
InshlUllons coni rOiling :::--
hons or. lht; Papacy, and lhe Ie
and pcnodl(' il y of Ihe
were establisbcd,
(ounclllS also known in tbe lighr The
the ract (hal Jon Huss and Jer of
Prague were condemned as .::: of
and hurnt al the stake. The Seve K:!,
tcenlh OecumcnicaJ
oclwee,n 1431 and 1449'
changmg venue In the JWO'n. Ii
was known as the Council ol8asle
although mme of the deJibe'Mions
took place in Ferrara, Florence and
elsewhere. The Council
the final rout of the Humus II
Bohemia and during it the U.1Oa or
Rotcnec was sigw_:d .". the
Ortbodox and Romaa Cathlfic
Chutehef., Ihat would later be
revoked hy the Ort_ a.m
The Eighteenth Oecume ..... c...-
cil wall; the Fifth Lateran CoaaciI
which lasted ror the period :I-
1517. The Nineteeoth
Council was the Council of nett!
(1545-1563), which toot pIooo
time when the RefOimatlOll
ing considerable
- -
maID 81m to
sitioDs of
Counc:iI
oripuIIlIn Illd
thO po hdy of
_LOIiilt)' of the
c:iI. I. the de-:. iLea of
OIIJ8I urVI R.!
-----
1R70) which pronounced the
. 0(' Papal InfallIbilIty. The
docf.
tlnc
. I ( I
f",,'" Occumcnla nun(;1
rwcntYd Vatican Council. 1962-
.. ued a decree r.dorming
1.% 00 occumlhlcab m. ""UUH!
irfIJ'8Y'ric. Ihe Bi .. hnps' pasloral ,'f
orr wOn the Curio and. the ks fac
Church in the oonlcmporan
>og
world.
OFFICE f"{)N TilE DlAD, 11,
Christian chuJ(:h SCJVlCl held ovrr
the body of a person. and
1 on the of the anOlver
of a death. offices for
the dead arc also held memory of
all those who have a proper
Christian death and In the mem.ory
of all those who died :;ud.denly. "'lth
out church rites. The
requiem service in the Orthodox
Church is konwn as Para"'-ac;' (:!)
ci\ic office for the dead, solemn
gathering around a coffin (or Ufn
containing ashes), dedicated to tbe
memory of the deceased.
(X;ARYOV, Nikolai OXBl
Russian revIllu! ionarv d.l m<XTat
poet and political jnurn.thst: mal n
philosopher and athll .. t H r
the rc .... rc true ur
ing of snciclY. t he granting In Ih
people of jrt't'(J(}f1I of , 11\(" I
along ....ith othe r dl' mncralil (r--
doms, and the di!-.scmin.ll llln r th
amun!,! t hl' pt:l'(lil.: n I
tompn.: ht n .. I .... ll ii" th
to1At ard .. th h
,)\Icr religion.
OLD RELI EVERS wh
l\( m(lvcmcnl
Into hemg as a result
within the Ru Ian Ott
and whieh rduscd I
<. hurcb rd urml lnll
the stumd h'\lf of
, tUri 1m.: e\.<.cncc ,(
those rt fOllQs Wa! quo.:stion fir\t
and foremost, f tal the
h
requlle
mcnl I at the "tgD of Croo
should be mad 'Nlth Iht fm r
In tead or two, that hcl1C rs she Id
bow down from the waist ratber
than pr Irate on the
tbat tbey change the
dlJcctlon in which tbey moved
round the (lIurcb dunng mce"
(walking m tbe oppur.lte dir tOO
10 that of tbe SUD). Nilton also 1ft
lroduced tnpte repellhon or the
wnrd -"lIduiQ- during the unpg
f the liturgy. as wen in vanow.
c rrcctlon in rvlcc book.... and
chang in tbe hape of the Cr
(acceptance or the three bu CT""
a v.-c as the (owbar F
( agree on
regard I
te'tt f and
P'
OlD BELIEVERS' SClIISM
f'tlWcr over secular power. The
('iai heterogeneity of (he forces 10-
\'olved in the schism, whose suppor-
ters ranged from ancestral boyars
and rich merchants on the one
hand to peasants and the urban
pt.lOr on (he other, accounlS for the
emergence of a large num'?tr
groups wilhin the Old
movement, To use the
put forward by Bonel,-
BnlW'I'ich, the Old can, he
divided into two maID categones:
the Popovtsy and the Bezp?POI't,ry,
and each of calegones em-
hraces several persllasions and so-
glosiyo (concords). Many of the Old
Believers' concords had broken up
even hefore the Oelober 1917 Rev-
oIutioo or been absorbed by larger
ones,
OLD BELIEVER.'" SCHISM, arc-
ligjous and sociaJ movement in Rus-
sia. which emerged in the mid-17th
century and led to the division with-
in the Russian Orthodox Church and
to the formation of the Old BeJiel'ers'
m<M:menl. The causes of this schism
were rooted in the exacerbation of
the social antagonisms, stemming
from lbe centralization of tbe Rus-
si .. Slate and the coosolidalion of
Ihe lutocracy. The Church reforms
or PIlriarc:h Nikon were aimed at
the Church. at restrict-
III .... anomy of local churches
_1m aeries, aDd doing away
_h pi j .. cipk of Sobomost
(UIIiIy". Fid"' .. ). Despite the fad
.. die rcrCNms did Dot undermine
die .. i ..... " of the Orthodox
Qordo -' ...." OOoccrned witb
dclails ""'''led wilb
t( J :l 0( ntcs, they aro"scd
...... piot... from !be lormer
--<If !be <lrde <If UpIIoIdeu
of..,,_ 'h ih L hiIiIseIf had
-
previously !'leen a member) , I
' P ,ihcud
109 rotopopc Al'\'okwn. They .
d
' h' pro-
(c<;I,e t e ,"novations,
cusmg the (,reck Orthodox Ch ac
Id
.. I "h Ureh
(I eVl3hng rom t e piety of old"
The opposers of the reforms , -
h
'd I ' .. ere
su lecle to crue persecution. This
lent them the halo of defenders f
"true Orthodoxy" and seCured the
O
the support of various strata in
ciety, who had been impres.."Cd 'b
the ideology of the Old Believer!
After the Church Council of 16fi
1667, which had decided to pro-
nounce an anathema upon the oppo_
sers of the refo.rms and subjected
them to repreSSion, the Old Belie-
vers' movement a\Sumed mass pro-
portions. Cruel persecution com-
pelled the adherents of the "Old Be-
licr' to nee to remole areas in the
North, the Volga Valley, Siberia and
10 set up their own commUDities in
those parts.
OLD CATHOLICS, adherents or a
movement that split away rrom the
Roman Cal/roJic Churr:h afler the
First Vatican Council (1869-1870).
In 1871 a professor rrom Munich
University, the theologian Johann
Dt)()inger, and other oppooeDts of
the decision adopted by the Council
which had proclaimed the doctrine
of Popal Infallibility, were excom-
municated. The Congress wbich they
convened that same year came for-
ward with a decision to form an in
dependent Cburch CODUDuady
whicb would bear tbe n'O'C Old
Catbolic. The Old Catholics rcjed:
'he doctrine 01 Papallnlalh"bilily imd
Ibey do DOl tile ropc',
supreme power; they rejcd the .am-
lion to the Oftd knowa as the y,.
/ioqI .. 1IId lbe doctriac: of tile _
cuI.!. Conc:eplioa of tile V .....
Mary Old Calholics eo ckc;hd

OLI) IE"-IA\tlsr
n ohligatory uliha9' for the
t the present lime small
c!cr!n" 'cs of Old Catholics arc to
_unl
tl
" S "
Cf'm,, d' West (ierrnany" WI !"er-
ne fu
un
h
France, the
I nd some other c(luntries .. In
USA a e Old CathOlics merged With
1f!89 ,th h of Utrecht (sec Urrecht,
the (hurc
Cllurch of),
TESTAMENT, the part of the
th;'t is regarded as Suil'-
Sr! hoth hy Jews and ('hmtlans. 11
III . 39 Booh that arc eun-
k f h
Canonical. The Id t e
()Id Testament can he IVI e up
, veral sections: the Pcnlalcllell
rnto h" I B k
Books nf Istone" 00 s.
Pro'phclS and the "W,ritings".
hiswrical Books, Include:
JOSIIIIO, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuyl, 1
and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chwmcll"
E:fQ and Nchemiah. Am(lOg the
S()Ok.f of 111(' IsO/olt .lne-
miah EI(:kicl and Daniel arc singled
out 'as the (ireat or "Eldn'"
Prtlphcg; in addition, the Old Test.I-
ment wntains annthn I! Rp"k, (If
the Minor Prophets SUt"h a ... Amns.
JIlC:, The Sl'ltion kn(>\\n ,IS
the "Writings" is variC'd
ollth with regard ttl l'ontent and
f(lrm, It indlldc<;, of a
norclla tYPl' (Ruth), philtlsnphil'al
and moralistic treatise, lhlh En /r-
an ertllil' love-poem, the
SOI'R of SOl/XI', the Bonk nf rW/ttH
etc The Orthodox ,lnd Rtlman
Ca!hnlit editions uf the Old Testa
ml'nt al'n indudc II hllllk<. thai arc
nnt l"<lntlDie,II, induding Ttlh I
judith, Eldc<;ia<.lirus (nr th W
durn \If k'lIs, thl' ""tin u Sir h
\t'l(ldhcl"'. The Ruman
Churrh r(,gard, thl'm nonl I
Bunks of sel'"nd.IP' Impnrt.lm.;e. the
Onhudll\ ('hurl'h . dnl'<; 0111 nt-tard
them ,IS c.munical hul rCCt'8m/es
o QII'I&
them a<; and u\dut: Ih<.:
Protestant t hurth "" vi ew thcm
no more than apocryphal, The duth.
?rs of the majurilV ':If the Buuks
In the Old Te<;tamt'nl arc definitely
thn!.C. indi,;duals named by Ih,_
C..hurch; In mll\t the date..,
glvt,:n for the appcaranr,;e of the
Bnoke; of the Old Te\tamcnt are al<,(l
The fir"t live Ronks, f(l(
example, arc nnt the work nf the leg
endary figure The history (If
the compilation of the Old
mCnl as a whole emhraees the reri.
od hetween the 9th century R,l'. and
the hcginninF, of the latter half n[ the
2nd century B,l'. The original lan-
of the Old Booh
\\as Hehre\\o, \\ilh the cxel'ption tlf a
few fragments \\oTilleR in Aramaic In
the last t\\oo sr the Old
Tc"tarnent translated int
(;reck ()epruogitll). This text
together \\.;th Ihe He"re", unginal is
\ic\\et.l hv !he Christian {hut(:he as
di\ indy ;n""pired In the lal 4th and
carlv 5th centuries St J rom tran.s-
lah:d the Old T tam nt lOt Lalln
this translatitlD knuwn a th Vul-
(fwm the LatlO tn
mike etlmmnn and 'lIlgu\ the
C\:mmllO pc ....plcl ""as as
dil indy inspired hy Rnman
('athtllie Church's Ctlunlll Tl'f'nl
(I The eudifieatlon and
(,Olnnni/alinn (If the Bt)llk!-i. of the (lid
1 cstament hcgan 10 the .c;th century
R{.andw mpletdht
uflh ntu AD
hi d r n Jlaml
Ilh () T
I
01 J) PROPlilTS
402
there also Apocry
phal of the Old Testament
(sccApocrypha, the).
OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS.
soothsaycr! and who were
10 be found among the peoples of
Canaan and the ancient Israelites.
During (he act "prophesy" they
wcre in a trancehke slate of entos),.
Some of the Old Testament
Prophets led a nomadic life,
ing payment from the population for
their scnices, olhers were employed
in the permanent service of kings or
lribal lcaders. In the Old Testamenf
frequenl mention is made of the
Prophets Samuel. Gad, Nathan. Eli-
jah and Elisha. Some of these
prophets wrOie down what they pre-
ached and these writings were later
incorporated into the Old Testa-
nw: nt as the Books of the Prophets.
OLYMPUS, a mountain range in
oortbeln Greece. According 10
mylbology, it was tbe dwell-
DIg-place of tbe gods headed by
z,.'J, who led a life of bliss Ihere
while deridiug the fates of mortal
""':'- SchoI"'I1iak the O1ympu: peri
od. GIC:et 1&)'," ....... society's
.......... polrian:by.
(c. 1048-1123).
ptJ<I, pbi1osopber
I. his phi1oso-
wilh
Omar
N_e
lie
OMEGA, nmc-lpt in the '.-
and philosl'phic<l1 "Y"ICm
hy Pic(TJ' T('llhord dc ('Ilardi )ral.cd
"crvcd In denote C ,.1 ,., Whtch
'(0\.1 a" the IlIr
mate gual for the dcvcln ,.
Ihe Uniwrsc. 01
transcendental, hUI also i IS not
I.'nim the world. as Ihe ccnlr ...... of '
U
' I" 'tho
nl\lcrsc: l rawlOg .It along the:
of evolution and gIVing ;t d;. J!lth
H
' , n uectlOQ
IS 10 uenee on Ihe world alleged .
not contradic.t the laws of
ture and the causality principle,
"ON THE IIISTORY OF URLy
CHRISTIANITY", a work by Frrtk.
nck ElIl:Cls. It was first publisbed .
the German maga7jnc "Die Ne:
Zeit" (Ncw Times). No. 1-2, 1894-
It ill one of the fundalDMe1al
works of Marxist atheism and is the
resull of many years' rcscarcb by
Engels into questions regardina the
emergence and essence of 0uU
tiollily. The work provides a mlleri_
alist, for the cOUCl!;7e
of and also a profo".d
of its social essence. &pis
pointed out that "Christianil, was
originally a movement of oppnIiIIXI
people: it appeared as the rei-
gion of and freed IIF(', m
poor people del"ived of 011 .....
of peoples 5uhjugatcd or dh.,.....a
by Rome" (Marx, E"II"1s, 0.. R61i-
Rio., Moscow. 1985, p. XIS) I!IpIs
also stressed that in the carty pen-
od of its existence, Dca it .. a
movement of the
tianity sought
"''''1' and pcm:r1y not
earth but in life
tlceth, ia hea_ .... ich

'F r to lm D it Ialer into
cal buttreu for lOCi ..
.. 'I1IiI
....
ef Cu"'''
___ ----. OS 1111 ' \,1 OF <1IURnl A'\I) .,!,\ 11
d . n irnpnrtanl pMI in Iht: rn
playc m , .t IIf the workmJl dau, In
r hle
n
'fi
II'- I' tx)raliun ( ) f a It-,entl IC pro--
the (or Ihe worker" parties or
gram with regard II) rehvon and
Europe
the Church.
.01'1 Till: SHARATION 01
CHURCH AND STAn, AND
SCHOOL AND eHtiRc ......
f the Council of People s (
o rs of the RU'i..,;ian Fedcrallon ISo
on January 23 (February 5).
1918 The Decree rcprco;cnLed a
of the
the soviet Repuhllc that consoh-
dated the of democ
racy and the hroad rights and
freedoms of all citi/ens. Through
Ihis Decree the Sovil:t state broke
free of the Church, and
plemented in le.rm:' the
equality of all rchgJons. WlthlD the
of the Repuhlic i( was now
forbidden to promulgate any local
laws or resolutions., Vohich mighl in
any way have restricted or infnnged
men's freedom 0/ worship. or which
established any kind of advantag;: s
or privileges based on a ciliten' re-
ligious a11cgiance. The Soviet gov-
ernment had al50 stipUlated in the
Decree truly socialist legal ftOfdlS.,
according to wbich every citizen
joyed the freedom 10 confess
religion or not to confess any at
il had rejected any
citi1ens' rights as a result of
profession of any
lIoevcr or their rejectlOD of
gion; it removed from ..
papers all mention or
iollS afftliations or the
it ensured 1
perform religious
these did DOl viol ...
and were DOl ::.
eocroacbmeat upaI.
".
titllJ .. n:;. Ih, S
While. .Olet Rcpuhht
the of
every otl7en to prof any reli gion
the gme time: the Decree eSLa":
luhcd ' no one may dc .. +atc iro
executIOn of hK eMC ootigal101Ll .:
lite of hi-; rchglOu!io Vlcws. '
(Article 6). All ctlucns have not
merely equal right bu. aM Cftual
AU rehgHl," organu.a.
were: into private M5O-
cmtlon malftlalned by donliholts
from the fadhfullhemsclvel. and no(
by the Slate. Compuknry c'Dchon of
and lcvles in the int rCfots
of the Church and religjou.(, a5.'-OCi
alion.' was hanntd Thc mcx.l 1m
portanl point in the Dc:crec w .... the
5<POroJioo of School ..., Cluu<h
which prohibited the ChUla from
inledC! .ag m the ...,......
young people. he
Yemeni 01 the laucr. he
of religioa 'I1Ie
ren be .. lini!!( the ..
family the
110e
, ORIGIN 0,1
the Holy Scriptures (0 of
the New Testament. Orlgen s .teach-
ing was the first 10 give ex-
pression (0 a world oul-
look in a systematic form. At (he
Second Council of Constantinople it
was coodemned as a heresy.
clcotidcs. the of
In the Waler of
warmed by the sun, polY'Dcl ItIf,
colloidalsYSlcms (coaCCl'Vale
formed, SCparale (rom u.J
hab!lat and yel carrying oa with lhIt
habitat a constant cxcbanae of
stance and cnergy. witiua t
coacervate drops, interactioa look
place between polynucleotidea lad
polypeptides: polynucleotides pr0-
vided for DOll-fa IIkallJ
syntheSIs of polypeptides lad
acids, with certaia
nucleohdes. ThiS mteraction had a
direct innucnce on the stability of
the formations. Th06C of them ill
the structural and f1lDctnil
mlerdependcnce of the poIyaucic:o.
tides and polypeptides .... DWAe
pronounced tban in others. IXtMd
more stable and enduriag since tID-
interaction with their habit .... cI
a more balanced nahu-e. T'hcae tool
place primary selectioa of tho for.
mations with the poiypc:ptidc ...
nudeollde elements thai were ...
most adjusted in strUcl1u-aJ aad r .....
tional respects. 1a ccnaiu a17 ,
tions. as yet unspecified by &eiealiIb,
there apPCared rormatioos ill wIlD
nucleotide elements chaapd ...
nucleic acids, which operated IS cw
ganiU'fS and matrices of the .,..
I heeis or proteins, while the
tide elements changed into ::
enzymes, which
self-replicarion or
deic acids. These
uaUy turned more
""tho
cwtcmaJ
thomochoo on
tioa

---_._-
'. Iccllon gave way to
wbich . new phenomenon
quahta.11V1: These formalil.Jns
I selection.
d the first living orgaDlsms.
COnstltutc
. !"II Of' MAN. After the pub1,i
works by Charle' Darwrn
cation of Huxll"V on the suhJcct
d Thoma.f -f.
an .' of man the conceptIOn
of II) the more
of of the apes took In
". . tific w()r1d. ThiS relatlon-
the scle
n
. h r
. . substantiated Wit re erence
shlplS . . . I m
mparative anatomlca, e -
and physiological inves--
the study of the higher
nervoUS activity of man and apes,
and also to data from the field .. of
palaeontology and palacoanthropo-
logy. While a
answer to the question regardmg
man's ancestors, Darwin and Huxley
1
could not , however. identify tbe mo-
live forces. which led to the evol
ution of the advanced apes of
ancient lime into men. The answer
to Ihis Question was provided by
Frederick Engels in his notes "The
Part Played by Labour in the Tra
tion from Ape to Man", which mak
part in his major work. "Dialtics
Nature". According to the labour
based theory of anthropogm it
was precisely labour actiVity that
v Ihe main driving force bebiDd
evolution of the higher pnmat
men. In the course or that
social factors gradually took
Over purely biological
place where man first
Mill not been
of the
scholars ha Dot finall y rCjected
SouthEast 13 tnd a number of
other region. .. as -ble sit es for the
origjn of man. Man', immediate an-
cestors were australopithecine apes,
which inhabited many parts of the
globe. They mfflCd on two legs,
hunted small animals and bad a rela-
tively welldeveloped brain. I. the
course of evolutioa tbe best de
veloped varict .......... h hod already
begun to make took. C"'+C to tbe
fore. AI this stase we encounter
Homo habiIis. wboee ren""E were
round in 1960 by the E'W'm .chac
ologisl Loui5 Leakey in the OkIUVlI
Gorge in TaJIWIlL The 01 thai
creature was detemuned IS belae:n
t 750 and 1,850(0) roan. "''''I the
.... <a W len-pe. SliD
more ""'...... wae die
stoae tools rond by
lD Keaya, wh- h.ae2JO'V"'f'
old. Ma.y ... ..
hat.Ts be ..... ...
,
ORIGIN OF JOlON
or somewhat older) in Ea'it Asia and
so on. The neX! stage in the develop
ment of man is represenled by
Neandertbal man, who ftrst ap-
peMed between 200,000 and lSO,O()()
years ago and who bad evolved con-
spicuously further than the most
8Dcient examples of early men listed
above. As regards the sire of his
brain., Neanderthal man differed
lillie from modem man, however the
strudure of his brain was far more
primitive. Vet it would appear that
the capacity for abstract thought was
c:oosiderably higher in Neanderthal
man than in his ancestors, and this is
t..... De out in particular by evidence
to the effect tbat religious concepts
... tea shape by tbe time that he
wn IiYiag. Souc researchers even
'CCept as post.ible the fact lhal clan
OIpnjzatioa, albeit in embryonic
(Ollli, was to be (ouod among Nean-
derthal "cn The mosI developed
aa..ws of Neanderthal men were
the '11( slurs of man as we know
him today_ Homo sapieos - tbe first
remnnts of whom were found iD the
Cro-Mapoa t:a\C ill France (1868)
............ as Crn-Magnon
...... Since the appearance of mod-
an eu sdectilon bas (Cased
as a Cae-
the bioi
ol"n is com.
-
The social fOundation of '.
comes clearly 10 the rore in
man resorted 10 it on":.:
OCcaSIOns when he was not coar ....
as regards Ihe rc.'iults of hi!
adivities, when fadors that "'tr
known to him or outside his e .....
int erfered with his life and b:t
tiny_ II is thus clear that tbe ca_
behind the emergence of religioa
(the rools of "'/ilion) should be
sough.t nOl in the sphere of buman
but in the
hmlled nalure of prtmitivc min's
knowledge, in his powerlessness ia
the face of Nature and socia) rela-
tions. Underlying every reIigioa is
belief in the supernatural. In ptimi-
live religion there first enacrgeJ
lief in the supernatural properties of
material objects (fetishism) or hrJic!
in a supematurallink beteven raI
objects (magic, 'otmIism). Only II
later stages of the dcveIopilidt of
primitive society did mea (OiNk to
perceive of the sUpei oat.aI
something essentiaUy indcpoacIeot
and noumaterial, a ..... Il.ea bdWiII
spirits and souls (tIIIinrUm) II'"
peared, which were seeD as the 0p-
posite of material lhiqs aod 85
existing independently of the latter.
Concepts of gods, i... of spiriIuaI
beinss, .aeb of wbieb bas its own
Dame and iDdividuaJ cberatteriilics.
appear, as in cl'ss-br'd .,.
cielies, a specific JdIec.
lion of SlM,.1
Tho
ORPIiFUS
. Ihe tranc,itinn
. u< and agn-
10 - nlma n.
hunting to a d it!. rcligj()u'i re c:ctlo.n
culture n rrom hunting magic
n the Ira
n
C,.ltlil to the wClrc,rup of
, oIClTu .. m . I
and t rotecttlfS or amma S.
.' as the P h t n
. I$, and t c Iran\l 10
plant 10 the _ I?a-
from the cd to the remale
triarchy d I r rmcrly held f,way, beIng
whO had ;y male In early
replace _ there had cxi .. tcd com-
clan aI'l between mem-
SOCial equ I Y lb.
plcte and the same Iribe. lS
bers of onc 0 dcd in the of
was rr a c articular dan or tribe.
worship be P
of
society u.<;cd to take
All mem rs d h same
rt in worship on one an _ t c
pa _ Onl when clan SOCIety began
basIS. . Y did .'pcciaJjza1ioo"
I di!>lJltegrate,
different patterns of wor-
ship appear: or
began to play the r;:!ci':.iza
ligious worship. Thl'i "s
. "became more pronounced and
tIOn blisb d - class.
more firmly esta e m. I
based societies. A separate sona
stratum of and
sible for conductmg rd.gtoUS. nt: ...
also began to emerge at that tunc: .
"THE ORIGIN m SPECIES", tbe
main work of DGnMn 11tc
full name of the work is ""On the
Origin of Species by Means of of
ral Selection, Or tbe
Favo)U"ed in the .
Life". After stu,
tifie data duriDf a ....-
the world, Oarwm
script on the theory
t;oo (1842), wbieb be
(1844). In 1859
Species" was
was demonstrated
of species or pllnts
the cxpc4icncy cl
Were DOt the JXocIIMt
-
atlon but the r ult of thl; long nol.
ution of the orgallic World by mean ..
of natwal sclCttlon. Darwm's
"'Origjn of Species" ga ...c rise to a
revolution in biology and dealt a
crushing blow to rcligiOU" dnctnn
'I hi!. work won fhi CDlbuslastie sup-
port or all prugressive scieallsts and
was Icroeiou.ly "'acked by doria!
;su.
=
\
\ unJ,I\
AUlllnumnu\
the World
, 412
ORlll0l)OX CI IlJR( IIIN AMI:RICJ\
doublc procession or Ihe Filioqud.
Ihe teachings concerning Purgatory
and the immaculale concepl ion of
Virgi n Mary by her mOl her Sc
Anne; certain !<;acramenls are also
admini!<;lered !<;Iightly differently. The
Orthodox Church does not have a
single spiritual centre or one Head
of the Church, unlike the Roman
Catholic Church. As (he Orthodox
Church developed, 15 oll(oceph%IlS
Churches evolved: (he Consto",;-
nop/e Church, Alexondrian Amioc-
hjan, of !erusolem, Russion: Georgi-
an, Serolan, Romanian, and Blilga-
rian Churches, the Church of CypnlS,
the Church of Hellos Albanian Pol-
ish, and CzechoslOlak Churche.;. and
the Orthodox Church in America
They !ollow different political
In .Iight of the immediate
SOCIal <;ondlltOns in which they carry
outlhC:
lr
work and they adopt differ-
eal altitudes 10 lopical is-o;ues in the
modem. world. The moderni7ation
of' docInne pallerns of worship
at different speeds in the
;;r-d.<;hurches. just as the revicw
. tra ttlonal concepts in k .
the of
the differences to ritual in Ihe
= and ia their assess-
DIOde C:caI problems in the
c:hes liI!O". ' Ihe Orthodox Chur-
l InIlntaln close CORlacts be
We-Cd themselves, and -
fCi(D< a for all OrthodoauCe,nhd COn-
which have bee b x urehes
They are also ,since 1%1.
menical __ ,.." ... <l1II1t. ID the
........ ,. e_ ,
CIIIIIIcH IN
o(tbe Or.
OrthOllox Oum."', a' '
. . P(lOlntcd .
10 Alaska in 1791 Ih firfl(
ginning of the 19th - . Allhc L.
. century 'h ,<.
sian (.)rthn<.iox ai' Ru.,.
cstahhshed in Americ: %hau Was
ka was sold by 'he T . cn Ala.\-
....anS( g
to t.he United Stale'
oained pc 5,.
" eo rmlSSlOQ
tns(.tute the Aleutian d 10
diocese in lR70. In 190;" h Alaskan
the Aleutian and
dIOcese was moved to San F
and. later, to New York I ranCL'iCo
with a decision
Fm,t Council (1907) th <Ii by
d d
. ,e ocese ....
accor c the htle of Ihe R . ....
thodox Greek-Catholic
America under Ihe jurisdj m
tum of the Churcb in R . c,
19
"'" USSla. 10
an cxarchate of the Moscow
was set up in North and
South America. In J97O, (he Russian
Church in the Soviet
Unton. In keeping with the wishes of
.Orthodox Greek-Catb-
ollc Church In America, granted the
autocephaly. AI Ihe piCSUlt
tl.me RUli..o;ian Orthodox Greek-
(athobc .Church in America-the
fifteenlh In the diptych among the
autocephalous Orthodox Chur-
ches - is by a Metropolitan,
is in New York. It
has DIne dioceses, embracing nearly
3:0 parishes in the United States,
(anada, Argentina, Brazil, Peru and
Within the Amcricu
COntlDent there are six Ruc;siaa
thodox monasteries. a theolllp"
academy and a seminary. The coat-
'!Ion language for lbe fakhful. Bas'

o(tbe National Co"neO O( .... a--
inlbe
__
x CIIUR('H Of <..'"Y- the Saints arC' great in number,
III
OIlTUOOO r the ancient aulOCC- Nicholas the Miracle-Worker IS sin-
US
onC 0 h It' gJ d t f peciaI .
pft ,. ()rlhodol( ('hure cs. .1$ C ou Of s venerallon (two
pha1ou.s an Archhishnp. honour his name, one in the
headed 1 small number of helic and one In the summer', like-
the 420,()O() it ha .. a large tbe Prophet Elijah and St.
\'(fS (app f monasteries and con- George. There is also a of AU
nurnbe.n
0
OrthodoX Church of Cy- Saints Whose Light Sbone Forth in
vellIS: C ember of tbe World Coon- Russian Lands. Many feast!. arc
prUS IS a m dedicated to miraculous icons. Par-
e
" 0" Churches. u ticular importance is accorded to

days
ORTHODOX
d 10
the solemn commemora
devotc .,
. . church of the most Importan ,
\lonln . fhOh
f the paint of VIew 0 t e rt.o-
;;Church, religious events or relig-
ious figure!'.. The roots of Orthodox
fcasts or festivals can be back
to pre_Christian and l:nl
a new interpretahon
lines and supplemented With !.pec,fi-
cally orthodox elements.
number of Orthodox feac;;ts IS Signifi-
cantly more than the number of days
in the year and therefore several
events, worthy of celehration, fallon
each day. Orthodox feao;{s can, wilh
regard to the ohject of
be divided into those connected With
the Lord, the Mother of God and
the Saints; with regard to their im-
portance they fall into the category
of Great, "mean" and "les.scr"
fcasts, and with regard 10 their tim-
ing they rail into two im
movable feasts which always fall 011
one and the !';amc date and movable
feasts, whose dates vary, deoeoclial
upon the date of Easler. TbC list ci
Great Feasts hegins with &lsfec he
Feast of Feasts) and there
low the Tweh't Great
major fea.qs include the
sion of Christ, the
the Mother of God.
SI. Jobn the Baplist. !be
of SI. John Ihe Baplill. and SS peter
and Paul. Orthodox r_ bODo"riag
Patron Saints' days. The form for the
celebration of aU these Orthodox
fC!'Itivals is virtually identical: a sol-
emn c;ervice is held during which lhe
event to be commemorated or the
person 10 be honoured is extolled
and through this celebration praise
is given to God and other bea..:Dly
powers.
, 414
ORIlIOI)OX PIIII OSOPIIY
coll ection but conlaining canlides
rdatcd to 311 the saints., Lenten
Triodion, containing the hlu,rgy (or
the period from Scpluagcslma (0
Easler, including le,nl: and th,c
Pcnlecm,tarion, conlrumng the, 11 :
turgy from Easter 10 All Saints
Week. The corred sequence of the
rituals performed during the
,icc. the canticles and prayers, IS
laid oul in the Typicon. The eXlsl-
ence of such a large quantity of li-
turgical bears witness 10 the
intricately elaborate order of ser-
vices in OrthodOll: Churches.
ORmoDOX PHILOSOPHY, a re-
ligious-cum-philosophical
thai came into being as substantia-
tion for Orthodox doctrine and wor-
ship. Sources for its ideas were Neo--
platonism, Palrislics, Nicaean ortho-
dol)', and (be mysticism of Dionysius
the PmuJo-AIropQgite. In 3n auempt
to delllODSlrate Ihat Christian ideas
Ire true and of lasIing value, promi-
DeDI representalives of Onhodox
pbilOOOpby (SI. 101m of Damascus.
Patriarch Photius) formulated the
wboIe range of Christian concepts in
'CCQid,no;c the demands of
SI. Joh. of Da-
fnnd'mental
- illuminillion were prC\I:nrcd 3,
only melln!'\ of
Trulh, Only 10 ne
it become J"IOssih
Ihelr OpiniOn, to achieve
of Ihe
Ihe or
(,racc. From VIewpoint the: Ii
proceeded 10 wage a bict
slruggle againsl all Ih(Xt who er
porled the liberation or kn4
from the Church's tutelage actively
speaking out against OPposjlion
movcmcnts and substantiating !he
un!'\hakcahle nature of Ihe rounda.
tions of feudal society. B}'lantine
philosophy cxcrted a major ia.
nuenee on other Onbodox Chur.
ches, including the Russian one,
hy the Fathers of the Church,
the Hcsychao;;ls and writings 011. logic
and dialectics were translated iato
Old Church Slavonic. Pani!)!l.,
popUlarity was enjoyed in Ihe 14th-
16th centuries by the works of the
Cappadocian Father (sec FGthiilCJ)
and the Hesychasls. Religious ad
philosophical ideas of that .
however, varied conside
the one hand, there was the bczdto-
ward\ mystical meditation as repce.
scoled by SI. S"Ilius of "",*>, ilL, 51.
Nilus of the Soro, and, on dLo ,"her,
lha, lowards ralional sc:hoIIoIiL:iom
as represeoted by St. JWz*ay
and Zinuvy Ot .... Icy. ...
my&lical and scholMlJc: did
Dot assume any e4.CiDe
Orthodox phi'osoplLy,
at ap e dfic periods ia
'hse nods bc':WFlIle
dLo early 1!1di .
...........
OR 11IOJ)OX WOR"IIIP
"
.---
... .-. - . I III rC:>Cllrch in
llcvUI!;t . t tC
jilln .....a.. f l'aIrL"UC litera u,
IC
II
hefl! 0 .. Va On 0-
liw" /-Ilorct, h (" r t.:k
(MctroPO . It--' (fwm Ie' 1
'J wl
rflO
'' "Si.tviour Pave
IlIV. ;, mCil
nJf1
J.t . . ) and H}-
hhi .. hop k
S\'d
lov
, Ar<:CNikulai (iluhoko" y.
"}io/(1g)' ,) OrlhoJux unlhru
'NC!o.mc\o'V. Maxu"
log)' (Vi tU:iO/Ogy (Ycvgcny
nun,clclcsia')t ical hnc
viloI1
Ov
). C hi\osophy wa<i clahor
in Orlhodo
x
P scntativcs of the
alcd l1y 4nd
h Rcncwa, . . 'I
Chur
e
. f Univcro;al l m y
.. 0 .
[he IV' C R r 'ous COn!.clou<"ncss
and New e Igi
movements.
THODOX WORSHIP, the range
OR, . laid down In Orthn-
of ntual actlO
n
d
officially spedlied
dox Church, which are
amung fallhful
illus.i?n Lhey(.:;.c
commumon WIt J..
supernatural force". Thl!\ a means
of conslantly adher:'.af
the Orthodox ID chw
vities. which arc aimed
religious thoughts and reelings IR
parishioners of Orthodox
Practices of Orthodox WOrship 1
shape in the Byantine Empuc ..
they incorporate many elewc.u
pre-Cbristian ritual, evc:o
magic. Orthodox
guished by Ibe complexity
number of its ritual
is tbe church, wbicb
witb numerous
of tbe Cross
tributes of worship
regular are
divided '1Lrcc
to their
day and
dlstincholll are
viceo Oii dLo booa
whICh they r hdd nlnrmnv.. nlld
day ur e"enlng. Tho..: maIO \Crvu . .:e 1"
Lile idllrgy. dUring which pan,hmners
partakc of the 1: ucltan , An Impor(
ant comfXltlcnt church st"'VlC
lirc {Irtn'rr"S, which ar oft n ung.
"' he main acts 01 wen hlp pcrfnrm d
ID churl h arc ('lit d sacramrt1( 1.n:
content of thc-.e has betn laid down
in Orlhodox doctrine An
r1alc in Orthodox wur hlp ..,
signed to Ihe of the
Sainl\ and even that of their remauiS
(relic ), A dlMinctlVt fcalur of Or
thOOnx wor hip L\ th nerahon of
Il.:on .... to which the Churc:h attnbut
supernatural propert! Ihe ahlldy
to work miracle A vcry :ide
d
. r""ll"be
'ual arellSC_mt
of fit and while .JII-
course: of die
cramenfll
C r tIuIIibI<,
IQbtll! Ie.
non and
,
416
ORIlIOI)O:'<Y
ORTHODOXY (from (he Greek
word meaning "corted opinion"),
(1) sec Churrlr; (2) ad-
herence to tradillons, to the fun-
damentals of any (caching or wurld
outlook, which rules out completely
any eveD insignificant deviation. Or-
thodoxy in religion is laken 10 mean
ripl belief undeviating obedience
[0 the traditional Icacbing of the
Church. The concept of orthodoxy
came into being in Ihe Christian
ChUICh in thc 2nd century. When the
first heresies appeared, this term
came to be used to imply right belief
as cootrasted witb heresy.
OSIFLYANE or IOSIFLYANE, 'he
follOVt'er5 of St. los;[ VoIOlSkv. a re-
ligionsJum-poIitical movemenl in
the Russian state of Ibe lale 15th
century and early 16th century. In
COIllrast to the Non-Possessors, Ihe
0sifIyuc defeoded 'he Church's
IDd dlOOntmcs' ownership of land.
Tbcy 5IHXeeded in bringing the
Grmd Prioce and his court round to
their point of view, although the lal-
ter had been anxious to seculari7.e
<lwrc:h lands and had at the outset
the NOD-poSSCSSors,
- .
(lQF( mons wae made
.... 10 ..... 1 ... _ _
...... die Ourrdi as an
...... 10 101 up ceo-
.... 1\0 0Jiftyau0 elabor_
the subjc:d of ,he
sub-
OSIRIS, of Ancient P __ . ...
hushand of his, and tbe:
l.n.itiaJly Osiris .....as the of l"lIILr.
tllily and Nature .....hich d' ret.
te, .. alld '
horn again each year. Accord' IS
Osiris was killed
Wlcked hrother St'th and br
back to life by Isis. He was :""&"l
reeted as the divine judgc
dead in thc and
the of Immorlality, The fi
ure of OSiriS excrtcd a
fluenec on the formation of the cult
of Christ.
"L'OSSERVATOR[ ROMANO"
(Rome Observer), a daily newspaper
which is the official mouthpiece of
!he Vatican. Its publication llarted
In 1861, II reports on religious life in
Italy and in other countries; it also
puhlishes speeches made by tk
Pope and articles of geaeraJ poIiIicaI
interest. On Sundays it c:umt:s OIl
with a supplement, and there are
also special Spanish, French, Eas-
lish, German, Portuguese aDd P ....
weekly editions,
OTHER WORLD, _i"lllo re-
ligious conceptions. lbe spirituel.
supernatural world beyoad the ....
ses - a "world beyoad the MHId"-
whieh is contrasted with our OWII,
the natural, perceptible .alel.
The other world is coaSidcred 10 be
Ibe place where God and the .... .
where H._ rmd H.u ... to
be foUDd. This world is bold 10 ... .
clcriwtive of the other wtJdd.
I
QVI;RTON
-
h'ch he dC!'iocrihcd as a in
w I ror human rea<;(m. Reli.
according to 0110, wa\ Man',
gJo'untcr with Heiligc", lead.
enc k' d f . r
ing for that . Ihd 0h . or
h'ch he come t e term numm-
Vi The Numinou!; i$ held to in
o,u both a feeling of awe and
cu. r
If_aba .. emcnt stcmmmg rom con-
with the "divine mystery'" and a
feeling of rapturc . and
veneration. All rehglOn!lo are only
modifications of the gcneral es-
sence common to
His main work was Das Helllgc
(1917).
OUR LADY, MOTHER OF (,,oD,
in Christianity the Vlrgm Mary.
mother of Jesus Christ, who gave
birth to him as a re.c;ull of immacu-
late conception as fulmmenl of the
"divine plan" for the salwllion of
mankind. The cull of Our Lady de
veloped under the influence or
pagan cults focmsed on
of fertility, on mothers of divmc ID-
fants such as Isis in Ancient Egypt.
Ishtar worshipped by the Baby1o-
nians and Astalfe worshipped by
the Phoenicians. II was de scly
linked with ideas of a divinity who
dies and is resurrected. In the
Chri .. tian Church controversy rased
for a long time between thco'ralM
as to whether the Virgin May
should be considered ,be Mother oJ.
God. The Virgin Mary 97' de-
clared by Christian thcoIogjau 10
be "spotlcss" aDd "ewr WfIIIIi
(dcspite mention in the 14
"tn, of Christ', AI 1M
o.c.u-.u:lII Coo,.,,1 431'"
Virgia Mary _
Dized. u the Mrt'r u
R(lII!!,n Cdholic
cult of the Mothr
.. ) is _ ..,.,...,
17 01011
'"
were pronOunccd on thl... ...uhJ( ct
thai arc DOl to he found in tho.; Or-
thodox Church: In 1854, It wa ... do.;
dared that Anna's conccptlOn of
Mary was all'.() immaculate and in
l?SO, the doctrine of the Assump-
was formulated, according to
the Mother of God was
phYSically taken up into Heaven
after her death. III 1964 Pope Paul
VI declared that the Mother of
(;00 was also the Mother of the
<"''hwcb. The cult of the Vugia
Mary spread widely amoag the
faithful, siace it lurned out 10 be
more easily comprchcll5lble to the
broad masses than the more ab-
stract Trinity. The Mother of God
was always lauded by ,he l."hurcb ..
men s .. iDterceder" before God,
who .... rr::;::''''' ...u II>
qllaialcd WIt ....... aeedI, ape-
cially with "we of a a ;; e. III R
sia, m the Mct'cr aI God
..,s held t ........ of
PC's, -k, to a CUIIicIenIIIe
extCIII "Of ... ........,
lipore r.idlIIL
\
,
OVID
...
pursuits through illusioas of
after death.
life
OVID (l'IIbIlu. 0YIdl.. N.... 43
B.C.--c. 17 A.D.). Roman poet,
author 0I1yric:al elegies. long poems
aDd also epic .. twU "Metamor-
phlMtS" aDd "Fasti", Ovid's works
are ODe of the sources of our knowl-
edsc 01 Groek and Rom' mytho-
logy and rdigioa.
-
ins a renewal of Church til;
lime of mounting social I
lions (Cbarti.sm. popular aaticIe .
actions etc.). Its leaders
Keble. .. NeWilian and .8'
Pusey. Religious pamphlets. .
under its aegis in 1833-1841,
be known as tbe "Tracts for the
Times" (hence "Tractariwnimt")
moyement witb piOfesb
agalDst mtervenllon of the State iD
Church affairs. Later it wou wide
following and its inflUCDCC was to
make itself relt 001 only in !he
Church life or England, but also in
tbe whole of the Western <lIristiu
tradition.
p
"PACEM IN n:RRIS". See SocUlI
encyclicals of the Papacy.
PACIFISM, RELIGIOUS, religiou.."
variety of a politi
cal trend, based on pasStvc
lion of and of
wars. ReligiOUS pacifism has Its roots
in an ideaJist interpretation of the
origin and of wars. Religious
pacifism explams tbe outbreak of
wars with reference to a lack or true
piousness in Man and his sinfulness.
It calls upon the faithful to resist war
passively (anti-war propaganda, re-
fusal to serve in the army etc.). De-
nying as they do any distinction be-
tween just and unju. .. t wars. pacifISts
condemn any popular revolutioDary
action. Nevertheless, against a b. rt-
ground of a growing threat of a DCW
world war, Communists take a poIi-
live view of involvement in the ......
war movement of those who r.dopt a
stance of religioUs pacifISm.
soctaJist COUIllrU;s are m OM d 11
!his .movement. In response
o an lIUhatr..e by tbe R"ccian Or.
thodox (''hurcb, mteraatiooal ton.
rereoc::es ftre held ia 1m and 1981
under the slogan "RetipNs Wor
ken ror I wing Peace, Diurma-
.. aDd Just Rd-. A ...... N.
lions . "The 1981 CoaferCDCe was II.
tended by S90 rep'c selltllivQ of
various dcOUihinllM)ll$ (rom 90
COIhllr1es. In the appcaa 11M. (ned
to the kwJcu" ,*wc 11 of aD
re
l
!ip07\ to ...
the .. cdN .... '-&,Il .........
lhII.....-_
poIiq of .. _ .. die
u.I.ace_ ..-' .. ,
1eIIiII8'"
I
\
t
PAINE
""
languages for a Buddhist stupa
Indonesia, Nepal and
fa,pan. A pagoda is a
edifice, a depository of Buddhtst
sacred objects built within the court
yards of monasteries next to tem
ples.
PAINE, n ..... (1737.1809), a pol.
itica1 writer of tbe Anglo ..Amencan
Enlightenment. He took part in the
French and American bourgeois
revolutions of tbe 18th century and
be was a representative of bourgeois
fru-thinking. While upbolding tbe
people's inalienable right to over
throw tyrannical social institutions
(atsolntiun in France, tbe British
coIoaiaI system, slavery in America)
pline subjected tbe Church and aU
","arid religions to harsh criticism,
rt..(ricseDfing them as nothing otber
Ibm ideological and political forms
01 atpport for tyranny .. He also ex
,oled the lack of substance behind
BiJticaI mytbs. regarding them as
the fruit of ignorance, delusions and
outright deption .. On several occa
sioos Paine 'Went so far as to reach
deufy .a!heill although
a'''''. Ii of rdigioa was DOt con.
.... His ...,;" ""i...re1iplus work
.. -rile AlP 01 Rem." (1794-
1795),
ftUl8UNDA.Y, name for
60 arioIio. lit< EnIry of
OIrlAld_I.,",,' that_.
' .
d die s.day bclme FastiJ"
-
PANAGIA (Greek word me .. ..
holy"), an epithet til
Christian Church to the MOlbe the
God .. In the Orthodot Church.." (f of
small oval icon .of the Mother or
worn on a cham found the Deck
Bishops, as a sign of rank; (2)conu::
"ion bread blessed in Her booour ...
PANCHEN LAMA, t;tle best""t
upon the "living god", of the earthly
incarnation of the BUddha Anritab-
ha .. The Panchen Lama is tbe second
most important member of the La.
maist hierarchy in Tibet after the
Dolai Lama .. The title was instituted
in the 16th century: the Panchen
Lama is regarded as tbe supreme
autbority in religious questions, iaso-
far as he is tbe avahJra not oaIy of
bodhisattvG, but of a Bucklba
PANENTHEISM (Irom GroeI1
words "pan" meaning Mall'", ""en"
.. ...... d _.. .
meanmg In an lOCOS
"god"), religious-cum-plWYk"lkx.,
teaching. according to wbida the
world dwells witbiD. Ggd and God
manifests himself in tbC wOOd,
though tbis world is not the whale of
\Us being. Panentheism eDdeavourtd
to bring thri.rm aad fA>
theism and It is an
at
tbat
iogs Dionysius III< AmJtItlfI*.
::=1.0':.
face ia the teachiDc of m.ay lepre"
IeIllatMs of RlI'riu
1ll100piay, in panicuIar ia the tl
Lev Karuvia ud Sci"," ,. ....
The w:s 5 i'?'ed by ... 0.--
mn ide'" KId
Kr-.
!'-UlISM, ...........
Mk ....... ill,.. ...
PAPACY
-
rged at the end of the 19th cen ..
ero
e
Its founder was Jamal .1 .. Din
(1839 .. lR97):. put for
ard the idea of the UDlty" of ail
throughout the world and
stressed the for them to COme
together in a !,;lOgie Moslem led
by the Caliph. From the very birth of
tbe movement it .been fraught
"tb many contradlctlon.c; .. To use
words, Pani..c;lami"m re-
flected attempts to the
liberation movement agalOst Euto
an and American impcriaJi:<.m
!:tb an attempt to strengthen the
posilions of the khans. landowners,
mullahs. etc .... (Collected Works, Vol.
31 p .. 149) .. After the victory of the
19'n October Revolution in Russia.
panislamism was used by the forces
of reaction and imperialism in the
struggle against popular power witb
the aim of wresting the Eastern reo
publics from tbe Soviet Union ..
PANTHEISM, philosoph;ca\ teach
ing which closely or
.!!'Sether as a singJe
Nature .. The term was ..
John Toland in 1705 .. In various
osophicaJ systems pantheism
expression to both naturalistic
terialist) and idealist tendencies ..
Pantheism in the form of the ideas
constituting hylozoism was to be
in c1as...c;ical philosophy. Me-
diaeval naturalistic pantheism was
opposed to religious conceptions of
God as the eternal supernatural
principle. to the idea of the creatioa
of the world out of nothing. Mystical
pantheism taught that God was lID
personal, and oouId be diledly
understood by man , .............. le'>
lion ol<tL- ..I:''': t ....
..... WYlDe lD e_ ,.,d.hE
and witbout the help of lite CInado
-::::.::
42\
tirtr) provided 5ubstanliation for
of plebeian and demo-
aabe religious .
lb RL' movement s. Dunng
in e the materialist trend
panthcL\m became more pro-
nounced, its high . <
lh l<ob d UllJ6 POint In
e Ul an 17tb centurie! (Toot-
maso GIO,'dano Bnlno
and Spinoza). In Bruoo's VoTiltngs
Nature was dermcd as "God <
t'-;....... J In
.. , who was unthinkable oul.
Side Nature and was not its Creator
merely its inner active force;
preseo!ed God and Nature as parts
of a smgle substance, which i.e; its
own cause. Materialisl pantheism is
opposed to the drirm. trudlum and
,"ationurn intrinsic to thmm. Re-
ligious pantheism (in patlH:uiar, pv.
sOfUJlism at the tum or the c:tutury)
aD that eids IS (l[4 bed
within God aad crealcd by him. I.
the 20th ceDIUI}' the ideas or 1Uten-
aIisl paDtheism wCle mlm nc to the
"tAts olbourgccis IIChoIIn (such as
nut HrL"dd. Ala pc ad: aad AI-
btn EiIuItin), wilD .... ed FI- e
of ",,10 dsm roofrd .. ".".
.KWKU.
PANI'IIWN (I.om the Greek "poD-
theioa" tilenIIy -aD
Gods), (I) tblS -
"temple to .n pis" m onae.t reli
gions. 01 ...... the _ lamous ....
the ODe in Rome in 2nd
oentury the _ 01
angIe
\
\
I
per'\(! 'ulmn from
the Papal JlI..lit
Papal put
... " or the Roman
,
".
PARAMITAS
bolasticism and dogmatic methods
tboughl. This led to auacks
against him from tbe clergy. and to
his persecution by the Church. Para
cclsus., however, was nol always con-
sistent in his ideas and tbere was
much that was contradidory about
the Sluce be adopted. While criti-
cizing mysticism, he nevertheless be-
came (.vjnlted by alchemy.
PARAMITAS (Sanskril "perfeClion"
or "passing to tbe far side"), in
Mytura Buddhism mental qua hiles
to which the faithful vow to 1l5pire.
The most important of these are
Daaa (sF rwosity); Vuya (resolve 10
I'oIIow !he path of Wloe); Dbyana

.;, ..... iDtuiliw: knowledge of !be
w -.Id of DIuannds).
PAbNIA, wide doak-6ke gar_
- -- by Moslem _n in
CeoInI Alia and e1"""'e (wilb
'*e siena tied at the ba-i) to
eaver thelll LOlli head to toe The

P!I:MJI WEs WOld 'owtber
willa .. Bet & DlE.. veil
of tbe
-
fests CXlrase
U aims II :::
f)'log the ways In which a
being can bring influence 10 be - .,
phenomena around him
red muscular exertion. (This -
search is often made Usc: of by c:-
lain religious thinkers to
strate the independent existeacc or
spiriluaJ phenomena Ihal do not
stem from evidence provided by the
sense organs.)
PARASCEVA (name deri .... from
the Greek word for Friday), ICrOId-
ing to Christian tradition. the fem,1e
martyr wbo suffered in !be ,.... 01
perseculion 10 whieb !be Cbristianr
were subjected in the reig .. of the
Roman emperor Diocletian. ia the
years 304 and lOS_ AcxlAdiiC 10
Christian hagiogsaphy. she 11m IJe..
beaded for her refusal to iQlOiAKe
Chri.rtianity. The _rbip of ........
va gai __ed a broad popllia foOt " ""
among R"pia" Orthodox hfL secs
(panicuJarty in !be ..... of tiro
country). mergi"ll with the pc-
am.tian popular beIie& to Ibe 01-
feet that Friday WIll boIy day. Rep-
resentalM or PU8'Ctva Ire wide-
spiead DOl merely in icons, but .,
in pop"'a' seuIpture., for iaIt .... II
!he wooden IICUIpturc of !he ....
rePm
PAIlCAr., !be gocIcIo.oo of file ill
Ram wythoh.,..
tbeO",k"'-.
---'-
__ __ -'-P"'A'iCAI.='-_ _ _ _

tioru. I-ns worh inclUde \tructurc
of Social Action" (1937) E. .
. of the community, the
carrie, out a number of ad
counC! . f .
.. ,alive and econnmH.: unctIOns:
. f h 1
. h' the clergy to Y I ere Ig-
Ir of the pari .. hionen. ICes
uf the church
building and eqUIpment and makes
C Ihat church revenues are spent
sur perly on the neeth of the parish.
clergy sphere of tn-
nucocc is to the conduct-
ing of not
allowed to 10 the actIVIty of
Ibe church council.
PARMENIDES (c. 540-" 470 B.c.).
philosopher of Ancienl Greece. H.e
elaborated a number of aslrODO':'U-
cal and physical which
reflected his matenahst Views of Na-
ture. The world. aCC?rding to PI!-
menides, was immobde and a solid
orb. Parmenides gave voice to dis-
trust of evidence derived via the sen-
ses and held 5pcculative moA{cdge
in bigh esteem. which pointed to the
presence of elements of ""'ona
li
,,"
in IUs teachings.
PAIISEEISM. See
PARSONS. Takott (1902-1979)
American bourgeois sociologist, CMC
of the founders of the sIrUCIuraI-
functional school in sociokcY P..-
SODS saw social Slructmcs as DO
more tban . of
wilhin lbe
stitutions,
of bebaviour
gion p--
of
' :..s. .... V .. In
ry" (1949). iThc
Social . (1951), "Societies:
Evolull()Ilary and Comparative Per-
'pedrves" (1961) The theoretical
ideas elaborated by Parsoa.s in-
nuenced American su-b
as 1JwmaJ O'lka aadU.lron Ymgtr
PA.RTICIPA.TION, in Christian phil.
osophy a concept uvd to bring out
the nature of the ioteractKm of God
and \tan. In religious ODtoiogy the
concept or participatioa is "sed to
express ODe of tbe main ide,s of
Christian Platorwm, to the effed.
that material obj.:ds and pheDOlDC-
na discernible to the scns,cs do DO(
exisa as such but are manjf-e".jcw
of the: di.iDe ewDCe Ia rdiIio-
son,1 .

I
,
,
'"
PASCHAL TABI..ES
the I heory of 1MobIbiIity, dift'ercatial
calculus and b)chostltics. After c1e-
\dopi ng his logical ""hod 01 dna
ligation Pascal came. buwe't'Cl. to
the conclusion that renoo had it.
limitatioas and WI it wv
s
impl'riblc
10 the wu Id with the
lodpoC
ods. He
coaId be
--
doli r.idI
<?,Iholic Church '-'01 ita
IKIIII 011 the O. :ID*" ":1:'':-
Heace the diffcrclKle ill the ......... ~
the . c c ~ i o o of ER"er .--far
0ariat1Ul CbW'(1a1t1 --

PASHKOV'ISY
0UistitIIu in '
by retired

llC tilled with a sense of repent,ACe
aDd an awarc:nesa of eheir linful.., ..
'"
funl"Llm
. ChnllwrllfJ a.,
reilgJnn, ddcnJlO
g
from the ilulh.
of lhl
wmh SI.
,
!
42.
P A TR.II' .J'.I
dogma and paved Ihe way 10 Ihe dc-
vcloprr:cnl of scholastidsm. At
present lime both Roman Catholic
and Orthodox Ihcologians make
wide use of various ideas from both
Easlern and Wcslem Patristic writ-
ings, regarding these as an indispul-
able authority ..
PA11IIZZI, F .. nc<s<o (15291597),
Iluan natural philosopher and pan-
Iheist. Staning QuI from Ihe prin-
ciple lbal God and the world arc
one. Palrizzi rejected Divine ere-
atioa as something oul of nothing.
He saw the Universe as somelbing
iafiaicc; proceeding from lhis, he re-
jetted &2 DOI!Siliism. He recogni1.ed
r- eIomeats: Space, Light, Heat
IDd fluidity. The attive elemen. was
Llpt (diviae aad ';sible). The life 01
the .'orld was (or bim an endless
lIoovofthiogs, _cd with a soul
111M hi ...... " if life. Coatrary to tbe
IeM:ItO.p of Cluistitmity Patrizzi
= :rr!:
... itlocl "Nova de U..-.....-. _"'_.
L. IN Phi ,.....,.
Gp .. " of the
U ....... U91).
-
The infallihiJily of PalriMie ..
no longer seen hy (hem as is
10 each one of the Father
or to e!ch lbe
lIeular sa)'lng of theirs taken :r.
own. Moreover, they are Dol It!
garded any more as authorif
the of socio-politicalle$ lD
scientific questions. IIId
PATRON SAINTS' DAYS leasts.
the, Christian Church dedicated ::
various figures or events from
Sacred History, in whose honour
church side-chapd
been budt. In mediaeval Russia pa_
saints' days look rOOI duriogtbe
period when Christianity was spread-
'118 tbro1J8h the laud. Whe. the
country consisted of a Dllmber of
pelry princedoms, SOUie of the biter
would have "arm" tbcmseha with
tbe'r" " "I'
I own spena 5 ..... ' ..
would protect them. Chwrhca .. ae
erected in their honour and die
feasts connected with these JIM titu-
lar saints celebrated ......."
on days which assuu;,:d sp:e;" .....
flC8llCe witbin tbe IocoIity __
c:emed. Nowadays as ...... doe
Cburch rep"'" the _ship of IoeoI
"patrons" as an effective 114M rl
bri"8ing ideo!' mn- 10
bear 011 the f:t.h.eir
tiader sew felt by the
to be dooe to
are r'ICed
MintCiccello-
._, _____ --!rAlUSl
-. -
synod (If Anli()(;h in 2M
fhe ' d him from hIS t.CC and hIS
was condemned L'I htre.-rv
fullower!, of Paul of Sa
One () was Lurian uf SamQ5QlQ
teaching pro...,ded
(l2IJ- 1 the thcnretical 50urces ror
one 0 . ,
Arianism and Ntjfonomsm.
AUt... St. one of the Apostln or
to Cbristlan
Ie end he wa$ ho.tn In. the town, of
r
s
us ,'n Asia Mmor 1010 a JeWISh
ars IR'
family possessed 0 oman clh7..cn
ship. For thi" reawn he had alleged
Iy been given two names' the Jewt..41
ame Saul and the Roman name
(in the writings of the To-
fomtnt both arc used). Initially he
was an ardent opponent of the
Christians but after Christ had ooa:
appeared to bim, he became as ar
dent a Christian. knowu as the
or the Gentiles", The story
of SI. Paul is told in the Acu of the
Apostlts but no IS pr0-
vided there regarding his rieJlh. The
Churcb maintains that he was ex-
ecuted during the Newman perse-
cution of the Christians, follow ...
the fire at Rome in the year 64 1be
New Testament contains 14 stirs,
which are attributed to St. ,. ..
However scholars. the maJCWitJ' of
whom accept Paul's life aDd Wei".
historical lact, hold tbat
or the Epistles coukl baw:
ten by St. P .. ul himself
usually beld to be bnlh
the Corinthians the ,
Rom.ns,lhe Epsde to
and pOf'ibly the Prude to
ippiua, the Fin! Bpiodo
1\c'lb,,1D' ... die
Phife,,"'OD. St. Paul
plete bteU
""
tOkes. The rnam . de a running
his exhortalLnns t\ that
,ptn! .saIVCIOtl .
PAl .
P )"I, ' Ihe (m:ck
au I llInal , a I'Wne presumahl
derrved from thtll ,) t Apoflf!
Pauf), Iu.:retlca1 movement n (hn.1-
tuuuty, came Into beIng m tlor
7th ccntDry ID Armenia. The r.ot'"lal
base or the PallJici
ans R'KWCment
comptl'led of the peasantI')"
craftsmen and the urban poor n.c;
Paulicians came out IpIDSl
exploitation, material IIId political
lnCqnality. For their ideM the PIUti.
cians drew OD Maniclwrrm IDd the
teachi. of the MmdtrIrita The:
PaulicilD5 dr'ii'" wr. or a doal 'IC'
nature saw the aunt:
dMded
spirihaI
God ad
.e:=
, PAVl.OV
12:14), "Overcome evil with good"
(Rom. 12:21), "Let every soul be
subject IlDfo the governing auth.
orities" (Rom. 13:1). The ethical
standards upbeld in lbe episdes of
St. Paul are designed 10 ddend Ihe
status quo and can be 5
nDhn
ed up as
a demand (or obedience to the
"P"*en that be" and for acceptance
of the fad that "there is DO authority
elCC'pI from God; and the auth-
orities thaI c:Q" are appoinled by
God" (Rom. 13:1). Meekness aod
, are beId up as moral objec-
no ODe eW for cW"
"+en are urged to be
in In'hula-
"TIfF: W.ut IN -
MANY", work by F"deidc
(1850), wlUch providea .
or maieri.lisl
hl5toncaJ phenomena. In it of
(or tbe time identified the
economic causes
formotion and the Pe'''nt W 1ft..
C5Sc:nce of the poIilw:i tad
religIOUS be" lad
Ihal time G mg '"ltd.
I cl'IIIaIIy'a boar
gcOtS Idealist hislorians used t
eol furious quarrels 0 P:':
oIogiaDS. Engels made it
the Peasant War was thai
different cllP-'1'.C3 and, war
"cJOIhed in religious
and though the interes" rtqaiJc-
meats, ODd demaDds or ... .
dasses wen: CODcealcd .... .......
"-'-- ....... ...
.......... sace .. !his
at aU. is easily e'jol,,,'CCI ." die
oouditioas 0( lbc .jmq" ..
seJs, CoIkc Otd W"''''' Vol. III, P.
4U). The Pea".' War in GenooO,
was ..,.aeraUy ,ntj..fegd., .. ...
..... wily it was 'Iso .e;;od ...
tho i!"'>lClI C\rdtoIk C7am:it wIidt
OOIIItit .. ed ""the
....... or .. L - . ..,..
. ---;-- ... ..... eh' aab'-*:r'
(Ibid). AI tIIe"hkl .i;tv .. ".
tluee m+ Adp lie
::1"
... ' ............. 0'-
ow
."'. The
c:,'ho/ie
10
-. --.-
_______
nt/plebeUin movement, began
whal they called pro-
10' within the framework of the
gre56 d declared I be rebellion .. m
laW, an,"ble with Ihe Chnuian faith
cornp3 J "" he id
d contradictang t cas ell:
an dcd in the Wbile car"
r;U:he leader of the burgberJ' 0p-
e ilion. Luther, had called upon bis
ruowe
rs
to take up arms to put an
o d to the domirutlion of the .radi
oal Churcb and the feudal order,
the Bible in support
exhortations, now Pnnce'i
power "resigned obedience, even
were sancti<?ne<! (by him)
wi,h 'be aid of Ibe Bible (p. 419).
The ideas of tbe leader of tbe ple-
beian camp, Thomas MilrrUr. 9iCie
alien to Luther. Munzer had seeD
the Kingdom of Heaven to be
other than "8 society with DO d3ss
differences, no piivate papat, aDd
DO state authority i_peW nt of,
and alien to, the members of s0-
ciety" (p. 422). The irrecoorild'=
contradictions between the bur-
ghers' camp and that of the pep_s
and urban poor led e"",1UaIIy 10 !he
ddeat of the latter group ill the
Peasant War. The religious eil_' 55
ion of class interests, to be fOisHi ID
the history of aU peoples at a .,...-
ticular stage of thcir dc .. eqHBY:. It,
bore witness to the i ...... alwe IIIhR
of lhis iDOVCmeDl of tho ...
plebeian maSSts aDd the IimitIIica
of their outlook at thal.jeu,
,
'"
PFNTATBUOt
people nourisb. The most important
of these deities was held 10 be Vesta.
PENTATEUCH or 11IE BOOKS
Of MOSES, llIe name used by
Christians and Jews for the firsI. five
Boob of tbe Old r..,."..." c;..-
esiJ, EM'S, Leviticus. Numbers and
Dl!uI'fIOfWIIIY. It bas been estab-
tjsbed in BibliaIJ criticism thai the
modc:m text of the Pentateuch was
compiled OYer a period of 50(} years,
over the 51" period as the sixth
Book of the Old Tcsramcnt, namely,
Joohua. '" view of this schol .... eD-
Mf.d ill Biblical a iticis
m
tend no-
Rd.,. to use the IbW Hexateuch.
.. IkIlllllIDd 9th ""Dries B.C. in
litre a tal cxMiqAled that is
_ "I ... od to in scboIarly tit-
erllWt as tile Yaltni.lric IOWU. Its
", __ L.
ChIC IliaUIC UIII:; way m
wLk' God is retaicd to ill it by the
- of Y.IM.. IDd it Shes ex-
to the IIDd p0l-
itical ...... of tile "" .. IVi6 Ie.'.
..
mulsatod the atxwe lOUr -
t"8"ther .. OOe by him, in::: PIll
of the Pentaleuch or the
Moses. r of
PENTECOST:,'S, a Protcs'w
movement which came mto being
the beginning of the 20th (l(nlary
the USA. The basis of its teach; III
was the legeDd CODcomina "the :.
seeDt 01 the Holy Spirit" u(lOll the
00 SOtb day after
Christ s resurrectIon, 85 a result of
which they recoWed the "gilt 01
prophecy" aod heg .. "to speak in
tongues". fa the tearning of the Pea.
Ieco&tals COIISiderabIe impou'RQe is
attached to the jmmjn'Cll(t of the
Second Coming, the eod of the "aM
and the millennium of Christ', Rip
OD Earth. PcatecaS'a" aim I we die
rites of Abje"" aDd the 1M IS. II{
1M llI.ad ODd they pI_ ..... _
ph.s. 011 mystical COi, ...... - willi
God. A spec;') role is ....... 10
the Holy SpUit in this JH-'" Pew-
terottala hold dull mm ..., is
* .....
of the "spUd who duce
him". Tbia "drscent" tam
,
PIRSOSlnCAllCY\
---_.-
P ... hler of Dcmt'ttT and 7...t'Uf
the /lol1t'l. Part of the ycar
and WI ith her mother on (1.arth.,
'lit or the lime she wu In
the ref>
bill dcrw
urld
. The return of Pcr
the Un to Earth each year rcpr
phone h'd d
. d variantofleWlcpra
t'myth about (he deny who
nClcn bol h
a. d rises again, f.ym I/ing t C
withering away and rebirth, f
an t'on Her Roman oountcrpar1
vcgeta I ..
was PrOSCrpula.
PER.."iONALISM, idcali t w
movement, w,hich became Wid.
cad at the lurn of the ccntury In
USA (Borden Parker Bowne.:
Ralph Tyler Edgar Shef-
field Brightman), In France (Emma-
nuel Mounier, Maunu NedonceUe)
in Germany (William Stem) and
some other count rics. Personalism
stlldies the personality (not [he real
individual bUI some spiritual c:
sence, rcgarded as a basic element
of existence), which pos.. ... wi
and self-awareness, achieved. in the
final analysis, due to the indi\ 'dual s
involvement with God. Charac
teristic of personalism as a whole are
the fetishil-3tion and mystification f
Man's creative powers, Religion and
science are regarded as equally im
port ant demands of the human
Religion is presenled as in
trmslc to human reason in the same
degree as moral and a hetic
val ues .. drawing all ntlOll I
the cnslS of hourgeois
the Personalists, however, do
COme out in favour of the
transformation of cap".1ist
Clety, advocating rcvolUiIOll
men's minds. Many ideas
of Roman Catholic

that were 1",", rIy
tbev_ ..... 1at ...
11 101
'"
5Oc1al Juhn
Paul VI and John Paull!
XXIII
or EM80111.
elcmc I lJ1 reigJous bclief\
InvolVing the endowment of objeds
and phenomena or'be n: oral w '-j
Wltb the propertaes of l IIlg
often human one the capac
Ily It) peak, antbropo.
morphu, appearance etc Personlfi
cation I.! closely linked Wllh various
element: of the rdigicus per.
ccptlon .r tbe: world, animum.
mall'c. and {nuh"", Side by side
v.itb the It' t he: fouad bocb in
early religions hunting. eroic, tlJf7rI/
and DglQlJan lOfmWm, lui .
mansm etc and m ane advanced
rc1igious-cum.ID)t ..... II
f he' fs be I,,,LEV
and IWlrW
Aryan M'itS I
grew up oat
and Hr ..... riJm;

--
Wiuch P !.:lr, TI h

and th t
W I I)
r I
I ,
\
\
II
I
'"
PIIAf!'1110N
osophical renaissance. His interpre-
tation of the world was or a pan-
(heL .. lic character and because of
this he was subjeded 10 perseculion
from Byzanline and Georgian
Church circles. PeiritSl'S views
exerted a powerful influence on the
de",1opmenI of Gcorgiaa phil.,..
opIty.
PHAInION. in
Ancient
mythology 01
SOD of He/ios:
of driving his
-:.:r.rly com-
arar to Earth almost de-
wido lito ...... heat. I.
lito ....w lrom de
IdIIod .... wido
Chrwianity trvcl 01_ .. -
sull to he found 1ft Rwl'
example, in the rilll')' 01 tbe .L
and Ihe Khrislovoy. -...,.,
P11ILONION. See
"".,; 10"1
PIIILOSOI 11', 01 10 I'
lh' J)ul(h I'h nomennlOF,.l r
did nut draw ndu ivcly un the phil
",,"phy (If Hu rI. trying 10 make
wider II c of Ihe malenal rdatlng t)
Ihe IIf rcllgJon .. "wever
Ihdr allcmpl In y lemall
l
the ph
nomena of religion wa al ,an.11 hi
writ in (haract(r. Th '1 only ssngled
(lut formal imilarillcS tx:lween rehg-
illUS strul1urC!i. In recent d cadc
there have hccn marked tendenci
in Dutch phenomenology of rehglOn
towards a rejediun or earlier for
malism and anti-hi!itoncal approach
and moves to fnsler closer link! wtth
sociology and culturallllllhropology
PHILIP PERSUA.'iION a Irend m
Ihe 8apopmuy group of the Old
Belitvers which broke away from he
Pomorsky PersuQSlon m 173
lest at the laller s loci
services of a prayer t
new Irend was ted
Philip (his secular
tius) who founded
Umba a settle ....
shared A
the
, int upn t II Ih II I Vi '-
Ih help \)1 fl m (r k
phI hy., I'll I" rill h 11
andth ' calh;Jlh", hlul
an .,,11 mpt Ie) (;omhim th " If
Ih (,r 0..:11. "t u: Pid\om t md 1''1'
lha Of In Wllh the mythnlnj.'.n.;.,1
Imagt: fn m \h Old TCJlalllenl.
Yahweh. th god f lh Jew,," i:o. in
I rprel d th upr m Iran:<.ecnd
ental being. (,(KJ cr at the world
and rul II through h mcdlllior
Logo Man I Iftl rpc I d as the
imag and hk of Logos. but al
th same tl a tnful creature
The , 01 man pint'"
punt th",ugh
k by and
general theoretical Ihr
problem of the nat ure of,
and ils essence; II
for",'ard with an
analy:.i.<, of rcli@:ion as a n:-
fled ion of the world and 11 nammt\
the specific features of renn.-"
tion' third. it singks (lut the l'pl"
roots of .thc
conditions of its risc and c\olutHln.
From the Marxist point of \;CW, reli
x gion is a historical phenomenon
bom of specific social system\.
Western philosophy of religion bor
ders closely on theology, making it
clear that the main questions in need
of an answer are, first, the one re-
garding the existence of God and,
second, that of tbe immortality of
the soul.
PHIWSOPHY OF UNIVERSM.
UNIlY, or metaphysics of Universal
Unity, one of the movements in reo
ligious philosophy. It appeared at
the of the century in Russia.
The Ideas were drawn from the phil
osophy of the Ancient World, in
the teachings of Neop/a-
The concept of Universal
Uruty IS to be found in the writing. ..
of lakobllodrm< (11th century) and
SchdJing. 10 R'"p' this tbeory is
rt.pcm"ed by lIlGdimir Soloryev
&lid .... by bi& followe.., such as tbe
:: .,,1;07 f:cv Karsavin
. .sem,.:.. Frank. Uruvcrsa! Unity
as au pi etcd in this philosophical
movement, sipiflCl, some k d f
,n d" m 0
'mlty of the UDivene
die IIIlcrc:O"UlCd.ioa betwee .
oat z' d __ A n Its van
d r
s
--- at the same time its
;: reL e OD. the absol.. . .
lui pril_'j ... e
d ........ edt' '- .L_ tbe
R

pbiII "1 "man rel>..:-
c=zoy :Ii Un.i\tenaI U .
IIDity betw:ea __ A 15 tld,bc
... bet '-IUU ...... UIII; wor
A: = a God IZId Ma tbit
-
-
lind .. n:pH' ...... illn In (;otl-Mutk.MQIt
(,(I,d ifuumut(,
PII<WKIIS (Th. RoiKht 0 ,. See
;1/1(1/10.
Pllm:NI("JAN . Rf:U(;)ON, poly.
hcIJef".. \\"idC!-.flfead
during the
2nd and ht millcnnia B.C. There
Wil!l. nn .o;inglc generally accepted
pantheon in Phoenicia. The Ph()Cni.
cians \'cncrated the forces of nature
heavenly bodies and the fertility of
the carth. Their main god was Baal
(later Adonis), the life-giving force
of the Earth; the main female god
dess, associated with love, was
referred to as Baalath. Moloch was
the god of the burning rays of the
sun and Astarte wa'i the goddess of
the moon and fertility. The Phoeni-
cian religion incorporated certain
elements of fetishism (veneration of
pointed, coneshaped stones., trees
or mountains), sacrifice (of both
people and animals), strict asceti-
cism, selfinnicled torture and cir-
cumcision. Originally the beliefs of
the Phoenicians reflected the no-
madic way of life of their ancestors,
hut later agricultural cuhs came to
assume pride of place and in these
can be traced the motif of gods who
die and return to life, which latcf
was to find its way inlo Judaism and
Christianity.
PHOTIUS (c. 810-c. 895), Ch.uch
and political leader in the ByzantUlC
Empire; an author and Patriarch ,J
Constantinople (858-67 aDd tm
886). He opposed tbe Paulicillns aod
adherents of other heretical tDO"t"of
meats and promoted the spread
tbe Orthodox Cburch _ ....
SIa"";'; peoples (while P\JoIiuI .-
Pllriarch the Bulgtrim (}r//tIJdtII
--
('hUff h c:lrne into being wit,hin the
J'v.lriarchllie of (
.... hl(" .. irA to c.onnid with the PD'
pOty. rholiu:'! endcavuured 10
balanc", between the -;-.loII\'er of the
"al1ian:h and thai Jf the Emperor
In R86 be wa..1 dcpJ5Cd and died In
exile
PHYLA!.. (pI., 'rom the
(ired: "phyLIkcrt4n' memlRg
"guard') or (Late He
brew word meanmg ;;: lj r
f>lrttPS"), an amulet u%d bv Jews.
consif>ling of two smaD 'elthcr 0'SC5
with straps, whkb contain four quo-
tations from thl Torah .."...,Uen on
parchment. During mornjng praye"
these ue altal'bed to the fN"eh!:.3 1
and the left ann, S\'Ulbolizing 1
that ':he thoughtswd h_-.art of
the JlTaying believer ,re ::t1l'"l1ed to.-
wards God, Jews b-<:.cvr that phvE
..acteries prt (Cd I item fnAD 'en!
spirits
Pili LRE OF mE ",ORI D. ,j .,::r-
lem:l;tized., tnlegral conttpllon of
Nature. its laws md
propertlcs. Tbe IL:ltural scielk.."eS
present a L)f the ","Odd.
can be put to the U i in practice.. j-
otoiC\.1ivt, in charat1er and con
tht eu",1 opposite of the rc'
It.g!ous world outlook. The pidurl \ f
the: world takes shape on tbe basis of
some pictures of Nature
(physical. chemical, hiologi(.a] etc.)
and proceed .. from conceptions pe.
culiar to the branch or science .... hieh
is dominant at ;) particular stage in
developm('nt of the natural
SCIences. The ftrst k;cntiflC picture
of the world, which exploded tbe
mediaeval religious world pidure,
was hued on a mechanistic: under-
slanding of Nature (Ga/ilti. Newton,
L.otnmOsov). In lale 19th ceDtury its
'"
place taken by an e\cctf().
dynanuc rncture of the world (Fa .
rada)" Maxwell), enriched hy ad ...an.
I.D chemistry and biology
Darwin), and in the 2OI.h
century the core of the picture orthe
ron.qged in a quantum-rela.
1M\! conceptLon of Nature (Planck..
enriched by revolutionary
dlscovcn-s tbat had !leen made in
a .. tronomy, biology and OIher seien-
Ibe natural ocicnees today re-
tying on <fialcd:iul phil-
()SOphy are constantly advancing and
enriching the picture or the world,
it an ever more profound
r.cientifica1ty atheist content.
PIETISM 'from the Latin "pietas"
mnning 'pitty" or "dutifulnc$.<,"),
nn--..tical movement of the I1tb18Ih
cCnt urics .micb opposed orthodox
I uthmmirm, placing Jul
1'Ilr' bigher tban rtli#tJu1 docrriM1 .
adM.=1y encouraged belief in
mnacks.. fanaticiYn and mysticism.
BrOidly Pietism is a relig-
u,us--mnlical mood or pattcrn 01 be
ur: exaggeratioD or affedahoa
d
PIEn', piou.<,nc5.\ dcvolioo to God,
. IrUl.: revercnce ror God". 10 the. (ull
version of CatechW05
piety is defined 1.<;, first, knowledge
of (lod and. secondly, t,:
wards God. In the Koran piety IS
defined as obedience.
___________
-_. --.
France, Fatima in Portugal; Ortho
dox pilgrims \is!t Mount Alh\l\
(Greece) and Ban (lIaly); Mo<;km\
carry out a pilgrimap:e or 11G}j In
Mecca, and to Medina (Sautli
Arabia), to Karhala (Iraq); Budd
hists and Shintoists go 10 Nara
(Japan) and Lamaisls to Lhasa
(China).
PIMEN (lzveko\, Sergei, b. lQlO),
His Holiness Palriarch of Moscow
and All Russia. He became a monk
in 1927 and served in churches in
Moscow, Odessa, and Rostov-on-
Don. He also headed the Monastery
of Ihe Caves in Pskov and then the
Holy Trinity and SI. Sergius LOI'rQ in
Zagorsk. Pimen was made a bishop
in 1957 and from 1%0 to 1961 he
was an archbishop. In 1971. he was
elected Patriarch at a Local Council
of tbe Russillll Orthodox Church.
"PIOUS DECEIT" or EQUIVOCA-
nON. This concept can be tract;d
baek to the moral-cum-theological
doctrine of Fathers of the
regarding the admissibility
of deliberate deceit for the sake of
!he "greater glory of God" and sa\,.
mg souls. The most blatant and cyni-
cal of "pious deceit" was that
,/ pr!'d!sed by the Jesuits with their
"'the end justifies the
the I. Church teaches that
I..: makes up for the sin of
",ng ID Dame.of victory over the
sin of non-belief,
=1' used actively to
,.2 .. tbe
usd 'I7'ks. the . 0 aeles
dN I IteD'""., of historical
lew .-....... 01 SWeq
.. +1:''!: . . The,!!teory and
ca PIOUs.decell,oaeoflhe
. p1amreqations of r
....... iIypoaisy, PI(Mded O.a re
a for cf.
hy .. , ilnJ me 1.
.. . 1 1
cnllcl\m rom rec-thinkers "
. and
PIOllSNE.,)S. See Pit"ty.
PIR (Per"'an word mean'
:'elder'"), cider the Sufi .. (sec
Ism), who leads hiS "upils and folio.
wers (murids) along a path of spiri.
tual enlightenment.
(1R40-1S68), Rus-
sian revolu!lOnary democrat, politi-
cal j.ournalist critic, a
com'tOeed matcrlallst and atheist,
follower of Nikolai Chem\,shenk\,.
Although Pisarcv did not sh"ake him-
frec of !deal.ism .in his interpreta_
tllm of society, In hIS c:qJlanation of
.reasons (or the emergence of
religIOn he came close 10 a materia-
list understanding of the latter. In
his article "The Idealism of Plato"
he wrote that "ror.1anticism"
(in order to avoid difficulties with
the censorship authorities he
to Christianity in this way),
IS the fruit of men's imagination in a
world of hardship and suffering. Ac-
cording to Pisarev, imagination
played an important part in the sway
of "u.nbrirlled idealism". A large part
of Pisarey's writings is devoted to
propagation of the achievements of
science, in particular Dar-
Win s theory. matcrialism and
atheism.
PUCE Ot' WOR"HIP, phrase
dcnote buildings in which rehg-
.worship is catTied oui. In eaeh
re!'gt,on a special word cOsts for
thiS: IR Christianity we find tbe words
cathedral" church or chapel; in Isfm!t
lD Judaism synagogue; ID
Buddhism lberc is DO siogle tenD
- -
-
_ nd the word u\('d varic!i. fmm
, ."" In l'ountry In Jap.1n. --
Ct,un.) ...
,." s,, 1 ank .. khurc In ;VJong
110'0 ' ' '_
1" d"hOf' in Buryatla CIC.).
huildings u!>Cd 35 placclli r
, ,,hip whcre men can C,:-oml
wn . h c ..
I
""ether tn communI" Wli ,e. .... arc
'0 I . 1
llysemanlic in any .n: Iglon, n
thristianityand Buddh.'\m a chun,:h
temple i" "ct:n 11.'\ II model fi ,r- th\;
and tht: way lhc huilding.'
face the cardinal IS very 1m
port,lnt, Each. detail or
their .ornamenlatlOn . r.I
strictly laid duwn In accordance
the canon law of the religIOn In
question. Despite the Slrid naturt.; .
canon law the places of worship )1
any country Oclr"'r national
teristics: masterpieces "f rt;'t;,lo:.
art'hitccturc form part of the :reas-
ure-house of worltl culture.
PLANCK. Max l: '-t<;f(. 1941 (,::-.
man theoretical phvsic,<;t, fountl.::- d
the quantum theory. A
materialist, he dcfendcJ the priner
pies of t/('taminitm. the uml1l of!he
world and h(' 0pp0<;l'd idealist Inter-
pretations in phvsic.<;. HllWc\"Cr, he
did not appreciafe Ihe under-
lying the developmt'n( o( socidy ,'r
the changeahlc, in (erms ,11 hi-"tory.
nature of morals: he reJuI.-cJ rdi
gion to a mailer of emll{i0ns
morality, fI.'garJing Ihis limited form
of rciigi(lD a... comp<ltihle "'ith
science in the narruw scnst "I the
term, i.e the natural sciences. He re
jected hclicf in a fK'rsonal (iod, im
mortality ("II the 'illul 3.nd miradcs
and inclined a materialist
variety of parJthdrnl.
PLATO (c, 427c. 347 B.t '.), idealist
philosopher of Am'ient (In:ccc. He
elahurated 3. te.aching Ilf Idl'as or
Forms 35 general concepts Ih:lt exist
-
-
..,
nf men's min'J\ Ifl a
"iuprcmc hcyund thi!i. \\orlo1 and
pnmdc mudd.., (Patadi"m ) of
I v.:hlCh . il ule their (nples.
s ldeah'-'m 1<; ,Instlv allied 'n
hoth in it.., rorm, "[len ten'l-
nl'Sccnl of and al\ll m (lin.
h.:nt Plato's highcM h,rm, , IIrm
or the (iood, the (If linity.
often hy him I idfnticil
"'1,h (iud, The lattn hcmg J ,rnlm
(Demill'XC), creates the.' wurld. the
.rolll, a<; well d' the Ihus
knding shape tn .\morphnus m;IHer
. non-lJcing"). The 1R\(lhemc,:nl 'lf
: hI.: human "'nll m tbe wml j 'If Ide."
:hal on be d, m. ,",slr"ted with fI kr-
II' the t:o=ll!;nl '. ,If gcner,1 c,m
.:crts !1dea.<;.Fnms) pn.\,j( Plahl
"';In 1 hlSis fur his sur.stantialif'i'I ',If
ttle Immorta[1t\ ,If the wul. A furlh,'r
l,:onduQOn kading (In (r,lm lh 1I K
P]:,f,,'s aching c' nccrnlng
an lCti\it'O lent dircction hv Iht IJl.1
(iooJ: In thl.' "LI\\.s
Pi.:t! 1 \l ic;,:;. har h crilit'ism o( Ihe
mal.:rialism J.nd atheism ,)f the
Anncnt World, (hem ..
IhrCJ.t [0 tlK- t1f the Stale
and a !.Time dcscn.ing punishm{'nt,
t:h'n dl.:ath (Bnok Xl. Platn:s phllos-
L'phy {"xertL'd an enormous Innuene.c
on the dc,.d()pmcnt of
idealist and rt'ligious philosophy.
PL-\TONIS!\1. (1) the of
Plato: (:!) trcntl in. phllo,<;'
ophy assllCialC'd Ihe
mcnt and modification of s
tl'aching. The of
linked with the acti,ity of a of
philosophY, founded l'Iy Plato hlm-
sdf that was known a" the Acadc-
mv.' The Older Academy (-khJrd
. . B t) together
.' '. h
rlaltlni!UII and f\1hopanum; t. C
Middle At'adcmy'
B.C.) joined and sceptl-
."
PlEKHANOV
rum, returning to the method ... de- and religion i$ also 10 be r -
vised by Socrates. The revival of Pla- Plckhanov's major work .. OlUnd. in
in Ibe 2nd-1st centuries B.C. 'U" k . h ,Man,.
_ _ ;-"\ 01 V\1:' C Cslvcnnoi mysli"
(the New Academy) was linked with History of Russian Social Th (The
aUcmpts to create a universal phiJos- 1909-1916). Many of Plckh ought,
ophy, embracing both Platonism and works are devoted to tbe h I anOV's
the ideas of Stoicism, Pythagorean- {ru..Jhink'ng in tbe West an; ?"
ism and Aristotelianism. Platonism, In the 18th and 19th
turning as it docs to tbe supernatural PI kh centunes.
world of Ideas, is closely associated c aROv's works provide a Manis
with tbe religious world outlook, and of the development
it exerted a substantial influence on rchglO." a .profound scientific
tbe rel:":olLS movements of Ihe fl"sl oT Its hiStoIL and Its soci
"b' u hLStoncaI roots. - ,'- 0-
A.D.-the theology of ,
PhIlo o{ Alemndria, Gnosticism and
early Patristics. In the 3rd-6th ccn-
turies Platonism developed into
came to be known as Neopla-
rorusm; (3) the term is also orten
used to denote the incorporation of
elements of Platonism into one or
another philosophical
PLEKHANOV. (1856-1918).
one o.f the first Russian Marxists, a
promme!lt lhi:nker and propagator
of Mamst philosopby and atheism.
on questions of atheism
. to works of a general philoso-
charaCler ("Essays on the
HIStory of Materialism", "The Dc-
Ye.iopmeot of the Monist View of
HL<,I""""") and . ..
d .. l . m spcClahzed works
e . WIth. religion and thc
Church. ".l Particular in his review of
'Die Religion, ihr
. und Ihre Geschichte" (in
Russtan translation "On R r .
:-od Religious"), wriiten in 19 e '&Ion
I? article "00 the So-CaliIOd' and
C'--k e Re-
'"'6' logs m Russia"
The IaUer work, exa . . 7I.N).
uekm' and God the God-
ments. was . -Budtkrs' move-
10 it significant.
tioa of tbe ques-
its ",,"-r':1 of religion and
............ uent elem .
material on the lUst ents. DetaIled
ory of athci.'iIO
-
PLURALISM, RELIGIOUS Ih
n;-ulti-denominationaJ nature s:
ClaJ groups, tbat consist of subjeCls
of and the state. In reudal
society there eXIsted relatively bo-
religious affiliations
W1thtn any given social or ethnic
group .. State systems centring round
. slate religion emerged,
10 which Clltzenship of a particular
state was seen as identical with ad-
herence 10 a particular religion. Pro-
test the popular masses, social or
groups against social oppres-
SIOn came also to be directed against
the religion which upbcld tbe
foundatIOns or the elCisting social
order, and there emerged heresies,
sects and various other religious
movements. A particularly powcrrul
factor contributing to this process
was.pr?vided the development or
capltahst rciatlOns. Under socialism
every citizen is guaranteed the right
to J?rofess any religion or to be an
atheist.
r-
UTO
, in Ancicnt Greek mytho-
ogy. the god of (he Underworld and
realm of the dead (otherwise
nown as Hades). The name Plulo
referred to the wealth ("ploutos") or
the Underworld god, also 'o1r'Or-
-
__ POIIIlCAI."IlIEOI1X;Y
'4)
---- -- -
shirred a. ... the "pirit (If the earth',
fertility.
Kon'ltantin
(lK27-1907), the ( hler PrOM:cutor of
thc Holy Svnoo of the Ruman
dnx ChurCh rrom lAAO .to 1905, .an
and a rcachon:uy. With
hi; name arc .linkcd, othcr
things, the polK")' of braking the
velopmcnt.or s<:hO?ls tlnd In-
troducing 10 Ihelr pla.cc
parish schools and the Chun:h
in the fight against the revolutionary
movement; widc-:oocale repressilln or
adherents of seers that had hroken
away from the official Church; the
persecution or progressive figures
rrom the world or culture (including
Leo Tolstoy); a stiffening Church
cellSOrship.
POLISH BRETHRCN or FRATRI
POLONORl, a Protestant c
which in the 1510s broke away (rom
the Polish Calvinists and was distin-
guished hy its religious radicalism.
The Polish Brethren rejected . Ie
doctrine of the Trinity and the diVine
nature or Christ, thus. tbe
heresy uf Ananism (and for (his rea-
son they were known also the Pol-
L ...h Aryans). At the outset th( ple-
beian trend within the movemcnt
combined religious. radicaJi ...m With
demands for the aboliti"':! or corvee
and serfdom and ror univcl sal
brothcrhood. Later, under the in
nuencc of Fausto Sorini, a moder-
ate trend cmerF:cd, .lnlj Somni's [c,l
lowtrs gradually came to dominate
the communities or the Poli"h Brl!
Ibren.
POLISH ORTHODOX CHURCH
camt" loto ix-inp In lite earlv 1920s
and it bcl.:ame in
:Qt8. It con"Sists tour eparchits
-
and Bid!'.k; Bial)"'Jok Ind
and P071lan; Wroclaw
and S':,",CC.IO) and 233 pari .. hes. It
has at Its 300 churches. two
mnna. .. tena and a Priests
theologian .. for this Chwch atc
trained m a seminary in Warsaw and
at the Orthodox theology (aculty of
tbe Academy of Cbri.<;tian Theology.
The cburches have about 200 cate-
chelical school\, where children are
givcn rc,ligious instrUI thn.
POLmCAL THEOUX;V, tho ...
logical conception wbich became
....idespread in Roman Catholicism
and PTOfeslantism in the 19605 and
1970s. The main idea bebind il con-
sids in tbt fact that Christianity. a1.
though t is c- an essentially politi
cal ::teverthcless can
not rem'im :.ndifferent to politics.,
mee it bas , critical (unction co
t.XL;rc - in rel. tion to sr;cular life
Politu ;tllht oIogy carru- forward with
a c; Interpntation of rhri5-
tiam: y as .1 doctrine I)f individual sai-
l' ,!:"!!., maintaining that no om: can
be c.a\ d in i.:.cbtion. .md that Chri'lo.
tian princ:p!es should be extended
tbe whole of society. It t.:Iaims thal
! repl _S-'"""I]ts precise Iv this general
Ul"crt. .J, rathe;r than the of
"'-::e )r othc! group or class m con-
tempor Jry socidY. Advocates of pol
Iticll lbeology themselves
WIth s rClpprt.isal. a "political" in-
terpretation of the futtda
meo
!a1
CbflS{ian concepts Truth. Sm,
l.ove elC. Political theology
cive or the sulariZJltiOll of politlCaJ
me, ("lIthe Irt'nd pnvat
ization or rcligirn1 and Its
fined (0 the sphcre or the in<fu,d-
ual's inner life. II is both by kft
Christian movements in order to
critici.r.c ..:.1pitalisrn. a.nd
ter .. of cltricaJism to Justlfv thelf cr-
POI.YlllHSM
forts to "re-cJericalize" contempor-
ary society.
POLYIlfEISM, the veneration of
several gods as opposed to mono-
theism or worship of one god. This
phenomenon emerges at the time
when printitive.communal society
disintegrates. The hierarchy of the
gods reflected to a certain degree
the division of labour. and the rela-
tions on earth between rulers and
subjects. A classical example of
polytheism is provided by the reli
of Ancient Greece and the reli-
of Ancient Rome. Elements of
polytheism are to be found in all
"monotheistic'" religions (Judaism,
Christianity, Islam and olhers).
POMORSKY PERSUASION (Dani.
lovitts), a moderate trend in the
BapopOltsy sect of the Old
founded by Danila Vikulin and the
Denisov brothers who set up a com-
munity on the River Vyg in Porno-
rye, by the White Sea (1695). (n
1706, not far away on the River
Leksa, a women's community was
also sct up. Prosperous strata of the
population provided the social basis
for the Pomorsky Persuasion, which
made the moderate character of its
inevitable and also its close
ties the officiaJ secular and ec-
cles.la.o;.llcal authoritics, In 1738
of this group accepted
Idea of for the Tsar (which
led to ,a split In thcir ranks and th
formatIOn. of the Philip Per:ruasion)c
The of marriage an
portan! for the mcmbers f th

nage was rc ... rted b
the 18th ,-- , ut at thc end of
century thcrc a d
community of N ppearc a
shCK)( of the p:::;:omorts
y
, an ,on-
"'-hose followers lief sk
d
y

en ed marnage_
-
At the turn of the ecntu ..... Ih
k P
. .] cPo
moni y erSUaSI(lD emerged .
moSI inOuential of thc Bc"", as the
II
.
groups. s communes are ad ..
I d h Ih
"h r _ miniS
ere y c .... Ie Council f h
Old Believers. 0 t c
POMPONAZZI, P;dro (1462-1525)
Ita.han thinker of thc'
nalssancc He dcveloped fur_
t.he traditions of Averroist free.
thmkmg (see Ibn Rushd) and paved
Ihe for the advance of the natu.
ral. SClcnces. Hc rejected the immor.
tallty of the soul, retribution or re-
ward beyond the grave and salvation
as Man's ultimate aims. Pomponazzi
affirmed an ideal earthly happi.
ncss as the foundation for new anti.
ethics anthropology. In
hiS mterpretatlon of the picture of
the world he started out from materi-
alist pantheism, from the idea of
general causality within Nature. He
teachings re-
gardmg DlVme PrOVidence and mir-
acles. Basing himself on the theory
of tw%ld tn'th, Pompon8T.li
defcnded the autonomy of buman
reason, His main work was entitled
"Dc irnmorlalitate animi" (On the
Immortality of the Soul, 1516).
(from the Latin "ponti-
felt literally meaning "bridge-
maker"), in Ancient Rome the name
given. to memhcrs of the chief body
of pncsts, Pontifical College which
wac; for the in-
spection of rites. The pon-
(;(lmpilcd religious prescrip-
tIOns, norms, and made sure
the n:lIg.ous calendar was observed
pr,IPCrly. They also kept chronologi
ca. records known a ... Annales Maxi-
or .thc (ireat Annals, and com-
piled lI .. t" of Con .. uls. Later the titlc
of Pontifex Maximu", (Supreme POD.
----
__ "I'OPlil ORL\t PROC;RL<;. ...IO"
....
.ff) as.o..umcd hy lh
r
" Eh"mpc'l
nr
; ilr
sed 3$ nne (J 1 C til cs ()
IS now U
honour (Of the PIJf>C
S
,
NTlnCAn:. (1) the or
r a p<mtj'1; (2) the lime dur
Qilice 0 'lJ., m (
. which the rope l'i IR 0 ICC nne
"gh cgular of honour fllT the
oft c r M" S
s "Pontifcx axlmtlS . u-
popC \. .
prernc PonhC!).
pONTIUS PILATE, Roman gov-
ernor (or of (26
36) during the reign of Tlhcnus. who
allegedly the death sen
lenCC for Jesus Clrnst,
POPE (from the Greek "pappas"
meaning head of he
Roman Catholic Church and the C1tv
state of the Vatican. He is elected
the College of Cardinals and IS
usually one of their number: tht "'lI.
lot is secret and election requucs a
majority of at least ill The
Vatican register lists 264 popes.
and the Orthodox
werc maInly (,r a ritual nat un.
rather than concerned with fUh:
damcntai dogma. In the early Hit'"
century there came into being the
Oyakovo concord aD the RIVer
Kcuhtncts. drawing its main sup-
port fmm the ranks of the r
oue; Old Believers, which meant
that its Icaders strived 10 comply
with the secular and Church auth
orities. This led to a $.plit and the
formation of a nL'W concord. that G;
the PeremaIantsy, whi{'h uscd ;1$
centre the RogOl_h .. koyc Cern tery
in MQM:OW. In thl.:; lS20s in St,\fo-
dubye the LU7hkovo was
set up, which only rccognu.cc sc..
cret pr; sthood as genuine thaI was
ndepc.,d:"lt of Church ,nd cvic
luthorilie" n 846 8j 'ava Kr.
'1i!.a Hierorcl..v came 1010 tlClng.
r U! hl_ ::rchy was recogni7-cd by
IhL :l.og07.hskoyc in
Moscow, 0 whi h thc spmtual
POPOVfSV (from the
"pop" meaning "priest"), ,?ne of he
main sects of the Old em
bracing a number of /Wrsua.fiotU
and concords (see Snglasiye), whi='l
acknowledged the institution of the
priesthood, the
the sacraments and occoslorlal relig-
ious rites, and also the existence of
the traditional hierarchy 01 'he Or
thodox Church. Unlike the Be:po-
tbe Popovtsy viewed '"he of
ficial Church. rConned hy Pa
triarch Nikon, and its Clergy ('nly a.(
a heresy and not as the ChUl,-h
born of the Antichrist", Large
concentrations of Old Believers
were to be found in Ker7heRct!'.
Starodubye, Vetka, Irghiz and the
Rogozh.{kove Cem('tf,'1'\' in MOSCOW
Differences between the PopooASY
of the tu rarc'ly was
fem:d. -t (am'- 10 OCCJpY a kadtng
p \Iolthin the Popo\1SY group
and tr L_ . he Old Belle
ver!' Arcbbishopnc )f \tOSC(l\ll alY.l
All Rus IRC Bcglopopov!W tthe
Imtial oncord of thc Popo\tsy,
w"i( h ac,,:cpted the of tilt
tx: ;1)1,;" !runawayj priests who had
tht: official Church
.'Intd the ranks of the Old Behl,;
crs) did nOl acknoWlcdgt: tht;
;eadcrship of that hierarchy
formed their own in I.W
b
Ar
chbishop' 11.5 spmlual
y an ' ! NOVOl)'b'
centre was in the toWD o. () b
k
. the B.,;ansk rCglOtl. t er
o\' IR J P vtsy group
varialillns of the OPO h B 10-
were (he and t e t
loodye Hie.ouhy.
_POPliLORUM PR()(;JIESSIO".
see SodoJ encycliCals of the papacy.

roRClI
PORCH. the western part of a
Christian place of worship, separ
ated from the central parI by a wall .
Not onJy "true believers" could go
into the porch of an Orthodox
church, but alw adherents of differ-
ent creeds and heretics. On Easter
Day laymen bring into the porches
of Orthodox churches Easler cakes
Easter eggs and paskha (swcci
cream-cheese dish caten at Easter)
to be blessed.
PORT-ROYAL, convent founded in
Ver.;.aillcs in 1204. In 1625 another
convent was set up as a separate
branch of tbe above in Paris (known
as Port:Royal-de-Paris). The con-
\'eDt which went on functioning in
the old building came to be known
as Port-Royal-des-Champs. It be-
6'
m
e a of and
lerature With which leadina writ
sc:hoIan , hil '''eI ers,
QUU P osophers wcre as-
. Poscal Racine, Descorres
nlOUIe Arnauld. AI the convent
:'b" leXlbooks wefe compiled
. .
t
. progres.'i'Ye for their
'mes' a geDeraJ '
IOCcndiijg 10 C?mpded
boA. as "'Grammaire
Ro,aI". a teM .......... 01 logic, .. Art
P' u'" (Art of TIrin" )
u ....,. aw 1 Q'i. com
:1" . I ngic".
..... g<dhcsoflan,
'--='7d the f'epocy and the
the J_ .... x::. toot the side 01
Royal de. aT COih'CDt at Port,
1712. ........ deotroy.d .
til t'::" "::yl Paris
olPortRoyaI
of p;;:;j."'" . ,h". the his!
CII lib .... e IDd
"
0/ tbe ... ill the
Crcxe. He
10 be '"'
Ze/ls and depicted h' of
d
. , . hh' o dm ...
cn ,Wl I W Ich he U5Cd f> In
al sea. to call forth
POSITIVISM, ideali!;1 Irc d .
osophy which \ In phil.
!; Icmming from I C
I
I&1Os,
.. '( h ' Ilon o .. pos
li ve P }'Sical) sciencc!; as th ,1-
rcaT knowl edge. The h" Conly
P
... P 10SOpby I
OSl tl VJ!; m claims to be h 0
general form of knowled e t mOSt
Herbert S/Wneer) gand ugliste
Iurn of thc cenlury it thc
10 be Ihe theory of knowled llsel!
(Ernst for .7
pmo-cntl clsm). Originally it w '
rceled again!;t theology d as I-
I?hysin,. which. within the
society had 10 k
(0 . . 1 rna e way
r. ernplnca science but I.t .
anh I ' I' ' er Its
-rna ena 1St cssence came t th
fore. All in all advocates 01 po, . e
. . ' ()!;Ihv
I!i. m sccJlhca1 in their attitude
to religIOUS doctrinc.. yet ,h .
I " . ... elr View
o re 19aon as a whole was a concilia-
tory one and t hey formulated various
for presenting it as com-
pahble with science: these ranged
the acknowledgement of the
unknowablc " as the "cause" of phe-
that can he known to "ana-
l):sIS of the language of religion"
al Ihc systemati7..alion and
logacal-semantic "justification" of
I heology The . ..
h . sccphctsm mherent in
e outlook of contemporary
OSltlVlStS leads to a leve
ll
:-... of
stalus hetwee ,. . ..
n re IglOOS concepts
and atheasm, as systems lhat arc aJ
equally impossible to verily
:!' rmar aaaJysis equally
that he leDin poiated out
t
t ob:JcdlYC social role of Posi
MIDI." ndem W
to the 0:. n!'8 servia
, ISIs In 'hear struaJc
-Heri.'. Ii in lie." ud
or .. II .... e..:_11!.- ,... 1-
,_ lD iMa:-!t .. ,.
I'AATI
7
-
-
1I1(". t((} Woric.J, Vol. p. 35R).
(0 he ,;,am
e
time the phi '
AI I . len'"" of 00'"
1 I
, ,h
'tl manY () Its r"flre
.
. , ,,'._r, have found Ihern'lt"I'I>;.B In
T1 a yo. . k ( B
thc camp of frcc ',thm c:r.> e.g. J
rra
nd
Runf'II), whlc.h. .has led rc
ligioUS writer!i. to c,:nUCt:l.c JI.
PIlAC,IIdATISM (from I"e (,reck
. ':lr .If.
f 'r") r;u cctive1 1151 trend In
wbtnT C$ !ubjcctr.:c1y
....., inlcrpreted u...cfulnCS5 a< the
/ rion for the truthfulnec;s of ill p:!IlICU'
lar concept or judgement. Ifs
founder the American pbilQ'<.--
opher Charles Pc in;c It
won wide popwantv In the l SA.
howc:vcr, thanks to tlit work!i. Of U7J.
For James. what wa<
truC that of
advantage 10 Man. In thi" way Jame<..
sought to demonstratt: tbe truthful-
ness or the individual's c,x-
i pcrience Lenin wrote that pragmat-
'> ism ":Icclaims experience ... recctg-
7 ni1.e!i. practice as the ontv crilcric.n "
anJ .n rrom all
tbis a God for practical purposes. ...
without any metaphysics.. and 'oVith,
out transcending the bounds of ex-
perience" (Collected WOtt.", Vol. 14,
p. 342). For James. God was the
fruit of the indi\<idual's con.c;ciou.c;-
ness, the rC!i.ult of spontaneously oc,
curring individual experiences. This
approach ls t o tboo-
and tbe Church,
Impli es that religion is the
of human consciousness
the
em
trics 10
J,nhn o...-wcy, who called his COOtt
!Kln . of "instrument!;:
wn . He rgcded the traditiOiUI
concept of .religion, pUlting forv."3fd
10 counler It tbe "naturalistic" intu <"
of is "religioll.<;". and .
regarding rebg&un u an malu.:nablc
part of '"t.:xperieftce", indicative o[
men'!i. dependence on [mcc\ ouuide
lheir I:Ontrol. Dewey went on to
K.t,t:!i.!i. that th15 of expericnce
w(tuld alwaY' be part of mcn' ..
rise; to the need for "piety",
",-tllch be Interpretcd as an essent ial
in human life.
word meaning
literally "prodUClOg" or "creating"),
in lbe philn<.Ophy or Ancient India
primordial matter tdentic.al with tbe
creative po'\I'C'r of Nature; taler il
came to mean Nature itself as the
opposite of the crealn.'C spirilual
plincipte, the !i.piritual core or
Man- Puru5ha. In Hiruluilm and
BrahnumisTrl Prakrti emerges as a
force which impedes Ihe saMIioa of
he
he
.. . Ii
t A DI Ph-I etu'_ 14 h .....
souL .",i<h aspres to Ittoe wiIh the
universal soul, /JIulul ' L
FRANA (Sa .. skrit 9Icwd meaniDg
"breath"), a term m Indian
ophy de ... i. the liIe lora:, the
basis of lirc activity, ud the cssence
of Mao. In a DUmber of iosIaDCCS it
is ide .. tified willi die AlmCUI or soul
It oIso baa ...... i<: ,,,,";fica_,
wl-II'1'f$ beiDa dIl:dy ,iiicd 10_
COO' eiA of 1M SGt'1, ...
.,m;d. the ...... 01 the iudi.idual as-
..... 10 .....
and psychologism with Iccqprilioa
of the objective existence of InD
sccodental principle. J.nxs idees
were carried one stage further by
...
PRAIl:M SrlRflllAI I
The Universe, according 10 him, is
permeated with crcalive polcnlial.
Prall regarded religion Man's ir-
resistible urge to grasp the highest
reality and determine his attitude 10-
it. The conclusion finally ar-
":!ved al by aflcr his investiga
tlOn of the history, sociology and
psychology of religion was thai reli
gion was eternal and irremovable.
PRA11JM SPIRJTUALE (Meadow
or the Spirit), work by a Greek
monk John Moschus (c. 550-619)
who collected a large number of
tales from the lives of Christian 7C3-
lots .also their sayings and moral
admonitiOns. It provided (he hasb
for some other hagiographicaJ
works, such as LiI'eS of the Fothers.
PI!AVER, a communicalion by a
pnest or by a believer indcpcndcnlly
: a god. or to supernatural forces
th a request that blcs.,,;ng ... might
be scnt down on high and c\il
avcrtcd, IS an indispcn!'iablc
of;hgJOUS and esscn-
f ,!f scnicc$ or
I cshvals, lis origins can be
J:W back 10 naive belief of our
ant m the magic wer
=-WIth help of whi: it is
to 6car- pns5 Ie to bring influence
rliIjU
paimitiYe m' of
the Church fPC. raye.r lS used by
as effecllve means f
... U'1'U5 cU*)(lOOal and or
cal influence to be I'
L OIl believers.
!'UVER OF REMEMB
J?w .. thi$ prayer the . RANCE.
hn . the nlg es DOted priest men-
Ia; hibtCiU and Do 1b the list 01
'ained ia. a spcrial c:h tfl:ose con-
RuJsiIJn o.thoctr arch list. la the
are re"'C"'iJercd the dead
way 011 the
,
Jr,d, 9th ,lnd 40th day after t -,--
Bnd then <l"ain h hetr dc.
r
' ... ontca
!'iaryo thetr dc,uh, In add" nnlver.
arc days for the gener;l
hon
there
hrancc of the dead, su h rcmem,
or the Parental
Tnntty. According (0 ('h Y before
. h urchtc h
Ing t e prayers for th d ac-
heeded hy ('00 who cane ead arc
of their souls ' ease the lot
PRAYER WHEEL '
apparatus
mal!'it in Toct d
Y
La,
whe h' h . I an
, re, w IC 1$ a complete cyJ d
In made of wood '" cr
which revolves on an Tmhctal,
cy
lond'r ., s,
, e svarymsl7efromar .
hm't ewecn
e res to several metres in Ie gth
They contain the tcxts of n ,
One turn of the wheel ',,, "" prayer
h
,
.1 "", ... enaste
cqul\a enl of a reCitation of all th
prayers within the wheel Th e
wheels wcre often associated
the Buddhist teaching concerning
the cycle of Man's perceptible exist-
ence.
a theory dealin
the origin of religion,
emerged at the beginning of the 20th
and was aimed against ani-
mistic theory The P A' , ., . re- nUn1sts
maintained that animism had been
hy animalism, the belief in
;ome Single impersonal spiritual
;rcc, and rwe" the
.arid, Starting out from this point of
VlCW, ,the Prc-Animists attempted to
explaan the origin of mauic aninti!'im
and,' 0'"
. Ofemwn. Advocates of pre-ani-
(such as Emile DurkJreim and
de clen Ul'Y-Bn,h/) attempted to
the conception of a
. splOtUa!" force was an
ancacnt affeClivc category of the
thus coming to adopt
pom( of view put forward by
I
.. ,
.. Wilh
tlm
Schmidt regarding
father rnonothci.,m (see Ur-
us), Academidan <ie,or.
of Sov\et U
gt his of pre-a
nl
-
...n:ot
e
_ "It i!t not a "ingle furce that
at the beginning of any con-
r (he ,upcrnatural, hut
ccptlon 0 h-
rather individual, concdrcrte t 109:
. h were tran-,(ormc rom ,en,
cht! substantiation for
compalthlhty of hee will and divine
which the
'Way ... m which Man will make use of
the free will granted him by (jod,
Modcrn attempts to pia)'
down the falah!.hc overtones in tht.;
C(lnccption of predestination by
lending religiou. .. futurology and tJ-
chatology a mOft;:; up-to-date navuur,
whle 'bl os by (he
'bl (0 ,upcr-!'iCn!'i1 C on
51 e ' .. ("U .
imagination of the Isto-
k rc1igii i svohodomyshya (At,the
s:rees of Religion and Frcc-
ThIDk

ing), 1959, p. 215),
PREOESTINATION, the
mination of the course of Man 5 11ft;
and of his bcbaviOlU- of his sab'alion
or damn.ation for all .t:tcrnilJ. the
-wfu of God - onc of the matn dec-
trines in Judai.ftn, Chri,ftianity and
Islam. Prede!'itination is the ()hjcct of
controversy betwecn various retlS-
iou!'i movemenl!'i, which attempt to
surmount the contradiction ktwcc"1
the of ahsolute predcs-
tination and Man's fl't"t' will. i,e hi'S
moral respon!iibility for his aclion.<l
In Christianity, the controvc:rsy uwr
predestination was particular!)
fierce during the Patristic Age and
the Refomlafiorl, To counter the
teaching of Pdagiani,wn concerning
Man's capacity tn !'icek salvati('n
through own efforts, whieh
St. ClI
HIppo malOtiUncd. that the obtaining
of grace and. depended t('l-
on the will of God_ Calvini ...t
elahtltated the teaching ()f
gratuitous predestination of S(lme to
salvati(ln and others to damnati{m_
whi"'h still vec.:r.s
.. Mlh a
of free ",,11 that h.owcu:
r

,unJliy dearly ddincd limits. The
ami Roman Catholic Owr-
." 010111
PREDICTION, SCIENTIFIC, de'
finition of the forthcoming cour'-C of
events in Nature or in society Ilt of
(he results of practical ac:ti,;ty heing
undertaken on thc of !.Cit:ntirtc
knowledge. Scientific prediction he
came possible in lhe 15th and 16th
centuries when science wa..., taking
shape in (hc modern SCD$C of the
word and it fepresents the roo .. t ad-
vanced form of ph-dictil'ln, Befort:
the (Ta of Kl'tntific prcdil1l(ln, in
anulot timts and in rhe Middle
prdicl i n wa. .. rather
on everyday experience and empiri
cal lnO\\icdge. Yel on thJ.l ba...,i ... it
had ,nly heen to preJil1
phenomena similar to tbos.c which
had alrcad) laken place and which
for the rart W("TC lin\;t:d with
straightflif\\ard econ\lmie and do-
ml':,tic Scientific predic-
tion can fNec.lst not only phcn(lmc-
na of a already known to man,
but al!'iO qualitatiH'ly ncW onc .... DC'
tailed, reliable and
were made po5.<ilble
through the of astron'!my,
mCl'hani("!.. mathcmati"" and vanou...,
..rther Sl'icnces (C,g. thc prediction of
the existence Ilf planets in (he Solar
that \VCre named
and Plulo after (hey had dls-
cmcred: prcdiclions the
existence and of many
chemical made {In the
ba...is of Omitn peri-
PREu\n'
45"
odic table and duly discovered la,lcT
olr predictions regarding the enst -
of a number of types of
elementary particlcs-
mesons Clc.}. The method of social
analysis elaborated by MOIX and En-
gels has made scientific
"'>- possible in the sphere of SOCial Life.
PRELATE (from the Latin "pracla-
Ius" meaning "preferred" or "placed
above"), a title in tbe Roman Cath-
olic aod Anglican Churches con-
ferred upon high-ranking members
of the clergy.
PREOBRAZHENSKOYE CEME-
TERY, the centre for the Old Belie-
vm' community of Bezpopovtsy in
Moscow, whose members are folllr
wers of tbe Fedoseyev persllasion. It
was laid out in 1 TIl during an
epidemic of tbe plague by the mer-
chant Kovylin, who founded a mon-
astery and a convent. This centre is
the headquarters for all the com-
D?-unities of the Fedoseyev persua-
MOD.
PREOBRAZHENSKY, Pyo.r (1894-
1941), Soviet historian. who carried
out ao early Christi6nity
aDd the influence of classical reli-
gions OIl the fOlinatioD of Christian
dec ... a, UkWUty and ritual. His main
woaD were included in the collec-
of his. writings entitled "V mire
anhch,,)kh idei i obranw' (In the
of Ideas and Images from the
Ouneal Past, 1967).
'USWVl'ER (from the Greek "pres-
b)tero& .. meaning "elder"), leader in
tile early <;bristian communes; arter
die fonnabon or the ChristiQII ChUlCh
&he came to tliignify a pri<s'.
tben(hR4rtl OtUlth, the presbyter is
- leader oltbe community elected
-
from among the lai ty as is the pa.:
himself. flor
PRESBYfERIANS. an offshoot r
Call'inism which came into being duO
ing the period of the ,r-
S.cotland and England. The
nans opposed the absolutism of the
King and the Anglican Chulth, which
supported him; they played an im-
portant part in the English Revol _
ution in the 17th century. John Knox
(I50S-1Sn) founded the Presbyte_
rian Church in Scotland. He put for-
ward the demand that the Church be
run on republican lines and called for
a return to the principles of early
Christianity. The main principles of
Presbyterian dogma are expounded
in the Westminster Confession (1648)
and are expressed in the spirit of or-
thodox Calvinism: they are imbued
with the same belief in meo's univer-
sal sinfulness and absolutepredestina-
(ion . Patterns of worship have been
reduced to the simplest possible
form. The services consist of a ser-
mon, general prayers and the singing
of psalms. Presbyterian communities
are administered by a consistory,
which consists of presbyters and the
pastor, who are elected by the lay
members. Several communities join
together in an association headed by a
presbytery consisting of the presby-
ters and pastors representing eaeh of
the communities concerned. These
associations belong to regional or na-
tional synods. The supreme body of
the Presbyterian Churcb is its
General A. ...scmbly, which is made up
of presbyters and pastors delegated
by tbe various presbyteries. In 1875,
the Alliance of Reformed Churches
Throughout the World Holding the
Presbyterian was set up. In
1970, it merged with the Internatioaal
eo .... cgational Council.o lorm the
I
I
I
PRl'..<;I'.NTA"110N OFTIIE M{mIER OF GOD I:-.Intl: ll'JdPl.F
".
world Alliance of Reformed Chur-
hes (congregational/Presbyterian).
the time there
byterians in Scotland (,,:hcre It IS the
...hcd Church), England,
land. the USA. Canada., Au. ...traha
and some other countric. ..._ln 1m the
Presbyterian Church of England
united with the greater part of the
Congregational Church of England
and Wales to form the United Re
formed Church.
PRESCRIPTIONS, RELIGIOUS,
demands made by any religious faith
or Church on behalf of God or the
prophets or in their name. Religious
prescriptions can focus not merely
on patterns of wor ... hip also on
diverse other spheres of life: domes
tic life, labour activities., and. rela-
tionships between the sexes or 10 the
family etc. Examples of such pre!-
criptions can be taken from the
numerous rules laid down in the Old
The covered by -re-
ligious. prescriptions is tending to
grow narrower today. and they
mainly concentrate now on moral
rules and regulations concerning
practices of worship, since the dt.:vcl-
opment of social relations, science,
culture have revealed the
eney and even harmfulness of some
religious prescriptions. Although the
Christian Churches officiall y fen'S-
ni7e the at the same time
they pass ovcr in silence command-
ments such as ohs.e .....ing the Sabbath
day, not boiling a young goat in its
mother's milk, and so on. Despite
thc coincidental and cxaggerated na
of many religious prescriptions.,
In their origin can he ex-
plained with reference 10 the fact
thai at some time in the pa.o;t they
answered practical needs. Religious
approval for nur-ms. rules and pres-
"j'
crir;'tion. ... "till bas a paralrnng effect
Idea. ... and for optimal solu-
hon. .... thu<; holding hack progIcu in
... of publi4.: and private
life: u.\Cd to be: CQntrollcd by
rehS'oo.
PRESENTATI ON 01' OUR U)RD
IN THE TEMPLE, al...o known a. ..
Candlcma. ... or the Fea"it of the Puri-
fication, onc of the Twelve Cireal
Feasts. It is ctlcbrated on February
2(IS). Its origi n!. can be traced hack
to the meeting described in the Gos-
pel according to St. l uke between
an old man "just. and devout" by
name of Simeon and the ehild JCSlL....
whose parenlS., in accordance with
i;acaJly revered custom, bad brought.
him to the temple in Jerusalem. Ii
bad aDegedly bun revealed to Si
meon that a belpless child would be
the "consolation of Israel". Thi..\ fes-
tival was introduced by the Chti<,tian
(hurch so as to oust the fe!Jival of
purification and repentance that had
been celebrated Ihroughout tbe
Roman Empire. but it was sJow to
take root_ It only began 10 he cel-
ebrated throughout the Christian
world in the 6th century. Purification
ritual ... that were deeply rooted in
the people's COnSc10ll.o;ness. but
which did not have direct relevance
to the content of the Christian festi-
vat. were incorporated into rit-
uals. In the Presentation ,:,f
Our Lord in the Temple was as.<;OCI-
ated in the !"'Cople's !irst .and
fClremost with events In tbe agneul.
tural year. Ii marke.d end of.the
w;nter and the bcglnnlDg of spong-
time work in the fields.
PRESENTATION nt' TilE
MOTHER nt' GOD IN THE
TEMPLE, onc of the T .... Great
Feosts celebrated in the RUSSian Or-
,
PRICIIT
{hodox Church on Novemhcr 21st
(Dccemhcr 4th), II marks thc sol-
cmn enlry of Ihrec-year-ol,d
(the future Mother of ChrISt) IOto
the temple in Jerusalem, where she
was sent by her parents to be edu-
cated, The Church always taught
that Mary's parents were an example
to all the faithful, who to
part tbe Christian, faIth t,o their
children from carhcst
bring them to church and
them with Church rituals and tradi-
tions, This accounts for the
attention paid by the elergy to thIs
feast-day in our times, w,hen ques-
tions regarding the replerushment ,of
the ranks of the religious oommu01ty
are of primary importance to the
Churcb,
PRICHT, the Russian word for the
elergy of apluuh, In a Russian Or-
thodox parish these would inelude
the senior priest ("nastoyatel"), the
priest (sometimes even two or
three), a deacon, a sex/on, a psalm-
reader and some other junior church
officials,
PRIEST, member of the priesthood,
Also tbe official ecclesiastical term
in the Christian Church which in
English C':iIme to replace the terms
"presbyter" aDd the Latin word
""ccrdos", In the Christian Chur-
ch" in JCoerai and in the Orthodox
Church to particular, priests are en-
titled to conduct services inde-
pendently and to minister all the sa-
0IInIDlIS (";Ih the exception of Or-
dilUlfion and, in the case of the
Westem Churches in which it is
"M, Con[vrnation),
a social group per-
fOhmng mediatory functions bc-
tweeD ordinary men and women and
-
supernatural forccs and al ...o co
ducting religious rites., such a ... t::-
offering of .fOcri/ice.f, recitation
various of magical
manipulatIOn .. , In pnmltive socict
the did not exi st as a ...
anile socml group: act ... of worship
were celebrated hy trihal cider ... or
heads of famili es, Later these func-
ti ons came to be carried out by ...pc_
eifi c individuals - di vi ners, witch-
doctors, sorcerers, priests and pries,
tes. .. es. shaman .. , When primitive
communities hecame a thing of the
past and more clearly defined divi-
sion of labour and social differentia.
tion was the order of the day, then
the priesthood emerged as an inde,
pendent social group, an e .. tahli ...hcd
part of the ruling class, When build-
ings for purposes of worship began
to he ereetcd, then the prie .. thood
became institutionali7cd and ob-
tained an economic ba .. e for its elt-
istenee: corporations of priests were
set up in conjunction with the new
centres of worship and they hegan to
play an important part in the econ-
omic and political life of their
country, The priests in the temples
of Ancient Egypt and the countries
of the Middle East owned large
numbers of slaves and grew rich
thanks to the offerings of the faith-
ful. To a large extent the priesthood
was ahle to monopoli7e cultural and
intellectual life: priests kept
chronicles, committed to paper
work.. of folklore and recorded
tronomieal and other ohservable
phenomena, In the Judaea of
ancient times after the temple had
been built in Jerusalem, the priests
began to keep records which pro-
vided the basis for several Books of
the Old Testamellt, In the countries
of the Ancient World the priesthood
often assumed what were clearly
PRIMfilVE Ailil :t""
political and in some cases
theocraCIes emerged,
PRIESn..fo:V, (l1'n-IH04),
English natural s(:ienti,\t materi
alist philosopher, In hl'l mam phi Ins ..
ophieal work 'Disqui'iition .. on Mat
ler and Spirit" (1777) he defended
the idea to the effect that con"cioU"-
ness was material by nature and de
pendent upon the nervous sy ...tem
and the brain. lie opposed rC,ligiou"
conceptions of non-matenal and
immortal soul. Bemg an advocate of
deism, Priestley made certain con-
cessions to religious ideology. His
other works dealing with religious
matters include the "History of the
Corruptions of Chri."tianity" (1'?82)
and the "History of Early 0plDlOns
ConccrningJesus Christ" (1786"
PRIF..s'I'LY SOURCE See P'nta-
twc:h,
PRIMARY CAUSE or nRST
CAUSE, a concept in rcliganus and
idealist philosophy, which e:tpres5es
the creative and above all cosmo-
logical function of God, It is intro-
duced on the basis of the cosmologi
cal evidence for the existence of God:
tbe causally-conditioned nature of
all finite processes is extended to tn-
el ude the world as a whole, tn Euro-
pean philosophy the concept of the
primary cause was for mulated by
Aristotle, who understood it as an
impersonal "prime mover", Under
the impact of Christian thrl,m this
concept changes in the wal e (I f
more consistent presentation of the
analogy between the creation of the
world by God and Man's practic31
act ivity, God the Creator, as the
"motive cause", creates the world on
the basis of the whole range or idcas
in tbe divine mind, channelled to-
--
os,
0
... lh.c :'final (gual), .lind
,tnnuencc to bear on thl,;
world In hi" capacity a ..
Elaborated nn the ha\i ... uf a tu,
tAO ,.. .10&
(l lant<,m and Plafflnif
the concerning the prim;:Y
con ...tltutes at the prCM:n( time
an Important clement of TII()l'IIilm,
In. the contcxt of J7.IHth.ccntury
the wit of the primary cau<;t
IS reduced to thc creat ion of the
world and the tn tht
latter of the initial after
which the world devclopcd accord
ing to its own The inwnsi."t.
cney of the teaching regarding the
primary cause is dearly ohvlous in
the lightlf !.he principle of the sclf-
propulsion of maller, .,..hic.:h has
ocen CompH hcnsivcly \uktantiated
by contemporary materialist
opher$..
PRIMATE (Latin in
the Roman CQlhn!jc
Ouucha the titk given to the head
of the Church (e.g. (he Ar!;hbisbop
of Canterbury is the Primate or the
Anglican Church in Great Britain,
knov.'O. M the "Primate of All Eng-
land"), The tide usually that of the
chid bishop of ;) state or people.
PRIMITIVE ATHEISM, unco-ordi-
natcd atheist coneCplillOs
emerge in the course man's cog
nl
'
tion of the world and 10 the
of his socia- historical
which taken together constitute a
jettion of the supernatural .. n
terpret religion as a human
tion. Often primitive alhel ...m, IS
linked with a critiC3;1 .mockmg
ttitude 10 religioUS IOstltutlOnS
priests, It is m
t
'-reltmous and antldencal
an I 'e<- ., th ,m
,
Th
e ha."is {or pnmltlve a CI.
ore. . r
is the spontaneous matena I"" per-
I

."

ccplion of the . whi ('h .it
as it fintls it. Primitive atheism IS
reproducing itself as a fC
suit of man's material and non-rna
(crial activity. but it is neither pro-
found nor stable.
PRIMITIVE THEISM, a com-
promise variant the theory of
Primitive MonotheISm (!'Oce Umlono-
(Jurismus). Aflcr the failure of the
latter, Primitive Theism emerged as
its revised form, put forward by (he
Vienna School of ethnology. Pro-
ceeding from the legacy of it s
founder, Father WIlilelm Schmidt,
the adherents of the Vienna School
made an attempt to salvage the idea
of Primitive Monotheism, admittedly
in tbe form of faitb in a supreme
being. god or gods, in
various forms and substances. Primi
tive Theism was directed against
evolutionism and atheism.
PRIOR (Latin "former", "previous",
"superior"), (I) the monk in charge
of a small Roman Catholic monas-
tery or the one who ranked second
to Ihe abbot and dCpUlilCd for him;
(2) the superior of a house or group
of any of various rcligious
COlDmwuhes.
PROCEs..fi mEOU)GY, a variety
of 'Mdem ProteSl.anl philosophical
10 be found on a wide scale
lhe United States and Bri.
lam. It as based on Ihe nenrealism of
and Charles Hart.
-.::4"7 who proceeded from the as.
!hal to he real is 10 he "in
C H". to CODlinuaUy respond
"? the: and to have: a
If A'pew a1 dime ... ..
on; tnilt reality
:if 'III. o! a plurality of interrelated
. d::::r entities; and thai God
nempluteatioo aDd Dot
-
--
an exccption to the uhimall' m.
h
. I .. I t ta
p .YSll"a prmtl p lS. Ad\ oClk.\ IIf
thiS il lso Ihat ins()far
a,sc rt Hl ns ahoul
10;,1 !I is CS'"-Cn .
tlallo eslahll... h (,od Wllh10 the Ctln .
of modern elln.
.. s, I.e, on a hasls of specula.
li ve phIlosophy. The onlological
esscn,cc of G,xJ is interpreted as a
cosmi C process of ereativily, of
movement forward: God is constant_
ly embodying himself in his unen.
ding creati on of the world, Fun.
damental Christian concepts arc re-
vi ewed on this hasis. Process
theology was elaborated with par-
ticular intensit y in the 1%Os and
lQ70s as a secul ar variation on
Christianit y, and more orthodox the.
ol()gians sec in it a danger Ihat God
might tx: reduced 10 a mere philos-
ophical abstraClion.
PROCESSION, solemn ritual in the
Orthodox C"ureh when
and olher holy ohjects arc car
ri ed along in an orderly, cercmonial
way. A procession moves round Ihe
church during the Easter service and
another procession takes place dur-
ing the cclehratiun'\ for Epiphany
when water is hlessed.
take place 10 honour local
sacred ohjects and shrines. Some
times they arc hdd to mark an occa
sion of cxCt'ptional importance.
PR()(;RESS, a spcciallype of devel
opment, which involves not only ,
change, hut 81'\0 improvement, a
tr.tnsilinn from a lower to a higher
stage, is nul a universal
form of developmcnt, in particular,
it is nl)( to he f(Jund in many pro-
of development in non-or-
ganll: Nature. The concept of pro-
greM cannot. either be applied to the
PRj "i.( JP()V1(-11
._--
'"'
t In;,'t"r'C 1 wholt: (;. 10 the
h
11.:: of Ihe UhjCl-llvdy exl' I Ing rna
w' .' r d
WI'rlJ). Rcnlfl,mlulD" un I
redi,,";11 rfllgre J, vdopml nl
)0 IIf thr ,lnivcr5e k ,do; II, Ihl.;
!.:undu'>!!," ('nn!.: rnlng
the aml.cnJ wtJ, d
(!>ee Fngd'i, "An' I Mol";.
cnW, 197\ p. 11; .... 'IJIall c S
of Nillun.:'\ lfm, p. 3'1\
I I!> relatlVc I.n ,,-hMacICI' and
il i!> inlrin!>i!.: to InJlvldual fllrm
c
of
mO'll'ment ()f maller, particularly to
the biological and !>o(:i;11 v.uiclr Tile
criteria of pmgrc!iS are !!p tltl( In
each of the!!e fnrms. Social prORr ;.s
implie:'> dcvcl(lpment of s.oe _"v fc
ward and upwards from luwrr !!tag s
of dcvelopment 10 higher So
' f cial progress ,;hoult! nut inter
/ prelcd as a f?ool. (If historical dev\,.'
opmenl thai IS lall.1 IR .ad\"anee
The of sOCltly Ir detcr
mined l1y Ihe ul1jedive laW5 of i' dl.;
vc1opmcn! and in p:trlicul r by th
law of the correspondenc xtwel:. ,
the rciation'\ of production Ind the
nature uf the prodw.:tivc forces in
volved. Lenin conc.idlred that 1"...
devciopmenl..0' ____ln . duct-----r;-lfn' ,
was Ihe most Im,lr:anl "r ':, non 01
snd .. 1 progres. .... A mnre
system of production rcialiuns,
vidinggrcater scope fill the de v, 11'r-
ment of pnxluct ion and
full er and more pwfuund kno .... kdgr.:
of the world !>urro\1Oding men and
their utili /.ation uf Ihat knuwleJgc In
thei r pra(1ieal at.1ivily,
to a , .. 1 dcvchlpmcnt ID
productive FI <'m point or
view primItive l'ommunal. slav.;.
owning. feudal, capitali!;l amI
munist formations thl'
" main !i.tages of social progrC"!'. ... The
I' JlrOf.!,r css uf society ones not rule (lut
rcriods of rcgrCs. ...lnn, muvement
bad,ward. ... in certain spheres of life,
Some rn historia", an ' .
I . ( \I IinoCIIl
ogl'ilS Arnalll Toynhce, Pifmm So-
idea of social pro-
gress WIth Ibc Illea of cydical dt:vcl-
O(mll_.nt, of chililOllion,
plcturco; of th\: dcmist.
of IK the incv1table
:)f SCIt'nllrll. and ttthniwi fJrogrc !.
I hw-c: ideas arc hy con\cTDDI.-'
ary theologian., who with refe ren.
10 try to li,umlanti"te ..
lugical c with regard '0
Ihe end' the world.
PROKHA"'IOV, hall (1869.1935),
rdigmu .. and p "itical rlgure, k3dc
, he AII-Rnstia=? Union of Evan-
gdil.:aI On ,'.n 1908-1913) In
Mal h Q h\: ound..:d the
ti n Dcmocratil. Puty to(N,'!. IS
"l tlls aUilu1 10 Ihl
RCVl ullOn was
undn pr . ' .re hM1 lank
c -:'Itli \'Cr h. adop'ci a
mon kl) I 'anc.: 1:1 rc'ilion 10 Ihc
L In 19:8.. h
cnlg; tea fri on fx l " 'SR.
PR()KOPO\ IlIl, FMfan 11681,
17lh). Ru '10 51all:. InaD .Jnd
Church Icae:, r wri ler and lSSQ, iate
I)i Peter the i ireal" he bcclme a
hishop in t71B, or
the HoIv Synod of Iht RU$,tiafl Orfho-
dar Churrlr in Int, I'tnd helwten
1724 and death hr was
bishop of No\'goroo: In the "SPIri-
tual Regulation" which hr. drew up
(r rgull tions for thr of I.he
Hllly Syn,II.l), in his JX.lhllcal trcalL\e
"The Truth l'unCr.:rnlTlg the MOD-
arch's Wdl" ami other Pro-
kn('l(l\ich ju.slilied the llH?htuln of
the and the
lion of the Iioly Synod, gave
lrl 10 Peler's. reforms and e a n-
P< d d f ahSlllut-
ale I eas 0 OP I.d
. He was onc of the rnlY.'l earne
ISm.
rRoMt:I1I1t;S
men of day and was involved in
the up of the Russian Acade-
my of Sciences.
PROMETHEUS (Greek word
meaning "forethought"), in the
mythology of Ancient Greece, a
Titan and men's defender in faee of
the arbitrary rule of the gods and the
pal ron of the human race. In order
to benefit mankind, Prometheus
sci7.cd fire from Olympus, and ear-
ried it secretly down to earth. For
this he was sentenced to eternal tor-
ment. The figure of Prometheus he-
came a symhoJ for the mighty un-
swerving champion or men's inler-
ests.
PROMISED LAND, the name given
in the Bible to the land of the Ca-
naan. "nowing with milk and honey"
(Exod. 3:8), that was promised by
God toAbrahom.
PROOFS OF THE EXISTENCE
OF See E,;dence for the exist-
enctofGod.
PROPHEO', RELIGIOUS, the pre-
of the f1:'ture found in many
relIgIOUS teacbll1gs and which is
bavd allegedly on the fact that
r:;opbets &Jean their information
.rom &upematural sources. Rclig-
10tII occupies an import-
place In Bible. Faith in relig-
15 to be found in many
rcl .. IlI'iafs a particularly large
h!-.1R Islam, .Slnce, ft!oha'!1med., the
.:Nt Act or thIS rehglon, IS its main
iFhIIl IlIdSlanding prophet.
(fr?", the Greek
meaning "recenlly 81-
person who has adopted a
an ardent retent CClihert
convert tOJlldQism).
-
PROSF.LYfISM, (I) the
("onvert to nwn faith to
of <In(lthcr; (2) ardent
recently emhraced faith. to a
PROSF-RPINA. Sec Persephone.
PROTAGORAS (t. 4l<()410 B '
phlh).;.opher of Ancient ,... .( .),
r . r ,rtcece
otlnucr n the Sophist school. H'
man as the measure of
thlOg.<;, of whether or not thing," .
St
.' r h' ' ... XIS\'
out t Is.. he maintained
that It was Imposslhle to know
whether or not. gods exist, or what
do they look like and that a great
stands between us and the defi.
mte answcr In that question. Prota.
gOfas rc.gardcd as the result
of the 81fts of Fire and Art made to
men hy Prometheus, arter he had
stolen them from the gods, and of
the gifts of Shame and Truth made
to men hy ZClI.r. He was hanished
from Athens, and his book about the
gods was burnt.
PROTECTING VEIL OF THE
MOTHER OF (iOD, TilE, one of
the major festivalc; of the OTflwdox
CII/lrch. Although it is nol one of the
Twe/l'e Great Feast.f, it is still known
as a (ireal Fcast. It is celebrated on
October 1 (14). It derives from the
legcnd to the effect that in the year
910 the Mother of God appeared 10
the God's Fool Andrew and his dis-
ciple Epiphany in Con!>tantinople
and sprcad over them as they prayed
a white veil ("omophorion") and
scnt aloft a prayer for the world to
be saved from and suffer-
ing. In view of the fact lhal the
Mother of God was regarded as the
patron of peasants, many
nents of the andent Slavonic fClUI'
vilies were retained in the ritual of
tbis festival: a procession carrying
-
sheaf of corn, a !>pecial baJ.aT to
mark the refilival and so on.
PRoTESTANT PIIIUlSOPHY.
The RcfonHatioll reafrirmed relig-
ious faith as man'!\ pcrsonallink with
God. Mo11jll Luther advocated truly
religious k.nowledge of God as a
counterweight to secular Rea.c.oD, in-
cluding sehola..c;tic speculation .. In
this way Reason was taken outSIde
the bounds or religious faith and be-
reft even of the role which the Scho-
lastics had attributed to it, when they
bad described philosophy as the
".,
f!;.ail\ Barth's diQlecticQI tilro-
d. '. W IC appeared in Ihe 192Os,
Isml<.SCd liberal Prot t .
"\ .. . as
alCllallon" of failh: it
for the resolution (If philnor.-
ophlcal that had been cia-
In the
of whO!.C (If
Chrlshan faith wa.<; ba<oed on the
of the 'paradt1xicaiity',
,and man'.,
Wlthm It. Despite the link
tht:ology and
eXlStcntlalist philosophy, Barth's
supporters continued to maintain
God cannflt be the object o[
philosophical cognition, and that he
does not need emotiom. or Rea.<,iJn
to become the ohjcct of man', relig
ious faith. The negative approach by
Bartbian Dco-orthodoxy to philos-
ophy gave voice to the way in wbich
it bas "retreated" tD the advocation
of blind faith. This is why the olher
major figure in modem Protestant
theology, Paul TIlljeh, sct himself the
task. of reconstituting the lost !i)'tt'
:10 "handmaiden" oftheology. It was on
that basis that the "antiphilosophi-
cal" Protestant tradition grew up,
represented in the 20th century by
the neo-crlilodoxy of Korl BaTfh. Yet
Protestantism itseJ could nOl avoid
philosophical interpretation of a
number of important theological
concepts to substantiate its dogma.
This led to the appearance of Prot-
estant lhe foun-
dations of whieh had been laid by
Luther'S righthand man Philipp
Melanchtllon. It existed up until the
18th century when it was ousted by
the Leibnitz-Wolff school. /(Dnt's
teaching on religion and his criticism
of scholastic metaphysics and the
existing Church, his acccptance of
God as the postulate of practical
reason and guarantor of morality,
were utili7.ed by Protc!>tant theologi-
ans and proffered as Protestant phil-
osophy of religion. The vieWS of Frie
drieh Sehleiemlaeher (1768-1834)
also played an important role in the
development of Protcstanti!>m: h,:
had formulated fundamentals of
"liberal theology" which maintained
that the source of faith lay in "relig-
ious experience", latent in maD him
self, in other words, in a particular
&tAte of the individual as the subject
of Cbristianity and modem
con.<ociousnen, including. among
other tbings, philosophy. He sug
gests that Chri.<;tian dogma should.be
reinterpreted with tbe help of exist
entialist philosophy. The programme
and methods used for the demytbo-
logization of proposed
by the theologian Rudolf
Bultmann were expounded. on the
basi!> of the existentialist philosophy
of Heidi&'tr. A highly typical fcallR
of contemporary tho&J8bI
is its pbilOftOphicai edeCUCI!m .
PR(}1l:STAN11SM, OM _ 01
thrtc main moyemtOU wdhiD =
titlllity. atony- ROlli ,
cism .... the ()rt/oo4t# QIorIO\- D
embfar:es a Iar&< ..-III iIII
ate aDd iMepeal.r!1
!":?- . _ _ _ _ _ ___ .. , 1 A"J n SM __ _
.
--_.-
sects linked by the fact thai Ihey
originat ed in cnnncclion with thl'
Rc/omlorinn - the broad anli -Calh
olic movement in 16th-ccn/ufY Eu-
rope. In 1526 the Diet of Speye r, on
from the Lutheran pri n-
ces of Germany, adopted a resolu-
tion 10 the cITce( that every German
prince had the right 10 for
himself and his suhjects the religi on
thought fit. However, the Second
Diet of Speyer in 1529 reversed thi s
decision, and in response (0 Ihis a
"II" d pro cs was rna c by five princes
an.d. a numhcr of citie.<;, hence the
ongm of the term "Protestant ". The
bourgcoi<;ic, which opposed the
Roman Catholic Church that ap-
prov,cd. of feudalism. aimed not at
it, bUI al "amending" iI,
reformmg and adapting it to suit
Its own class interests. Protestants
share the concepts of the existence
of his Iriune nature, the
MOffa"t)' .of the soul, Heaven and
Hell rejecting the Roman
Catholic Idea of Purrmtol'\') d""
Tel l,- ' n- ' 07' l\lne
'f! a Ion and so on, that are eom-
I'?Oft to all Christians. At the same
time they put forwa,d lh
. . ree ncw
salvation through r-
the universal
aUlhorily the exclusive
source of ible as the only
to
bad perverted h ' ""0> ngUlo Jill
h" r e nature of man
1m 0 hIS cap 't ,
and therefore he y I or
salvation owin on y achlcve
Christ's redem
g
1,0 faith in
than through phve sacrdice, rather
mOIlS and works, soaa-
I
" ba' ar.cct1C15m, EveN ('h "
VillI heen "chosen" '1 rt5-
ti7.ed, receivc. .. inif' ,and hap.
natural Into super.
tight 10 preach a:;lh God and
VICeS without ,condul1 !OCr-
medialors (i.e. a
nr thl' dergy). Th' "-
that In rrutl\t' lnt i, m Ih 1\ m('"an\
d
... . l' dna '
I\ tlhl tltln tx' tWl'l' n th ' .r-moill e
t he la)' m'm j. d c pncq an
1
. . . nne away . h U
Il h'wl .. e the (' hureh I. ,'". ilnd
',. . 11 .... r,lrcy ..
or pa .. tnr\ In P" ' I . ' ''lin
. C\ tant Ch
ches do nut han: th . Ur -
I
e nghtf
examp e, to hear con f" . . , (It
" h ' ... SSlon<; or I
glvc a solutl(," from \ in d "
_ ' s an the
arc am;wcr;lhl e to the ir y
t" I h congrCD"3
Ion. n t c Protestant Ch C""
Ihe, e " II" '
I S no 0 ) Igall on to C i"h .
thc cle rgy. Va rious 02' of
also introduced in pall o "r c.c
h
" P rns 0 WOr
S Ip, rot esta ntism did away with
many of the sacrame nts leavi .
tact onl y 80pli'lm and G" n,n& In-
" d ' " mil,
an It also rejected the con
('cpt Ion of Grace. Praye rs for th -
dead we re a lso r e)'ccted .,s " e
. ' ...,
of (he saints and man
the saints,
ship of re li cs and icons. Prote\tant
pra>:er houses contain no ri ch dec.
orallon, alt a rs, icons, statues and
have no hell... enhancing the
role of the lady In their Church
rej ect mona<; teri es and
Protestant scrvices are
cx:t
r
cmc1y Simple and consist of lillJc
than a sermon, prayers, and
smgmg of the psalms, all in the vcr
bacular, The Bihle was proclaimed
y them to he thc only source of
whilc the Apostolic Tradition
The Bihle was trans-
thc languages of the JlCo-
pes which had adopted Protestant
and. the and interprctation
ceased to he considcred
!".In , as Wa5 the case in the
Roman Catholic Church hut is
rather reDarded "' hi"
t' eo as a pnmary 0 Iga-
Tn every believer. The principlc
I
n prieM hood laid the
(lundah,'ns r h d "
n' . ' (lr t c cmocrallc N-
ga of the Protestant com-
mUDltres (e I"
qua Ily of laymen and
PROVII)I-.NIlAI
"
appointment by clt.:{:li
t
ln,
and !"', nn). The first
rorrn'> or protc1.tanll\m I.uther
oniJm, and ( ob'miml.
and
Sociniani .. m S(K'/omom), Ana
baptism (:.ee AnoIJopfl.fl.f), the
nonite (hurch hce MrnnOlules),
and the AnKlicon Church, Later a
number of movement'! grew up that
came to be known Late Protes
tantism: Bap/i.fU, MethodiJt.r, Qlla-
kers, AdvenliJts. Jehovah's lYifnesses,
MormonJ or "Church of JesU\ Christ
of LaUerDay Saints", the SOll'ollon
Army, Cllristian Science, Pent,. '05/0(5
etc. Most of these movements took
shape under the banner of the "re
ligious revival", a return to the idc:ds
of early Christianity and the Reror,
mation. At the present time Protes-
tantism is lAidespread in tbe Scandi
navian countries.. the USA,
Germany, Great Britain, the NClhc'
lands, Canada, and Switzer"and. Thc
world centre for Protestantism he
United States, whell'f'! ';,cre
been established the hl"3dquartcrs
the Baptists, Adventists.. Jehovah's
Witnes,<;cs etc, A characttristic I'ca
ture of prescntday Proltslanti.\Itl is
the drive for integration. which
found an outlet in the World Coun,
cil of Churche\, set up in 1948, The
theology of Protestantism, an ,,,,n
shoot of mainstream Christ ian idr.Q-
logy, went t hrough a numflCr t11
stages in its development.
were orthodox Protestant Lheology
of the 16t h century (Lutlrt'r. Callin),
nco-Protestant or lihera lthcology of
the 18th and 19th centuries (Frie
dnch Schleiermachcr, Ernst .. cll
and Adolf von lIamoclc) , crisis t/u'cr
log}' or dialectical theology which
appeared aft er the First World War
(Karl Barth, Paul 7illil,;h and Rlldnif
BultmlJlln), radical or new theology,
which became. 'd
Second World after the
hOt'ffer ct a!.), (Dltmch 80"-
PR<YfOP()PF. (from h .
word" "rrotos" ,t e (,reek
.. mearung "fit,." and
P<JPa.\ meaning "priest") t
I... r: ' ... . n
. J"'"', nrst in rank. of the
prieM:" or a cathedral in the 0111
hChurch, is a\\O nftcn a ti:k
o. onour glVcn to ntl n.monar.til
have achlc".d personal
through thei r individual
oontnl,ghon and 10 th
Cburch. e
a<.:cording 10 the
held by helievers and accord
mg to re'igiou... 'eachir.gs.. INs lo.
God's actl\"itv whKh determmes the
"":1olc cour-, . ,-... nl" in the world,
In its cxt.rCfTk; form Ihis belief can
lead tofatalUm,
PRQ\lDENTIALlSM, IheologKal
c. necplion of history as determined
t-y G{>d.. according 10 which any SG-
\.'01 c\'Cnt and historv as a whok uc
set in molion by the
and testify 10 the presence or God in
the v.-orld: they pro\ldc
lions of hi<; Mil and embody the
already set hy (jod himself pre,
viou. ...ly. Provident ialism ilo closely
l-tound up wit h In Chris
fionin' the ideas of pwvid(: ntiali!lm
were d ahorated by many apologists
and later hy the Fo/hm of tht
C11UT("1I: they wcre expounded sysle
matically by Sl. of
who in bis .....ork '"The City of (,od
dcpil1Cd world as the .ao:om'
plishmcnt of a JHan at
enabling men to altaIR the K.ingdo
m
of God in !he life after !?'!i
ing the Middle (he ,
Providcnliali ... m dtlfTllnalccl
cal and philO5Ophicai
I
PRYUUNS
rope. At the prescnt time allempt!;
are being made to revise and m(Xl
erni7.e these ideas hy the adherents
of "Christian philosophy of history"
(Jacqlles Marilain, Reinhold Nit'b"hr
et a1.). The ideas of Providentialism
coincide in large measure with the
teaching of Is/om on the subject of
predestination and provide an ade-
quate base on whicb to explain its
T!tese virtually jus-
SOCIa! and oppression
Inherent In society, which they pres-
ent as the eternal, preordained
order", in which man is the
passIVe tool of God's will.
PRYGUNS (Russian U Jumpers")
also known as Spiritual Christian;
or Maxlmists, one of the ecstatic
and eschatologicallrends in the Mtr
17'!es' movement. The emergence
o thIS sect. :which look place in the
was linked with the name oC
t e peasant, Maxim Rudomyotkin
.the name "'Maxim;!;ts") The
dlSllDdlve of this
prayer meetmgs was a high de e
the believers
the} assiduously, trying to seeure
h of the Holy Spirit" In
from to 1911
Dia. Smr enugrated CaliCor-
,(011"<1 wiJ;hj':OUPS are stlU to be
USSR. the borders of the
PSALMS,
which con-
in the

... wy and
liIhed a ........_ have estab-
Chriiti.aD .for themselves in
dMded iat They can be
of
- 0 erent_ .
pra e to the Lor e."'nres. SODgs
meats and curses I d. prayers. la-
poetry 0"" . n the WOrld of
'-:;1005
arrangemenlS of
or pas ....ages rro ...
be found. m them are 10
the Greek"
non meanlDg a "t . psalte_
mcnl"), (I) anothc: Instru_
B,ook of Psalms, especial! e the
slon found in the t e Vcr_
Common Prayer' (2) Book of
musical or mClrica1 v a
Psalms. erSlon or the
PSYCHE, in the myth I
Ancient Greece the 0 of
of the human
resented as a beautiful girl rep_
ferfly wings. She was loved bWlyk but
.".
PSYCHOANALYSIS. See F,.."
ISm. '''I4UUUJ-
PSYCHOLOGY OF BELIEVERS
features of the state of mind
of rehgtous people which Sle [
th'r" mrom
. err. ruth In the supernaturaJ Un-
I!ke Idealist and theological
":',hicb attempt to find so:C
dl""ne or religious essence in
s. mental state (Rudolf Otto's
rehgIous sense" or Carl Jungs con-
cept of the "collective unconscious"
and so on), Marxism starts out from
the ,fact tbat the laws underlying
man s mental activity are one and
same for believers and non-be-
alike. The mentaJ state of be-
lievers differs from that of non-belie-
vcrs only insofar as many of tbe
of believers (cog.
iltlve, volitional) come to
ocus on tbe of religious faith
(G<><;t. tbe SPInt etc.). In this way the
sre,afic features of tbe psycbology of
believers are neitber pbysiological
nor general-psychological in ebarac-
teud ralher 10 be of the
sb ... vanCtY: they are
al"-'U VI the way 111 which an indi-
P10I.J:.MY

vidual come!\ 10 a..'i.... imilate a particu

I faith and rrum the 50-
I environmenl in which he find ..
th.e dept.h
or itItensity of rchgJOu\ f8lth. lhl!>
can have a greater or a. in
f1ue
nCC
not only on mdJVId.uaJ's
mind. but also on hi!> behavIOur .
Cases are at\O to be found (although
noW these are rare) in which relig-
ious faith almost totally moulds both
the content of an individual's views
and his behaviour in society.
46'
rooted, in tbool
olic, Protestant,
frequently U"S 'd _I:. --: and II
.. .- I phil b
In lIs ddencc. and jmt'fi y
C1uistianity Various I 'C:
hon
of
theories used to e
aln rehpoU$
the field t:::Om.
ry
Freudlaru. .. m) and 50 on P h t
fl"
o re '8'on, when aimed toward& the
defence of a particular religion b
to find effective means to
the. younger generation and 10 COII-
solidate tbeir piety. In the context of
of religion as pursued by
speafic denominalioos. pastoral
psychology has been singled out " a
means for helping priests to learn to
use psyehotog;ca1 data ia their _.
PSYCHOLOGY Qt. RELIGION,
one of the fields of scientific re-
search dealing with religion. It in-
volVes tbe study of psychological
patterns to be discerned in the
emergence, development, operation
and dying away of religious phe-
nomena in social, group and individ-
ual consciousness; the content,
structure and orientation of those
phenomena, their place and role ,n
religion and their influence on
spheres of activity outside religion
for society, the group and indi .. id
uals. The main content of the psy-
chology of religion is the
chological explanation for religIOUS
phenomena. Marxist psychology of
religion avails itself of the dialecti
cal-materialist method and a1so of
tbe. methods used in general
logtcal and socia-psychological .. e-
In the West, psychology of
rehgton deveh.ped at the turn of the
century thanks to the works of such

SClenllsts as Wilhelm Wundt. Wdliom
James and James lAlba. Within this
field. both secular and church-orien-
trends emerged. The philosop-
hlc.al. for secular psychology of
IS providcd by various ideal
l!l philosophical trend.o;, e.g. positir-
u,m.. pragmori.rm. phenomenology.
ChrlStlan psychology of religion is
PTAH. ia the m)1hology of AncieDt
Egypt, the initial Creator-God and
God of the Dead who was 'tIO!'-
shipped at Memphis. Later (during
the \fiddle and New Kingdoms) be
assumed within the all-Egyptian
pantheon the role of creator of all
that exists He was depided in the
form of a mummy, with a bare bead
and a rod. standing astride the hie-
roglyph that represented Trutb. Flab
was said to possess the capacity for
opening tbe moutbs of Ibe dead in
order to restore life to them.
PTOLEMY, Cladius
(c. 9O-c. 168), Greek astronomer and
geographer, wbo deWed Ihe
ocentric system of the
major work., kDOWD by itS Arabtc
title tbe "Almagest", was a complete
tenbook of astronomy based OIl that
system. The geocentric system
placed the Earth lbe 01
finite Universe. ....inch was III
ing ""itb the Christian ;::C:*:
of tbe world, and t
PURl _Ie PM YI ;. R MI J -: n N( i
Middle Ages this was ulili7ed
and supported by the Church. It wa!\
tinally refuted by Copemicus' he
lioccnlric system.
PUBLIC PRA VER MEETIN(;, rul>-
lic service held to orrer thanks to the
Lord or to petition him (knm,'Tl as
"molehcn" in the Russian Orthodox
Church), as distinct from private
prayer.
PURGATORY, according to Roman
Catholic teaching, the place or state
between Heal'en and Hell, where
Sfluls or sinners whose sins were nol
forgiven during Iheir earthly life. but
who arc not weighed down by mortal
sins, bum in purifying: fire, before
being admitted to Heaven. Roman
Catholic theologians interpret this
time or ordeal in dirrerent ways.
Some regard tbe fire of Purgatory as
a and see in it the pain of
conSC1ence and repentance, while
otbers recognize the reality of this
tire. The fate or .the soul in Purga-
tory can be alleVIated and the time
spent there can be reduced on the
strength of "good works" in memory
of dead person, by his or her
aDd close friends remaining
_ behind on Earth, The ph,ase "good
works" is. held to imply saying
gomg Ma.\S and making
1nIlcriaI donahODS for the good of
the whole family. Concepts of Pur-
gatory had begun 10 take shape as

... 1y the 1st. century A.D.

_"OIiC teacl"n8 Was elaborated h
St. Aqllinas. The d !
OD6CC,,""I Purgalnnt Was ogm
by .... CooociI -" accepted
_ ratified in (1439)
of Trent. 'The Ortood:: the Council
lanl <.. ... urch . x and PrOlcs-
. reject lbe leaching
concer ... Purgalory.
-
PllRIM (Ikhrcw Word _
"lUI .... ), Jc",i ... h fe"'lival
Ihe deliverance or Ihe JcW!\ fChrallng
rn.'I"Mlcrc planned for the
Wlded Haman during th } the
the Pcr<; ian king Artaxccrxrctgn of
century B.C), which is (4th
the Old Testament Book of
(Chaptcr Q). t Cr
PURITANS, English Calvin' ,<, h
d h
.,swo
supportc I e smglc.mindcd .
of the idcas of the
/onllatlOli In England in the 16th d
17th centuries and the transfo,.!:_
of the Anglican Chllrch in the
Splflt of consistent Protestantism
":'he Puritans demanded the
of th? Church hicrarchy and the
mtroductlon of. the universal priest-
hood of all believers, the separation
of Church and State, and simpler rit-
ual. These demands reflected in re.
ligious form, the socio-politic'at and
moral of the emergent
The Puritans played a
conspIcuous role in the preparation
for a.nd thc carrying through of the
English bourgeois revolution of the
17th ccntury.
PUSlYN (rrom the Russian "de-
sert" or "wilderness') or HERMIT-
AGE, a remote monastic community
in the Runian Orthodox Church.
This word later came to be used to
rerer to large monasteries as weU.
PYTHA(;OREANISM, a religious
philosophical teaching and a
soc,o-political movement in Ancient
(jreecc in the 6th-4th centuries
B.C. II was named after Pythagoras
of Samos (lsi half of the 6th cen-
tury). The' leaching was bao;cd on
recognition of number as Ihe pri
principle underlying all Ihal
CXL\lS and recognition of matbe
I'Y I lilA
'"
-- -
_ .' 1 J,S I hI" hw,j\ of I he
f1'I
allC
t Irudurc ("thinK" arc m',lde
work Their mathl:mailcil
of num . ". ns. led "yth,'gorc:IR'" In
CIK"Cup,1 II . "
pr . a of numhcr'\" attn Jul
C\'111"c ,h'. 'it ... 1 len (lhc "Dec u.lc"
'010,,11. .1"
"Od . con ...tilUcnl c\t;mcnh) ulVlnc
an It... . Ph 1 ,
, " According tn I u au,"
IC r .
p "0 cadc perform .. all undlot1S
'he
d
. c Ihe underlying principle or
an IS . .1 h . Ir
. . celestial anu uman
dlVlnC, . 1 ' , .. 1
The a ..
o
.. gateu
the idca of the of
wis. In thc 4th century S.L Py
almu"t hcc .. fw
wi lh Plaflmism. hut camc 1010 ;\e;
own again in the lsi century B.Cn
-
the fnrm (Jf. N\,:o,Py1h;lg'lfc m,m.
1 he laller numhcn as lru.
prototypes t)f all thing.o; are
created hy God.
y\TBl A, a pric\tc .. " and
ill the temple. of Apollo in Odphl
Delpllic Oradt!) in Anctcnt
(j reel"C. Pythia pwnnunccd the wi ll
or the god !l ining on a golden tripod
and while in an tc<:l alic .. tatc, whi(h
"he achi eved hy hre81hing in the poi
'>I)fI(lUS vapums frllm the cleft in the
rock. The mutlcring.o; or the prophe-
tess were interpreted and sci down
in vcr<;t; by pri est" connected with
the shrine of Apollo.
,
QAOARITES (from the
"qadar" meaning "fate", "predestl.
nation"), foUo,weTS a Moslem the
ologicaJ teacbmg, which at
tbe end of the 7th century and which
acted as a counter-ba1ance to the
teaching of the laban'tes, who in-
sisted on absolute predestination, It
recognized that Man free
will and therefore also the ability to
take responsibility for his own ac-
tions, For the ruling elite of Moslem
society both these teachings proved
useful: the teaching concerning pre-
destination gave it the possibility to
maintain that the power in the hands
of the authorities was the result of
divine predestination, while the
teaching concerning Man's free wiU
aJlowed it to demand from the indi
vidual that he be responsible for his
actions before the law,
QADI or CADI, (1) the judge in
Islam, He examines civil and crimi-
nal cases and makes decisions on the
basis of the SIuuia; (2) the repre-
sentative of the Religiou. .. Director-
ate for Modems in Soviet Central
Asia and Kazakhstan, who effects
the of the mosques
functioning Wlthm the territory of a
particular republic,
QA.RMA!lANS, a Moslem sect, the
radical branch of the /smoilis.
This movement came into being at
the end of the 9th century in south-
ern Iraq and later "pread to Syria
and Yemen. It was anti-feuda) in
character, and its ,,""':'AI b .
.............a aSJS was
provided by, the peasantry, Bedouin
nomads., artIsans, who were fighting
for a return to communa1 land-te_
nure and for equality for freemen,
while retaining slavery. They led a
number of uprisings in the Baghdad
Caliphate and in 899 they set up a
state in Bahrain (eastern Arabia)
which existed till the end ofthe lIth
century. In the Qarmatian state
money-lending was forbidden. the
laws of the Sharia were Dot recog-
nized, there were no mosques and
the free peasants and artisans did
not pay any taxes. The cruelty of the
Oarmatians towards those who did
001 accept their teachings repeUed
large sections of the masses and by
the beginning of the 12th century tbe
sect had virtua.lly ceased to exist.
QUADRAGESIMO ANNO. See S(}-
ciol encyclicals of the Papacy.
QUAKERS or the SOCII;n OF
FRIENDS, a Protestant sect which
appeared in England in the 17th
century. The founder of the sect was
a weaver, George Fox. A specia1 fea
ture of Quaker teaching is the asser-
tion that the true faith does not .)\
manifest itself in one or other
Church teaching but in the act of "il-
lumination by the Holy Spirit"
through the "Inner Light" which tes-
tifies to the eternal presence of
Christ in each believer and which
points the way to moral perfection.
The Holy Scn'plures are regarded as
only and indisputable source of
fcuth. The recognition by the Qua-
I

. . "
r illumlnatl
on
as
r
he
actn
rh
ker.i (I t 0 all
the f,Urrcnlc external rilUal. In
led whae they pray
the mec;t1ng eli iOU1 such
there are:: ()Uakf. .. deny
aitar'! . .. 't and reg.: rd rr-
d for pries ., h
the .nee the frre expression 0 t e
.. of any me.. 'nner of
Jedarc all
(Iely. e heir society to be equal.
tthe possibility of the on
FaLth ,,0 provcmeot and advance f
1m tual nature has left it
Ma
n
k
s the moral principles of
these include demands
for unconditional honcs.ty mr rda
b
. between members cae
that .mc:-nbcrs :Id
work without fall, mamag!';: lei
be observed and I\: t
honour their elders etc There
is an a.o;cctie flavour )\xmt. the Oua-
kers' moral teachings; the they
preach are of a strongly pacift.: na
ture Charitable works arc Wlf" Y
The social teachings of
the Ouakers often correspond 'o1oith
tbe ideas or social refc1mism md n
practice they can be summ "'nzeCl
ideas to the effect that wcla' con
flicts can be pcaccruUy esC"' v d ....11
/ the help of the "eternal 01 the
Gospel". At the pre ent time there
are communities of Quakers n C;-,
lain, the United States, ( lOaeta anu
the countries 01 East Atfle 1; 1{ S0-
ciety has about OO,(XX) roUowers.
QUBBA. $I:C
QUlmSM, d and
movement that appearea in the
Roman Catholic Chun.:h in tbe 17th
cent ury, its fundamental idea, hems
c<;,mplcte passivity and annihilation of
WI ll. Qui etism carried the Christian
li..mand for Man' s meek submis,sion
'"

t.., the will of (,od to 1 he POint lr falal
1! tic indifference even to own !al-
lotion. (}uicli .. m was condemned bv
the Church leaders. In 1t5
meaning it can he equated 'WIth
5Mty and contemplatiun.
QlMRAN an as-
cetic community
from thl,: 2nd century S.C' 10
the ht o.;.ntury A.D. lD the vicinity of
Khirbct Oumran on the fohore f
':Ic Dead Sea (in lordanian territorv
'" Jrc.,tlv occupied by brac1), lis
were followers of Jud!ilim
but they "'id nol re4:ogni/.c the powe r
of thr. 'tih ... esls, They Jefc" d to
hClr c mmune lS he New (m'enant
(meaning a CDV'_: nt with (Je :J), ana
til themselves the of Light'
th ndigenC' the "lmple men"
They ... It........-:d thai th ... ""to would
come I C: 1 IV Iltle betwe ... ., the
50. 0' ..ight an_ the '" .n :
Darkr. and thai th"'., Evil would
he dcfl te 1 While waiting for his
triumph 1111 . (. ontained e<>m
munity went a ut its Liff Ttu
hers ntroduccd ommunal >P'" rty.
co LfC_ .... . k. . tIC v ..vere opposed
to slavcrv. ,1 I te het omf :l
nembcr or th a candl'
:Jat_ had to unders?
Wilhin lbt" commuDlty strict dL'>Cl'
plinc was obsen,"c d: it was by
priestJ; junior (I.e. those
who bad nol 'tet undergune allte<;t<;)
were subordinate to st nior mem-
bers. Thl ft 'under of the. sect was rc
a:r. kind of "'!'eacher .of
who w.hlle
N-ing persecuted bv an Implo,us
priest ". Members or the commumty
believed that he to
Earth. This community. which was
part (If the &sene was
during the JCWlSh War
against tbe Romans (66- 73), The
OL'RHAN-Il:\IRAM
ideology of the Qumran community
had a marked innuencc 110 the de-
velopment of early Christianity.
QURBAN.BAIRAM (Kurbonbalr
am, Qarbaa-bairam), Id alAdha,
one of the main
celebrated each year by the
lems on the tenth day of the month
of Ohu'I-Hi.ija (tbe 12th month in
-
the lunar calend) -
of faithrul o:r
th
/
sfo
fl1
thai they sac.:rifi(:e an aat, day
cuI the thm"! of a an nlTnal:
C(lW or a camel. Thi$ fc'" ox, a
d d h
. l\Ial
a optc y the Mu"lcm, r "
L. rorn th
Aral>:'> of ancient who .\
(ked to the l'oaCl
b
,.
h
',,1..
I C) mlt",t men '
plentiful han'e,,)" In
S etc,
I
R
RABBI (Hehrew word me;:aning
"my ma ...ter" or "my teacher"), are
ligious minister in Judoism who u-
bilratcs in of
and family differences within the
community. The Rabhinate,
or the Rabbis as a body, interpret
the found jn !he To/-
I
t mud, adapting them so that they
. mayoc compatible with the obtain-
ing social it also seeks
to give leadership in all matters
concerning the spiritual and pali:_
cal life of the mas-<;cs.. particularly m
present-day whr _ for all 10-
tents and purpo! s it .s carrying out
a numbe.,. of state "undioDS.
RABELAIS, (c. 1494-
1553), French humanirt wnte who
took a sceptical VIew uf religa ... .Js
doctrines and who opposed religious
fanatici<;m. Rabelais' novels "Panta-
gruel" (1532/3) and "Gargantua"
(1534) were hanned on account of
the implieil In th'_n.
The main idea In theSt' novels was
the rejection of asceticism, giorifica<
tion of the comprehensive,
and physical of the indi-
vidual's needs and his limitless de
velopment. The embodiment of
dream of the happy life
wa.<; to be found in the utopia of the
Abbey l)f Thtt'l; a fantastic rf'olC(:t
for the "rganization of a mon:lst{,f),
tn which men and women Wt ,uld
lead a Cre, life and where there
would he no oppression ntither
from feudal lords nor from the
Churt'h
10'
RAOCUn"E-BROWN AlrrN R
nald (IAA1.1I)SS),
graphcr and one of the
founders of tbe trend tn
He elaborated tbe idea
?{ SOCial anthropology" --research
Into the general laws of MX:ial and
cultural development via study of
!hc modern Slate of peoples .
mg at the stage of primitivc.lSOcicty.
"RADEN lYE". See Ecswtie ritual or
"radetJiye"
RADiSHCHEV, (:749-
18(2), founder:11 be Russj;!Q revol-
utionarv tradition, writer and ma-
te rialist -,hiloso[ll::: His main phil-
G- . re Itise IS "0 ke,
ycgo 1 (On
Mao, His Mortality and His 1m
mortality. 1792). He deliberately
c :>Dtrasted in that work I.:onduslons
dra\\1J bv materiafuts on the Me
"and and .. n the other with
reg:vd to the queSiion of the.: mor
:lity fnd immonolity (If the soul.
Allbaugh leaves it up
to the relld,'r to make his choice
himself, The undeniable weakness of
the idealist arguments cannot help
bUI !itand out. Radishehev rejects
thf conclusion 10 tbe effect thai the
soul be immortal. At the samc time
he demonstrates thal a numhcr of
fadS connected with the activity of
men's minds arc: incompatible ""ith
{he tenets from which mctaphY"ical
materialist!> start out, whom he him-
self supported. His mOSl famous
work is a novel entitled 'puteshest
...
RADUNITSA
riJe iz Peterburga v Moskw" (A
Joumey from 51. Pctersburg 10
M(Jsoow. 1190), ill which he con
dellUled autocracy and .. rfdom in
Rani'
UIIlJNI1'SA ... RADONITSA, 'he
., S 00*1'''''' "iIJfiItioa oltbe dead
_Il10 Fod'" Slavs. Aceording
to ........ ,,' becijrims, during Radu-
Mr. specie' "'C'.k were urangcd al
the ... aw:s of parents aad close rela-
u.... The Orthodox Chureh in
ct.decI Rachmitsa in its pattern of
"unh;p aDd moved il to coincide
widllho lin! _ after &utu. Oa
tbIt day ICZrrice& are held aDd the
bw'ie." of INc to the cemetery to
tiIit ..... II." SliD. fua oa as
...
"&\GIONE"
-"l. a
word me.ning
.... ich is !he

dueled. by the demon king R
Rama IS veoeraled in Hi,.dr r-
onc of the earthly inC8J'QaIK!:'(' ..
7,h ..... 'a"') of ,he god V""",,. ...
RAMADAN (Arabic _d .
JitcrallY,lhc "bot month
tt
),
month In the Moslem '''DU .... '
dar D' R _oCt
'. urmg amadau Moshd"
cording '0 'be KDnm, !me ",' ....
SCJ"YC tbe fast kDOMl B5 &rum.
RAMAKRISHNA (1'134 re-
former of Hinduism. He _loped
'he !dcas of Visisiadvaita, ac-
<epl'''f reoUIy of 'his _lei and
regarding II 0 of !he AIoooIute-
BfrIhnum. W"h refereucc '" !be
idealisl 'eaching of !he V...,.
school wi,h regard '0 !he
of 'be soul, he ad>ocated equIIity
among men. He defended the nrM
on the imprO'lCDlCDl of the wodd
through tbe liquidation of I tip lIS
differences. He also vieked ..,...w
.... ;,,;.. .
---w_, as uniYersal CClGf'&d b
uaJ --".
spu'it KII-IWpi<M:iignf". AI-
tbougb the ideM _srdim.rd by
R'w"',ishn, bore the d'I'''' of
..-.. jHotc:sl, they did """"
raIIyiaa c:eIl for IUIIioaeI .... ity.
_____ __ ..
RAMA YANA, epic poem of Ancient venturer who eKploittd 1IiyIl' .
India. It wa ... written al the same and tbe of the R:
lime a."; the Mahobhorata or even royal family and aristocracy in order
earlier and it is auributcd 10 the leg to lerve his own ambiUoas arwl
cndary poet Valmiki. It tdb of lhe eDds, tryina to COihisc:e
of the popular hero Rtzma, m 111_ be po"wcd the lift of
who fought again!;( Evil and prophecy and could work mUlde$.
defended (joo<1. In the Middle Ages He OCrttd aD eJlre Iy f
bee f h
_. infl me pokei1ll
Ramayana ame onc 0 I e . O\Ier Tsar n nd
books of Vi!;hnuism. and Rania his Tsanna by d
,
;",;", mil.",kw
came to be venerated one of the plliOus 10 heal the heir to the tIIrooe
incarnations of Vishnu. who suffered {NiL h!ESeo..a.i&. He
' __ L_. fi
RAM MOHAN ROY (lTI4-1833),
Indian public figure and religious re-
fonner, founder of Neo-Hinduifm.
Ram Mohan Roy enlici7.ed orthodox
Hinduism for its polytheism, its idol-
worship, casle divisions, 5uttee (the
selr-immolation of Hindu widows on
the funeral pyres of their husbands)
and so on; he developed the idea 01
equality between men '?cforc a
single God, whom he elMswd as
an impersonal Universal8c:iilg Ram
Mohan Roy elaborated a
and philosophical system, in "'klt
he incorporated elements of ....
dllism, IslIzm and ChristilIIIity .
RANOYlCH, _ (188S-1948),
Soviet historian and the author of
various works on the biscory ..
J ,-,- d n. .. .,;_m. RI- "* UWUlol,n an _ ....... _ ... ,.A
translaled into Russi,n , Duml .. of
original sources pellajnj", to the
history or reJ4Poa aad "he .. JIIO'"
vidiag commenteries to tbem " ...
same lime. His mr_ WOib
.... 101'''';., m.'-in-
IJoas, bribery and CO" uplioa and
even blilant cJebavtWiY, whklt WII
to secure him wide DOtoriety ....
potu. was murdered by a ilGUp of
-.
RAYNAL
the theologian, whose theological
claimed to be rational, was
SI. Thoma.f Aqr;inas. His teaching
was officially accepted by the
Roman CathQlic Chllrch. One of the
results of the Re/onnarion was the
inclusion of an clemeDI of rational
ism in the dogma of Protestantism.
and in the 18th and 19th centuries
rationalist theological conceptions
became particularly widespread in
the Protestant Churches. Under the
impact of the achievements of mod-
em science the majority of theologi-
ans have by now been compelled to
accept that religious doctrines are
incompatihle with the demands of
.. They are veering away from
ratlOnaiJsm towards mysticism.
RAYNAL, Guillaume Thomas
(I713-1796), representative of the
French Enlightenment, historian
and sociologist. He was a contribu-
tor to o.idemt's He
was suhJected 10 perseculion on ac-
count. of anli-feudal comictions
his cntlcism or the Roman Cath-
.and colonialist prac-
tices. HL'i mam work wa' "H', '
h'I' IS olre
p I et politique des
el du commerce des
dan.\ les lodes" (A
and Pohtlcal History
, Institutions and Com-
E tl(lC m the East and West I d'
Vol&. 1-4, 1770), n las,
::; in rrligion of Ancient .. pf
sun I . The cult or Re emcrged
.. the
D
beginning or the
lurn C I "Ie R
regarded . . ....... r e was
Ammon --.A as synonymoUS with
&"" or Thebes.
IlEAU
h
SiS (.Itd'.nal) a Ir d
",,1 til mecf en
which . scholQsticism.
I line adopted by
, -
Plam 10 cnnnl,,titlD wlth th
lx-tween the id"a and t"h
t1vc world hctwl-cn Ihe e objet
h
. general
t e parltcular and which . and
the philosorhical
R C
' a 100 or
omall a(JlOilC/\'m D I
Oth
. , e ween th
1 . and 14th centuries COntr e
contmucd on the subje..:t or
sals (general co!,cepts or
they act ually eXist at aU and did hi
precede the appearance of ' d
t
.cy
I h
In Ivtd-
ua I mg. .. ? Advocates of en... II
. <>V""ca cd
ex,tremc (e.g. Erigena) main-
tamed Umversals exist as idea
hdore Advocates or
ate reahs.m 51. Thomas Aqlli-
that Univer""-3ls exist
':"lthm thmg.<;. Adherents of nominal-
Ism advocated a point of "
d
' 'I VIew
y opposed to thaI of the
...al namely. that
I!mvcrsals eXist after things and are
sImply words.
REALITY. (n philosophy- a
denoting the\. tOlalily pr all
that eXists as oppose(J.-..1.a...aIJ' that
docs not A distinction is drawn
het.wcen ohjectivc reality or the ma-
tcna! world in all ils and
ma.nirest3tions, and suhjcct ivc rc alit)"
which represents the t(ltality (If im
ages and stales of
Ohjective realitv exisls indl.:"-
pcndenl!y of Man's consdousm:ss.
imal!cs and slatcs of
in the final ana
IYSl5 thc!.C. <,tcm rrom the impad of
the matenal wurld on Man"..; sense
organs and hrain and reflect (hc rna
tCTial wurld, conslitule tht: inner
manire\tation or the activity of
Man's cooscinusnes. ... In conditions,
v.:
hcn
MlCial relations, the level or so-
Cial experiencc and the knowledge
hy society do nol make
control of the proccs.<> or re-
nectKln of cerlain factors or ohjec-
---
R..!.:.osnXXlSTS
."
,
--
tive reality rllr Man.' there
emerge in hiS CU"<;tlou .. ne!l'5 Images
that provide a dj<;tnrtcd renection or
thOSC factors. and morcl)vcr the im-
ages which emerge sometimes IrKC
their resemblance to the things tht'v
reneel. Into this caleg(lry come re
ligious images. which take !".hapc as
illusory. fantastic reflcctiono; of natu
ral and social forces. holding !!.way
over men and women and their
everyday lives.
REASON, CULT OF ("1.< ('ulte de
la Raison-'). ceremonies held during
the period of the Frene" Revolul
in Paris and in the prnvmcc on the
initiative of represent Jtivcs of ex
treme sans-culottism. The ('ull )f
Rea.<;on was an offshoot of the mov!,.;
mcnt ror dechri! anization lOa in
support of revolutionarv patriotism_
The Cult of Reason was 110{ re1ig
ous in c":lar Cler. It t:an only be
referred to as .. I-,ccaust. 11 In-
volved a numher d r-tual and s"m-
bolic ceremonies. of tt .
cults: church huilding;; we",
renamed temples of Rea5('fl,
of saints were replac d by bu of
revolutionary Rohcspicrre
forhade the holdinr ,'f "festivals of
Rea<;on" and tried to advocatc .1
Cult of thf' SlIpreme Bein$ as .1
counterweight It. both Chnstiarutv
.nd the Cult 01 Rea...<;'lln.
REDE"IPIION. the offc.;r 109 of a
nerifkc to lh(' In l"l'l"dcr tl'
aton'J for offtnce . 1 Injurv caused
them. The c"neept "f redemptIon or
expiation ,'rigmally look shape in
primitive societv. from anthropo-
morphic conceptions or the g\)(is.
who, likl- people_ are held 1o be in-
clined Iu lake offence. revenge
and forgive. In Christianity, Budd-
hism and jainism the concept of cx-
-
-
or rcdempti(m i\ one of the
mOM. Ir:'portant dogmas. Accordin
to Blhhcal Icor-nd, the Ii"" g
C,' h 0- ... men )n
L<1rl . Adam and Ellt - f II (
" cc d'" e rm.,
0'" a an It In the wake of tha;r
Fall that "'em all disasten wbich be
fall Man. That original lin wa.'I .
great .thal sauince from mcn
al<.>ne I" surficlcnt to (jud. F)r
thiS God, in mercy to
wards Man, condemned to death
s,?n JCSUli According to
Chnstlan teaching. this sacrificr reI
l.nc-iled God with mcn who had
come 0 bclic\"e in Chr,.,l .nd
thrflUi:h thl,; sacrament of Bapr. ,rtl it
r veal"!d .0 thcm . Ire path to lalla-
tIOn The Ide! of rl d
the (hurch '0 convince I t ..lt
onlv.n the bosom or Christ's Church
c ... ., Man hope: for God's mercy, ror
his p"01.ettion. Tht; anti-humanism
. nht rcnt 1ft :he dogma or rcdemp-
If 1"1 ......1' r -" ... akd by critics or C'bris-
.: )D11y In past. by me
.. al fr thinkns :tnd bourgeois
in (he lRth n;nturv and fyy
FeucrtJach. A tritit.al analySis of the
ess:.;nc;.;; [If this dlVOa 1.<. lD import
ani ,lspet1 ,} 3.theist propaganda.
REDEMYTIVE SACRIFICE, rellg-
ritual for bringing gifts to super-
natural forclsspirils or gods
with the of expiating.
at.tions. The idea of ksu<; l brtst s
rcdempth t: sacrifice .... an .im-
portant plaCt.: in ChristIan leaching.
for Christ is dtcmcd to have ac-
cepted the suffering of Jeatb 0:" lhe
lTOSS in order to redeem the sms of
mankind.
REDEMrllVE SACRIFICE m"
JESUS CHRIST, See R,dcmpnon.
REDSTrKK1STS a group of belie-
vcrs who adhered to the movement
_________ _
of the EI'ongelical Christians in Ru!;
sia, which look shape in t874 in the
arislocralic society of St. PctcrshurEt.
and which later came 10' he known as
(he PoshkOl'lS)'. The group had
formed under the innucnce of IhL'
English evangelical missionary Lord
. . ,
Grenv!llc Rcdstock (hence the name
Red.stockisIS). He disseminated
ideas, traditionally accepted in Prot-
estanh'sm, to the effect thai man
could achieve salvation not through
good works exclusively Dn the
strength of hiS personal faith in the
redemptive sacrifice of Jesus elm"st.
REFORMA!ION, a socia-political
16th-century_ Europe
, \ feudalism and its
mam bashon of support the
ROft!oll Catholic Church. The ReCor-
I matlon, to use Engels' words was
fIrst act of bourgeois revol'ution
10 Europe, The distinctive feature of
the movement lay in the fact that it
a religious form, The Re-
birth 10 a new form
- Protestantism. The
I

of tbe Reformation was
mar by a speech made by Martin
Luther In Germany in 1517, when he
condemned the abuses of the
Roman Catholic Chureb S h
Refo' . oon t e
man rmatlOo . spread to
y countries 10 Europe Th.
were three' . erc
maID trends 10 be d'
ccrned within th' 1"-
conservalivc-Cath \ movement: the
bo' OIC trend the
trend '
plebeian-revolutionary fre the
potters of the laller n . Sup.
demand that put forward the
be
private proper! h
eliminaled and th y S ould
cla.c;s privileges scrfdo'!' and
The break with Ih R be aboh ...hed.
<"'"'burch look plac e. oma." Catholic
, . . d'rr C ID vanou
rles 10 I erenl " coun
a' the same and always
10 time: 10 SOme in
-
Ihe C(lUrs(.' of i\ l:i",'1 -
S . War "
, Wlllf.:rland) or war f .. '('rman\,
rat inn (the Nctherl" doallonallihi:'
d
an"SW'd'
In uther!> rcialivcl " e cn),
(England. Denmark). in r<:acdully
RdNmation was of a (,ermany
("1\lC characttr, in England
fected on the initiative of Wa5.
C
r.
munarch in a slill more me ruhng
way. and only in Swit7Crlanodcraie
the dl.'mands of the bo ,d,
I d ' 1m
p cmcnte m a more consist' .
resolute way, The Roman aO.d
Church responded to the R .:tho
hc
1
tion with the Counter-Refo
e

and this led to the grim '7
a
,(/(1/I
wars of the 16th and 17th cen',c
uncs.
CHURCHES, Calvin.
1st Churches m mainland Europe
The doctrine of these Churchcs
on Bible, the works of Cal-
10. particular "Institutes of the
Religion" (1536), and on
van?us Calvinist "Confessions", in
particular the "Belgic ConfeSSIon'
and the "Heidelberg Catech-
Ism (1562). Services in the Re
formed Churches were restricted to
a, Bible readings and the
of psalms. Individual congre
gatlons from the Reformed Chur
elect pn'ests and presbyters 10
for a specific period, during
which they arc accountable to the
congregation. Ministers from anum
ber of local congregations constitute
a prtsb)1.cry. and presbyteries send
to provincial and na
tlonal synods. The Church of any of
the countries concerned is headed
Superintendent (bishop), and
15 an elected office. Reformed
fhurehes arc to be found in Scot
(the Presbyterian State
urch), SWll7erland West Ger
France, O-cchoslo-
va la, the USA and other
RU.lCS
., he Alliance of Reformed
and Preshyterian Churl.:hes was
rnerged in 11J70 th?
tionaJ <':ongn.:galtnnal Counul to
form the Wnrld Alliance of Re
formed ('hurch<:s (Congrega-
tionaVPreshyt e rian).
REINCARNATION. See Trummi-
gration of souls.
REJECTION OF RF;SISTANCE
TO EVIL BY VIOLEN<:E, a moral
principle and a teaching hased on
the interpretation of vinlence (in
cluding revolutionary !>trugglc) a..'i
wrong without reservations. "his
teaching provides the socio-mOI II
core of various petty ideo-
logies and it is a renec." n of he op-
pression to whir:h man expo. d by
those social forc ... that r ... citizcns
of l)()iitical and economic rights,
thus indicating thclr "las: atti
tudes and despair, The dca '): non
violent resistance i.e; inherent in m::my
rcligions and rf>ligiou ...-cum-philos,
ophical system (iaJnlJln. Buddhism.
Christianity, IJlam etc I nsofar as
any of fClrcc IS an antispiritual
act drawing people lIlal in thc eyes
of the adh('"' '"lts of non ... ulence,
they outwardly drny the hilitv
of achieving a just ("nd "ith recourse
to violence, even if the viole lCC is di
'ected against terrihle fOl'ns of
nuelty. Strict adherence to the prin
ciple of non-violent resirtanee inevit-
Ihly leads to pa"'.sivity, tu qui:', 'm,
'lnd to of pallc....,s of
lile Thus the ac.""ivit" many pro
filU1 such LeO Tol.uoy
c ... Mahatma Gandhi, wno lctivcly
protf'- .ed agaln'St '-oclaJ orpresslon
and cruelty and who actually In.
volved thrrn'Sclvc"S in civil .Jisobc
and 'non violent resistance'
rcgardin2 the 3Ut horitics, goe... in
- -
,
many .rcSpeeh hcyond the .-.
e.lhleal principles aimed
leellon of to evil. .
material H:mains of dead
saints or. objects with
tbcm, which OVt:r a long '00 1
not d h' pc I 0
. eay, ICh fact allegedly ta-
ltfie!io to their holineu A d'
th Ch' . . ceor to
c, . mtlan teaching, it the rCo
!'lam ... particularly plea:;-
tng to (Jod wluch arc impcri..,habh
In a.ctual fact, however, there is
nothing supernatural ahoul thp. im
per:ishability" of such material fl.
It ha ... been es.
tabhshcd that in c)n
I dry air, low ':-npc-"tures CIC). IR
which PUtl f, ctive: "ac erla d(\ 1:'11.
multiply. corpse, tan rcmrun lO'ar
v.ithout decomposing. By
phenomena to be
the Church made usc: of the wors.hlp
of relics in order If"! Slrc'lgthfn the
belicf of tbe faithful in tbe qints ana
thereby to con"'':)lidatc its .""" in
fluence the I:>elic\er.;. The war
IS widespread tn
Roman almOCI C1
leahle (hurch and all mona.qenes
and con\1:nIS po5SC!oS "impc:ri5itahlc
rem,lin" tIl saints. widely beli vd to
healing and prme1tivc
powcrs. Some churches and. monas-
terie;: also preserve 3!> objects of
Vt"ncf3lion material things allegedly
as-<;ociated wilh Ihe life of Ch.rist. the
Mother of God, and the saints: for
example, pieces of ral'
ment", splinters 01 wood
"OPS-<; on whi..:h He: was .
nail5 "v.ilh which He was ll3.ilcdto
the Cross". Pos..-.csslon of re:hcs
cnahkd churches and
'1' and Ihus
to attra(..1 many pi gnms of
thc"e relics served as a source I.
enormoUS rc,'cnue for lhe $81 II'
its pursuit or prolit the del'" .au
,
Rl:UGION
often resort to blatant deception of
believers, demonstrating as a relic
"milk of the Virgin'", drops tlf
"Christ's sweat" and so on. Although
such deception was often cxposed in
the past, it takes place even today.
Protestants reject the veneration of
relics.
RELIGION, one of tbe forms of so--
cial consciousness, a reflection of re
ality in illusory, fantastic images,
conceptio.ns and Engels
v.:as to "':Ite essentially "all reli
glan ... IS notbmg but the fantastic
reflection in men's minds of tbose
external forces which control their
daily life, a reflection in which the
terrestrial forces assume the form of
supernatural rorces" ("Anti
Mos<ow, 1975, p. 361).
of the essence
IS countered by subjective
(WIlliam James), biological
(S'gmund F""ti), anthropological
(Jama Prour), phenomenological
(Max. Scheler) and sociological
Durlcheim conceptions, all
of which. from vanous positions, urr
hold. nature of religion
Its mWspensability for the in":.
VIdual d . W
f . The main reature
o religion IS faith in tbe actual exist-
:= the (see Relig.
Religion incorporates the
. world outlook, a range of
of worship (see Religious
The also religious /eelingr.
dele' nature of religion also
functions which it
TypicaIe{' (see of
'.k.:. " orms of rehgaon in
"" or dan-based .
or r were /ttishLr . SOCIal
um and fJIIimUm '( magic, tott.t71-
the transition to of
there emerged POIYfht,based SOctely
frligWiu The um and ethnic
. nse of the WOfId rrli-
/(ions -Buddhism .'
I.dam wa." linked with c;rutiortity,
of the reudal ord he erner
of cJa ... The: fcli.
Involve a specific ideol y as r:uk:
along with a carCull or Which,
syst.cm or dogma, iocluJcs onnuJated
soci a range of
moral,. ethica( acsthctit;omic,
other Ideas and theories th and
specified within the fram at are
th I d eWOrk of
eo OS)' an express the int
the dominant classes .of
groups. Religion has often
used as a banner by SOCt'o- li' n
. . po "cal
gr.oups, that utilize cer-
lain Ideas in order to justify
revolullonary democratic de ds
At the present time religion .
a. profound crisis, whil
mamfests Itc;elf in its secularization
the. of religious indi/fer-
liS falhng prestige and 60cial
unportance. J n connection with
these new theological
and religiouscum.pbilosophical
!rends are emerg
Lng. which aim to achieve religious
renewal .to adapt: religion to swl
new SOCIa.-hlStorical conditions and
the auitude of the people of today
to the doctrine of the early
Chnstlan Church and to review all
aspects of religion with a view to
making them more relevant to mod
em life.
RELIGION OF ANCIENT CHINA,
heliefs and cults of the peo-
ples mhabiting the basin of the
Hwang Ho and Yangtze Riven in
tbe 2nd and lst millennia B C Char
of the of Ancien!
Chma was the animistic cult of na-
ture sri!its and ancestor worshlp-
of nature were envisaged
the thle people of Ancient China in
onn of people (sec Antllrop<r
RloI.U jlON or A..... HjYPT
.--- --
- -
o lIism). They were In he (Jund
Nature and.lhey control-
1 d the heavenly hodu:.s, Ihe phe
:ome
na
01 Nature, the wurld$ of ani
mal
s
and and so nn. When
society hcgan to con-
cepts of a hierarchy of foPlnts began
and Clturci.<;ts. Co,.!u.
and Buddhifm tha.t 'M:re 10
he WIdely taken up in China all
sorbed conccpt$ to be found In
the of Ancient China re
the. spir-ilS of Nature and
spmts of ance.<;tors.
to take shape, a hicrar<;hy led by the
s int of the sky, Shang Ti, who
the of men., cares for
their well-being, rewardmg r,,()me
and punishing others. The people of
Andent China also venerated "earth
spirits", in of
mountains and rivers. The mightiest
of all the earth spirits, Houtu, Wil!
acknowledged to be master of the
whole land. The belief in animated
Nature was closely boun" up with
ancestor worship, which was based
on recognition of the influence of
the spirit of a dead ancestor on tbe
life and destiny of hi:
In the religion of Ancient (bina
there were no priesrs, nor were "ere
any special of worship. RelJg'
ious ceremonies were conducted in
the open air. Sacrifices were olfred
to ancestors and spirits of Nature,
accomranied by prayers. In the reli
giOD 0 Ancient China three kinds of
objects of w0r5hip could'"
fied: (1) the souls of dead rdative'"
which were vcncrated within tbl
family circle; (2) sou1s of mytho-
logical heroes of the anc cnt PllSt
including that of the: fil t man, Pan
ku, tbe "tamer of rivers" Vi. and dso
the souls of dead ernr: ..... :-s. famous
state di"",ilarie!., and sap.cs ...
speded throughout the land; ('1) the
$,)rrits 01 Nalurc who were impv"""-
ant for be "'ountr)' as a whole: some
... : thC'.se were, however, venerated
C"lly in certain parts 01 the country
10 Ancient China certain types of
17Iagic and sorrery were widespread
and In addition there were sooth
RELIGION ot- ANCtENT EGYPT
the collection of polytheistic
held by the tribes and people!!. of the
valley during the age of primi-
and early wveown-
mg soclctles. Vencration of Nature
played a vr:ry large part in the beliefs
or the Ancient Egyptil'ffi.
Zoomorvhism lIld IOfemism we-e
characte._ c fl aturcs of religion in
Ancicnt Egypt snd this could be ae
rountcd for with rderen':e to the
important role played by anim11-
breeding and hunting in the eCQD
omy of the :QUntry. The Nile on the
flooding of whose banks the p' >S-
perity of the country depended. was
embodic c: in be ftgore of the God
HO{N. rie sun n the image of r\e
god Ra (or Rt). The goddess
Sckhmct was depicted Ln the form of
a row . . .fnUblS, the god or cmblm
ing, tbe dead and was
depicted Vtith the head of a Jackal
.Animals or a special breed were d
a

dared to be the emhodimenl of a

deity, they lived I.R temples and were
object of WOrship. Tbe.c;l1t oftbe
dcad had an important Impact en
the religion of the Ancient fgyp-
liaRS. It was bcliew:d that only he
whOSl: body was well presen-cd
would know bliss in the be
yond the gravc". The AncIent Egyp-
iians believed that every
bting had a 50ul (&) and Kil, the
rsonality double born With,,!, .ID-
.nd after his death
. the statue of the: deceased to the:
on b A the slave-owning state was
tom - """
476
taking the god!> of the )('Ieal
communities began to he grouped
together in "families" and a numtlCr
of pantheons. In Memphis three
gods were worshipped - Ptoll,
Sckbmct and Ncfertum, in ThcllCs
Ammon, Mul and their son Khonsu.
In tbe 2nd millennium S.c. Ammon-
god of Thebes, came to be wor
as the supreme god. The
Idea of. a god began to take
sbape In Egypt In accordance with
model provided by earthly sover-
e.lgns-Ihe Pharaohs, who were con-
10 be the sons of a god and
g005. on Earth. The temples
Egypt began to con.
slJtute a mighty economic and politi-
!he role of the priesthood
,grOWing ever more influential
It began to constitute a threat to
t e Ph:uaohs. In the 15th century
B.C. led 10 attempts at a reform
of Amenhotep IV (Akhcna-
ton) to substitute tbe cult of the
Aton for the worship of
mon-Ra and other od
undermine th g s, to
by
. od e power of the priests
mlr urin" ' '
th d h --'eo monotheism, After
e cat of Amenhotcp IV h
worship of the earlier ad ow-
relI1troduccd I b g s was
Be Th b n c 11th century
an I?nests seized the
a theocracy a .;:-nod. a,nd established
Egypt c of Ancient
the formati an f role in
J;'......... Ob 0 ChnslIanity The
"-6n,dan mytb .'
bOll g'ld ... palmns and . ...
Pan(icrman "an/h-) ,<,hn
ncs
. A
L . , .. en cam .
10 c(lOnct:lion wi h C Inlo
IlUn .of trihal alliances, the forma_
thc IOlcr-trillal feuds yths rcnCCl
th
and wa .
o er peoples and tcll of th rs WIth
of the heneficcnt ('00 e slru ..... c
. , ' s (Ihe A""'
agalnsl the &lanls and eflf)
bod 1 mon,<,ters
YIOg, C'll elemental for em
also against gods of other t .eebcs and
Vanir). The god who n s (the
the supreme god is kn;lan
ds
out
(by the Southern Ger;:
Odm (by the Northern tnbc9
tnhcs): he was the ruler of erman.e
and Earth, the terrible god reaven
and and also the god storms
and Wisdom, the custodi poelry
holy literature ar; of !h,e
hall- Valhalla _ the w ., Dto !Us
r h
arnor maid
eDS 0 caven, or Valkyrie I d h-
souls of fallcn heroes M ' e
od
t e
the G . ,anyg soC
. peoples are linked
With agncultural cults and cmhod
the forces of Nature: Thor th J
of thunder and lightning T:" oe T
g

th. od r ,.' J' r 111,
ego the shining sky, judge-
ment and war Balder god r .
d
' , 0 spnng,
;.er ure and fertility, Loki, god of
t
rc
a.nd also of mischief and de-
s ruchon. The Germans venerated
ston.es, trees and springs, animals
dedicated to the gods (Wotan's wolf
,,:nd Thor's bear); they based divina-
tlo,ns . on the flight of birds the
neighing of sacred horscs and the
'hrrangcment of sticks with maoical
e aracters ( ) Th . e- Osiris who the god
to life" exert: was ,brOUght
anfluence on th considerable
ute of Jesus crcaliOb of the fig'
,-,uTSt.
RELIGION OF
GERM"NIC PEolt.
HE
ANCIENT
worship of Ge beliefs
N runes . ey Imagmed
h to he dwelt in by a whole
() good and evil fantasrk
the gs, hVlng on the earth (elves), in
( . m)ountams (lroUs). in the water
and under the Earth
\Ft,.orrles) A _ '
soci t . I"U prImitive-communal
ng the period of Inbes dur-
naJ SOC1c:ty. mainly
w .... 6JUp of tri.
e y break down I he
flOWer of the '
Middl pncsts grew. Jo the
An
. e Ages the relja;on of the
Clent (' .
.ermamc peoples was
- -
---
d hy (hri 'i.lianity, although
traces "f il He "iii to he: found
llclids md
In po
"[I('ION (w ANCIENT
It .. , I . d h
GREECE. The re Igum an m)1 0-
logy of An(:icnl (jrceCC dcvcl. 'ped

long rvoriod. In the earliest
over r M h
. ,it the figure 0 nt er
ome, d'i
Earth who enjoye parllcu ar
al
ion
: this hath the .m
nuc
nec
of and the
pOrtancc of agriculture _. the
braoeh of the economy of Ancu.:nt
Greece, The godde'l.s of the Earth.
Gora, wac; held to be thc c(
all that i.c; living. In "lC reitgJOn r
Ancient Greece elements ...1
ISm totemism and Qnimi<e:m 'an
, .
often be traced. Ancestor WOTlhfP
was also impo!"' lilt in the religIOn 01
Ancient Greece, md dO'"..:'v linkl d
with this wa. .. the hero worshIp w th
heroes Ixing regarded as haJ.:'-ml '1,
half-gods- At I later g" 'lere
emerged the idea concermng lC ife
of the souls flf tht;; righteous m the
fic!d$ Elysium. The h;;h
point of the religion and mythology
of Ancient Greece was ar ....unr' 2O((l
B,C., when minor local gods were
ousted and there finally took shape
the pantheon of gods w"lo we:-.. al
leged to live on Mount 11yrnpus,
The gods such as Poseidon. Hades.
Hera, Demeter, Athena, Aphrodite
Apollo. Hephaesrw. AT;
and .Htnnes were regardei' ty the
AnCIent Greeks as a family of gods
beaded by Zeu' "father of men
and of gods who embodied in re
ligioll."' form traits o! 1 patriarchal
rult:r ['be hie" U'chy of ; he gods rc..
lec oc tbe hierarchy of thl erner
gent class society of (hat era After
lppearanr.e in Gr "ece of city
(pnleis) and the development
slave--owrung society, the cbarac
---
h:r of the rcligit)n of Andent (irce
changed a .. well. Cults of god ... .".ho
were patrons of
and tradmg. began to become "'1de
spread. In the 8lh7th centurir:s B.<.
the first tcmples n honour of the
began to be: built. In Anl..i4 n;
(.Jreece a-callcd 51.;
eTCt rellgJOus socKties \nd c Jlt!
Thc.:sc wcre above. all 1TI)'!.leric!. n
of {Elcu,yntan
{eHeS) and In honour of DiQllVSus
(Dionysi::\ The religion lnd IJlYth..;
1t'ID' of Ancienl (,reeee were to exert
an enNmous innuene :m <he dlvcl-
opmrnl of world culture
RELIGION OF ANCIENT IRAN,
ZorotL trianism MozMism.
RELIGION 01' ANCIENT INDIA,
the religi .....Js ideas r he Ancicr.:' ..,
dians Yo 11 developca from the
primltI'i belic fs of the pre. Aryan
age to the \'Cneration of num;rou
c.::lies, emL"Xiying the fore 50 rNa,
ture i Ih ':>triod -:>r tht . 't:Ju
the preAryan archaNlogist"
often discO'u;r small stat I es of thc
grell motheT-godde ftgUtcs )1 a
linked with ft..-1ilitv, the till
of the land. and planl lift rhe
lD\'Jsion of India by the 'ed
to the c:mergcncc of ntw and rnor.e
c0mplc:x religious idea 'i. In the rell
glon (,f thai period \'arious 'ults
fuc;ed: the traditional deification (,I
natural phenomena. )\.'or'
ship, riluaimagic, of sac
rifices. In the VediC rehgton there
'" ere approximately 3,<XXJ gn<h: spc
cial veneration was reserved fN Va-
runa, Dyaus Pitat - god of the: sh.
Prithivi _ mother-goddeSS of. the
Earth, Indra. MithraS. A8"i. Ad1ll .
the embodiment of the female pnn'
ripit' VaTun:. was held to be,the !iU-
premc god. and in tbe AnCIent 10-
REUGION 0" ROME
dian myths he was often idenlified
wilh (he sky (Dyaus) and,the. role of
custodian of order and Jusllce was
also atlributed to him, Yet no
mon pantheon of gods took shape in
that period, Anthropomorphic gods
are in conflict with demons, whose
leader was Vriura-Ihe embodiml' nt
of drought, By the end of the Vedic
period, as a result of the transition
to settled animal husbandry and
land-cultivation, religion also undcr-
went major changes and allempls
were made 10 syslemati7.e the
diverse religious concepts and estab-
lish a single pantheon, Gods, which
used to personify natural phenome-
na. became reOections of conflicting
social forces. Indra. the god of
weather and storms., came to be
venerated as tbe god of war, He was
placed at the head of the pantheon
and was surrounded by Morots, gods
of stOiUIS and wind. The former pa-
tron of hunters and
Rudtrz - reappeared as the patron of
callie-breeding, while the tillers of
the land began to venerate the god
PtKhan, The god iJrohma assumed a
nmest place iu the pantheon of the
Vedic .. Iigioa, be only _cbed OYer
the of sacritic.es to eusure
lUI aU rites 'M:re perforiiled cor.
rectIy. IIIe cad of the 2nd
:-"!"m ud beginning of the lst
.... _ID I!.c., when early forms
,.. rdM"IlDi wac eme .
.l1li:. rgtng In
of And en' ...
Typic,:,' thai socici
gmn was bchC'f In !i pirits. reh,
of N.llUrc, rural life and p
They includf.' Sal'omu F""n urssUI( S,
( .' " .... us.Qt
11m , ,ongma Y venerated as od -
fcrtdlly), Mars (originally the
fields and the harvest, only laler
of war), Jupiter (originally god
weal her and later the main god . C
Rome) , Among the plebs it w=
Ceres (goddess of cereals and agri_
culture), who was worshipped with
particular devotion together with
Libcr (god of vineyards and fertility)
and Libera (his female counterpart)
Within the patriarchal community
the gods and demons of the family
hearth were duly venerated as weU
(the I01l!s, penates, Vesta and Pan).
rn the religion of Ancient Rome ele-
mcnts of retishism (the worship of
trees, groves and the Earth) and to-
lemism (the worship of a number of
animals such as wolves) are clearly
to be found, Ancient Roman myths
were greatly innuenced by mytho-
logical stories of some otber pe0-
ples, particularly those of Ancient
Greeks, As social classes and a stale
began to take shape, the Roman
pantheon a.c;sumcd its final shape,
The gods worshipped in Ancient
Rome became official slate deities,
Worship of Jupiter, Juno and Mi-
nerva, to whom the temple on the
Capitoline Hill was dedicated
(hence the name the Capitoline
Triad) assumed particular import.
ante. Jupiter was acknowledged as
the supreme god, or "father of the
gods", who embodied the might or
Rome. The Greek influence on tbe
religion of Ancienl Rome found par.
ticularly vivid elprenioo in the cult
of Apollo aud Jfttemir.Diana WbeD
the Romau alale became a Mc:dita
r."C.g power, Ol'kn.aI deities
!' the religion of
Anae .... India _m transformed
R_. __ . as
:--"'IJolPIUIII: Its pis were absorbed
IDlo the paathCOil of the DeW reli-
......... ,tbey omlpied a place that
.. d'" , d to that of Brahma -the
IIIe '4",1d and _
ofllle U ....
rse

.,. MiION OF ANCIENT
poI)tt.c.,x: brEda beIcI iD
!
R"\J(iIOl S i\("I1VI I 'I'
'"
<; ..... 1:11 He cult of
,,' Rllh1C ,j h d
pea
rcu
ITl ,.JJ '<: ... ('rbdt' fear: c
the rnflthrf MlIlu' In thl 2nd
RulTK hom . , the u11 flf the
1
.1 ccntUfll-
aTld ru ,M"hra. "ccamc
r
iranian Ch'race,ior;!;c of l'lC rc I
o,,':eOI Rome. In Ih,e late
of, A rrrtHm T'le thaf
period 1.'\.JY'I
h
wning. ordl:'
carnett.:. f d
over '.h aVC In Pi' , I un .,0
\> and whK 'l JI.mcal tn ',he
/" cial and I en occamI' thi
'
r of Roman. 'by h
I c, son for the adoption t t
main rca. f 'he nt.nli!;e of mon('lo
'de ma<;ses (1 1"-h
WI 'o;tic I"hn{tiOflit}' In p t c
(.rear Roman rehgJOn,
pOlytncL<; IC I
RELIGION (IF AN<:IE"IT SLA V5,
'
x syncretic phenomenon
camp C d j family
which embraced a vanc, ,
and clan-based ancestor wOr:fhrp.
f rms of Nalure worship
dramatic 0 . . I AU
and wmmunal agrkultun.1 CU, Is, .
these form!; of religir,n litlt j ID
the patriarchal . order 0
the Slavonic tribes, The rehgm.n of
the Ancient Slav, was polvtheLStlc
The god of thundt'i Prrufl ! he
supreme g.od 01 the Ancient
AIM) widespread wa!i the worship of
the skygod S\'arog and (the
god!; of the fire. and wmd)-'
Dazhbog, Hors and SlribOJ:' Other
god.s worshipPl:d on a Mdc !icalc
were Veles (Va/os), god of cattle and
wealt h, and the goddc'>S
protector of spinners and weavers
and women's work in general. Bycl
hog, god of succcs.<;, and happincs."
was venciiJted by t he Western
Other namcs of tri llal Slav deilles
are alsll such as that of
and Rugevit (the .I sland of
Rugen), Radcgost (worshipped hy
the Lyutichi trihc), Triglav (wor-
by the Pomors), the
Si va (worshipped hy the Polahlan
In addition, anlhropomor-
-
phil.: If)CHnation!-> ... \4 mil
Yun/(} ani,} Kupaln ate ahn known.
connf'cled With agric1lhural ell njar
and with ;he ptnodor; Ilf thl
and winter sol<;ticc. Yullo, il'l the
opinion of many scholaf!t, was, l
deily of planh, agrlcuhufl,; and fer
tilily, ()lht'f deities hav: yel to ,bP
tudied fully, althnugh In thl;lr 1m
ar,e!O there are clear "'go', that they
rcprc!OCnt tht n<,ociah,d "'11h
the cycle or . death' and
tilln" in the world 1'If Nature 10
all pulythehhc rdigum .... tno 10
the pantheon of The Annenl
many He to round which
embody phenomena ,)f Nature
'\ AlaIYIn'. ma.nifc:Sl ,I
tlOn "f atllvitv nf rc:ligillu$ tndlVld
l1.l1s. grOUJK,' in<;.titu-
hons and dictated by
lherr clln";ctioru. and feel,
ing .... ."en<'t; of religinus prac'
t i("'<':s Ilf wnt<;hlp. and rehg.oll", ml<;'
sion. .. needing 10 he carried .OUI. by
ot
L. -
r
rdialou. .. organl7.atlt}fl ,
",menr In:; 0"" "
Two main of rc: liglOu.<;
can be distingui.<, hed: th,at whKh . Il>
not directly With
and that which L' part, worship,
The first type of can ,be
found in hoth the !;plfllual prac
tical l>phcres of life, The, spiritual
intellectual aspect of rchgJ,ous actlV
it cmhraces the of reo
/ . ' deas, the and
of doctrincds,
position or theological an re
hilowphical works and so 0':' "
of religious
elude parhcl,p,: :he
II. f rc1mous counCi ,,,
in the wor 0 "0"', .. ,
h
' of then ogIC3
tcac , II. wilhin lhe net-
admmtStratlVC wer " d
r r ' ou.<; organl7.atlons an
wor,k o. re IgI .anda of religious
adio tde-
, lhrough the press, r
'VIews
...
vision, religious within the
family elc. ActiVIty WJthm. tbe con-
text of worship is the most unporlanl
type of religious activity (see
;ous worship), however nol aU adlv-
ity of religious groups,
institutions and organl7..allons should
be regarded as religious: they also
engage in commercial, polilica1,
cational and other types of actIVIty.
which although they may have relig-
ious packaging, are not. strictly
speaking, religious.
RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS IN
THE USSR, associations of citizens
of 18 or over who are adherents of
one or other religion, denomination,
movement or persuasion. Religious
associations are set up for the joint
satisfaction of the religious Deeds of
tbe believers concerned. The associ-
ations are voluntary, self-governed
organjzations, independent in the
material sense of their religious
ct!llre (administrative body) or any
pnests. In order to administer their
affairs and carry out their various
connected with the utiliza-
tion of the property required for
purposes: of worship and financial
re5?UCces and in order to represenl
theu elsewhere, religious
executive body.
assocatlons are registered
as ,!llgtotU or as groups of
believi:n.. depending Upon tbe num-
ber of members that tbey have,
RELIGIOUS CRIMES ,_, '
nb ' , .mnngc-
aga,lOst tbe foundations of reli-
gJon, the of Ihe priesthood
connected WIth property or other
f:>Crsoo or privileges of
from religious doc.
ntuals; various violations

prohibitions and unbelier

uc cnmes _ .
.... re severely puni"bed
undcrthecriminal code or sl
ing society, The list of
in the mediaeval Europe tnrnes
tended UDder the influence:ras el-
10K' secular law treated as th CQlIOtI
d
. e tnOs{
angerous enmes heresy, loru '
rrl>ercnce, andhlosphemy. Repr 'Y,.lr-
directed against rclioious i'h_ es.s101l
d
'C" ........ es as-
su!"e a and was distin_
guished by Us excessive cruelty lJ
19th the
crunmal code Viewed religjous crimes
as crimes against God and as wring _
ments of his prescriptions. In a nW:-
ber of countries blasphemy or irrev_
erence are still crimes for whieh
people are caUed to account before
the law. Religious crimes also include
the performance of relig-
IOUS ntes and ceremonies, insulting
religion and its ministers. Protecting
as it does religion and the work of re-
ligious organizations, bourgeois law
does not caU anyone to account for
activity directed against the materia-
Jist world outlook, statements offens-
ive to atheist sensibilities and dis-
crimination against atheists,
RELIGIOUS CRUELlY, actions
carried out during the performance
of religious rituals which are harmful
for man's beahb, An example of
such cruelty is the praying involving
extreme pain., or that which can
work the faithful up into a state of
eltcitement that is bad for their men-
tal health, into hallucinations, ec-
stasy, hysteria, or physical and nerv
ous exhaustion. In tbe USSR such
extreme practices are forbidden and
those who organi7.e or take an active
part in sucb rites are held criminally
responsible.
RELIGIOUS DOCTRINES, 'he
mam tenets of dogma, acknow-
ledged as indisputably true, eternal

,
I
1
I
I
" '81
d 'mmutahle divine $tatutc50 obli
an I for all helievc:r$. Evc:ry ad
gatOryd religion or the pre..ent day
... own set of docl rine!., which
has' d'h
the traditional interpretation
I e or the varloU$ relig_
IOUS doctnnes. an denominations to
extent or other endeavoured 10
them m accordance with
Sp1tlt of tbe times and the chang.
mg VIews or the The p-o
of the renewal or rlligion could
but aJ!ect COt'lttptions 0 relig.
10US doctnnes as well, that haa n
seen previolWY as absolutely UM1\",.
able truths_ AI h4 )resent t:'llC t
of (,&.ristian, Masletr ard
JUdlUSt theologIl'JLc; reject the torm t
rigidly literal IIIte. 't)rl tj lI)ns of (loc
trim S and elaborate new
lions t re'iginus I! xtriots.
h been c:latxnale In t c course c.
as debates and struggles witbin
long Ch" . d
he Church, In n.flramty octrmes
, down at the fint two Oecu-
were <u, be
mtnicoJ COllncll.f to _
referred to ac; the h',tchn?, n.c;tanll-
politan Creed, W IC lncorpontf",s
Db
o
twelve main doctrines of fat: t:
,e od,h"'
h
'
nunity of Gte mcarnatlon
t e , '
f God. redemptiOn, ascension,
the immortality the soul
te Subsequent OecumenlcM '.Qun
supplemented the (. cd with
doctrines about tbe wVln!.:
human nature of tbe
tnce of two wills in DiVltle
and human, and two sphe-es fC'" c
tioo. and concerning the obligatory
naturt; of icon-worship. After he
split (_bristian C'tur
ches each denommatlon mdudec::: m
lis dogma doctrines nol: acknow-
ledged by other Chrc:. .an <..:hurches.
The Roman Cath(l/il Chur.h &.:
serted the doctrine of purgatorr. tf"
tbe erect thar tbe lilly lipi:(t
nated not me..,.ly from \.; ()(] r'le
Father, but from God . 'lC )n
weU; the doctrine of ,e Imm:'" 'ulatl
wncept'''-n f lC Virgin Mary, and
lcr Assumption n body md soul
into Heaven; tht;: infallih;lity )f '-
P?pt n matter 0_ faith ana m or
alit\!. Thl ProtrtanJ ('zIiTChes
Jected thr pevir"uslval'c 'ct!
Innes wi:"! regal 0 th .,; 1OU.J
xtr nc nc:)n c md ... ,-
1 L.t.l-

10 thrl ueh r . md JV J
100d "11 ill
18.: le:6'l1O f"t' ..
ng md atheism 1. sttJn lteolO(l
" lbor tr:d a eomr ex .. ,em or JJS-
IIfyang LOC' ne Without otatly
"
RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE 'tnn
n th olon' and re'iglou:: mvstical
r-"lilo )1 v lsei 0 e note the iii
commuruc;.- 'r m.cling >r ")!D
mun'on betweco m n nc (oo.-\l
cording 0 olag.' .. rt.gl( \L<; ex
IJeriC"lC wh; _ r nis expressioo "l
J llumiaalioo )\1$
)f "visior: s p;ritua,I, in
cbaractl r .n lIving aD the ndivid-
ual
' c;- .c"Je his tbought$, ro,"
, rt'
wu The roost at;
tbing. bowr.... b tnks to
"ldividUai l!.::"',f' ,IS elDt'" n,.c
h 1igb rlxLDgaJdlS
of it existcnlc \, so
:allcd m'f, II lntuitic" F .::nne
the )Iogtan ,hilowphet!'> ana
, r 'th 'I Goo :s the
II..... J . 'lee IS
'lout \\ ,jch e:cpc:nc, _
b e ,,' Iltherl. "PC
n
nr. I blS kind .,...;d <;:lD -,,-
l( &.. I:;'"I( f iod n
le'C I . .. 0
f\.
"
e r: ate ony
-", .. J h.:
C) t '31 ue ... '
"'eI xpenc
)uxper. ... ce - .
4,.. r .J k" d /t'hl( 11. X
'e I I irfiue
nc
Jf oc .. ific
b,3vc . ndedf" r.."lS and w:ilC'l can be
SQCI'lJ coo 1.-'
REllGlOUS EX I REMISM
...
ratioaaDY with rdercnc:e
to the csvatW Dalore of the roodi-
IlUo"wlS.s ill qucstiocL
.
",.""

for religiun. Religiou., faith
element in (be mental make_up -;
bclicVCNi L'i complex pbeao; I U ... ,
involving Ihe individual', ae'::
emolioll5 and will The iDleD:. III
element in religious (aith tbc to-
tality of reli8ious 'e'""ccptl ad ..
ages. to he tQ the roa''tio ..
nes.'i of tbe fallhful. Insofar .. *p
concepts do not admit of ",.i. ... !
proof and suhstantiatioa and .. the
same lime they are am'idered
the faithful to be vilally
the emotional element ill
failb is accorded a major role.
logians, in an effort to enhame
significance of religious faith, pro-
Dounce it to be the supreme maaj.
festation of human C(1DQ.4F! [ ..
the supreme moral virtue, ... I
(Oim of COS"itioo tbat is S'Ip:a'" to
reason - cxmcIusioas .I,K I,
diet tbe evideac:e of IIId
worship. ;and .ue u'Soed in aU religions
p .l of conwlitiating rcligiow.
innueftCC over believers.
Rt:LlGIOllS n':EUNGS,
lionai aUitude"> and respotlSCS on the
par1 of to !>acral
Ihinp. persons and placcs that are
the objects of venc:rabon or arc con-
nected with the performance of re
ligious rites; aho their emotional at-
titudes 1Dd re"pon.'>CS to C3l,;h other,
10 Ihemselves and also to phenome-
na of Nature and to the world a.s a
whole, intl"rpn:ted from tbe relig-
ious point of view. f";ot alIlbe emo-
lional cxpc:ritncc,," in this domain
t".3n be considered religjou.,,> fcc:1jrtgs"
only I hose: whicb are bound up with
religioUS conceptions. ideas and kg-
ends and have acquired a specific
slant and significance for the indi-
'idual. Religious feelings stem from
religious needs., and. in their turn.
they become a need in themselves, a
aeed for the experience of such feel-
ings and for satiation with rel .... -
emotions. They are an essential de-
ment of religious Re-
ligious feelings are a social prodIILt.
which a.Lso applies to religi< as.
whole. Theologians.. bouevu ... DkI
that man is a vessel of
emotioo", which stems flC ...
natural klurCC. In
emotions are born of
humility and meekness"
"JOY In tommuniDg with God';
of reWard in heavea" etc.
lh.e
1r
v-ale of value!> emotioas linked
'Mth SUpernatural '''''me ".
pn.:me UDpot1ance, wtWe emotional
attitude!> and respollroet 10 rut
people, to &ocicty and to Natu" are
reduced to a ievtl or $C(iwlary im.
poMancc, are p'lshcd iIIto tJ.e bl ,.
ground. Some emoboas are QC
the Cboreb 'iIe to
religioui WOIkS outlook IDd rc-
Iig:lous morality. Rei!:: kc:1icp
kad the more.....,. io-
0( believers to ir-4"'. ia ..
cesas or to turo their b 3 ;ls .. -t' c
"orkS".
conditions, and as far as pIIJIi.
ological bac;is aDd
characteristics He 00"*.'" IICCI. ...,
are nOi distinguished""""'" 011
of the ordinary. v ..........
emotions., such as feu
revereDCC, joy, or
COD blead wiIb ....
and thus aequo a
.... ..
...

and spiritual
were the result of analysLs of the !Iv,
" conditions of the oppressed
also penetrated this spher.e.
It is not suprising, therefore. 10
certain periods in history rchglOus
ideology ha<; also been t.o pro
vide e:qJression for the aspirations of
the popular masses, e"Pression of an
iUusory kind, however.
RELIGIOUS ILLUSION, false con-
ception bound up the firm N;:-
lief in the actual e:rostence of ficti-
tious beings, properties, connections
tbat goes hand in hand wi.th faith. in
man's ability to commUnicate WIth
tbe latter. Religion is an illusory CX"-
prcs.<,ion or manifestation of the es-
scnce of a particular kind of soc-al
system. Religious illusions arc born
of helplessness, depression, men's
dependence on outside forces that
dominate their day-to--day lives. In
where men feel weak and
dependent. a whole range of 3ui-
tudes and emotions develops, from
fear and despair to expectations of
s.omething beUer, hope for relief
from oppression from hostile force"
S0!'lclimes the impoot"ibility of a gc,
nume release leads man to search
for spiritual release, mental comfort
and gives rise to the need for illu.
sions, including those of the f(
variety, which In (! highly spe-
afK: way appear to make up for mis.
fortunes or emptv livr:s. Religi'lUs
can be o\ltrU-'mt: wher) man
begms to en;a2e m practical *3!.k
!tlmed at 'hanr,tDg .>OCi' tv and reo
mO\"t1lg those SOCIal :ondi1j. D5 "031
tbe f'OOf.t '1)
RELIGIOl!S ('1D"-FERENTlSM,
one uf the l,f fret' -IhlllJcing with
rer.ard to Tthgl()n. The tum I
dill
re Ig
10DS m erenhsm" IS "sed with
-
various" alhcit meaning.'i. I
often l.<; lake.n. as" Implying
.rchgmn In the Ihal
IS Ignored when practical
philnc;ophica.1 problems arc being
and It .not rule out the
of JKlSlhvc non-religious
splr.ltual pre-socialist so-
rehglOus pro-
vtded the prereqUlsltcs for a critical
interpretation and analysis of reli.
gion. It can he defined as indif-
fcrencc on the part of the individual
to specific tencts of religion, despite
retention of a religious world out.
look; howevcr, it can also indicate
the non-religious content of ccrtam
works of art and literature from the
period of thc spiritual dictatorship
of the Church. when works frel" of
religious conformism expressed fro-
t.,.:t 19ainst religion and paved the
way or the ousting of religious e"u-
scousness hy a realistic approach 0
the world and Man. In the 18th _,-
tury French materialists prOmOlec:l
the idea to he effect that it wa .. es-
sential to gnore religion when
ving social, scientific or moral proh.
lems. An actively atheist outlo. k
underlies their suggestion that me'!
should fostcr within themselves
complete indiffcrence towards reli
gion. In the 19th and 20th :cntur" s
thc strugglc to estahlish a "ultun:;
free "f r :Iigion constituted ln im-
portant dement :n bourgeOIS free
thinking, As seen from the
atlOv.:; ,t !s Importan1 to al'pCI.'lch
thl c "neept of rel4?;lou'5 'ncifft: ;..Ilt
:n 'rom a e nl, Ie neal f!.Dc;,

p<llnt
RlLlCIOUS MORALnY mor tlity
promClted and sant . .Jlfie<i hYl p:lr
1ll"ular rciiglOn There IS a
lion IOhertnt 10 thf" conccpt of relig
10DS morality: morality
-
____ -'rull(;IOLS PTCll.-"RJ: OF111l WOR1!l
.. ,
freedom and volunl:lfV c"loicc while
religiun demands suhml'\S.ion.
ing "0 room for freedom. Theo/ogy
deduces morality from dogma, from
teaching. in actual
fact moral norm'i, including tbose
referred to as religious ones, are the
product of social relations and were
ascribed to God to lend them ideo
logical weight. The rcligious sanelifi
cation uf norms for shared liVing.
that have existed in oc"etv since
time immemorial. represcnte lh!..
first ideological 'orm for
the latter, even befr _ ie eme
gence of such 'oncepts is ( '001 and
F\il and moral conSl. DC SS. An
eX:l.mple of such sanctifical 1
provided by the notion of the tab
The essential content of relig-on in
...:lass-based society gives tb lflswr r
lO question as to the causes of
:ial evil and also to that of ways m
which to combat that eviL which
prOVJded tbe impelllS bchin_ 'le
creation of religil1u.... communi es.
Later morality camf to ("!Ccupy an Ie
crca .. mgly large plac in re'igion
toa large extent dctnmmcd t!
ution and the formr it took. (hns-
tiamtv has made a gl Jd r mora!::-
wrc , enin n 115 d. v (Co/lee ::!
W?l"k.C' VOl, 3S,p.
theol ";ans deduce rom
mar ..litv r thc" than lhf: lth:.- w'v
round, followm In 'Ie fl step lS
Kilm, w 10 ... n rclig.,on Ie
c Jlan_' of If ml raj Imp rati, " a
(,od's c mmand. idlolog
U' m' mt In that r I{'"I l'..' mor . '.:-'
1: ..JCc ndlv hum_.... th it I at!
al an -. n" s ustoms
n manner Y !.. tcv belr: Wit
ess tf" n mOu""c'! I a \'l:ry diner
kmd. Ther arc many page." of
b' :J; y w'W:, tell 01 I,. f LJeI acts of
religiOUS fan.(tics. of (he pcrsel'u
lions to Which IIlC (hurch subJccted
tho:se who did not .tccep1: It' . d
",:hJch cll:3rly indica,!:;; thlil ben - fi
t:1allnfluenc of re1lglom mo; 1;1'1
atel. E'\o1 n in COndl-
IIon5 where me,
,nconslSlenCl\;S In its f.g.ht igalr
human frailties have COItlt. to ligt:'
('I'?'1 '1C\;QS or hclievt; li non-
believers all c lied fOr1h n th( main
by man's cmUC/t'PlCt and of
d'lly, something at U ntrin'lic to ,II
and who origins are quile
ndepnd:llt ... ' te tgIC'l.
RELIGIPUS ORDlR.f.i OF
KNIGHTS. "e MibtlJT}' tnon'lltU
den.
RELIGIOUS PICQRE Of THE
WORLD. the :omplc ': ran;: ,f the
r.; gtncral rcliglou e,)n(
l thl world, IS C .g:"l. Its -ruc mfl
and 0; u 1fe which constitutes al
lmportant clement in "e rrli.,":iolL<;
Wt'Tld 01::: fbt: rI ligious picture
of the world i.., In a specl:'ie form ,1],-
.'lcn-nt in all religjon. ... acd ba ... been
eiarorat,d Ifl delail in all the ad-
vanced s),stem. .. of religion. The main
_ tur of 'h_ religious picture of tht
world " e sep !lation of the world
Into a sup. rnatuT lInd natural
world, with the former complctl"i'l
:laminating the latter, Chllraclcmtlc
)Ih religious pictures of th.c
'0 \., foun-t ,n JudiJism, ChnstUll'tlty,
Itlal'1nd a numher of other T:li-
gions arc a thl ,e tier !conslSt
='!" , :" I he Hea"lr-'os. and the
l n't i"Wllrld) and {be conlra.sllng o!
h ,vcnly (perkct) world
l .Jrthlv ( .... rishahlc) one Also mtno-
'dd1l
"c tl' thl'm I.S geoctntnsm an .
h
. rtanl
'hml"'Cmtnsm. Furt cr unpo
Cl menls In (he reiigJous PIcture of
wflrld an.: crtationifM and
tolOK>' TIle rchgioUS pl1,.1Ure of thd,
world 15 expounacd tn the "Sacre
... ________ SSCIIOlAR ,_IIlT
Books' as the VCdO.f.' Bible
and the Koron)_ The Chnsllan ric
lure of the world tonk shape thanks
to a svnthesis of the Bihlical idclS f
creal ion and divine prm-idencc, cos
mological clements of phih,,,
oph} and a numhcr sClenlific
ccptions expounded 10 Ihc AnCient
World that were incorporated inlo
geocentric system. The
traditional rcligious picture of the
world was shattered bv thc scientific
picture of Ihe world created on the
hasis of knowledge gleaned through
the natural science.
RELIGIOUS SCHOLARSHIP,he
whole range of disciplines (:on
ccmcd "ilb the study of rdigion
Bourgeois religious scholarship
came into being in the second hall "'j
the 19th ceotun', II slarted oul frnm
the actuaJ materials already ga_
thered by historian!>, archacologi<;lS,
ethnographers and linguists. Some
of the scholars concerning them
selves with religion (such as Edwarl/
Tylor), 3Ucmprcd to counter theo
logical dogmas .....ith an explanafion
for religion with reference to nalu.
raL causes. In their day such
tboones played a progressive rolt In
th.c 20th century 6dctst and iN:J.tion
tendencies in hourgcoic: rehg
tOtlS .scholarship came 10 the fore
and It DO,", closely resemhles the"
logy. religious schoi;mhlp
locorporates a number of
c'pilncs: the history, philosophy
phenomenoloro-', and psv'
of religion. (2) MarxISI
scholarship. involves the apph_
c.atKlD of the dlaIcctical-materiaJl<.1
mel.bod of the study QI rehglO
n
Religion tS regarded by Manisl
the f.antastic rcOeaion.
n
s
f
mlnl,Q (.1 c.xternaJ thai domi-
nate them m their cvtryday life. AI;-
-
tual natural .lDd sOCIal forors., b'
hold !-oway nver mcn as thc res'Wllch
the limilations inherent in me I of
I
Oh N nlire
allOns Ip 10 alure and 10 .
h
each
ot cr. arc tratt'iformcd in .h
. d' c Clr
min .. mto lorces not of thi .. Earth
and supernatural properties arc
to them. of
)oSI of It is pos.<.inlc
tn pick oul concerned .}n
the one hand with m.aUers of
and on the other WIth or
theory. Religious scholarship con.
cerned with theory can be !;ub..
divided into thc philmophy, socio-
logy and psychology of religion.
S(.h(llars of rdigion concerned with
11<.tOry study the history of each reli
gion completc with all its specific
fe IturC" and adopt a chronologie 11
approal'h, while those concer-nc:l
with "llatlers (If theory single: OUI -hI,;
t..verall paUcrns disccmihle In he
dtvl,;. opmcnt ",f religion, paYIng
to random detaih fh',
.mderlymg preoccupation of
nus scholarship undertaken by Mal
:tI.sts is 10 the dialeclics of thc
and f"(.olAf <")/
rcIIJ:lr'l. The , :igious scholarshIp
an importanl r.cld and an "-,,, ..
ol Marxist aillcism
RELIGIOllS SUCIE IT ,,,,>,,,.
all,ltl, c,1mmuDlty or corporation of
adherent .. uf a particular rcligion.
thr rrimary URII in the nelwork of
relig.ous in'Stitutions ,'f a parISh Iypc_
Tl1e retall.,n!> ,,-"twecn the memocr,
"I all' r<::rul ted hy a
"peclal .o;.VHcm uf c"ntlol hv a
Church charter a.nd (hurch law. the
uplmons of the t ... ithful. admini<.tra
t!ve organs and abo hy norm<. of re-
morality All religinus so ..
,'Iclles In C3pltalisl countric... arc
usually rCp;L.'iolcrcd In affiliated
10 the state authorities. Bourgeois
-
r' JC InuswAR<;
6islation specifies th. t cili7..ens ft;
iglous conviction.' and any denomi-
national affiliations they mly have
not exempt them from the
to comply with .an .... the
laws. R Ilgious SOCieties m the
USSR, as .. lQ Sovic'
regal jmg hglOus we .
ship, arc . :llions of rc1ig
iously inchned Clh7.cns, W,lO iTe over
18, share the same habits of worsrup
creed. the same movement or per.
sU&'iion number at '.., 5t 20 and who
togethe" fl r jerint saus
faMion of Iheir religtoU!' nl e..l rIc
)Ciety can engage in its ligloU!" ae
tivity only after it 1: been regIS-
tered by the Coun I "J.et;"".ic
Affairs under rbe USSR Uun 11 or
Ministers. State bodic lot nter
vent! in the internal affr :: re
ligious societie : the stale only 'Stab-
lishes the te(.'lI JlOSitioD of the -
ious SOCletic, and it prDviI!:s
matel at guar ntces tei:nplerr:._ -,
-'"re dam of C'1t -:_ ICC In ord!.,. to
ntisfv their religl.Ot! le::..1 th >e
Jievers who mak the 1W0u so
cietv m: :'.uppli :J fre.... of _ ge
Wi"1 "'PC ia1 hou:;;'S .::!Up n ae
cordance with the Jeci: n the
C Juncil 'or Religtou i\ md II'
accordance with l'1I e ndition I. id
down m !Ie gr'" mnt :lI J.WD up be
tween the 19l0u' soc C y m que
tion and l( represent ti' of e
local aut'lOI" " e luul", cmJh..wcred to
act m lius l1pa\;; y R .... -iglo..: so-
cie: ba___ the right 0 a QWl
eqwpmcnt f"\f or tt: perfor.
manee of rcligJo 1"' s.. m!.ll ':
"nnsport, rnd h ... _ bw"" or pul
h ..... huildillf: 01 the "r ne lis tn Ie
:orc!loe:e Wli 1 rule duty lIDd dO'o\"Il
for th.! s purpoc" tt .;oe" \\ilhout
saymg '1 t the'" uhlr ...afh ,n ,)1
rnd freedom..' unDO' be
viewed separat 'w from every
-
C' OJ <Ii performan- of 'lis Co )Ii
IS stipulated In tlc i " lu.
!on of the I SSR nd ",net Ic:gisla ..
b,n.
WA "', .tIln':I con.
liets.. whlC"l the main 1: WUt
rl fle;ej ':I rc Ig.'l nd h
itS I. .. F"0pag;'; w 0 creei; hf
ConI )f the iofade Is- ;e uril &
or H-I gj "JS fre the' r nMalr
n n or t e "J: nly 0 ill 'C.I,Il)OOS
t:ic prin l(1le tbl. afTirmlttl)D C
ne w a... t
l
e r:h m ;lIon.
ing ; an "'lId" 'ruth the -eSCle 0
rers'; thl. t; 1)
holy nt- :es Oil given rcli;: ; 'he
Jefe DCC or, l I CQnlTan l ie-
pee L'b .lJC" IDStit
50 on. r-ligi.ot::: wars -
t:.:: _1 - cs" t:th:- e
gn lp5, ':\UdtS or iasscs.-'\J
h 'rl r v ilS confli we 11 tc
the WI C':. of such .... dr. be
, = r- Ih. m a1so .,.
:d :k I') deeper ts"ues
'd 1 ., (;n3J lIn.'I.I)"SlS theSe rt'a-
5 . lid usuailv be '>Cen to stem
fl :":l d: <"h:s or ee'lnuml' .\Dd politt-
c J C:.' rl"SU lhbt, helligert'nt <;Tales
or group Anv l .:b rcltgiou.\
li 1 would 'Je !>3.octiontd by relig-
(lOS inS(itu:ior.' and d,'clared to be a
Holy War". Religious w:..rs uo:.ed to
hit I fonn of unju'J wars <Jf
pl.tnder serving as an m
th' pelit 1< of the exp,IOltLDg cIa";"!$.,
or th t ,,1 JU 1 WJ!S directed ag:un.u
exploitation, soci:tI aad national op-
pre Il.)a. Rtligiou wars a fam-
ubr kltun; of 'Siave()WlllDg md feu ..
d:tl <'<JCletJe" Under ..-apIl3119D: the
of ma:de Itsell
felt in the sphere ('t(
.lS 'WCn, the prcscntatlOll 0 m. tary
;um" and claims began to lose !ts fe
;l.ltbough r.eligious
b
o _< I' j, U":Ye thea bless-
organu..l u.... "!C>"
I
REUGIOUS WOR,."iIIlP
'"
ing (0 wars of imperialist
and colomal wars etc.
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. a form of
religious activity, a practical-cum-
spiritual way of k.no ....mg .world.
The object of this worl;rup IS pro-
vided by forces bolding sway over
men and their everyday life, that
are perceived images.
RcligiOll" worship
importance and meamng from Its
accompanying beliefs, dogmas.
ideas and myths. Two main var-
ieties of religious worsbip are dif-
ferentiated: that concerned with
magic (or sorcery) and propitiation.
Magic, which originated in primi-
tive M>Octy. later provided a com-
ponent for all religions in c1ass-
ha..cd society. Propitiation culls
were directed towards a spirit or
god. The acti"ity of religious wor-
ship can be carried out either by a
rcligioU5 group or an individual be-
The religious groups perfOT-
mmg ads of worsbip can vary signi-
ficantly: they can consist of individ-
uals whose role is one of leadership
for a particular community: sha-
mans, priests, pastors, rabbis, mw-
preachers etc., and at..... 01
large groups of people performing
of worship under the lcad ..... -
ship 01 representatives of the first
taupo of worship can involve
uildings such as churches or meet.
religious art (whether II
takes_ the form of architectUl ....,
palntmg. . SCUlpture 0"" musIC) and
vanous pieces of cquipmen: such a:
candles and other churcb
utens
ds
. vestments etc. On the '>asis
or specific.. sets .. f rcligiOll.<; attitude
ce!1AU1 norms and patterns 01 war.
take shape I.f p-rcscriptions
or what should 'le dODe and how
",.... 1-. and practices Involved
-
in worship .possess s .
hohe Ba!<.ll actio YIn
'd 'h nScar
TIC out In I C COurse of Wo h"
'Id"" k nip
u C l ... necling. pro!<.tra_
tlOn, boWing Ihe head. (oldin
maklOR the sign of the crt,!
ctc. Morc complex acts of Wor h
the offering of
nIcs, sermons, prayers
I
," d ' ., re-
IglllUS Icasts an so on. The activit
?f worship satisfies believers' relii-
nceds .. In the of relig.
10US worship aesthetic needs can
also Oc.
art. ReligIOUS worship interacts wilh
other clements of reLigion.
REMONSTRANTS. Sec Amtinians
or RemonJtrants.
RENAISSANCE, a period of intense
development in the thoughl and cui
of Western and Central Europe
(10 Italy . 14th-16th centuries and
elsewhere in Ihe laIc 151h and 16th
centuries), which marked the trarlL
tion from the Middle Ages to the <.....
Modr.:rn Era. This radical transfor-
mation in all spheres of culture and
learning also had a considcnhh in-
on the evolution of religious
con.<;ciousness, on the development
or free-thinking and atheism. The bu-
manistic outlook typical or the R'
naissancc, in contrast to tbe th"-
ocentrism of the Middle Age
placed the relationship between 01t:-
and Ih .. world them at the ......
c .nlre of Tbe humanisrr
of the R D3Jssance IOCW se"l :.
and roremost "'n Man' ir-r::tD}"
f':arth. 10 longer m.Jang t':lat subc-
dIDale to the gOlJ 01 fair'll/ion be-
yond the grave, hUI ,jevoting prloe ..
place to 1 fle harmC"Dlous .:Ic vt :op-
rn"nt '::! !he doctrios
of onginal sin and redemption. eveo
J tbcv were not openh rejeclr,d,

-
were no longer accnrded much ;.\t
tcntion. Man was con!<.idcred to he
the crowning of (inds crcation, and
his activity to he the continuation of
that creation on Earth. The thinke rs
of the Rcnai'>58ncc saw Man's merll
"'7 tn lie in hi\ creative activity, chan
nelled towards the development and
advance of human c1vili/ation, 'tm!
in his innate freedom. interpreted as
freedom of moral choice. hringing in
the iDuMdual's per! anal
moral responsihility for the conse
quences of that choice. Unlike the
religious view of Man. humanist
thinkers of the Renalssane rc-
garded Man as capahlc of
to moral perfection without tht.. hel"
of divine grau. Humanist critiC Ism
of the Church an institution noj
of the morals of the Roman CathoLK
dergy. going beyond 'he f:-'lmewmk
of mediaeval anticlencaIt.<;m we'-
bound up with the contra .. rsy J\'I r
the human ideal. The Renaissance
gave birtb to a new pieturt o{ the
world. in which God and Nature
came td be viewcd as ilDd
the same hing and in whiChN3:tur.e
and M"n .. iT Wto C almost dei
fiet! In .he work5 of thl most radi al
amoOJ;!; he thinke s f ':Ie L! RI
latSSis.nc: natu! di .. '''millrlSm w.fre
V\."I close 0 rnalrrla/t and :II
he.;m. Hum: of thl R nai
mee period elaboratr:d a nt n! r
pretati, n of Chr 'Stianitv . a rek lor
tb
r
t initialtv one 'common' )
all mankind and 'nborn" In whCl
dirre .DC relating () IUa! and
c oc .nayeL _ on 11 y 01
(hnstlanlty WJ ",pproa' le OOVl'"
alIas code (. 1- I). n j
)rescriptlon a lclpmg -
ItlDd to advance: tl wad .. Dr J :x:r
C'1.ioo. In ':Ie e d
sanee ue"upls were m,IC_ to .:!rlW
IIp.:odcsol ... thu''' efrL;m .o.Dv.1ea
- -
of retributi(m or ll'W:"m ar, l'c
code h h If Ca n.
h .s W Ie rejected thl doctnn. 0
t Immortal soul $ e tb r
thIDg could he provea,
somethmg !hat w"oIS In tc-lS
of . mOfality. HumanHI
wnters !'.ubJectcd the in the
Holy.scnprufrs to rational scienlilic
thus laying the foundatio
for criricinn. Thc 0
came out again!.l
10 miracles and II" machir a-
of the I?evil. demandmg seien-
determinist for
hitherto incomprehcnsihlc nalural
phenomena. The mO!: radical
among them rcg::tie i rCIlg-on .
phenomenon deVISed I:Jv rran Ih :
had no true foundation t; I wb; h
was useful for consolidating political
domination and taffilng dr.
moo people, although superfJ JS
for the enlightened elite guid :1 n s
lx=haviour by the diuates c' mor
ality. Tttcsc idl.M reflect LJ.. social
limitah '1S ntnt sic to Ihe aitiClSIT"
c
r
rclij.!)')r ot:.= .... in tbe cullure c
the RCl.1S';:U ec T"e
of th. I:' -l.! n( noused Ii rcc
tacks rL n adhe ... = s c' orlh"'.ld ":'I:
Roman l._!' 'ie sm al p'lYC i a
considerable f".rt II P \1; g tile'" Y
for the more . {r= h
and theism of \..;c :gc c the En
lihrenmenl-
JOstph r ilt5: L \-
:)1'. ell\ ....Tilf;r. -l.Istl ..; l=t md
1. In . IS "1tmks Hio;tOlft
t.. gine 11. h,lStiMI mc 1)1:s-
)rv .: I h ')ilgins of
.... 11 "COIre du peuple J'lsr3;t
\H":" t:qr')f (be Pcopk (II IST3d).br
cnll(: . .:.cd the 8,fJie from (he f>OS/'U,Jn
th rafJllfJPl School, .and be put
f
' ,- d th" ,bJ,1 ChI IS!:
0f\\,1f -ec- ... " "VIC d
a h.lSlonul flgllf" IL!o.
JtsU5 Lifl of Jesus
"'" _________ RH'.;()VA 1 'S
- - .

REIilrjOVA TION',!,'"'"N. uPPOSl1 ion

:no\'c-ncnl withir he Ru .:zn
do% OIu1t:h stemming from Ihr. :115-
conlcnt of llclicvcrs and c sec
Ii 1'" of Ihe clergy ""11h the ('on,nlcr'
revolutionary policies of Palnan.'h
TiJchon. The beginning of the move
men! can be secn as May 1922. and
II ended soon arler the Great Pa-
triotic War of IQ41-t945, when the
Renovationi ...! clergy, together with
their parishc ..., rejoined the Russian
Orthodox Church. From the VCT)'
outset it was nol a homogcnCl1lls
movement, since within it there
operated the Living Church. the
Church RenewaJ. the Union of the
Communities of Ihe Ancient Apl's-
(olie Church and some other smaller
group$. At the highpoint of Ihis
movement's development (in the
mid'(v''Cntics) it enjoyed the support
'JI -limos! half the Russian Orthodox
panshes and half of the 'ruling'
turhpn'eru ' )7 oul of 73). After con
demning the counter-rcvolutionary
of Tikhon and hi.. folio-
wcrs, the Rcnovalionists declared
thcir political support for thc new
sociaIi.", ordcr. introduced a numhcr
of in Church adminislr;t.
tion, and demanded a review of dUL'
trine, ethiC$., the and other
&SfK!dS of religious life. The political
oricntation of thi!> movement n:
netted the or the times and
greeted with approval bv thl.;
falthfuJ and that !ieClion or thl.;
ck;rgy, particularly the
pncsts.,. who welcomed the
I n many rtspects il was
movement which for the
lime those principles for
the fuDCtlOnlDg of religion and th
('hurch under socialism, wbid
l.ater furtbeT elaborated and .
. by put mtn
practlCC the Rllssian Orthodox
Onueb,
REQlllEM (from the I.alil! \II
requic:'i "reM) '1;-1
rna. for the dead In Ihe' ft I
r ,hot' rh .!.. 1 "OIrtQI
_0 Ie ll('('11, ... ) a mult_
rnusl(.al n ... Inr c"am lS p ::
OIsts l J< .ualty arc -:npaRlcd hy
5.)'!"phony for the t( XI o}
mas. ... lC PI_yt't or In
tTi111 which hegins with the Word.
"ReqUiem acternam dona c:
Rest. elernal. grant unto Ihem). The
rcqul
7
m, wnllen hy M07.art. Berlio7
Verdi and ('(.'rlain other comnclS"
h
.. ,"r
avc a which extend,
hcyond and they ue often
performed In concert halls is well as
religious huilding ....
"RERliM NOVARlJI\1". StC -.;'" Q/
enC!lClica/s of thi' Papacy
H (F"'TER t'(IR RE U.
GinN AND III MAN RIGHTS IS
(lOSED SOl 1[: TIE:.S. rcligiou!O
propagam:a 'cntrf"; 10 . lC l SA. II
W...;c:; founded ant I'" hn.adcd Iw Bla
hor Hruhy. The cenl-": put!;. ou
I pc,odical entitled "Rcitgion n
LommuOlst Dominal d Are.!s
which I ... di!' ihuted in many
i.r"csmd whie,", contain!; slandnous
r.lbrications ath-lut violations of frr
.10m of w'Nship 'n the socialist and
:Jcvcl...:ping c.;ounlrics. It is one ...:f the
links in :hc chain of cIeric.lI ;UIli-
communist organizations.
RESPONSlRllIlY, .1 ronrcpt ,j( ..
n, ,I lOP. th( t.v::!cm of imposmg
oblir.ation ... on man :15 :1 m?mh.:r of
SOCH,;ly, dc:manding from society and
frum the mdivi!.lual ;Jssessmenl 01
how wt II those ohligations have hc..:n
fulfilled, Rc::.ponsibililY is an impor1-
anI principle for 1 he regulation 01
man's behaviour, and also for m:ln's
al awareness for the apporli0n.
mg of guilt and The n'"
!tFTRJ8LIlON OR REW.u'-
---
ligioUS intC'.-rpI elation .of responsi.
bility is lIlcorporated the
occntric.; system of morality and
isJeading with lis mention of
tI'I process of IOC1al dl."'Vt:l
that is not ubjcct In aoci. .. J
control. The highest authorities, n
relation to which '? be
aware of his respon.<;lblhty, are In r.
Ligious morality, 5upcmatural (I Tees.
such as Fate god . 10 rel!P
ous
teaching; roan 1S essentially r .. leve J
of personal responsibility for cae
crete social evils. and (he rro J soc.a1
sources of those eVil'S arc canc:elll d
from him. The real autbori' e$ be
fore which the believer in antagen::.
tic class society is re"pon"ibl. O'!'
called to account are the institution-
of that society, includiog the relig-
ious . ganizatif"n giving ...oicc to tht;
iDte ;;IS of tbe uling c .. wbic'l
ssumes right to n t
)r set man fr:: from ibllIt"
The socialist conu:ption of re ...
I:"lity links the latter rst and ro;
mGll with duty. regarding it somt.
tbmg detenruDed bv ;ocia
1
re.al 1$
that bave taken shape - th
a
COl!!
ic (2) ;)"lo-
these helickln "A
gion the idea f 'b C reh ..
of that societv's development, rat .....
than by iUu.'iory. sui"" tural
The dialectica1Ill' aching
on tbe social nature of respo . .,:
duty and guilt is diametrieaUy "\-
not only t'"l religious PI-; vick l'
halism t-ul 11m to voluntansm anJ
m ",at nibilism.
RETRlBl flON OR REWAID (\
at;.;arding tlJ t'l beli_' s or II ra;;. -
ful retl ibution I urusluru t
Y:_ ;. :l or proll!, .tion"
while :=7iards al .. g: tn rl: ;:c-
of pro ObscfVlti 'II f reI';: .\15
precepts and c oCS lift: by
JDCrnatur I powers (s!).nts, dciU ::.,
an bstraet impcr.-,ooal substane;.
anG, fmallv. tbe LOl J (reator.; of
fe 0 ren lilt IS ob
ound m06l clearly m _t Cd
.. .on _ )( the laboo, when purusb-
meot. D! thr violation of fer oW;
Drobib 11 ;s >our-t to follow tglo;1ur.
mg s iff on earth, 0
the bet. Is c r;; en In IJ1()";"
ad"anced religiOll.'S, teaehiI"tr with
regard rewar':! '!I.(I tetnbutl are
closely linkd with the m'lral c.;;.l-
cepts of good ll.-rI vii. R ributi
and reward al se n 0 1.:: lC4 by
God. and p 11 cu1ar empbasl! !. laid
on reward or re :ributioa aft_ 1cath
Mea nd 'flO....... are d to
two C 'Ront' b _) win
be COllf$; 1=.ly I:lave
accumwal_i good G :e 1<. lD1 who
hlve Ix'en lowing w c'
t U tl! [r. e W, tbe
DhamuJ (I ..a __ l . Sha7UJ
.nd lC a ofb
It:, m t:, J
-
REVEl AIlON
ture social status. In mor; advanced
religions. however, the I.dea .of rc
ward or retribution dUring ,on
Earth has been retained and
retribution is interpreted as bemg
made manifest in the fonn of all
possible disasters befalling the indi-
vidual. a whole people, a country or
the whole human race. Divine re
trit'lution is also seen as taking the
form of punishment decreed the
Church, synagogue or to
which the individual behevcr be-
longs, on account of his violation of
the rules of behaviour laid down by
his religion in cases of heresy, free-
thinking etc.
REVElATION. According to relig-
ious conceptions this is the trans-
mission to men on Earth by super-
natural means of "truths", which al-
legedly come from God and are an
expression of his will. Revelation is
regarded in the majority of religions
as a most important source of
knowledge, providing guiding princi-
ples for relationships between men
themselves and between men and
God. In the various religions there
exist the most conceptions of
channels for revelation. Sometimes
revelation is a direct phenomenon. a
mere by God of his
the bandlng on of divine
.. with tbe belp of various
the of various
C!f eVidence testifying to
G.oo s by people endowed
trlL"! ("rigbteolls men"
pnests), who in a state of n: .
ecstasy OT' mystical "illumma_
"?U
o
are alleged to understand tbe
WI of God, In the Orthodox d
Roman Catholic Churches the
SCrJPfUres and Apostolic 7i di
are VTewed as _ ra tum
!at. spt?aaJ varieties of
reve 100 In rehglOus-idto-alist phil-
revelation is th '
d
ct' e
Ire aHammenl of t ' ''' sen
ccs. .. ihlc onl\, to the ehosen 7
t
h, ac
moment of mystical ilIurninat: al
REVU .... nON m' ST, JOHN
DI\1NE, THE APocAL
(Greek "apo kalypsi$" meani
one of the dis
Testament traditionaJl the
trthutcd to St. John the J.. at
author of t he fourth
t hree that are part of
NT canon and which date aceo de
ing to that tradition, from ' the
95 A:D. The of Revelation
contalDs. a scnes .of visions and
prophccles concemmg the "end of
the world", the struggle between
Christ and tbe Antichrist, the Day of
Judgcment, the millennium of the
Kingdom of Heaven. The Book or
Revelation is an important link. in
the chain of works of eschatological
literature and the fIrst book of tbe
NT a$ far as tbe date it was written
is concerned. Basing what he said
on the of Franz Benary,
Engels demonstrated that the Book
of Revelation had been written :0.
the second half of the year 68 or
early in 69. Clarification of the litc
ral meaning of the " number" of
"beast "-66b when it emcrged
that Ihe dragon Antichrist wa:, Em-
peror Nero. also helped to substal)-
tial t,;: his idea. It IS not out of the
question that somc parts of tbe
Book 01 Revelati r. n date from ;
tater pcriod than th(" bulk r,f thr
(eXi, ;rnd in particular f10m the
of tbe lst century. since Jc,us
(hr.lSt ftgur es in those: lnstead c:
the Lamb The Book of RcVtlation
the very earliest stage ID
the of Christianit)', whcn tbe
maID doc..1rines ,..,f tbat bad
not yel laken defmluve shape.
Rl1l'S, (.1VIC
,
REVfVAI"ISM. rrligious mO\'em:"lt
. Proltstan(i.rm for spiritual "re-
by of enhanced fiotu-
a :;;r:cofic phenomenon m he
l
i.noU5 hfe of the Protestant Our
. th b
chc$ and sects _ startmg ID e 1St
century, on North
Arnerica and .;,1$0 m 5Cvcral coun
tries of Europe and eL-;e
where). It was ff"!' PrrJbvte-
rians, ConwlgatlOnalurJ :rna abo.Vf
all Baptists and R. hg
ethiCS, emotions and clzansma
corne to the fore. in revivalism. S0!'le
sectarian groupmgs are attemptmg
io regenerate tbese traditions in tht
USSR.
"REVOLUTIONARY BIBLE"
,"New Bible"), '- 11 sti .. n wi I..
neW md I Iu.::. tlon
1)ub'ished witb the n of tt
x.aI ( lurch author-lie ID Santi'
(Chile) in 197' )'1' :t group priests
who were advocatt of lih ration Iz -
'JIogy. It differs from tr J e -
tions nits commt. -' .ri s. Lmtra-
lions and also tbe qUI" ,
tht rr.solutions of tb" Scc ,d (1963)
t.nd bird (1980 mt cting- of e
(,t nc. "'ll C. oft "CDC f 'Ie lite
Amt.-'c. n Fpiscopa: 1 tht. 'om-
m_-Ual e' 0 the . of lC B k
fJCIlC IS. lte I,: tio, It: ... w, rid is
ted 10 the spint of L '.ll , s
theorv I f evolution M nv mli IC c
c)nl31n i in the (11_ nd 'Vfl/l. I I
me 11 if pn, !lted ' n ,jpb Ie 11
lantal;' cOle il\' ng It -' -;ll,;r' S
I It" tv
F "': 'JI,. c
ne:lu d

1 -:1S r
IDC <.J phot' 11
-""
banned in the COI.ln1rics (. _ '
America which .0 .... tn
ultr R _ are domInated by
a ight diC"'.alOfWpL
REW AIU>. '5ec: /larib".on
ward. -, It-
Rl BAT. '5ec: T tkk<.
RIGHTEOUS MAN, in the Ortl!o-
dox Cluuch a holy man, who has WOt\
tbr<:,ugb "tXPIG lS and Oil bcly
life m ordin IV conditio lS and not
m a monastery (I. 'ar."lan, as C)-
x:rsei 0 Oil :aDO':ljzed monk).
RITES, CMC syc bolic
ac tions W-JC rr:bodv -
1000r .od e }Deep s., md
whic".l call forth att" 1-
. ..... (w.: rites 1 at
t uo\IfIJJ t lC whole lli'--V
..... - 1;_1 SIC="" I \nc-
lite" C R)11' a (or r l-Pic
Ih _ CXlSt d 'DililaJ y ht .!. Ito I-
brat tbr umpbs )f VIet tI..
lOlling tl .n':! -.. .j statt :116.
In _., E:r pc dUrIng the
Mic.":'k Ag .flC_
.t. l\idcd c _ 'W'I ', t u"
r: .. at t_oa n:s: Ie ratIOn!." .
: J 1 II n .. "v va' " cal pa-
""':..l and Cl. r- D ber of
YlC it ""' ,e A tv]SldC lhlv
:.!fL1,... It:. .if 11....t era. t : pol-
MltloniJ fJ,l!Ulv nles",l'"
1C __ ., - , .. e we r iI.
c.t'l( non _!. joe' .h.-.raC1er, a!
10' " b . 'lOra! .. :,l _, rUin rt-
":,", .., )ulS\;!
n.Ill,'
lOS
I . .
l-- ra <,
WOo crs. rtralts 1 rim
r
'. Julion. f1 . .lill'n:.o Ibe 'ray
.n x::. _I i (., .. ' tlb'-' 0 :
. , .-:aJ.lallv
King nd lC a
hi. lOp, I- (m.lra, n 0
C
., 1 . ... .,.- I
. , . ',IJCIO Xl -
.. lpc. If!'Iong tn_:n " .
. , .,1 ) f .le'

T}: Revolutil1n.lf'o Bihl S
! . -. ' ilnd 1"II' f;v ._
. ....... r' -
\
..
R1n's, REI J(;IOUS
-=

Under socialism, rt,cs perform
t
wcial funchons: tbey
lmportan . . .
exert an ideological or tn
nucnCC in oW far as they an
im rtant 100110 belp the mdlYldual
socialist ideas, norm.c:. a,nd
values; they perform a
function, (or they arc closely assOCI-
ated with and provide a solemn
framework for important normatl,""c
acts (marriage, the birth of a. child
elc.); they also have; an c,mohonal.
J"iycbological functiOn, ::;mce !hcy
prO\idc stcreotyped and
meaningful forms for the rcahzat,lon
of ooUective experiences and satisfy
men's needs for emotional outlets.
In the USSR considerable cxpcri
cnce has been gleaned in the devel
opment of civic socialist rituals.
RITES, RELIGIOUS, symbolic col
lective acts embodying religioll" con
ceptions and ideas, which have 1
supernatural illusory focal puinl. Rr:-
ligious rites constitute a most im-
portant component of f'E'ligious wor
ship. Faith in tbe supernal JraL tbat
underlies any kind of piety, also
pn.;supposes faith in the existence of
a two--way relationship between Man
and &upernatural objects of his wor
ship. Religious rites provide means
for the realization of this relation.
ship, a means thrOUgh which Man
can bring re1igious influence to
on the &upematural. Thr. most
ancient form of religious ritl:S is evi.
dently magic, which provides an iJlu.
!;ory means through which primitiv.
!Den and women hoped to excrt ,in
mfluencc over their l'nvironment In
the modern world religions rcllgious
up a complex 'yrtem of
act,mns. central 1.0 whicn L .. the
semce, I.e. the i'olltX1ivc rt;:hglous
flte., performed bv the failhful in "
chureh or other phtce of wor::hip
-
Religiou\ rites provide an irn
mean.. .. ,[(lr exerting
l:hologJcal and emotional inn' P5).
on the faithrul.
system of famlhar religious un be
and conception.. .. in the mind."
faithful their habits of Wotshi
constitute one of their
ViOur patterns, Many Churchu
the present .faced v.itb n.
task of adapting rchgaous ritcs of ar.
chaic origin to the modern world.
A1brht (1822'!!l89)
Protestant theologian:
Rltschl Marted out from the idea
that religion can only be a matter or
faith, not one of knowledge. From
the point of view of Christian dogma
God exists only as love and theref Ire
questions of metaphysical (philos.
ophical) character be ,'I,
eluded from theology, whilc met .
phYSics itself is nJy fN'S.<;ible or a
hasis of tian ethiC! Ritschl"
- .
wfltmr,s exercised an unmcllSt: L .....
flue nee on the theology of Gernllny
in lC at: 19th century.
RITUAl MASK. ...;t;.ll reprc-
sCllLtion )[ my zllOmorphic or an-
thl""p-'mor'"lftic cr .. ture donned by
a hum.:.n r,cing for ritual purp: ')cs.
Tile use of k: link, d
With am'cslOt-worship. the worship ,)f
spirits or animals or trtemi"t ':0;)'
ttpts dc The per'on we1\TlDg a I:i
ual k .!s II wcre. turned him
.::f into :hc ,;re.lturc depicted bv the
J'he '"lnge of ('urpo5Cs for
which nllJ,d at, used .5,'('
til mr!v widt. the'" .l.Il won by
members \.If crel socieur's for mC'l
In Oceania and AfriL. .. l; Shaman Til
mask, arc used !)y r fie peopl, s , .. I
Slberi:l; thl'y .ue m:\de wick u,!,;-
of in (hr rcltgtl'us mvsleries and III
r,- ntN.I)N
burial ntu. , .. l: f peoples many
1)arts c! he world.
RrruAL e '11
false ac 'usatlOns of r,
thaI bas allegedly kcn d 0
t("l make: a h,ulTl:tn r
1L'iC blood in rcilw.ou!5 ntoals. T e
known !<iueh tri,l: were
iIlStilutcd ag31R t the JeM. pcaatlv
arranged by thl" r JlJng 'la!:.. s and
Chri."itian ehurC'lmen IR .I to an
ho:!i1ity between different <,hOle
groups .nd to distra(Ct ltention
of the ma'\ses from let:!:: SOC.aJ
problems.
ROBERTSON. An:blbald (1&6
1
961) British Mar...... t histortan,. and
, ., d '
public figure. I- ...... cn e:.. Ie n
ciple of tbe .::.11 lp:-::"- cb t
the analys.-; of rehgJol aJ: t: . _
C&:' d the questions of he 0 .......
Onrnamry : role
rc IglOn. I I 1:1:" work" Utsm md
Rt 19ion" he explaJDe 1. tb le e.l fc
betw C
and ;x:lievers m )( 4'Jtr or. .. j
P''''':'''
ROBERT';ON. Job.
(18!>6 IOl3), Scotl
Pda<"luDaoa
o
nan of ("1I Chri: - v 10
books sucb as "Chri - tv
>.\ythology" (19001. Pagan 1I
in Compru a' vc P _ '
l:1e defended posu on I th
mythOlr.t, 'cal SC'r1 ' Ie e - ider -:l
he pre (hrc tian l lit of J, hUl t")
)C the of the (':. I les
Ar.c.:, tl Robertson., De s
pels wt._..:; a diun of mVllS.
w lich hac! c r.; 1 .. : t: g 15 re
of a fal tanding ...
om 1 c,f N 'Jl ',C matn
me odou'lgIC I w kn 'Sl Reb,"!
S 0''5 V _ w the lack . "V (; )1)-
C tr.historcu nalysasof,'bec.luses
be: llnd t:
tianity.
erne r :ace of ( llI--
ROBER"! WllI ...
( 846 18941. [ 'isb :l!.tonan md
He dI V() e J a' __
lion '0 cntu; .rn )f il' In l;
WOrk Pr!" (lfIsti:u e j,' h exam.
r b' -'11\ C" II It- I tl1

.' ": .A religIOn
W 1,\ m hlS mlOo magic
son-Smtih's idt:a cone tn" tg h
prlOi '"Y rI ua1 O\It:T lVlb
)rO'". d r nd: ion for the )n
...... :rtlon of the rilu'} )rigin )f ("
, ne eiaooralca IN lamu frc. d
the I 0 L nologlc,;;"
':I the :nth "-"lturv has 001
Ix-me 01. COf'II
Jean Rap;!! te-Rtaf
1 _ lR )). h phi. Q<;()P ;n.
n II ; ,', advocate of
" iDO .rr:: ('D the onc
l-. le
\ ffe t" It WI -Id
bs 0 b _ .. 11 \lr ,1 IDt Jt:-'Vl
an
aodt"
d
,
,u
".
ROGO:tJ ISKO't'J .: _________ _
must oc based on the ac-
tive participation in lay bfe.
ROGOZHSKOYE CEMETERY, a
cemetery which was establish,cd, in
Moscow for the burial of the Vlcllms
of an epidemic of the plague ,and
which laler. io 1771, was turned Into
the centre Cor onc of the Old Bdic-
loers' communities (Popm1.ry-Pcrc-
mazantsy) in Moscow. In 1853, I,he
spiritual centre for the Old Bclte-
vcrs' Archbishopric of Moscow and
All Russia was set up in tbis ce-
metery and is still there today.
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH,
See Ranum CaLholicism.
ROMAN CATHOLIC PHIWS
OPHY, a (rend in religious philos-
:>pby that unites various schools
which have as their goal the sub-
stantiation of Roman Catholic doc-
trine, the refulation of atheist
teachings and in particular the
scicnlifica1ly materialist world oul.
Icx::k. In tbe late Middle Ages this
philosophy made a transition from
Platonism to Christian
ArtistOlC\ianism, in which were em
bodied the aspirations of Roman
Catholic philosophers 10 create a
universal religious and philosoph i-
corresponding to thc
ideological requirements of the
Ranum CatllOlie Church (SI41ber-
tIls Magnus and Sl. Tltomol 4qui.
'las \_ In the JlCriod of th( R.en"I';'
acce .1.Od thl' Modern ha there
grew oJp Within RI'mln (lth{, c
philosophv. MIOU", whose
rcpn.senlal,ves aUt mph d )
broaden lis .,nd 10 10-
e rpor .tlt ,nto ,I new phllOSOphll.<t1
tdc.l..'" AI the
tIme the oUie,al
c.J doc: nne "r the Roman Catholic
Church is Nea .. Th(}ftJifm A
" h ... t Ih
same tlmc t ere ClCI!>t tren ... ' "h"
R (
' h 1 . u: 'NIl 11
at () IC ph,losophy tha
devmte from Nco-Thomism. Th.
include AIIK'lStiniani.fm, the te
" fF " "
lOgs 0 'ranCI!>co de Suarc7 , . "
(
" d Ch . ., pm
tltO '.fn!. an nstlan eriste1Ztioli.t11!
Supportcrs of these allempl
!o certain fashionahlt
Idealist trends m order to Consoli_
date Roman Catholic philosophy.
ROMAN CATHOLICISM (f.o
m
tbc Greek "katholikos" meaning
one of the main bran.
ches- of Christianity (alongside Or-
thodoxy and Protestantism). West-
ern or Roman Catholicism finally
took shape as a dogma and Church
after the Great Schism of the Chur.
ches in 1054. lhere are a number
of -peculiar to the dogma,
worship and structure of religiolli>
administration of the Roman Calh
olic ('hurch which renect the path
(If development of West Europc"n
feudalism. The Roman Catholic
Church is strictly centralized and -t
ha!> a single world centre - the Voti
can - and a single head - the Pope,
the pinnacle of a multitier hierarchy
of authoritarian organi7.ati(ln.
Within the Roman Catholic Church
\he Pope is con!>idered a .. the rep-
resentative of Jesus Christ on
Earth, infallible in matters of faith
and 'rality lnd his power ,s con-
"Idcrd 1S super,or tfl th,d . ,( th
O('e uneml at <. ,mm A. Ih'
oun;e or tho 'r dogma Romal
iuholi.s (unlikl Ihe Prut stants
ale 1, t only the lIotv S np1Un f
h
e
Rib/( J Jut ,Iso he 4p' 'sto/"
J radm. n, whil h lor thL Roman
(oIthl)li .. l;as !,) Ihe (Jr-
mdudes hath the
hons of the Oecumenical CounCils
or the Roman Catholic Church and

I
I
I
I
I
,
ROMA .... rA1l1011(1
- -
the of the Pope,
Calholic priests take a vow of all
boer. AnothrT feature. of the
Roman Calhohc (huTch IS the
emotional worship of -he Virgin
Mary. of the doctrine
concerniog the Immaculate concep
tion and her a!i.'iumption and
soul) into heaven, the additIOn of
the Fifioqut to the rrt'f:d, md the
doctrine regarding f'u'KOlOry. Intnn-
sic to Roman Cathlliidsm all,; I< v
ish, theatrical worship widespre d
veneration .. f all manner )f re
worship of martv;- Sain
o
- and the
Blessed. For ccntur' scrvu;:es In
tbe Roman C thrlic Church were
conducted in L and it only
he Second V'ltlcan ("ounn! (h
in 1962--(5) which inalty ;-;ran' c:
pernw... Ion fl r sen res te ...... he;;:
'n the 0Cd1 languages )f (he e :In-
r1i s where Roman (3tbolic w)-
"hip was fbe J
philosophIcal oc nn of th
Roman Catholic (burch IS Ib
of St. 17JomaJ fquin
Co: bv now cn adar"'e.l ',>
suit modern condillon ( -\
77romilml. Th- R rn n ( . lolit;
( lUre 1 )1 today "V'" _ : an n
mol'.! rmy of pnr J. c 1 . ')
st- (! t.:ode f di)clpllne nume:
" rd L
m. 'ashe 0 t:" ml ;;1 naly, ...: _ t
lhle an' o(h\; rdigJous . ..=.'
'lS ne in. 'tutions. II s al () up
p e ':>y cculal org)01::' <
Wi 1 m r olloWlr"f f 'j; .1 kr
,. de Jm n )- uth. WI "'C1
:tad 0 -ler "oci_ liC""1s _ (3thl . e
C 10;,). n t "pread rc If'
IOU deolO['f:-lt.! ' (lC I
the R rr." ( le'l (b.u b
make Wid, e press.. Ildi,l.
_I.... n
bouse , <. II olic dUc,a: oal e 1.lh
lL\fIm 'lt d s;., on rhe Roman
( ,[bolle ( hurcb am! ils vanous or
"
-
-
stand out, and
I1cular nowad..,)'!o., on t m par
their ah;lity 10 adapt ',e strch"1:lh 0
Id
0 a C aJlDlng
wor . Under de e-
lik
{rom the raith u.! Ihenp'
0
.n
iu . Gpo.), Ir.":ro-
c :s. new pomts 10 il'!. social pro
grammc !.C SociQl If
Ih.e Wilhin the Rc lar
Cathc c ( lure h .. " a
d
nc'lt ,.
cn f>tJUggh:: betw: en the mod
crmst' and tadi ion ilis!.". The VaH-
an 'oc n (. )ligC(1 to rrake r.
n. 1I0ra rom anli:>mrn In-
l::i1 to a f( h for :lew ptlroae
tn dialog-u WIth the w, -Id. Vui-
ou! '- t re las withm Ihe RC'llaJ
Cath Ie Lburell bcJQnnl'1g 10
Dla" an e... IllC II r ole these
-I ill '!tee i
lfd tl inlen: f :>nal rclalloll. ...
::orne k _oc t tt: r:ghts
e v.orkmg people "!Id co:la =-,n
r lionv particularrv fascist
re -le Ro al ( tholie wc' kint,
p opl r n \Of 1 '0 t\lIlR 'Mm-
elves on a al ... r sc,1e Ifl c.
1; . ;cd <I11d c ... mocr;i!i ... uq!.u:.ilations
al u th' If urutcd a(
1 b) -ill .:kmvo.T3tie force
11- . Ih ,nll-JX'Pular pc,lie' .. of
tbe r.lonopc and .I/l callmg to'
p on Eat hi)!,; L'io[o1i;1lt
" \{OT1.ISt and bdlt.lfl). -\1
tl (hurch l.tll m"-. :hcre
w rl lppr :omltdy nlillion
Rv:;oun (.,Ihoht at
tit: b<':glnmng l (tht 19&)s. K<?man
:ol- ' t' predommant t'
fJ.t". lD II (Iy. 1\1 .\!:1 Portugal,
rr lltloum. and the
.tlln c)untrl('s., fn
" ,'",unlrie R. man
s, 1 .... I
,

-rt:t m<lJonrv) . ,evers
\' 10 'In _ HI
an ht P"put.tlh",11 lR "'-(',and.. un-
lTV :, and In
. <oR Rnm3.D Lalh('lic' are to
tel.. 'R M<cs
found In lilt: Ba111(
(mamly IR illbuanil) and lD west-
,
<0'
ROMc\:\IA."'l OR'1l IOI)OX n tl'Rnl
--,-
ern parts of Byelorussia aDd the
Ukraine.
cal wot!>. r l( 1
arc nf ((""'n',',,")' IIf
"h k .'1'> -cae
tlVlty I al rna c ptwlhlc thl' C '
f
r' mer_
ROMANiAN ORTHODOX
CHURCH, the second largest of the
OrthodOx Churches (after the Rus
sian OrthodOx Church) as regards
numbers of its adherents. It became
autoccphalous in lR65 and from
1Q25 ba.c; been headed by a Patriarch
(who is also Metropolitan of Bucha-
rest). In 1948 the Romanian Ortho-
dl'x Church merged with the Greek-
Catholic Uniale Church. The Ro-
manian Orthodox Church is
administered by the Synod and tbe
National Church Council. Within
the Churcb tbere arc five metropoli-
tan seer., 12 eparehies, and 8.600
A diocere in America and
cburch dic;triets in Jerusalem. Sofia.
Vienna., London and Baden-Baden
al!oO oome under the jurisdiction of
tbe Synod in Romania. The Roman-
\3n Orthodox Cburch has two tbeo-
Io!Pcal .institutes and a number of
seminaries and approximately 100
monastericr... It is a member of the
World Council of QlUrches.
gcnn' (' Igums notions., concc t
ilnd Idea.!> prm;dinga
necllCm of Thl' cpistcmokl&\'
cal roots of rchpnn and idealic;m
, 'I' 'd ",c
'rcl'11 meanty an
w(M.xlenness and petnfication, sub_
jectivism and blindnes.. .. '
(Lenin. Cnllected Works. Vol 38
p. 1(1). Human cOJ!:nition the 'dia:
\cclica! of the transition
from to knowledge,
but cognition docs not proceed in a
straig.ht line. The metaphr.-ical or
the subjecti"'e nature of certain r"
cets of the cognitive process or its
absoluti7.ation lead to a distorted
perception of reality_ Even !oensual
contemplation or the imagination
can provide the breeding-ground "0'
the appearancc of religious image -
The pos.<;ibility of COo.c;c10u.<;ncss
drifting away from reality is
even at the level of ralif'nal
tinn. Jf in a subjective. meLJphYSle.11
way the general separates itseU frem
the particular, the single f the di
lectics of the formation of 1 gl n raj
concept ignored, then there ::me1-
the tendency tn find a vchi( Ie for
a general derlOition, to tum the
general intn an independent entity.
The pns<:.ibilitieo;; for
the emergence of religion are real-
lIed lmly if social roots fOI the emer
of religion arc there.
lOgical rools of religion arc states.
proce')SCs and mechanisms of
group or individual thinking. which
ROOTS Ot' RELIGION, the entire
range of factors which make possible
the appearance and growth of rell-
gjOft. Distinction!!. can be drawn he-
twt.cD epistemological and
roots of religion. The
of religion are those '>0-
C1a1 (material and idenlogi_
;,;al), which hold sy-ay over people in
thell . life, with material
CODddlOOS playing the decisive role
With to!.OCia.l roots historicJ.1
also important,
Stnet rehgaon is the rruit of the de.
of society a!. a whole or
itS mdlViduaJ. comJ'lOllcnlS and
I.he result of internal devel.
opment.. I.C rehgmn also bas histori-
create lavourabll.! psvchological ,,(HI
10 Whllb pict)' can Oourish and lake
1()ot. Di!'.tinction<; arc drawn be
tween JlSvchokw,ical roots of religion
thc), apply, on the one hand, to 10-
dMduab and, on the other. to s0-
Ciety. The first catcgory includeS
ROlJS\EAt.:
,.uffering and distress, fear
of death and the expericna: of lo-
neliness and 50 on.
logical rool.. of religion are phc
nomena to be ohserved in the psy-
cholOb')' of &OCial groups or a s.ocicty
a<; a whole. ,",uch a. .. the need for 50-
cial intercourl'oC, puhlic opinion, co;:
lectivc and mass. fean and fouffcr
ings, pattem<; of negativism and con-
tagioD of idea.o;., communication,
persua.sion. imitation, traditio,$,
custom!!. etc. The unoonscious pro-
CCs.o;cs in human mentality may also
give rise to religious feelings. While
tbe unconsciou!!. process is a hidden
one, its result emerges as something
pre-ordained and reldy-madc In
tbe context of $OCI, J
formations the psychological root.:
of religion are mainly those te"lSe
states of the masses or individualS
which lire c'llled forth by the sponta-
neous :l<sture r r lle social process.,
exploit"tion, low r >Cial statu! and SO
on. UDder socialism nn! onlv the s0-
cial but Uso the roots
of religioD are being graduaUy limi-
Da'e<!.
Church tradition. rO!.arit:s -
troduced in the 4th .'::;
founder one of the fint Christian
St. Pach()mius, for
monks wbo had to reC:'e a
'peclfic Dumhcr of prayers nd n.
a specific number of revereD
ees. In the course. of eacb day. ROo
:.uc aim widely used I:Jy Bud J.
Illsts and Mems.
ROSARY, <,> an the R( In.ar
otie Church, a fo. n of devotioil to
the Virgin Mary that c )osir's of lb"
recitation lve or nftl:cD dee ide
of Ave Manas. each de .adc
preceded by the Palt.loster and '01-
lowed by the (Ie a; C" round
heads threaded on a stringll
hooked together, which tl'e made of
glass. bone, wood, 8mbe,. md other
materials. Orthodox md R,)DlaD
Catholic )ftt:"l attalb .1
small cross to th(:ir rosane as 1oVl-1I
"'bey arc used to count out prayers
and reverences. (Roman Catholics
USt; this string of beads to
count of tbe prayers of (he RI1S31Y,
be":lC""' thr. name) Al cooling to
(c, '050-<, 1120),
theologian and nominal' .
phtlosopber (sec: Nominatism). He
the Trinity I!. Three Oi
\'me Persons, thus rejecting tbe exist
ence a unity of substance, whl h,
according to ( lristian dogma, unites
God the Fathc God tbe Son and
( od the Holy SPI- t. rbe Church de-
c ared his teac'liDg 0 be btretical
ROSH Jewish New
Year. In the Bible it is referred to as
the day ",iteD the shoCar (ram s
bom) is blown. It was probably Il!"')-
ciared with [he Festival the Mool1,
wbi-:'" v .. as "'_clw,.- ,ted by blowing the
shofar. s if tf) :1nt,; away evil spiriu.
After [be &zb\1011Um (GpCriity and
under the infiueDce of 8"byIlDW
culture. Rosh Ha-Shanah deveIcped
:.l5 1 k ... tival of the "divine Judge-
mt'llt", wileD Yahweh his
verdict for all living things..
ROl'SSEAl', J .... Jacqurs (1712
1778), writer and philosopher of tbe
French Enlightenment, supporter or
deism. He criticized religiOUS dogma
and the policies by the
clergy, rejecting tbe y=achlDg of the
Cbureb OD the creabOD of natu-
ral world by God aDd the diviDe
ture of the mODAJ'eby and feudal po-
at tbe same lime

",
I
Ro;r At-;()V
. d the existence of a
sets in mohon the
and orders the world.
Uruvtrse rward the hypo-
Rou.sscau put ? . ht be re.
that Christlamty mig .
. d b deism as the dominant
thought was virtually
hy Robcspierre whcn
he Pdeclared the 0/ (he Supreme
Being as tbe state religion.
ROZANOV, VassHy (1856-1919),
prominent Russian author and.
iollS philosophcr. At the beglnmng
of the 20th century he wac:; one
representatives .
movement. Chnstlaruty. to his Opl
nion, expresses a of the
world that is permeated Wlth a scnse
of bopelessness and an ?r
death. He criticizes CbrlStlamty In
the name or another, "living religion,
in the name of another Church", for
"there is no people without a
Church and a God ... He attempted
to base his philosophy of life on a
deification of the erotic, sex, ramily
and clan. Hence his interest in phal
lie CUllS. His works include "Okolo
sleo ts.erkovnykh" (By the Church
Walls, 2 Vots., 1906), "Tyomny lik.
Metafi1ika khristianstva" (The Dark
Countenance. The Metaphysics of
Cbridiaoity, 1911), "Opavshiye lis-
tya" (Fallen Leaves.. 1913-1915), "lz
VOSlodmykh motivoV' (Selection of
0ri00taI Motif" 1916).
RUBLEY, ADm.;. SL (c 1360/1'70.
1427), Russian painter, rounder of
Moscow school of .icon-painting,
HIS work was rooted In the. artistic.
traditiOD of Musccvile RUSSIa. Ru.
bIev was weDversed in the Byzan.
tine art and the art of tbe Soutbern
Slavs and this was rtflected in
works. Within the Wtlfmes of me.
diaeval icoDOgrapby, Rublev was
-
---
ahlc In dcpitt high
and moral quahll{'s ("The SaviOur"
"Paul
Apostle ). Icons frum hru. .. h and
his frc.\c('I(:S arc profoundly f)Oeli{"
and philosophic.ll in ConlCnt. In
some of Ruhlcv's works, a clear de
parturc from ('hurch canon can he
discerned ("The Holy Trinil}"'). Ru.
blev's work is one of the high-points
of Russian and world culture. In
1947 the Andrei Ruhlev Museum of
Mediaeval Art was opened
on the territory of the former Our
Saviour and Andronicus Monac:;tery
in Moscow, in which Rubley bad
lived for several years and died.
RUDRA, one of the ancient Vedie
deities of India. He was held to be
the god of lightning and thunder,
master of storms and winds. He was
also venerated as the Healer, master
of medicinaJ herbs, that could pro-
long men's lives. Aftcr pa"5ing
through various transformations and
fusing with Shil'a. Rudr"a
one of the principal gClCis of Hm
duism.
RULYE, Karl (1814--1858), Ru, 'lr
biologist and upholder of the theory
of evolution, a professor at MO_l:aW
University. He developed Darwm. s
teaching concerning the way 10
which the evolution of living Nature
is conditioned by changes in the eo
wonmen!, but he did not go so tal
as to elaborate a concept or natural
selection. Rulye rejected the
in his time, to the e!
feet that "pecies are something unaJ-
ltrable. and he criticized i he bee>-
logical nature of the teachmg dis
seminakd hy 'veorges (.ul'Ier. He
also stl"O\'C tn make scientific know!
edge more rtadily available.
)
. -
Rl <;''-;IAN OR'1l10lX)X (.l1l.:R( '11
",
RURAL DEAN, admini<;tralive:)m.
cial in the Orthodox and other
Chri<;tian who a-rusts his
Bi.fhop by in .. pecling the work of the
churches and dcrgy in part o( a
diocese a rural dean i<; u .. ually re
for between 10 and 30
,hurches. In RU$Sia this office was
introdUf.:ed under Peter th'"
In accordance wilh his l-
eal Regulations" (1119), the duti_
of a rural dt;an included Ibat of n
forming the Bi .. hnp as to the ate of
affairs pertaining in the par hes mo
as to the behaviour of be lergy.
Later the office of senior ruraJ Jean
wac:; introduced in the Or
thodox Church and he was callc j
upon to supervise the work", . e
ruraJ deans. In additior: there m:
rural deans who are rt"sp' y e or
monasteries and inspec Fathers'Su-
pcnOJ and monks.
RUSAlIN, An. "'"1t !)..aVLnlC pvo
festivities linkec: ' ) venl hOD f
!'pu-l!" fertility f>- I "7l -;1
ram In An ...:.:"]1 RJlS these fe stIV'''':!s
survived as I teS of pre..{ hnstian
belief,
Rl SSEu... 8crtran(!l ur7' lQ\.
[ngli;'J. posi: Y- sl philosoph 10l"
cian, puhlic ftt::Ure His wor was
continuation )1 "Ie tradition of cr
hei.wn and ratlOnalum. 1-:..
views serve to It) lain the inc
cocy of his l: ticism of religIOn (he
approachcd it from the" omm?n
sense angle" o! the SClcn' 'Sl!
It as a kind or "mc' In Its
own He failcd II undcr.;_nd
the cpls(cmolCtglc II r;)O(s of 11 liFe;
and the difrercncc ... eTwee:l t e
diametrically rclis,;ouSJnd
sc entific w:-.:rld nutlno};s. II
rejected the .JoCIrines ...:
Chri.scianilV. evutcncr: JOT the wst-
-
tnee of God and religlou.c:; n:: . .. :lty,
he saw fear is the }f rlligloQ
and !"tCieocc as a mean!> hrou y,
whie,! tbe individual can 1:111":1.
sen.
"Rl..sSI.-\N CHURCH mrt'SlD[
RUSSIA" Sc :/{Qrfo'J(ifaction.
RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH,
the largest of the autocephalous (r.
thudox ('hurches_ It emerged aftc.
tht converC:;lOn of Ancicnt Rac:; 0
ill Q&3 nnd for a lor..t;
period it elIDe under tht jurisdiction
. Patriart.1z "f C. '!lSt. ntm Jple II
,n rh, mdlSth century h t
il athie' .. 0 re.\1 ode ;x:,dence. In
1589 a patn('.Tfltatt W' rutitutc d iJ"I
R' - whlCIl ur. '721,
wb - Svuoo -:!.::! by C .(
.. ;.\I.!or was P 0 .uc
.. hur }f tit Cl;t.ri h Bcint, the
( lIw ilD r:. mplIe
t _ R_ m (mbtxJox r:bure
tbro ..I. :It, e whole of to: d-,,,
(: unlll 1"11 J( f( oded the 1.-.:, ,
_ n::..:: g l.: nd ut-...
.". \f: ... UI
C :>r.. _ the Pain -h"ltc was re
lDStitut j r'Je L ..... lI l n.1 of
I'll' r; flk a' ;1) .. ame: to he 3
th C u.- h wh.:h :lfonounc d n
annl ntJ" u.poD ;,!u;. Dew wic! &ov
rn=nl.:n' in Knssian Orthoo?x
h adopt:j 'In openly hc;lIk.
with lTd 10 tbe
0nlv at the nd)f the Jld
its onentahon, declar'ng tha, I
It W'" loval to the Sov-t _lrde,
the prvent ime the RUSSian qrtho
d x (lurch IS the largest, rrltgl<l.us
as.WC.llion WIthin the WIth
rr ard to the number of ItS. !dh< r

arc '6 eparchll'50 an(l

ents. IJ . d c
ha
tes wlthlO Its Jun ... 1
fC'Jr eurc d twO
(three exarchatcs an .
tlOn . d abroad. unl
dcanencs arc !"I.tuale
'(ll
RUSSU."UM
the parishes in the arca
concerned). The panshes of the
Rut-sian Orthodox Church in the
liSA and Canada together form a
separate division. The Russian (k
thodox Church is admini<;lcrcd hy
the Svnod, which is headed !"Iy
the Patriarch. It provides training
for deacons and prieMs al five
inaries and two academics and en-
gages in puhlishing activity, pUlling
out servicc lxloks, and also the Jour
nol of the Moscow Potriarchate. The
Bible, annual calendars and theo-
logical works arc also pUI (lul.
Under the juriwiction of the Rus-
sian Orthodox Church there arc 30
monasteries (two of which arc
abroad). Its revenue comes from
voluntary payments for
occasional religious ritcs and sums
obtained through the sale of candles
and other required for pur-
poses of worship. The Russian Or-
Church enjoys the
rights as other religious a'\sociations.
Constitutional guarantees of free-
dom of .conscience provide the
Church with every opportunity for
,
-"-" -""
sati ... f!ing the rcligiow, nent- r
faithful. n the
RllSSIClIM or RUSSIAN SHUN.
AR\. ( ollqte of St. ll'rcs'" a" '
. .' ". '(X'('nl
edUl.."llIonal e<,lahh ... hm('nt e" "I
Id d
(ntn.
l' an run h", the J,',u,', 'd
. . . (r n
whll'h t'orne ... under th(' j'U""d,',' '
fh
. '(Inn
(l I c Roman cUfla. It was sci up 1 '
P P
' XI'
ope IUS, In l()N. The "em ina
prepare." CXpc:rI"
suhverslVe aCllVlty In the tcrrito!"), of
(he USSR and other socialist C(lun.
trics. Numcr.ous the grat!o
of Ihls cstahh .. hmcnt have
heen descendants of While Rm.sian
emigres, who had adopted Roman
Catholicism.
RUSTAVEU. Shota (12,h cen,ury),
Georgian humamst poet and thin
ker, author of the poem "Knight in a
Tiger's Skin" -. a masterpiece of
world literature. Rustavcli sup
ported the pantheist ...icws of Dian\"-
siltS the Ps('udo-Arcnpagitc and 100;'(
Petritsi and a'\ a result he was sub
jected to persecution on the part of
(he clergy,
s
SABA(ITH (from the Hebrew word
meaning "armies"). epithet m;ed 'n
Judaism to refer to Yahweh IS the
Lord of Hosts, In Christianity the
word is identified with the First Per
son of the Trinity, God '.he Father.
SABBATARIANS (R",,(an "Sub-
botniki"). (1) onc of the rellglOu'io
sects that spread among pcarants in
the latc 17th and early 18th century
in Central Russia. The setting up of
this sect was a specific fOi m of 50cial
protest by the peasants against
serfdom and the Orthodox Church.
Thc Subbotniki rejected the Ortho-
dox Church and t lristian dogma.
The Old Testament prO'o.!ded the:::
Holy Scripture, Thcy did nC recog
ntze the Trinity and m
singlr. rcgarding (brist as ODC
of the prophets, Like the Je\\-"S thty
celehrated the Sabbar:.,
rejected veneration (If icons. 3d
hercd to several abstentions with reo
gard 10 food, gave their children He
brew names and performed the rite
of circumcision, Their confe-sioTl of
Judaism compld.e WIth tt.!> dogma,
complex rituals and rites
the: inward-looking nature of their
communities, In the 19th century
thrre were sC\'eral ten'S. of thousands
of Sabbatarians in Russia. At the
present lime 1!'\,latcd pock:ts .of
Sabbatari:tns ,tre tll t'IC found In \ o
ronuh region of Russia. in Azerbai
Ian and Armenia; Seventh Da)"
Ad\'fntJJts. Voho regard the Sabbath
as a dav of cclehration. arc often
referred-to as Sabbatarians.
SABBATII \ rom the Hebrew
day of re:: and a n lig.
ou.. estival .n Judtlum ana .n !!.Orn(
Christian sects (Sabbatarian.:.
Seventh Day AdvtntiSU), According
te the Bible the festival uf the Sab-
bath was established by God, Mltr
.:reatmg Earth in six days, God
rrsted on the sevtnth day. "blcs.\ed
tbe seventh day and \anctified It"
(01 n 1.
1
1,) . "'\ lctual fact the festi.
val of the Sabbath wa\ linked wit!--
"D :'""] worship thaI was widespread
lDlOng '_ ancient people of the
E 1St. II h" .. :l appear that the proto-
Iype for .':.,. JC'I\isb t.abbatb was the
Shahan. 'the ... B ,I>yIo-
rllans 'h- i<IV of res: to celebrate
full lnOC'O . The BabylOnians <it"
:stul f!'om work on the 7th, 14th,
21st and 23tb of months
,Elu! and \brkl:svan) eoosidering
.1S thcv did that tbose were unlucky
jay . The Babyjonians had adopted
theu day of fest from the Sumerians,
then tbe ('.anaanites from the Baby
loni.ms and the Jews fr0m tbe Ca-
naanites. tn Judaism the days mark
ing the four phases of the moon
were regarded as Jays of and
tMnksgning to Yahwt/l. In two trae
tall'S of the Talmud (Shabbal. and
Erubin) types of work are listed
\\ hit'h rna", not be undertaken on the
Sabba'h.
SACRAl... adjective;: applied to .1I
things, pcr!;on<;, texts, "crbal
f mulas, huildings 3lld SO o!, that
0' Ialed to religious worship. Sa-
are re . r cuI" or
era! is the opposite 0 Sf: -,
I
""
SACRAIIIA nON
that whkh has no connection wit h
the sphere of religion.
SACRALIZATION, the of
material ohjects. persons, actl(lRS,
vcrilal formulas, patterns of hcha
\;our ctc. with magical properties
and the cic .:ation of the latter to the
rank of the sacraJ. the sacred. the
holy. Saerali/ation could take place
spontaneously. or as part of.a tr:-di.
tion: in a number of denommallons
special rites of sanctification
elaborated. Sanctified objects, per
sons, actions, texts, expressions and
so on can also be the suhjeet of de
sacrali7.ation. Protestantism, f(lf
example, removed from practices of
worship the Apostolic Tradition,
icons, saints, relics, some sacramenU
etc
SACRAMENTS (from the latin
cramentum" meaning "vow"), ritual
acts In Christianity, in which alleged
Iy the invisible grace of God is im
parted in form to the faithful.
In the Orthodox, Roman Catholic
and Anglican ChllTChes seven sacra.
mcn.lS a;e Baptism,
Chnsmatlon (eqUivalent 10 Confir.
mation .'" the Western Church), the
Euchanst, the Ordering of Priest':
Pmance (Confession), Holy Mat,.;
many and tbe Anolnting of the Sick
(Ertrtmt Ullction).ln the majority 01
Protestant move.menls only
and the Euchanst are adminiMered
and are re.garded simply as
symbohc ntual!>. no different from
any others. According 10 the leach.
.of tbe Church, sacraments were
lIlStituted by Christ. In actual
they Introduced into Chris.
worship over a long period: in.
11 ially onIf Baptif>m and the Euchar-
lSI were. then followed
the Ordination of Priest.s, and tbe
--
--
--
rt'st c\tahli"hl'd th"msc!ves in Ch .
lian worship in the Cent
Th r h
unc!.
e suurce n t t' 1
L.. h" null
loC t an(:lcnt hclicfs, in the
act!; of magic of our distant an
h
. tcs
tors, w n were convmced that it
.11 . Was
P<'\SI 1 l' to commUOItate directl
with supernatural forces and hri/
,"nUl'nCC 10 hear on them. When
s.tituti?& the sacraments the Chris.
lIan ( hurch also drew upon numer.
ous clements from the mysteriou:c;
rites of Eastern religions, in particu-
lar Mithraism. The Church at.
trihuted great importance to the
"correct" ministering of the sacra.
ments, thcrehy implying 'hat it
essential for a "legitimate" mcmber
of the clergy to be involved and for
Ihe sacrament to he ministered in
accordance \\;th officially estab-
lished practice. In this way the
Church undt'rlined its role "medi-
ator" between God md me .... with.
OUI whom the sacraments He con
sidercd invalid, This condition is, not
recognil".cd by the Protestant Chur
ches, who reject thr Idea of :.he
Church's mediation in man's com
munion with God.
SACRED. See Sacrol_
SACRIFICES, (It'FERING Qt- re
liginus ritual designed to propitiatc
?r give thanks 10 a deity or deitics: it
IS to he found in almost all religions.
'(arious of sacrifices are prat
It.sed: human life or parts of an indi
vtdual's hody can be sacrificed: VIr'
an.imals may 'I"'C blessed or
ammals may he offen'd as
a san.'flee; produce from hunting.
gathenng, animal hu. .. handry or land
I;ultivation may he offered to I he
gods; the hurning of fragrant
fires; the hanging of piec.es of col
oured material by holy springs In
______________
mountain (lr in places in
habited' hy
SA<RISTY. name nf a rOOm in a
Christian l:hun:h, in whi(;h are kept
ohjcd" required. for lr
worship durmg scmcu: vat
ments, 53ucd vcssch etc
SADDUCEES (r, m name
Sadoq, who IS rcg.udc-J a." ,he
founder of the dyna..o;1"y of Clucf
Priesls in the Temple or Jt.;;-.J.o;a1cm),
a rc1igious.political $l"0up in J'ldael
(2nd and lsi l:cnturles B.L), whlCl
C()Rsisted of the priestly aristOC-1CY.
The Sadducees defended the posl
tion of the tlile, with
which its own interests were closely
allied. They acknowledged 'te
Torall (Pentateuch) and denied the
Messianic and eschatological --,
that werc cmergmg t (hat time. and
also bodily resurrection.
SAINTS. WORSIfIP OF rl'"l _n.'l!
'Ie 1nation of pc. n .. c _cd iUn '\
b) t lC (hurch, whom r. od ll"ge Iv
endowec! with miraculo', I)()WI'"
and made mediators between "1J
$C f and me 1 on account or tt:.:,.
righteom life, rtl .. ,! -rofcsslO 01
their fait 1 and "Pll us explOit fle
worship f amts occupies an m
portant plac"- in Judaism, Islam,
Christianity (Roman 'acho/ii ;{m. the
Ort/wdax Cllurr1:). 'Sc"1 wor.;hlp
emcrges at 1 ir time 1 the tr n Itlon
from poIj1JU' rr. l"l rnoncJll!1 ISm
when thc main it\K."S arc sel .tpal
rom l\" ct. h.: ... nainder are
d:":TI.Oh; J" to. amts. r 1t w - hip of
unl , "- m I Iral: d Nwk In . ml
vc one lor M rslup. In l hri. 1m '"
II dc\ckpe..l n 11 hac,ls of Ihc
Ycncrklion uf heroes that l:1ad :o<r.tcd
In the society (If Ani'll 11 ,re
The comrlcte ( bn. ana\cm,Lr n
-
(;Iudes. of saint\,
those ".lcnhOflcd by n .. me anti name-
less Among them there are
both fi(;lIhOll!l figures, such a'\ Fr b
Pr.ophet and Sf. Cleorge, nd :J: 1
lstoncal .... r'Ulnaars p .
hi h Y" C.. romu',tn'
craIe So, rmmden of mona<r.h:nC1
and 1t.cular rulers were among tbcr.e
by the Church Ca.
1I000tUltlOn). . Prophets.
canonl7.cd monk.\.,
anc! numher among the
F Sl1va1s an: iIlltitutcd In
h?oour, whicb the
samts ... ous life s gll:' ;fied iI
every pc wjJ'J. Ln'es of 1M
\auus ccmpuc i by (hurch w. Cts
)1 )VIc! :dourful dcscnp ion: of
hC:J" "'::lIe! s filled out ""tbant
mvenUOns..
SAUl 11.0 tu m H "':..: g l
<! - 1 J.s of the: goc! Mar' .n
c "I I;> -:n .nd of his 1e
c, "It, It- v;
1::= ... 'W1 C)I ,3l
L" cf P n!o. the P 1
(c' e ratc i t,--, \tar. J nd th Sa.lii
l I "lSC Tatt.:d to Qu ru us).
)(){b .... Crt n.med ft: dis
m )f Sali \Or. rr. c]o n
ro the I:Jns and In
.. br 11 1 hem was m 19istn. Dur
109 annu, I cc''-nallon dciil'.atcd 0
Mars, the !>dng magiC" hym'ls
and lC orm d sa(.;red
(hence thclr r.lI1C'. sancd
(the Andla) w.' 1
Aa:l1rding to nadi lo-,e of th
Annlia had ralt.. - ""rom Bean;;
rt 'rom tht Roman Salu then.
rs ti -
al u existed (olkgllc 0 a I lD ,"-.
. -
tan ,lther Ilah.u, cllll's.
SALVATION, al"c(lrding tf' :dig
. :.IS 'OOI .. his rcpresc,a su-
\
SAJ.VAIlON ARMY
preme bliss, which is to
Man by God when he s.ahsfies a
Dumber of conditions and demands
that are placed before him in. Gn<!'!i.
name. Various religi?RS spcCJfy
ferent paths to salvatIOn. The Chm;
cian Church, for example., starts out
from the fact that Man IS allegedly
smful from birth, and it therefore
teaches that the path to salvation
requires the individual to overcome
sin through "renewal
tion", and thus reconcile him Wlth
God. Among the indispensahle con-
ditions tbat need to be fulfilled he-
fore the Christian can achieve sal-
vation are the observation of the
Biblical commandments, repent-
ance, and the celebration of the
rites prescribed by the Church. In
the Roman Calholic and Orthodox
Churches, sal ....ation is declared only
to be possible with the help of the
Cbureh. In Protestantism, the
Church's role as mediator is re-
jected and the principle of jlHfifica-
lion by faith a/QlIe is put forward. In
Buddhism, Man is called upon to
follow the "Eightfold Path" of Sal-
vation: only then can he achieve the
supreme level of bliss - Nin-ona,
and after death put an end to his
reiDCamations (Samsara). In Is/am,
the man who aspires to salvation is
obliged to carry out unswervingly a
.... 0( prescriptions including ob.
ligatory prayers, fasting and pil
grimage to holy shrines. In reward
for a righteous life the faithful are
promised an eternal, serene life in
The religious teaching
concerning salvation ha.'io over many
centuries hindered the working
people from understanding the true
cause of their hard tife and (rom
appreciating the real paths towards
liberation from aU kinds or oppress-
10n.
--
--
SA . VATION ARMY. inte,
I
. h1 h natl0.hl
flO p I ant ropic org'" : .....
d
'. ..nll.atl
foun l'd In 1M(15 and reor .
along military lines in IR7R gal nile;:!
. f or the
pn1pagatlon n ide
amung the JlO'lrCM strata of s ......' as
. Lo d Th' .
In n (In. e Salvation A
d
. rill)
.ltS work to other cnUn.
tnC's, In the USA and Ca.
nada and It IS now active in 111.
. I" n)
capita 1St countnes. Its work
ported hy the bourgeoisie,
that of Britai.n and the United
Slatcs. II uses Its funds to maintain
doss houses, and hospilab.
Those who arc given material assist.
ance arc required to take part in a
number of religious functions.
SAMSARA (Sanskrit word meaning
In Hinduism and
Buddhism this is a concept concern
ing the Ouidity and impcrmanenn' 01
all thai is living. a single chain of
transitions from one ccorporeal form
to another, a cycle of births and
deaths, transmigration, metemp.f}'-
dlOsis. A soul can dwell witbin the
body of a man, animal or in a plant
and its migratinn takes place in ;t(-
cordance with the law of Ka"na (re-
trihution). The aim of human salva
tinn is the liheration frnm rein(arna
tions and the altainment of Moktha
(realization hy the soul of the fact
that it is a pari of the divine soul)
and Nirvana. Escape ftom the qdc
of reincarnations can he secured
through DllanllQ, i.e. fulfillment h ...
man of religious duties. Only Dh.ar
rna can "ccure a heller incarnaUOIl
or salvation.
SANHEDRIN. In the 1st ccnturv
B.C. this was the supreme coundl in
which had legal and
functions. It mct in the Temple In
Jerusalem and wa .. presided over by
SATYr.
-
-
the High lriC!.t RcprescnlatiVI.:J
the secular. ar stt racy 1..t :m
this counCil tngr.;ther With pnco;ts.
The final authority wa .. in lbe hands
or the Roman pro" ..uraton.
SANKHYA. nne of the rthodox
.. of Ancil It Indian phil
The Icac.:hing W,' cxpounde i
in the the
"Sankhya Sutra.<; . In philosophy
.; is held that the world has two pT!'
primordial.
(Prakrti). which has mlnnSlc
qualities or gunas, I,f" Saltva
feetion. goodness and, t. mqulhty),
Tamas (ignorance, spl.ntual
... inaction), and.
activity), and the. spmtual .pnnclp1e.
Purusba (pure spmt,
The interaction of Prakru and Puru
sha sets in motion tbe devclopllltnt
of the Unive-se and thl' individual.
SARTRE, Jean-Paul (1905- 'Qg()"
French WTlter, dnmaUSl.: j.
1st philosopher and idcol--'st To
called al heist existentialism. l-'
main philosl'phical w,.ks arr
'L'Etre ," It: nean'" (BcIDS n.l
Nothingness, 1943) and "Critique :Ie
la raison dialcctique' ( 'ritique
Dialectical Reason, 1960). Sarti rt
jected and consi", d aU
evidence for the exi.ftcncf r( as
inconsistent: he s.: essed ,he
contradiction. nherenl 10 'he very
concept "God" He mamtamcd tbat
there is no Goo and M,;D lSoon
demncd" to freedom.
SATAN (rt5m tbe He-brew
meaning "plotter"), the LD
many the evd spmt OI
hc"d of Ihe e\;) spirit!', the .;ausrof
evil in the world' the ruler of Hen 10'

citing people to commit sm. Histclfl'
cal SQur('cs for belief In Satan .sec
rOotej IIJ h cc )lie 1$ of
and e- I -,in! h'it vo"'-j >d
f 'VI; ::l )fIIl'.
lYe SOoc 'J. As c u.s, i
began to tUI lh.Jpc !to there jv
ve loped ,.11.,1'> ""1]ccrllh g hI h
'rc'w of I.ading and lc!5 imr_-
h
. r-,m
tnt W' ID the course of tl. le
ve p'1l10' of monotbe' it IgbM
w: re Iral forrr.cd In 0 deVIlS )r
0,'')(1 !lamcs also u!.cJ to
:tenot!' the '.,1 'ncJu 1c Ike'" b :b
LuctJer Mcphistopbe1es.
SAnJRJIrf 'from utill Mtus"
),Ir the D1)11. "lI!:Y
of An,]"n Roflll,;. ,. j ,)f 'JW 19.
I I .. J of T'-c 'lilt {
UI ) '" orr .... 1l1'Y.>t W":Iv Jrcali
1; An< _ 11 lID. s'atm _ dl
pIC ... IS a m
t
.. witb I oc rd
nd. at' drng a l In the
- j .. ' ') 1(" C otur the
lUt d turn '" b' at f
,I Cl.f'Xl ( ,ILS. H g.l\ is.
&.;.t::_ to Illy... the we' k. S ' Jday.
n n At Cleot ROII,_,
the mnu' ( ... ratioo h')n')Uf)[
"11," ,,1:1 f.: I It: :ime )fthe
wm.:r solstic Itt:. &:_'C:ld hat 'lf
)Iccm" r\ lnj for " .....
J,'" in m, it ...;y .1 the univcnal
tht bll tlkgnHv c.xisted
dur''!!!: n:it';n, dunng
the ,1:1',,, l,lthe ff,;.":t1\1tles
cnjovt'd the S:lme rights as their n:e
ns

I
. ,nd frcquc'otl) masters w:1.1lr.d
. _ .
thelt sla\.:" When Chnshanlf)
thr omcial religion :1f the
Roman Empire, the Saturnalia c -I
('brations were forbld.den.
SAn
-nS in Ant:ient Grt'ek m)tho-
n..;, d . ods., who
1.-.1 lesser deities or emtg
"N' .' II) 10 bave Men 5vw;m
appear ong
lOa
h ho-
l
ain spirits lnd w () em
or mOUD . "I The"
died the: powers ot l,atUK. 1
I
SAC\(
werc depicted as men wilh goat's
borns, ears and legs,
S,4.l:M, :\f)-day Moskm
month of Ramadoll, which IS m
I d each day betwcen sunsel
lerrup e L_ I d
and sunrise. Its origins can ll\:, rac,c
h k to ancient Arab cults: It com-
ctdCed with tbe hottest time of the
year, when stocks of food were al-
most used up and a larg: part of ag-
riculturaJ work was earned out a
cooler time of day (han usual, .I.c.
during the evening or nighl. The
hetween the Saum and the condi-
tions of every-day which. led 10
the emergence of thiS practice he-
came less obvious when a new
calendar was inlroouced in the Calc-
phate- the Hegira. whose
and Ihus the Ramadan fast bc:gm
each year 11 days earlier than ac-
cording to the .solar calendar.
lamic tradition hnks Ramadan \V1lb
the time when Ihe Koran was senl
down 10 Earlh, Believers who ob
serve Ihe Saum should, while devot-
ing Iheir Ihoughts (0 God, refrain
from ealing, drinking, gambling, en
tertainment and bathing from dawn
till tbe onset of darkness.
SAVONAROLA. Girolamo (1-'52-
1498), Italian religious and political
reformer, preacher and Dominican
monk. Calling upon the faithful to
return to the Apostolic ideal, he
condemned luxury, entertainment
and Ihe vanity'" of secular ar!. After
the fall of the tyrannical in
1494 and Ihe reinstitution of iCI r,,-
puhlic in Florence he implemented a
number of democratic reforms. Sa.
vonarola's aHcmpl to combine a te
public with a theocracy robbed him
of the support of. mas<;cs: the
,and the Medio .. exploited this
"Iloahoo and had Savonarola
---. ---.
hrought 10 Irial, of her
and Ihen exceuted esy
SAVVATII SOUIVl"fSKY S
(d. 14-'5). fie wa ... a munk alit,
r.illn Schulr ... '" y Mona<;tcry and
lived as a n'duse on the Island f
Suhsl'qucntly he mOVed
,Islands and, together
\V1th St. founded a mona ...tic
commuDity there, commonly known
the Solowtsky Monostery,
SAYYID or SAID (Arabic Word
meaning "I he nohle onc"), an honor-
ary title for Moslems, who can trace
their origin hack to Mohammed (or,
in Ihe case of the Shi'jtes. to Ali), As
a sign of distinction they wear a
green tuman. In the Middle Ages
the title Sayvid was used also fOi h.
hal leaders and rep1c;cntatives 0
the nobilitv,
SCHELER, I\fn (1874-192S, \.Ier
nan philosophc., represcntali...-I )f
phcnomcnoll'gy and philosophl at
anthropology ee Amhropolog,
philoJopilica/). In 19
4
() he
Roman (atholie Sc. lcler Ined 0
create a system of
valu('s St.leler's interpretation r
the phenomenological
dose to exiJtcl1tiaii,ml. Scheler IS
considered one of the 0
the pheJl()meflolngv of religion,
which was designed for the study of
the "csscn<.:c ()f the divine', Ihe

fOlms in which the divme IS rt
....ealed to man and "also the actual
fact of faith, with Ihe help "f which
man can grasp the significance
divine revelations. Thus Seheh S
whole phcnom('nology ('If rc1igiv
o
ran he seen to he ha!-Cd (In Iheo'
logical premises. His main
was "Yom Ewigcn im Mensehctl
(On the Eternal in Man, lQ21),
-
--
M""II<JI ASnc'IS\t
- - ----""----
snlELlJNG,
Jo .. yon (lnS-1854), Co. l1il"
ph'ilcv..nph,n He ide as 6
and Idcnhti.lts
(Phllusophy of Idenl
fty) of hcing ami thoug.ht. which
made him one of .Ihe lc:adlOg r.cpre
scnlative<; of da.'i:-Icil C lerman Ide al.
ism. Later he adopted positivi')t
ideas, which off agam . thl"
"negative" philosophy of, Rca;;on
and which, to Sch hnr ..
combined phllowphy of mylh('"'ogy
and uf r('v('"/u/um. Fn 'Tl
that point of view seen a'
the product of eonSClOusne th'it
has eoml! under Ihe innuc 1( c ) 1-
vine, cosmic power. "lv .... Ihl w y )
a religion of Vr.; alion, i.e 0 Cltm
liollity, Schclling's \" cw of lC..lt; I
opment of myths is of n ill mc
interest.
SCHEMA r reek denmm
monastic roOC<i, Iterally .
form or shaD<}, n the urthod x
Clrurrh, a e J. non1' j-
".ism regal'" j IS the 'llghl to ..
la\'s down that monk hould Ii In
a solitalY 'ell md Oil' r.; -tio
larly strl.'t . ule
SUfiSM. 'hi' wor J I J
dcnll.e any I(ln! I U(] Ihin
ChUl 'h L Jter Ih w. \\.. ,1
to dlscriiw. Ihose dIVI' or. \\ h
we e no: lee mpaOl j hva reJe.:h(l"'
of Chure 1 c nc 'hl L h I
Jisting.ut5hes 1I m rom a 'r
ihe ROf1l1JII 'utlll II( II. ,-
!ICIer j 1C C /l'11 Clll n ) he \,.
atlr-;) of hure ... ! 1m! I'
rna e h\;
1c C. 'IUTt'Ja.
S{ HLE RMAlllER .'. rdl1rh
D-dDl<" F mst \ (,x t C err.;. n
thc()loglan, phllusoPhcr n 11. : c

..

ligure. He acknmlflcdgcJ lh .
of kind c U
l nlty or C'od, in whith all 0 t
ue and whith i. ..
l'nly Via dlre(t knowledge }-I,
c bolh the Old and the New
TeStamolt. but from the lOinl or
\I(W . l rcligiou .. worla oUlloc-k
o;;ehlcKTmae':ier :Iedl cd
from \he Inner expetle-:... Ind ee
of the and tl IV
u.rm whKh "ese (e iiI gs m(
10 Mle 'nt ndivid Jal al d oa1l0'lS
()un'" r Ihl; clive v C Ii.
",LICl s lhe
h
L
Ir. ... ,., t not Ihe Iv ru 0 C
Hi 'cachl w TIw- 0 ClCI rl .. i:,:,ili
ani nnuenc .. the cl m nl
( .. Prote J. - the)1 1'1 L", 19th
c n lrv
S( H\lIDT \\ Ibrlm 'H'l
J.ri an c n -<1ph r n1 Ii
-,
r
l.
"
c U

,,'
n -
. "
l-,

I
,

'"
,
I
" [
r
Ie. j;
"

tho tit, t
D
I"

n I

-
h [or r
" "
Yomk w.
"
l
er(
,
.A

T
,
tlt L_ ,[
( 1 U I-
I .
S( nuu,srn (fwn . .; Latil
hoI. ,e r II ch )01), ."
(,1. I pt:. (1 In E rl.: '\C 11 the
Ih- Ih c ntu.lc. wh' .. wur
l1t
r ide a h on ic I t- "IS o Ihe
..I 1U .ook ,e -:lain
'1O
I
IC,:n WS
lOU
r
..
, l
L
I, I
"'..-. .. "
[ pr4 t. 1 . el
" . < nll j I,le

h ;.u _ J M"lC ty,

{.t:.f4_n' L
. =n,.' c1 to. ow-
L L
1 phtiOSl If was
\
:'i I 0
________ 'R
-
handmaiden or Ihc()logy. Sehllla.Mi-
ci .. m wa .. characleri/cd hy authonta-
rian thought drawn rrom the
ahle truths of rel'clotio" and II as-
crihcd prime importance 10 the
authority (,f the and
also to that of the \\Tilings attrihuted
to the Fatll('f1 of the CllIlrclr and of
thc dccisions adopted at the Oe(ll-
m('/liral or (j(,l1cral COIITlcils. Schoo
lastic thinkers were respt,""ible ror a
sYstcmati/ation of Christian d{lgma
and drew up codcs of Romatl Cath-
olic theology, using the philosophi.
cal legacy of Aristotle and the nco
Platnnic tradition rcworked for
Christian purposes (scc Diollysills
tile Psclldo-AT('opaJjlc). Two philos
ophical trends emerged \\;Ihin the
framework of this method, which
wcrc fiercely opposed to cach other:
the idealist trend (realism, which
prO\ided the philosophical hasis for
Roman Cotholici'ilJl) and the var-
ietics of phiios(lphy Ihal were 01"'
posed to the former ("omillo/ism,
Averroi"m, Swt;sm and Occami"m),
which reflected the materiali"t lean-
ing.'i in the develnpment (If me
diaeval philn"ophical thought. A"
early a!> the 15th century it emerged
that the !>chola!>tie method was in
with any rurlher advance
natural sciences, and
l1asm began to go into deep dcclinc.
SCHOPENH"UER, ,\nhur (17R8-
1860), J'lhilO!>Ophcr, adv().
of Imlflonulism and lihertarian.
ISm. ...umcd that Ihe
f:\Cing a pes.. ....imiM Schnpenhaucr be.
heved that fIouffering Wa, ,'nh '
I f h
ercnl 10
'. t conly p.alh to u.lvation was
VTa Ihe or the will to live
a Cr >mplctc absence of des.ircs and
aseClici"m, Man ahme d ...
hi!> own dcvices, de"rile lh'c
n
fa!d
t
to
he creales for him"clf a World 'r
that
and sai.nls., a de
rehgllm .md In h' of
, ,,' fh IS. In.
erpre a Ion n uman "ufferin a
the way" of O\'cu:oming it he nd
I'h .' (,:omC\
C t of
N,"'olla, .contrastmgllie - I ea"-i" of
Brahl1llllll"'" and Buddhism on thc
one hand, and and Chrisliall-I\'
and. in particular, of judaism on
olher. His main work "Die Welt
Wilk. und Vorsldlung" (The World
a!> Will and Idea) appeared in 1819.
SCHULZ. Johann Heinrich (lIN.
tR2.'\), (icrman educator and from
17M a Lutheran pastor. In his works
"Philosophische Bctr;tchtungen uhcr
Thcnlogie und Religion uhcrhaup'"
(Phihl"llphi(:al ()hser.alion!> flO Tht-
and Religion in General, 17&1)
and "Ern'cis de!> himmclweitcn Un
terschicdcs der Moral von der Reli
ginn' (E\;dencc of the Enormou!>
Gulfhctwccn Morality and
1788) he came (lut against rdigion.
According In Schulz, the idea of
(;(ld cnn"lilutl:''' a transfer of the fe3-
lures of human acti"itv tn SU
preme hcing; rdigion 'he !'>aw a!'> the
reliuh of fear and ignorance and as
something thai wa" a tran<"ient phe
nomenon when "icwcd historically.
He rc_iectL'd the accusations put for
ward .. 1 10 the effect
that their ideas wl,;rc imml1rai. Ar:.
\.'nrding (0 Schull, rdiginn and mor-
ality werc impl"<"<;ible In comhine
liginuS rrc ....t.:ripl;\.n<; he ,aW a, III
founded and u!>elC"5, while natural
morality. ha<,e..J on Reason, ((In
spirit ual wl,;:llt h.
IOUS morality he .. aw :IS a di<,,((lrt.W
n
of natural morality. Fur his criti(lsm
of religion, Schull wa<; hrought 10
SCIEN{ 'r -\Nn __ _ _ J.
-
"
-
trial n )'79t and obliged to lca\'c
holy orders.
Diale 'Ut .. -..... M '
to '"wt 1 /lfUs'1S atla "./'
vtt:!' I. I
ScHWEITZER. .... b<rt ( 1751%'\
Franco.German philos-
opher and ot theologian,
winner of the Nobel Pri/A;
progressive puhlic figure. f'o" m.lny
years he worked as doc or
in French Equator".1 Aff]C'"a w
Gabon). The hasis of Schweitzer s
philos(lphy ("new rationalism wa'
"reverence for lifc", which Schweit
ler saw a!> holding out ): )Speets for
the moral impr<Jvement or man kino.
According to Schweit/e it would
not be social change bu1 the elforts
of individuals aimed at lmp
rn
vmg
human nalur which would 1fIake it
possible to put ideals n'o
nractke Schweitzer's oolumsm was
religious n t..,oc anc:! weDI n,o 10
!:land wit 1 an to 'lie11 nterprr- lion
): be figu' of Chrisl. Hi! prulosop-
hied values were somew 1 t p,dc c .
in (;haraeter. Hi maIO wf"rk we"
(Phil sophy of
(ulture ,n tw:lVols.,19: l. and
"Kultur unr" E thik" (C ullure n1
Uhi"" Ion).
SCIACCA. Mi(h{'le (b.
1908), 'talian r,
rl;.:;: .=ntative c
l
( hr ,tian sp n
tualism". Tlt I ,mt d '''c
"philosophv r e1abor
ated by Sciacca i. Ihe ide .., thr.. e'
fe I that the 'ndiv dual in h"ut c
live IOn( . lCpCflllce '1. tho
,Oe! of Abosolut Beng l{jod), who
IS rt1SCCnLcnt 'od a1 the ,Ime
pre;. .1 w thin the ,ndividual's "on,
se ou nc ,", tk pposed In with
in Rlvtlon ('athl '/;1 ("hUii", of
tCl:l)' ... n","mg for renc\\,u, m (J:].r-
Ii( ubr dialogue wilh
)1 othe' faiths and philosophies, 10
duding waiogue with Marxbts (see
AND RtL1GION,
_ soc 1I conse "'usn ss whic" are
:lly opP)Std to ear':! "Itt: ...
m their CSSCrtct nd soc I 10k
SC c"\c ,wh,c ll:mbraces a m c.
I'ncrw db: rtlating to the laW' or
Naturr.. lIi .... IC v lnd and llso
aLtlV:ty dircc::I oward Ihe
aehlc\'emt::a t c', knowlc:l ..
merge nd (I lops h ':1110 "in j
w:;"h x::a} prlUt:S:; 'nd;b ad":::"l.,ce
t..f cogni .. " l ';:,h. RC'Jg1}n
whl:::'t IS an cxprf lOti TIC'] 5
WI;. bess b fl'e n ltural ad c 1
orc::- ." t unknQ'\l,"D and b .:t
" ' ml"ll s C foist C J 'h m
wu Ory (on. ':)\.IO'!lS ':c':lc,:-"lil:g
tur!
and (-li':R 111 n 111:1 Nature
np .... ;: :11 . on' b
ft .. InC' Be -
p C. ::-. a(':\1ty nd
,,,k Ih_ ,,,+u: _ e Q!S 'g
o ac'. 'vlty Ttr." fir t f lund
fc sucb ....-k n ,':. r aslron. >my
r,:"'" m,'.,;tJIlI 'S and ! "'ge
at:---::-r:: :0 .1.D< .. 11 rnn, Lg;T'l,
... noI. :!ll11L l h.n ... md Inella.. ano
'lb,':J jn:.;:q'lCd further. 11\
\.0 jent ()t "nd Rome Sdcn
tili:- knowidg..:. e":l'n in e.lrly J
eI.l)'S. often ,IDIO l\:llfhcI wttb
tbe dommant rrhpous philosophv of
the d.1.'f. In tbe and 16th ...:en-
-'!OlWl1! .fcicnct. ' (II
conn:med with lhe Mtura!
world, ld VC!0p under the
influto,,-e of the OGc.':is. stcauruRg
rt.Jm rrod
ue

!io
n
of tbe
this field. With {openuc:;:,..
heliocentriC lIi)'Stt,;1J\, \loCH:,
next years, 1.0 \loderrrun
e
t c red
conreptioDc. of the ltlh
be found In (be Biblt, I e
Man 10
SI2
SCIE"'IlIK ASD INOIOGICAI RI VOl ANI) RI',I H ;10:-';
K and other holy hooks.
thinkers. exploiting. as duj
the Church's authoflty, tfled to
from th,e
sphere of the natural to .rc-
I
. doctrines whIle sCientific
.' . h
theories, which conlradl.eted I e
Holy Scriptures,. and thelf propo-
nents, were subjected to persecu-
tion. In the second half of the lQth
century natural sciences broke frce
from the shackles of religion after
demonstrating the inconsistency
religious conceptions of Nature. H,s
( torieol . .. hy
Marx -and Engds. a
hlow at the religious interpretatIOn
-olMan, --society and history. The
rapid ad\'ance of science in the 20th
century made clearer than ever t.he
anti.scientific essence of the rellg-
world outlook. Successes in the
. J realm of science and the disscmjna-
'J tion or knol,\Tcd&e -faciljtated the
liberation of the broad masses of the
working people from religiClu!'. atti
tudes. II is precisely for this reason
thai theologians have been to
create the impression that a rccon
ciliation between modern science
and the religious world outlook i!-
pos!>ible. To this end they haw had
to "modernil.e" religion and abo to
resort to other devices: e.g. to draw
a clear dividing line between the
&.pbcres of science and
when it comes to the of
knowledge. and to utililC as "'el OJn
solved scientiflC problems '0
tbe for. religious
svpcrw.lon of SCIentific aCllVlfies.
SCIENIlFIC ANO TECHNIlUJGI_
CAL REVOLUTION ANO RELI-
The and techno-
log.caI rcvoluhon marked a qualita.
lIVely stage in the struggle be.
tween SCIence and. religion which

had !leen g(ling nn for ccnlurirs..
l'ontrihuled tnwurds thl' fmm.t
It
f h
. a Ion
o t e ..'nl,lIlc Wnrld
outlo..)k, M:r'\"mg tu .
0(:':'" or Ihe wu.rld
roundatlon nf di;llccli.
cal matctla.h<;m. When interpreted
by the. sci
7
nlific and
technologIcal rcvol':-ltton. IS vicwcd in i
the ahstraet, It!'. conuClc
!'.oci()historical context. While ('Tcc.
ogniling" and giving the scientific
and technological revolution a posi-
tive evaluation as an extension hy
Man of "divine creation", theologi_
ans arc only dealing i. new.formS, ol
fidci.f11l and Ihey contmuc i!l-.Jhciu:f-
(orIs Tn" Jiscreait sCIence lTom' h'llh I
the epistemological and social angle J
and to belittle the role of human rca-
!'.nn. so as tn leave room for faith. To
try and suhstantiate their melml"'".
the impossihility of under
!'.tanding Ihe "fundamental truth" hy
methods aecessihle to seienec
technology. they exaggerate It,e
relativc nature of !'.cientific lnoYtI
edge. Theologians place undue cf!'--
phasis on the
ficultics eneounlcred 10 the sCientIfic
and technologic'll revolution, linking
these to the "sinfulness (If human na
ture" and to the disruption of the
harmoniou!'. halann.: of Ihe modern
world. Thc()ltlMUI interprl"lation of
I.he c,enCl and tech
nnlngy ,",als the way 10
.... tanding ,If and
problt ms inherent In II to the <;CJrch
fllr n"w paths towlrd! solutlf'n of
thO!'>c prohkms, whit .. pre)cnl1nr, a'
.tn ahcrn:lli':e :.0
onscqucnccs 01 . 'rirmal !'.in 'hat
alkg('dlv ("oml. In light in the nr.ga-
tn.T 01 IcchntllQJVc.JI
ad"anc, (t he eel llneit' al crisl"', the
appearance or me.an!- of mass de
struction elc,) the l !tllpl3 ,If ChTlo;
I
I
- -
tian humanism. Ihe mnral perfec 1t"1
of the individual nn Ihe path It) com.
munilln with (jud. Marxi ... m Lcnin,
ism examint.:s the and leth .
revolution withlO IJ..c
framework ,If llle soci(}oecllDilmlc.
fadors. which f.hdJ'5.': It ande!!m ats
roth the technocratIC anuwo1lit
anth 1 r ral it lOal i <;1, rc lig.
ious tnterpretatlons of that revol
ulion,
SCOTISM, trend in late Scholtrti-
cism linked with the work of Ie
Scottish philosopher Johann( s Dune
Scotus (c. 1265-t.10R). He e :mnh;. d
the Thomist leaching pre"cnl
philosophy as the f
theology that prm;dcs rational x
planation fm the doclrines of fal "
and he c1abonted leaching tt he
effect that there was) rigid dj" omg
line between reason and faith. n_
the field!'. of philosophy lOd th 0-
logy. Philosophy h, 1"1 re)son
reaches an understanding Nat1fe,
while the tenets of faith -I. n r
quire to he foundd on ii, h_
cause faith if lot Jlatt\'C
practical- an ac of will; IS
viewed hy him as instruction or :nan
in the principles ()f C'lri!'.tian mor
ality. To counteract ntll1eCluali.'C: j
interpretations of (iO<1. -he adher
ent!'. of Scot ism made the volitillRal
principle in (,od pre cminer:: frf'-:TI
the doctrine of divine omnipotence
the condu!'.ion was drawn h, the
rcct that God imparted to mattcr the
capacity tn think. S(oti!\ls dcfc1\dnl
the prineipk of man'sffl""(' 11:/1 which
to them constitut, d the essence (If
the human soul
SECIIENO\. han (IN:") 10(1<',
Russian materialist seholJr, fllundn
of scientific physiology and mo.krn
psychol(lb'Y. While examining m:In's
If II lit

."
m :nt I :-""Ii\itv rrf'll h
m t . 1 lIT I
a cnall'\l n onism S
lor th r.' c
. r Imet-,
W.IY C:qx:rimcn s I.':lt all rorm:<>
s menial and cm('IIDr.!llif rt
With refard to 'h,,;. .
n .. H Olgl" e
\.; Suktantiatcti hi
thl. hrain as the rrlt< rial
5U, ....tratum or emnti al al d n nR al
phcnllml n=l lnd th' way -
.. In 'AttIC'
and. c"noti '1al Flen)n A_
ar., ,jttcrrrmci 1V h cxtcn,\
-:;:d The exp lUltJcd in
lk 'ReO:' V golovno 0107.ga"
of 1 e Brain, 1&J(1 d:ll iI
n.:- z: tt I' :-io\: . "
1 r sou a. .. I al my!' lea.
c. :ndcp ndelll' t! b:ldy,
tho t was be I. Imn al "0 "cyen 1
lhl. of . um n knO'*. d... <:
c'\en"" s d( mid "T.",
tribu -, 0 \; scientific Jbstar< .
tion of !the lSJIl.
SE(OSD h \rt a f r
qtC'ltC,J u t' (, t:.: 1 nt, (' n-
.... "leuturc coming I
. alh fl" nO't :' 'udgt"'(",'
1\" r Inc Ihlng mJ I'"1C dead :t IS
. ,t j ln th( prcdloon 10 he, :md
to th( liOS . IS and IS :'!lain
t of the . :togml.
VI.'! i-: (jo<.pcls jdinttc reCu
cnce is mat1<. to the lac: that the <;(',,;.
ond C .lming wii: tak lllJ(;4.: wi.thm
the of 1.:I1C Thi!>
generation \\oiU by no m,'ans
;way, till all these arc ful-
f1kd
n
(MI. 2Un This mea.nl that
t he Christian ('hurch wa. .. to
amendments 10
,'If the Second Coming as laid
in Ihe Sibil and renounce !l"Y hteral
interpretation or the lext,
defcrring the Second Commg to In
undefined future datc, A1tempts
th
.urt of the Seventh Day Adven
C,_ d' in the
tists, for example, to tsCCm
\
514
SITRJ:I/\RJAI'-OR M):\BI'[ [I'VI'RS
Bihlical texts "hidden" to the
" f the Second Coming ended
tIming 0 .
, f '\ At the present lime
In al ure. . f
Christian movements refram rom
5uch attempts. Theologians and pre-
achers prefer to declare that
knows the time and hour of the Sec-
ond Coming.
SECRETARIAT FOR NON-BELIE-
VERS (Lalin name,
pro non crcdetobus), an <?rganli'a-
tion within the Roman Cuna set .up
in 1965. It is one of the
Roman Catholic centres dealing
with problems with the
fight against Maoost It has
branches (known as natIOnal secre-
tariats) functioning in many coun-
tries. It has held a number of re-
gional symposia in Western t::urope,
Latin America, Africa and ASia. The
Secretariat for Non-Believers co-or-
dinates its activity, aimed at intensi-
fying the ideological struggle against
atheism and its growing innuence in
the modern world, Yrith other
Roman Catholic organi7.ations con-
cerned with anti-atheist propaganda.
in particular the Order of the
Jesuits. The Secretariat puts out a
bulletin entitled "Atei!'.mo e dialogo"
(Atheism and Dialogue), which is
sent out to aU dioceses_
SICI, RELIGIOUS (from the Late
Latin "secta" meaning "faction" or
"following"), a type of religious as-
which into being as
a uend 10 oppositIOn to a particular
religious movement. Sects can pro-
vide an expression of social protest
by lP"ou,,!, _ are dissatisfied with
thelf POSltlO!" antagonistic society.
claim made by reliS-
10':15 IS that their role, doctrine.
pnnclples,. and aims are of a univer-
sal charader. This stems from their
-
scn<;c of hcing. fur a P" t'
"d ,rICU
lar m,\Sltln. an (,ftcn from ,I I d
ent)' til i.n. i.-.nlalioni.-.m.
urge In attain "plfltual rehirth (, '
/
') \ \ ('\1-
\0 /JIll comes c car y to thc fnrc .
the hdid!! and practices of thc
of m .l1IX sects. and Ihis
hand m Wlth stnct
of. a moral code and pre!'.
regard to .worship.
Th,s often results m/alluti.
sects reject
pnl'sthMd, SlnCC they Vlew charisma
as an impnrt;.\01 aspect of leadership
and they arc rc.-.dy to recogni1c a<;
leaders those whom they hold In
have received thc gift of (,od's grace
in the form of special talcnts fnr
leadership. Thc cquality of all mem-
bers in thc sect is stressed, as is the
voluntary nature of affiliation to thc
association; great emphasis is laid
upon "conversinn", that
memhcrship. The aMve-mentioned
features takcn individually can he:
found in religious associations of
many types. It is the comhination of
these features which is typical for rc-
ligious sects. The overall features as-
sume slightly different forms in thc
various sectarian trends. The histori
cal destiny of religious sects had var-
ied widely. Some of them ccase to
exist after a certain interval of time.
Other!'. in the course of time develop
into Churclrl'J or denomi"atiolls.
Whether sects develop along thc (lnc
or the other path is determined by
the social and hi!'torical context
within which they operate.
SECliLAR CIiRISTIANllY. a theo-
logical concept ion of Christianity that
was dcveloped mainly hy Protestant
theologians in the 20th century.
(Jerman Protestant theologian O,l
triel, Bonltoeffcr annnunccd thai. a
"secular interpretation" of the Chns
,
SEcul.AR.IzAnoN
tian faith Bonhoeffer
regarded religIOn as an hi.-.lorica1
phenomenon, bound to disappear in
1;Otb century. For him, the end of
rehgaon meant the end of traditionaJ
religious Chri. ...tianity and indeed of
tbe religious interpretation of both
Life and history. According to Bon-
hocffer, being a Christian did not
mean being religious, but it meant
being a true human being.
SECULAR TIlEOLOGY, move.
ment in modern Protestant theo-
logy, the starling point of which was
provided by Dietrich Bonhoe/fers
idea of the creation of nonreligiolL,\
or secular Christianity. Supporters
of the moderate wing of secular
theology state that the lack of any
adequate match between modem
man's concepts of God and God
himself constitutes the "death cl
God", and they strive to revive Bib-
lical faith in a "living God" Sup-
porters of tbe radical wing in seCIJ.
lar theology advocate the concep-
tion of "Christian atheism". Tbeir
theology of the "death of God' in
volves acceptance of the death of
the very conception of theism. i.e.
of the death of the God in the Bib-
lical Christian sense. In thelT search
for a new form via which to express
the supemohlral, these thwlogian.'i
turn to various school... of secular
philosophy and to various mystical
teaching.<;. What the supporters of
secular theology have in oommon is
their appreciation of the fact that
the traditional form
of Christianity has losl its meaning
for modern man, who has become
non-religious and has entered into
tbe post-Christian era of history.
Christianity has either 10 perish, or
to a. ... <;umc a new form that corre
sponds to the secular world.
, -
'" -
the emanti
h.on of vanous spheres of . pa..
groups, tbe
m.en" activity and beha-
SOCIaJ relatiOn! and
from the innuenc:c of {
.. The wane in the innucnce
of finds exprC$.sion in ib
place in society. tbe nar-
r?WWg of the range of reli-
gaon now performs., in the tran<;fer of
Church property to the state, the:
of legal proceedings and
education Church jurisdiction
and SUpernslOn, and the advance of
secular art and morality. The pro-
cess of secularization has not in-
volved all these spberes at aD iu
stage$. In the Middle Ages it was
slowed dOWD try the srki!ual dicta-
fJ.f 1& cnurch.JioyrcGt .it
gradually COVcrta an ever wider
range of spheres as capitalist social
relations became more flJ"Ully estab-
lished The faU in the lnflueDcc of
the Cbw-cb came particularly clearly
10 the fore during the Age of the lie-
nairumce, in the period of tbe Rqor
marion and in the years leading up
to bourgeois revolutions. The bour-
geois revolution in France not only
sen-ed to accelerate the transfer of
the landed property in tbe hands. of
the Church and the monasteries to
the state, but also to some extent {
the !.inciplesi'f frtt#i !,f /,
consClt"'nce iiI"e ekI'io Slerufy
rreeaom to opt lOT a particular
creed, separation of Church aDd
State and a partial removal of edu-
carion from the jurisdictioa of the
Church. In modem OJ6I'itiom (be
middle class employs iD
order to. mnw'i'1,tc If.,. c.,.
order. parties l!e
sct up. which attempt, to
(see sQatUlZIJtion) men S
ness and various spheres of public
\
SrKJIMr:r
'"
life Idealist and
050' bical trends are becomlOg Wlde-
and principles of freedom of
. . ce are being flouted. In so--
cousaen f I
cialisl society the process o. secu aT-
u,alioo is distinguished Its depth
and its broad comprehensive sweep.
SEKHMET, Egyptian goddess ?f
war who belped tbe Pharaoh 10
ban'le. She was also a godd
7
5:" of
bealing and patroness of phYSIC1ans.
She was represented as a woman
with a liOD'S bead.
SELENE (derived from the Greek
word "selas" meaning "moon"),
goddess of the MOOD in Ancient
Greek mythology, the sister of He-
liDS (tbe Sun) and Eos (Dawn). She
is depicted in the form of a woman
with a sickJe-moon on her head, and
sometimes with a torch in her hand
and a trail of stars behind ber.
Selene was sometimes identified
with Artemis or with Hecate, patron
of magic and sorcery.
SELF-IMPROVEMENT (self .... u-
calioa), conscious and deliberate ac-
tivity of tbe individual aimed at de-
veloping within himself a specific
kind of moral awareness and moral
qualilie& concsponding to concep-
liooi of the moral ideal. The endeav-
oar to .,.\eve self-improvement is a
1cP:" consequence of the develop.
ment 01 Man's self-awareness and
his moral standards, as he becomes
conscious of himself as an individ-
ual. Karl Marx noted that unlike
,
...... --, "mn makes his life activity
itself the object of his will and of his
consciousoess" (Marx, Engels, Col-
/t.d Worla, Vol. 3, p_ 276). Pt<-
sonal self-unprovement is the most
important element ill various ad-
vanced religious-ethical systems.
-
Yet, ali t,hey the individUal
from Irect his aHentin
towards the achlcvcment of a su 0
natural idcal (merging with the
solute, God etc.), these systems onl
serve to render the proces.s of
self-improvement .vague and
In for instance,
self-Improvement IS hnked witb the
attainment of Nirvana as a result of
which with the Absolute is
allegedly achieved, together with an
end to the process of reincamations
and. suffering.
Chnsllan teachmg With regard to
self-improvement incorporated a
good deal of the philosopbil'aI views
of the representatives of late Stoic.
ism. It presupposes belief in God,
who allegedly sets Man on the path
of spiritual perfection and helps him
master the flesh and save his immor-
tal sOlll. Christian self-improvement
demands strict observation of Chris-
tianity's moral code (Man's love of
God and love of his neighbour, hu-
mility, tolerance, etc.). In Roman
Catholicism, self-improvement is
seen as an understanding of the eter
nal and immutable Christian virtues
with the help of the Church and then
their emulation in practice, Man
despite his Fall from grace posses:scs
sufficient strength to make self-Im-
provement possible. Protestantism,
on the other hand, underlines Man's
inability to improve by relying mere
lyon his own efforts. Only God
enable him to do this, Marxist ethiCS
presents self-improvement as self-
education of the individual aimed at
satisfying his needs for higher moral
standards.
SEMII{. Ancient Slav festival mark-
the end of spring and the
RIng uf the summer. linked Wlth a
number of ritual actions that can be
Sl:PARAnON OF a-tUROt A.."ID
STA.-m
traced hack to ancient beliefs in
plant spirits. Hence the cult of
plants, in particular, in the or
the Russians, that of the birch.tree
which served as the bac;i' for the rit:
uals of Scmik. The olher name for
this festival - Green ChrLc;tmas_
tide- is most revealing. The name
"Semik" for this festival took root
after ChrLstianity had been adopted
by since it fetl on a
in the seventh (Ru!'..liian "sedmaya")
week after Easter. Semik later
merged with the festival of Whitsun,
but the ritual actions which could be
traced back to the distant past reo
mained intact, although tbey have
nothing to do with the Cb.ristian fes-
tival of Whitsun.
SEMINARY (from he Latin word
"seminarium" meaning "r.eedbcd"),
in tbe Roman Catholic and Angfican
Churche5 colleges for tbe training
priests; in the Orthodox Orurch an
institution providing elementary
training for priests as oDposed to tbe
Theological Academies providing
more advanced training. In the
viet Union th( RUSSian Orthodox
Churcb bas four seminane<:c. The
Georgian Orthodox Church, the Ar-
menian Apostolic Church and the
Roman Catholic Church also bave
their own seminaries, 85 do some
Protestant Cburches.
SEMLER, Johann Salomo (l'7?S
1791), German theological historian.,
leader of the rationalist school in
Lutheranism. Semler demonstrated
::be historical inauthenticity of events
I">.:portcd in the Bible. and recog-
ni7.cd these as important only insofar
.is they were morally edifying. He
denied that the Bihle was the fruit of
di\ine rt1'elation and he interpreted
the miracles re-cncountcd in tbe
from a tationalist point of
View. ACCording to Semler the b's.-
lOrry ?f Christian dogma i." 'a
o ml"takes. weaknesses and
1"1' sUpfr
s 1 lon$, inu.c;ted that man
had the n&ht to interpret dogma
freely and that theology ,;h()uld he iD-
dependeDt of the official Church
SENECA, lucius called
"tht YOUDgU" (c. 4 AD)
Roman and write,.'
?f the malO repre!.entatives of Stoic-
Seneca held that Man's mO&!
possession was his range
of and moral quaJities: im.
patience, oompowion, the
ability to surmount feu of death and
for extcrnaJ rrospcrity The
commg together 0 divine natwr.
and the human soul (regardless of
wbetbt:r it to a slave or to a
master) Seneca presented as the
condition for Man's achievement of
lle highest Good Wbile tolerating
spiritual equality, Seneca recognized
a natural difference in men's social
position, wbich indicated that be
reconciled tQ existing practiCC\.
Stneca's idt:as exerted I significant
influence on the way in which ClzriJ-
tianity evolved. Engels was to write
that if l'Iilo of Alexandria could be
c.:msidered the doctrinal fatber of
Christianity, "Seneca was her uncle.
Whole pa."sagcs in the New
ment almost literally copied
from his works" (Marx. Engels, CoI-
lecud Worlcs, Vol. 26, p. 1J3). His
main works were "De Vita
(On Ihe Bles.c;ed Life) and
lac ad Lucilium" (Letters 10 LUCI'
lius).
SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND
STATE is implemented by
on the basis of noninten'tntlon. lD
internal Cburch affairs (concerrung
'"
SEPARA110N Of'SCIiOOI . AND CHURn I
ccs and canons), removal of
concerning civic status the
control of (be Church, of
tbe office of army chaplain, ban
the lcaching of religious dogmas In
school and desistance; on part of
the state from obLigmg to
profess a particular religIOn. T.hc
legaJ position of tbe Church vane,s
from state to state (see Stote, Ref,
gion lind the Church). A typical rca
ture of bourgeois slales is tbe close
link between the administration and
religion (the Church :-vhich its
blessing to the ruhng. mmorlty),
hence the limited, one-sIded nature
of bourgeois constitutions. The
democratic principle of tbe separ-
ation of church and state is only im-
plemented properly in socialist so-
ciety. In the USSR it was first made
officiaJ legislation in the decree "On
the Separation of Church and State,
and Church and School" that was
later to become one of the principles
incorporated in the Constitution:
"Citizens of the USSR are guaran-
teed freedom of conscience, that is,
the right to profess or not to profess
any religion, and to conduct relig-
ious worship or atheistic propagan-
da. Incitement of hostility or hatred
OD religious grounds is prohibited.
In the USSR, the Church is sop ... -
ated rrom the State, and School
fs_ the Ouucb" (Article 52).
SEPARAnON OF SCHOOL AND
CHURCH. one of the guarantees of
/rudom of consciDIu. In bourgeois
SCXtety the interests or State and
m the sphere of education
coi:Dcidc:, &0 that this separation has
implemented
a &Ingle country. Releas--
educalJoD from religious fetters
IS for the bour-
growe, smc.e It undermines the in-
-
nuenec of religion on the you
generati on. Bourgeois law m nf!:r
provi f<. ion for the Church to foe: es
primary and secondary r.chool.; u.p
whi ch rcligjou. .. ideology hold.; In
unchalle nged. In a number of ay
tries the legal system makes
edu<:"ti onal
to C hurch The Soviet
state guaranteed genume separation
of School and Church in the govern.
ment of January 23, 1918:
" EducatIon IS made separate from
the Church. The teaching of relig.
ious dogmas is banned in aU state
and public educational estab-
lishments, where subjects constitut-
ing general education are taught."
Article 4 in the Fundamenta1s of
Legislation of the USSR and the
Union On Education
stipulates the "secular character of
education which rules out all in-
fluence of religion" .
SEPI'UAGINT, THE (name derived
from the Latin word for 70 - "sep-
tuaginta "), translation of the Old
Testament into Greek, carried out
according to legend by 72 translators
who had travelled from Jerusalem to
Alexandria at the invitation of the
Egyptian king Ptolemy Philadclphus
in the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
Historical research has not con-
firmed this legend. The translation
of the Old Testament was carried
out gradually, over a period of no
Ie!'..') than IWO centuries to supply thc
needs of the Egyptian Jews, who at
that time Greek as they wcnt
about their daily lives. It contained
liome ten hooks of the Old Testa-
ment and certain other texts., which
laler for a number of reasons disap
peared from the Hehrew text and
are not part of the modem Jewish
Conon. These text$ are not regarded
SERGILS Of RADoy.,lo':1J1
as canonical in the Christian Chwch
either, yet they are Mill induded in
Roman Catholic and Orthodox \'t:r-
fiion!'i of the Bible that were trans-
lated from the Septuagint.
SERAPH or SERAPHIM (from the
Hebrew word meaning "rtcry"'), n
Judaism and Chriitianiry an angel
who ,tand\ at the highwlcvel of the
celestial hierarchy, nearest to
Throne of God. Seraph", are de-
picted as men with 5ix (two or
which cover their face, two their
feet, and two enahle them to ny) and
are constantly engaged In glorifying
the Lord.
SERAPHIM OF SAROV. Sl (sc< I>-
lar name Prokbor M05bnin, 760-
1833), one or the most
saints in the Russian OrthoC.7
Church. At the age of 1"7 Wl:nt '"111:
into the Sarov Hermitage
after taking his monastic vows be
spent more than SO yean. "'toiling in
prayer", receiving 'arge l1umbers of
pilgrims and giving the-n guid.:'DCC
for life. When tbe Life 01 SI
phim of Sarav was held up by the
Church as an example (or the raith-
ful, special emphasis laid on th(
value of his exhortations concerning
the need to "bring dClVoll the Holy
Spirit", that was declared to be (he
main goal for the Christian. Hi." ,'a-
nonization took place in 1903 on l lle
personal instructions o( the fur .
SERAPIS, Hellerustic .;od,
cult wa'i introduced in AJcxandria
Ptolemy Sot er (reigned 323-283
B.C.) in orde'!' (0 brlDg the Greek
and Egyptian c, 'mmunities closer
together on a religious basis.
identified Scrapis With
Osiris a nd sometimes Apis. while tbe
Gree ks regarded Scrapi. .. as a fer-
'\9
-
tility god and identified him with
z.u, and Apollo.
SERBIAN ORTHODOX ClIURCII
the largest Teligious U50ciati .
y II has been autOCCO:h;
lous 1219. It incorporatt"S 23
eparcblC& (of these "_.
... d) ....... f1.fr:
,.oa .' about 24,00) parishc$.
mainly tn. Serbia, MoutCIlCgrO, and
Macedonta,. 180 monasteries and
COnvellls., Pnests and theologi31lS fOT
the. Serbm.n Orlhodox ChUTCh art)
tTamed at the theology faculty of
Univtnity and in four
semmanes and a lthoo\
5".crbian Orthodox (''1Jureb
li.:-hl:S $!;VCn newspapen. and jour_
nals
SERliILS Ivan,
1867-1944), ,)( Moscow
and All R 173
m
. He took !us monas-
tic vows in Md be was couse
C:'1tl:d BJ.5l:top lD 1901 . !n 1925'SC,
gnn "'-as appointt-d as the Vice
":xum Tenens of the: p3lriarChaJ
throae. and tben tbe Locum Tenens.
was the virtual bead ('If the Rus-
Orthodux Churcb. In 1921 tbe
,s\Tk'd, al his prompting. ad
dreSsed tbe clergy and the laity
through an .;>pen letter in whi ch it
called upon lbe Cburcb to $how its
10Yllty to Ihe Soviet Slate. During
the Oreal PalTiOlic War (1941-1945)
be ldopted a patriotiC "lance: At the
l.oc.11 Council of 1943 Serpus was
elected Patriarcb.
SER(;I{;S OF RAIlONEZH, Sl
I. before taking monastic VO"'"5 his
Dame was Varfolomd
1:'14-1391), prominent IR
Russian Cburch and poU.
tics. He was the lounder and Fatber
Superior of the Monastery of
Holy Trinity, situated some 50 miles
SERMO;-';
52"
from Moscow (see Triniry and St.
S
. ,--) The work of St. SeT-
ergflH L"U"" . .
'us. who supported the
in their struggle umte the
lando; of mediaeval Russia, was un-
mistakably progressive. After ca
nonjzing SCTgiUS in 1422, the Rus-
sian Orthodox Church launched . a
campaign encouraging the .worshlp
of this saint, which 10 a
extent enhanced the authority of
monastery he had founded, turnmg
it into the largest religious centre of
pre-revolutionary Russia, that came
to posess great wealth.
SERMON, propaganda of
ideology in the form of a puhllc
speech, imparting the most import-
ant tenets of dogma and calling for
appropriate beha\;our. Sermons
have become particularly wide-
spread in the world religiollS. The
following types of sermon became
generally accepted in the Orthodox
and Roman Catholic Church as far
back as the Middle Ages: hymno-
logical, political and panegyrical ( in
connection with various special
events). In Protestantiml the sermon
became the central of SCf\-1ces.
A good deal of attenlil\R in sermons
is now devoted to social and ethical
problems and apologetics.
SERMON ON THE MOUNT moral
exhortations, with which,
to two ?f the Gospels (Mt. 5-7; Lk.
6), Christ addressed himself to the
people. It begins with a list of com-
the
an man m the Christian under-
standmg of tbe term, by listing moral
bles,-;cd are the
poor ID f.Plllt "they that mourn"
"'the "they which do
and thrrst after righteousne"" .h
cifuJ" lh" . -, e
mer e pure lD heart", the
-
" they which arc

( ondc mnatl on IS meted out to Ih
"r!ch" and "you t hat arc full ".
thiS there fullow exhort ation .. wh h
h 1 1 . "
Wit oul any oglca sequence emr
h f(
h . ... cs,
t c essence (1 rrstl3n ethi ..... ... .
-.,. ;Vlan
is told not 10 he "angry", to "al1T
h h d " O'"ee)(
Wit IS a vc rsary , not to look on
woma n "to lust .aft er her" . to love
e nemy and to him that smites him on
the one check to offer the other to
give alms in such a way as nOlo be
seen by othe rs. to pray al one, not to
lay up treasures on Earth, not to
take thought for the morrow or what
he shall cat and drink. but rather to
seek above all the Kingdom of God.
Such is the path to sa/l'arion, to the
solution of all me n' s prohlems that IS
proffe red in the Sermon on the
Mount. Christ' s attitude to the laws
expounded in the Old Testament are
expressed in a rcgular, repeated for-
mula: " Ye have heard that it hath
been said.. . (for example. "Thou
shah love thy nc ighbour. and hate
thine enemy"), But 1 say unto you,
Love your enemies, .. ". The uncom-
promising rigour of the demands
made in the Sermon on the Mount
(not to judge, not to swear. not to j,
put away a wife. to turn the other l'
cheek etc.) had already been wa-
tered down to be more in touch with
reallifc in the Epistles of S1. Paul. In
Church practice these demands
were often obviated, or interpreted
as allegories, but judgements.
vows, divorces and participation In
wars were regularly blessed in the
name of that vcry same Christ who
had preached the original sermon.
SERVETIlS, Michael (Spanish
name Mlgutl Serveto. c. 1511-1553),
Spanish religious thinker, schol.ar
and physician, who subjected Chn5'
BOoKS
tian dogma to har.-.h criliCl.-,m, in
particular that concerning the Trinitv
and the divinity of ('hri.-,!. In hls
main work "Chri.,tiani.-,mi restitutio'
(The or Chri.,tianity)
Serve!u." called the purging of
Christianity from dl!>tortinns by both
Roman Catholics and Protestant!'i. In
the cour!'iC or hi!'i medical work he
discovered pulmonary circulation.
thus anticipating SUbsequent di'i-
eoveries in that field. He wa.<;
jeeted to constant persecution from
the Inquisition, and he ohliged,
as a result, to be constantly on the
move. Servetus was finally arrested
in Geneva on the instrue ions or Ca/-
vin and was burnt at the Slake
SERV1CE. a Cf'Iliection d !;PCC=Jic
actions, rituals and ceremonies di
rectly linked with a sct of religtous
views and designed to reproduce n
emotional or !i}'TObolic form one or
other aspect of a dogma. The main
purpose of a service is its consolida-
tion or fundamental dogmatic IJr nd-
pies in the minds of the raithful. as It
draws them into life and
helps to form thr r rehgJOus world
outlook. As a 'ompnnc nt It
IigiOfU WOrshIP, !!.cmccs al ron
ducted accordin,ll; (0 !;!.' C' 1y I,res
cribed rules. Despite thl.; large \lar
iety of practices usc_ lu thi
conduct of services in the differellt
religions, shaped by the conditi(lns
in which their adhe rents live na
tional characteristics, le\lels of soei. 1
develonmcnt, t raditions and so """I,
what IS common III the m all ", ::"I ou
excepllon '5 ", e m;mical elemen
l
I ..
the possihihly of innuen( e
to bear upon supcrnatlld forc,s.
Such ingrcdi' '1ts of SCr'letS as
prayers, song' haring or :he nead,
hows, the ki<sing of Jmly the
sprinkling 01 water, the burntng of
-
,>,
candle .. , the reading of hoi '
tures treate the illusion that
co!",muning with (iod that m.;: 15
being dra",:" inlo life in thl.;
IJeyond, b Me of happinC!S Dd '1
being promised hy h' .we -
, I' '. 1$ particular
e Iglon to adheren" (' ........
I' . -.y<;, C('I, In
r
ny
re Igl.on the main means
or Ideological pressufl )n
the they '>Crve to
the fOT compul-
by Ihe indi\idual
In .rchg; ..ds and they serve
him ,n the communi ty of
hiS partlcul r Churcb al d 10
;,tc.; that commUi itv orf from ..... I,c
lic ....ers 1r thost; who dhc: re to 01: r
faIths: al .he same tlmr they rei n-
force;: the influc nl e of the on
th05.!: pre!::: 0 places of we- h' p
As a rule C\"tfY form of TVice'
c "S::Jy )Quod. up 9tith I atic-w 50-
c itl ilnQ ram:ly t:adi 000 anj
II m and t)is" -ves II promut .. It;
: lusion hat .. I; ar j n ':)0 1
- Je to T . rlap an:l
Ihlt the gr: test Jehle w::"_:" .... 0 1 a
IX pL I'!I tt e 1"3 of :01 urI and
Irt 'lIld expr _ J I.l! lheu >racticc
I r( we lip.
SER\lCE BOOK (R "ar.
lbtbnik"), 00 Jk ... vrtesls 1 '"
Orth;"1dox c.)n alnn.g
IC'dS. for ehureh s , .... evtry
.:1: v. and for coc"'.k cting
Ihem
SER\'lCE BOOKS, pubh-
0 1 ians expounding the
cess uf acts of and the
tlrder of church services. !he num
ber of service books 10 the Or
Lhl't:ln:t <.:hurch is particularly greal
t Orthodar Liturgical Books\ In
th:eRoman Catholic Church there. IS
also .r considerable number' thc.y 10-
clu(k Iectinnaries (hooks LuotamJD!;
I
'"
SEll I
extracts from the Bible to be in
church), instructions ror conducting
the mass etc. Thc annual calendar
for the Evangelical
tists publ.i.sbcd in thc contains
Bil:llical rcading.c; ror usc 10 church
services eacb day of the year.
ents of other religions also bave their
own special servicc book-c;.
SETH, (1) in the religion of Ancient
ElffPt, a god who was thc son of Kcb
and Nut. He pcr:r;onified the desert
and was the brothcr and slaycr of
Osiris, and thc main cnemy of thc
souls of the dead during their wan-
derings in Life beyond the gravc; (2)
in the Old Testament, tbe third son
of Adam and Eve, born aftcr thc
death of Abel.
SEXTON, a man cmployed to act as
caretaker of a church, its contents
and the surrounding graveyard and
sometimes also to ring the bells and
dig gra\cs. In the Ot1hodox CllI/rcll
he would also he callcd upon to sing
in the choir and to assist the priest
during scn-ices. Most of the duties
formerly performed by sextons are
now u:r;ualJy carried out on a part-
time basis or by volunteers and the
post no longer exists in the original
sense of tbe term.
SHABlIont or SHAVUOT (from
the Hebrew word meaning
Jewish festival, initially an
agncultural one, "Fea:r;t of Harvest"
(sec Exod. 23:16). Later it was inter-
preted as a festival to commemorate
God', the Torah to MOles on
SID31. The date of ils cclcbra-
(tOn IS not in the Bihle,
hOAcvcr JudaiC theologians hold
lhat Shabu()(h celehrated on the
50th day after tbe first day of tbe
Passover.
-
SHA"TESBURY, Anthony A.!

English moralist Wnter a, th ).
. .' ell
Clan, of freeth k-
Ing. and a deist philosoph" Sh'" '
h
'dfh ',af,
tes ury carne urt er the cl., '
'd f B ......\lcal
I ca 0 cauty and Goodne\S
stituting a single whole. Th,'
1 '1'[ h "" va ue In I cas c saw it-was the
beauty of the human soul; moralit
he Viewed as an innate
quality that did not depend 0
man's hclief in God or on
innu,ences. .Sha.flesbury held that
man s contTibutlon to the commOn
good was the criterion by whieh his
l'it1l1e should be judged and he
spoke out against religious fanati-
cism and the teaching concerning
retribution or reward beyond the
gTavc. He exerted a marked in-
flucnce ovcr some leading figures
of the Enlightenment. His writings
were published in a collection cn
titled of Men,
Manner:r;, Opinions, Times" (17Il).
SHAIKH or SHEIKH (Arabic word
meaning literally "cider"), (1) head
or leader of a clan, trihc or union of
tribes among Arab nomads; (2) this
word was used to denote
leaders or Islamic communities,
prominent theologians or experts in
the law.
SHAIKH AL-ISLAM (Arabic "su-
preme cider of Islam"), (1) from the
I.lIh century this was the honorary
title for prominent Moslem theologi-
ans (illomo.\"); (2) in Turkey (from
mid-l6tb century to 1924), the
chief among rcligiou:r;
leaders, the chief Mllfti appointed by
Sultan; (3) in Iran, during the
reign of Ihe Safavid Dyna.c;ly (16th-
one (If the main Is-
lamic Judges appointed by the Shah;

(4) leader in charge of af
fairs for the of Tran\.C3uca.
sia.
SHAITAN or SHEITAN, S IbliJ_

anotber name gIVen to tbe Penlecos-
lois.
SHAKTI (Sanskrit word meanmg
"force" or "energy"), remale crea-
tive-energy principle in Hinduism,
Tantrism, including the Buddhist
variety. Veneration of Shakti be-
came most widespread of all in Shi-
vaism, in whicb Shakti is personified
in one of the hypostases of Shiva's
conwrt (Parvati, Durga, Kali). AU
Shakti's names arc linked with the
mother-goddess Mahashakti Dev=
The most ardent adherents of the
ShUt; cult make up tbe Shakti sect.
SHAKYAMUNI ... SAKYAMUNI
(Sanskrit "wise: man from the Shakya
tribe"), the most widely used name
for the legendary founder of Budd-
hism as applied to tbat period c' hIS
Life when he bad already aUained
Enlightenment, I_e had already
become Buddha.
SHAMAN. See Shmrtanism.
SHAMANISM, broad range rn:
mist beliefs and cults typic. J "Jf the
period when primjtivc-communai
patterns of society were breaking up
A specific feature of Shamanism was
the belief that certain special pc,"ple
(Shamans) could mediat(: hctwtCl1
man and tbe spirits. The ability to
predict the future :md to find out
what wa..' happening in far-away
places.. to heal men's sicknesses., et
fect change ,n tbe natural world and
to accompany the dead to tbe
,
, .
Underworld and so on
tribuled t Sha was aho t-
0, mans. He wb
peared to bcrome a Shaman Iud r:)
bear the mark or the "Sham '
ness: __ ,t.. h . an S SKk
Wn!C itself in.
thmg.o;.. dislurbanccs or
the mind (It was held that ..
Tee
reate 3: man - they kill him and
hlJll hom the dead, but by
thIS 10 another guise). Tbt: Sha-
!;.gtft viewed somcthlhg
communing with
SpltllS took place again. ...t a back.
religious when
speCific ntuals ("kamlaniyt") It'
to the attompanimrnt c
the shaking of a tambourine., rillle
C'I" .scme other musical tnstrume t,
.....hich was endowed "'lib myr'ical
properties and was cbcly bound up
v.itb the life of the Shaman. Elpe.,
tneed Shamans were: asually skilb:d
hypnotists. \"tntriloquists.. conjuron.
and also singers.. pods and story-tel-
lers. Marked diffae"lCt.5 arc to '>e
OOsen-"Cd betwt:c:" tbe sh:unanlSlK:
ceremonies. costnmes.. acts
ard cooccpti("lflS cf a..m-q the
var ,OUS peoples of !.he workJ..
SHAMASH. in the mythotogy )f Ba-
tMon and Ass)Tia, the: god of the SUD
.nd jUStlce. ollbr moon god Sin.
SHA.\18HALA, the orullC)f the leg-
endary land that is custodiao. of
Buddhism. The teaching regarding
Shambbab occupies an important
place in Tantric (see
rtism) and it is closely linked With
tbe trtnd in that variety of Buddhism
known as Kalachakra or the "Wheel
of Tune". The prophecies
i.ng tbe "Sbambbala War",
\)DC of tbe kings 01 Shambbala will
wage against beretics. are aD essen-
ti,1 part 01 the tS,/uJtO/Dgy 01 lA-
maism,
I
".
SilANG 11
SHANG TI, "Lord on High", 'r:
principal dClty of the .r Y
theistic religion in AnClcnt C 103.
The idea of Ihis god look shape dur-
in the second millennium B.C;. In
words "Ti", and later "Shang as
well there merged concepts of a
deity and of ancestor of,the
ruling bouse. In the first mlllenmum
B.C. the cult of Shang Ti merged
with the cult of the sky and the
ccpts of "Sbang Ti", "Tlcn"
(Heaven) and "Tien Ti" (Ruler of
the Heavens) came to be used sy-
nonymously. made to
the deity Shang Ti,
oncs, in order to ensure his assIst-
ance in all enterprises and the suc-
cess of the latter. After Christianity
had appeared in China. the term
Shang Ti was used to denote the
concepl of God.
SHANKARA (probably 788-820
A.D.), Indian religious thinker. He
wrote a large number of treatises
upholding the eternal and infallible
nature of the Vedas, which he held
to be the ooly source of knowledge,
Shankara's teaching was consistent
idealist monism, which only recog-
nized as real the impersonal deity
BIaItman, The whole world of phe-
nomena Sh,nkara dismissed as un-
real ad be denied the existence of
."'cr. Aooording to his teaching
ReM()D could only rtgure as an "ally"
of the sacred writings, since it was
totally subordinate to tbe testimony
of the Vedas, Only the higher castes
had the right to study the Vedas and
tberefcre the attainment of Truth
was only IKc(5sibie to them and only
they oouJd a.:me.. "liberation",
SHARIA (Arabic word meaning
"dear path"), a code of rules of is-
lamic Jaw and morality, religious
-
and rituals
emhrace the whole of Moslem
cradle to the
Shana IS hascd on the Koran and h
S,tntla, Its compilation Wa" c t e
plcted in the I Hh-12th
.lhe period of advanCCd
Near and Middle
The Shana ac.knowl edges privatc
a!> an Immutable principle
b.y Allah ., The Spread of
SOCial re!atlons in the
led to a decrea!>e In the innuence of
the legal rules of the Sharia and
their eventual replacement by bour.
geois law. In the 1970s Moslem theo-
and legal stepped up
their appeals for the remtroduction
of the legal rules of the Sharia a" the
official norm in those countries
,
where l.flam was the state religion
presenting this as a way to
social justice and prosperity for the
people_ In the USSR the prescrip-
tions of the Sharia are followed with
regard to matters of ritual and par-
tially in the daily lives of Moslems.
SHEINMANN, Mikhail (1902-
1977), Soviet historian, expert in the
history of religion. He specialized in
the history of Roman Catholicism
and in analysis of Chris/ian social:
ism. His main works were "Vatikan 1
katolitsizm XIX i nachala XX
vekov" (The Vatican and Catholi-
cism in the 19th and Early lOth Cen-
tury, 1958), "Khristiansky sotsia-
li7m" (Christian Socialism, 19(9)
and "Ot Piya IX do Pavia VI" (From
Pius IX to Paul VI, 1979),
SHELLEY, Pel'<)' Byssht (1m
1822), poet and thinker. In
his poetical works, particularly in the
philosophical poem "Queen
(1813) and his commentaries on II,
and also in his philosophical. politi-
-
cal and athei .. t works ( .. uch a .. "The
Ncce$ .. ity of Athei"'m", IKl1, and "A
Refutation of Dei\m", IKI4) Shelley
voiced a fierce attack nn the
li .. hmcnt" or hi ... times, propagated
the ideas or free-thinking
and athei .. m and
)( of religious prejudice,
"THE SHEPHf:RO", a wnrk or early
Christian literature written in the
2nd or pnssil1ly ht century. Its
author to him .. elf as Herma"
The wnrk hclong.<; to the genre of
and received its name in
accordance with the vi .. ions de
serihcd in it, communicated by an
angel in the guise of a shepherd. The
book con!'tists of sections entitle j
"Visions", "Mandates" and "Simili
tudes". It is imhued with symp:athy
for the poor, and call!> for clzantv.
Hermas defines the main ChI stian
sueh as raith. bstinence, pa
lience and truthfulness and ':Ie .'alls
for unity of the Church. The Sbep-
herd" gave -'e ideas
upheld by the dcmocratieurnn
within the Christian Church at th,\t
time. It was included ;;n the anc'ent
list of Books of the "'lew
known as the (:wjfX Sm'litil u: (or
the Sinai Coor.) but lat( r on the
Church ceased to recognize "The
Shepherd" as a Sacred R",('k
SH[ST()V, Lev 1:-,. al n3mc
Sc:bwarzman 186<>-19?-8), Ru. ...
religious philosophe'!' and writer on
reli gious affairs. In 19:1) he C' ;nl
grated. Shestov enticizes ratIOnalIsm
in philosophy, et hics and even thC'(l-
logy. Science and Reason
useful in everyday life examme, to
his opinion, only what is of general
foi gnificancc, whal is of least of
all to man in his capacity as a unique
individual. Reason cannot solve the

ridd!e of I)r cX('Ilan

man '. tragJc Mluallun in th. 'No']
h.s Only fllilh in the
(md of t,hc 8;111e can reVfallhe alh
til and the truth. Til;",
WhKh higher than 'e'MIn 'nd
at-tording t
Shestov,. freed(,m in whi(h for th 0
who hcheve in (j(.A who 100' "
h' II ..... " up')n
the !.In<, of m(n n'''h
. 'hi . v, 109 1\
Impoli\l e. Shc\tov al"knowled"""
here thOUght rca(hcs the
mit uf hut that is how 1\
should be. for exi\tent ial philosophy
among whose reprC!Cntativc<.
number .. him!'Clf, i., on ' hi
Absurd. ShcstoV,!, teaching (jnc cr
. h; forn:''' for iustifying religion
HI" maIO WI arc "Apo(eoz \x:
spoct.vcnnc_ri ('The or
1Q()S), -- "Ia \'1. ' ll:.b
(Of' the Sc.u,.,,,, of JOO.
and "A.(iny I :.,,:'lL,lin" (Alhcn.s
and Jtrusalcm, pllbhshed postll u-
1ll0U!l in 1951).
t)Hl' ISM (fr .. m the Arab word
-hi ah"
1;"C: '), :ht I.ugest mQVt-
m.:n!n b'Gm ! l ftu SUlIl1i lm).
Silnes IlI:Knowledge the Korall 'do
dlvintl.,. insplred', vel thev believe
thaI i. n the romp1cttd during
the C.aliph:lte of 1 thman,
,hose Q}'Qf.\ tla\'\' becn omitted wbKh
'Clale to -4 /l_ In .bt' SUllna the
only recognize tho!'tC Ha-
di fhs which can be traced back to
Ali. in addition they havc their own
S3crt.'d tradition, thai oC the AklIha:s'
collections of which, together
the Koran, makc up source (1
the Shana. Shi'itcs that the
right to inherit tbe mi<;SJOD 0': M;
hammed could on1y pallS to -
reel dc.'\CCndanu.. i.e_to the chi!dn:
n
,
aDdchildrcn, great-grandchildren
gr ( Ali add Fatima. In the wake
etc. 0
SIIINTOISM
of uarrcls ovcr the
Shi'ism went into decline m
the 7th-9th centuries and broke. up
into a number of (Kalsa-
nitcs, Zaidis and Imamltes): The
Kaisanite sect disappeared In the
IlIh century. Adherents of of
the leading sects-the ..
believe that there were 11 dIrect de-
scendants of - or
Imams-starting with All, while the
12th known as Mohammed Ahmad
al-Mahdi hid at the end of the Q{h
century, but is bound to return
then the era of justice and
will dawn. The "Hidden Imam IS
regarded as leader.,. of the
Sbi'ites. Accordmg to Shllsm, the
Imams are infallible and the Ijfollid
(the right to
on mallers of religIOn and law) IS
still the preserve of the of
the Hidden Imam. The rituals of
Shi'ism differ little from those of the
Sunni. In addition to Hajj, the
Shi'ites go on pilgrimages to Mash-
had and Qum (in Iran), Karbala and
Najar (in Iraq) - places that are a ....-
sociated with the names of the
Shi'ite Imams. Like the Sunni the
Shi'ites celebrate the day of Mo-
hammed's birth (Maulid) and in ad.
dition they celebrate the birthday of
Fatima and also the days on which
all the Shi'ite Imams were born and
dted. Mourning for the death of
Imam ai-Husain is celebrated in par
ticularly lavish style and tbe culmina.
tion of this ceremony is an AshuTa.
At the present time adherents of
Shi'i ..o;m live in Iran, Iraq (Imarnites),
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan (ls-
mol/is), the Yemen Arab Repuhlic.
the People's Democratic RepUblic
of Yemen (Zaidis),lbe Lebanoo and
a number of other Arab
Moslems professing Sbi'ism are to
-
he in the So\-ictlJnion in C
tral ASia and Transcaucasia. en
SIIINT()ISM ("Shinhl" means ' ..
r h
--. ") h 'd' . v.ay
() t e Shu!. , t C In 'genous r
gion of the Japanese. It tOok s;: I
in the .carly feudal cr.a (6th and
ccntuncs) on the hasls of trihal a '.
mist cults This r:.
cess colflcldcd With the spread of
in Japan and after a reri-
od of nvalry hetweel\ the priests of
both rciigions, they learned to eo-
and RyohuShinto (or Dual.
Aspect Shinto) developed, aCcord_
ing to which the Shinto gods were
acknowledged as OI'OIOTOS of various
religious figures venerated in Budd-
hism. At the present time more than
half the population of Japan offi-
cially professes both religions, cel-
ebrating the rites of the life cycle
(the ble..-.sing of the new-born, mar-
riage) in Shintoist temples, and bu-
rial and funeral rites in Buddhist
temple ..... In the 19th and 20th cen
turies a number of nco-Shintoist
sects appeared, which reject Budd
hism and perform all religious rites
in accordance with Shintoist tradi
tion. After the Mciji revolution
(1868) and up until the defeat of
Japan in World War II in 1945, Shin
toism was the state religion, It con
sisted of the following categories:
dynastic Shinto, a cult practised
within the network of the imperial
family, which allegedly was descend-
ed from the sungoddess AmoteroSll;
Tennoism ("tenno" means "em-
peror") involving deification of the
Emperor; Shrine Shinto involving
the worship of various local and na-
popular, or "vulgar",
involving the of local
deities and !'.pirits, who werc nol
pan of the state pantheon and wer.e
celehrated near various topographl'
Sill;
-
ill
cal features, with which the mY'<.l eri -
ous forces of nature are
Since 1946 the Shinto religion haor;
been from the Stale: there
is no longer any central organization
for Shrine Shinto, which has heen
split bctw,;en. M:parate temples
and thell" associations of believers..
-
in the Cathedral of S
:!:pti$t from time he
Th
cn
on ...,ev,. to the general pu1:."
SHIVA, one of the of the Tn'.
murli, the Hindu triad; the SUpreme
god the adh.erents of . Shivai.\m,
accordmg to which there IS nothing
permancnt in the Universe apart
from Shiva, who destroys and re-
stores (0 life everything that exist5.
At the beginning of the cmmic cycle
Shiva creates the Univcrse and later
destroys it.
SHRINE, small religious building
without an altar. It might be set up
above the entrance to a vault --
crypt and serve as a monument
over a grave. Shrines were aJ'()
erected in the memory of variou
events in the life of the Cburc;h or
the State, in connection witb publil-
or at so-called holy p/oc r
such as springs. lakes, trees that ill
the object of vcneration, and, in tb(.;
Orthodox Church, places 'ilt wbic),
miracleworking ic _"1S have 'ap-
peared",
SHROUD OF TIJRIN. mE. one of
the Cbri .... tian relics: a piclX of m,'
terial with a dimly visihle outlil e of
a human body imprintcd upon t,
which the Churc'" declared to be
the shroud of Jesus { 'brist that had
retained traces of hIS blood and
body on it. The carliest rcCerences
to the Shroud of Turin date back to
tbe first half of the 14th cerull,""
(France), but where It flfSl origin
ated from .s not clear. Sinn:: 1578
the shroud hal been kepi in Tw in
e main argumenls .
authenticity of the Sb 'P>d Ibe
r
d
fOU Were pul
rlfst of all by the l.""bufch i
self. the fact that it did I
. h h not malch
t e data prOvided in the Bib".
",:",th. to Ihe dtlails of the at.
hre In which the dead - I 'd
f b
. - .. re &1 out
or unal by the Jew, of old, the
fad that 00 one knew Ih h
bo r e .". ere_
a 0 the ShroUd in the Course
of thIrteen centuries and Ih
e ap
pearan
ce
. of several dOlen
shroUds lD Europe after the Cru_
In 1988 the Chu.rch rmal'y
agreed .tl\ the Shroud being ana.
Ip,,:d With I.bt'" be p of radio-carbml
daltng and It w establishc 1 . h it
only d; ted b- cl. to h 14th cc-:-tW}.
SHROVETlDE or CAR..mAl
form-:rly celebrated by ma"lY
peoi?!es of Europe. :ling the
Anocnt Slavs, t'l lid r"n well to
winter and to we -.."""'lC the In
the festivities of tbe Ancient 51
(blown. as \{asleilltr.aJ rhtrt- wtrf
strong echoes of tllICtstor wors.l:ip as
also of agrarian 81ld tnbat cu.:'s,
Magical ads linked with tbe expce
tatioo of the harvest to come were
yet mother part of these festivitics.
Elements of 5acraJ eroticism hound
up ""';tb fertility magjc were also en-
countered up until the 20th centurv.
Slavonic customs associated with the
la..q day of Shrove-tide abo have
echoes ('If ann'stor worship. wben
pancakes lITt" eatcn since these were
an ('SSCOtilll part of wakes for the
Psstem Slavs.
SUl". in tbe mythology of
Egypt, the god o( air .(bis IS
translated 15 emphocss). who
while leming Oil K,b, the earth god,
\
SIIUIIIAN I\RUK
,,,
su rls Nut, (he sky goddes.s, thus
sc eartb and sky. He de-
in the form of a man WIth a
feather on his bead.
SHULHAN ARUK (Hebrew words
meaning "a laid table"), a of
religious prescriptions of
Talmudic JuiUl;.fm, compiled by
Rabbi Joseph Caro in 1550-1559. It
consists of four parts. The (irst two
contain ru1es for the of Jew-
ish services, festivals and rituals con-
nected with rood etc. The two
interpret the norms of Cann,ly
civic law. At the prescnt tunc In
Judaism tbere is a trcnd to be ob-
served which advocates that the
Shulhan Aruk should adapt to con-
temporary conditions of life,
SIBYLLINF. BOOKS. THE, a col-
lection of predictions, sayings and
propbecies compiled by Greek
priests in the 6th century B.C. After
they had made their way to Rome,
these books were kept in the Roman
temple of Capitoline Jupiter. They
played a considerable part in the
publtc and religious life of Rome.
Usually the sayings from the Si-
byIliDe Books were interpreted as
. to mtroduce DeW rites.
lO.to Plor"i"C a deity.
SIIYLS, IcpDdary prophetesses in
AT d: II: GI!M'e, who allegedly in-
b II.:d iDCD of tbe wiD of the gods.
According to legend one of the Si-
byls predicted the Trojan War. One
of d.e !i+o&t widely venerated of
lbem w,- the Sibyl of Cumae who al-
IegrAly tived. for , 1,(0) years. It l.1i to
ber that the authorship of Bloe of tbe
SibyIJiM Boola attributed.
SIDDHARTIIA GAllTAMA. See
BIUklJuJ.
-
SIDE-CHAPEL, a :"eparate aJ
wilhin a Chri lilian church faci ng tar
lilee the main allar. It is Usually
d h h
!iu_
ale on t c nort or south side or
church. Side-chapels are sct up a
on a particular day
gles or can be celebrated
simult aneously (the number depend.
ing on the number of side-chapels).
SIGER OF BRABANT (c. 1240.c
1284), French philosopher who
ported the teaching of the tw%ld
tmtl! and regarded the world as "co-
eternal" with God. He acknow_
ledged the ctcrnal nature of matter
and dctenniflism, expressed doubts
with regard to divine Providence and
rejected miracles. According to
Siger of Brabant, the soul was mor-
tal, there was no retribution or reward
beyond the grave and prayers were
unnecess ary. He was condemned by
the Church for his free-thinking.
SIGN OF THE CROSS, in Chris
tianity the action of making the sign
of the Cross with the hand. In the
Orthodox CI!urch the sign is made
with three fingers held together-
the thumb and the index and middle
fingcrs (Russian Old Believers only
accept the sign of the made
with two fingers), while m the
Roman Cat/lolie Church the whole
hand is
SIKHISM (from the Sanskrit
meaning "learner"). a rehglOn
which came into being in the 16th
century in Northwest India, reneet-
mg the protest of petty traders and
craftsmen against the caste system
and feudal oppression. The founder
of the movement was Guru
(teacher) N .. ak (1469-1539). In tbe
17th century the innux of peasants
mlo the community of Sikhs in-
I
I
I
I
I
I

ctC2!tCd and it the features
or a military-democratic organi/.a_
tion. It wa .. a community or equals,
which lurned its baclc on caJle and
trihal loyalties. The ideology or
Silehism became openly anti.reudaJ,
waving the hanner of the people's
:"truggle against the empire or the
Great Moghul\. and the ultimate
result of this the Ktting up of a
Sikh state that in the of time
turned into a typical feudal state
which existed right up until the
time when it was conquered by the
British in 1849. The Sikhs reeogni/e
a single, impersonal god. All phI;;
nomena in the world that surrounds
Man are only manifestations of lhl;
supreme might of the Creator. The
Sikhs reject orthodox Hinduism, ae
lenowledging instead that all men
are equal before God. The teaching
of Sikhism is expounded in the
boole "'Granlh Sahib"
Boole), which contains exhortahon'i
and descriptions of lhe life of tbe
Guru and is the source of Sikh
teaching that is during relig-
ious worship. SikhISm bas a wide
following not only in Northwest
India but also in emigre COOl-
munities in other :nun(l"ies.
SILWN (French word melning
"furrow"), French Roman Cat holic
organi7.ation founded in lAA4. It was
led by one of the .of
Christian democracy, Marc SangIlIcr
(1873-1950). Anxious to keep the
working people unde r the Church's
influenec, Sangnier and his suppor-
ters condemned capitali:,"\. sup-
ported the fight of the workers to
raise living standard'\ and attack.ed
thl' Church's effort:" to control VOice
in secular affairs. In 1910 Pope Pius
X accused the Sillonists of modern-
j<;,t he resy and of departing from the
jot

Church's $OCialleachil
bade their activity, :
provaj only Ihe of
of who Were W\lfk
109 under the r, . . -
local b h . uP\=fYI.....lon 'If their
\Ii ops.
SILYANUS, in the mY1hoi lr
AnCIent Rome. a god, akin 10 FC:I1UJ
who was the protector of rarest .... gar'
den!>, flocks and SI
r- .,. vanus
was represented as an old man wi lh
wreath of twigs on
head., a Sickle In hand. The
Greeks Identified him with Pan.
Gw':l (1858-1918). Ger-
man Idealist philOSOpher, sociologi"il
_lDd representatr.'e of the Philosophy
)r Lire school Simmel held that
knowtedge of the world shouJd be
not so much in cl1ernal facts
in religion and lKychology. Only
the heip of religiow. intwtion
it possible to grasp the world
an integrated whole. AU links he-
tween Man and the: world have relig-
ious overt ones, since they allegedly
give rise to l Sl at e of mind,
which. in its turn develops int o reli
gi0n as soon as it projects itselr in
SpeCWlC images. Sunmel"s
ine'oitab!y leads to the adoption of a
subjective-idealist approach (0 the
interpretlti("tn of history,. and his
arc of a pro-bourgeOlS cbarac-
ter.
SIMONl:' (word dcrived from the
name of Simon Maps: see AdS 8:9-
24), the buyiDg or selling oCdtureb
benefits, (or rumple,
preferments, that was m
the Middle Ages. SimODY was aD.1DI-
rtant source of ""eDue the
r and kings. Abolition of Simony
:: one of (be: demands of tbe Rt-
f-
5,.
SIN, according to religious
tions Ihis is a violation of dIVine
prescriptions perpetrated or con-
tempJated by man in ill wiU ?T under
the influence of external evil forces,
which bars his path 10 sall'arion in
the world beyond the grave. In the-
ory sins were just to
specific rules of an indIVIduals reh-
gion and Church, laid down
denomination in accordance WIth Its
interests, but presented as ordained
from on high. In practice, however,
religious leaders in all faiths have ClI:-
tended the concept of sin to non-re-
ligious spberes of Life as well, using
the term to cover any act which goes
against the interests of the ruling
classes in cJqlloitative society. Ac-
cording to the dogma of tbe Russian
Orthodox Church, (or example.
doubting the Tsar's divine right to
power was considered a sin, as were
refusal to acknowledge the Tsars as
the -Anointed Ones", encroach-
ments on pri\'3te property, condem-
nations of the exploitation of man by
man, propaganda of the idea of so-
cial equality etc. This enended in-
terpretation of sin made it possible
for the clergy to condemn as sin
everything which conflicted with the
predominant class-based moralitv
off"tcially approved by the Church,
By referring to everything which did
DOl ... it as sin, the Church was
able to manipulate the thoughts and
actions of the faithful in such a way
as to further its own interests, en-
couraging them to be hostile to-
wards everything which the clergy
saw as reprebeDSible,
SIN, in the Babylonian religion the
god of the Moon, light and wisdom;
son of the supreme god Enlil, father
cfthe sun-god ShQmash and the fer-
tility goddess IshlQ1", His cuh Was
SIN
-
ccntred in the towns of Ur and h
ran. nil
SIRA or SIRAH, special gco .
M 1 I
h re In
os em re '&lous Istorical I.
I b h' It
ure, IC contains biographical
mformatlon about 0
of the first siras, which has he ne
handed down to us in Part,
back to the 8th ccntury.
SIRENS, in the mythology of
Ancient Greecc, bird-women who
allegedly lived on an island o'ff the
shores of southern Italy. ThrOUgh
their bewitching singing they lured
seafarers to their island, where they
would be lulled to sleep and de-
voured.
SISYPHUS, in the mythology of
Ancient Greece, the founder and
king of Corinth, The best-known leg-
end about him is that concerning Si-
syphus' deception of Death (Thana.
tos) whom he put into fetters and
held prisoner. Ares set Death free,
and Death carried off Sisyphus with
him. Sisyphus succeeded however in
returning to Earth from the Under-
world. For this act, Sisyphus, who
was duly taken back to Hodes by
Hermes, was sentenced by the gods
to eternal punishment, which con-
sisted in rolling an enormous
boulder up a hill till it rcached the
top, when it would fall back down
again. The expression "the labours
of Sisyphus" since bccomc a by-
word for exhausting fruitless work.
SKAZKIN, So,!!,,1 (1890-1973),
prominent Soviet historian, member
or the USSR Academy or Sciences,
He was the author of rundamcntal
work jnto the history or mc
Western Europe and in par-
hcular the history of heretical move-
SI.A VONlC(iR.Er:.tt.LA n:-. ACADI::......Y
___
ment .. in France. In hi'! numerous
wrilings he provided a ana_
Ir-is of the role and influence of Ihe
Church in the Middle Ages. Ska1kin
wa.. .. one of the author .. ror the "Hic;.
tory of the World", and "History of
France" puhlil>hed in the Soviet
Union. He also edited the puhlica.
tion "Na..c;tolnaya kniga atci.<J.a"
(Bedside Book for an Athcist, 196R),
translated into a number of lan-
guages,
SKIT, (1) Old Believers' com.
munities of a monastic type: these
would usually he situated in remote
areas, Particularly famous wcre tbe
Kerzhenets communities; (2) in the
Russian Orthodox Church, the word
usually implied an a. .... -rnblage or
cells situated at some distance t rom
a monastery.
SKOPISY (ca'ioi: 'Ies), onc of the fa
natical old Russian religiou.c;. sccs
wbich split away from tht KJ"is
10very in the 1860s and 18'7Q\. I.e '.his
sect asceticism assumed an extrem:;
form and it was demanded of al! the
believers that they shClu1d go
through a "baptism of nre', namely,
castration, The th(oretinans ex
pounding the teaching or sect
rererred to the according to
S1. Matthew: "There are
who were born thus rrom tbt:ir
mother'S womb, and there are eu
nuchs, who were made eunuchs by
men' and there are eunu('hs., wbo
have' made themselves eunuchs (or
the kingdom of heaven'", He
who is able to accept it, let him
ttpt it" (19:12), II was beld that
would he precisely members of (his
sect who would !he
144 000 chosen ones. "angel.hke
peo'plc", who would survive the Day
of Jut/s:ement. In the case of tbe
.'
Skopl$y, ju.<,t u for the Khric;tovery
look the form Jf
ntuall. Their stttet COn.c;.pir
alOlia} communities 'M:re referrcd to
as "vessc1<,". Before the October
Revolution thele wele over 5 fOJ
in Russia. In the USSR'tllls
sect 15 banned.
SKOVORODA. Grilori (lm_
1794), Ukrainian educationist, phil
osopher and poet, He conuntnted
his .attention on cias.,icai philowphy,
mamiy Stoicism and bee-thinking in
the popular tradition. SkOVOloda
adopted an objcc.tive idealist Mand,
lose to PQ11thl'i.f17l, regarding God
as a fundamental principle. thl;;
cause )r all tbat exist\.. Starting out
from this position he rc:jcaed literal
interpretations ,)f Bibliul miracles
M some .hing th:l! belittled tht: tAl$-
dOlll God, who pred"tnmiDes
e".-"hmg.
SKVORTSOV.,\I EPANOV, haa
.1870-1928), SO'oict party leJdl;r and
statesman. and political
;' '\lm:"llisl. He was a tbcorctidan and
di -,mlnltor of Marxist atheIsm, HIS
wc'ks on .Ithci,sm Ulctudc: "Religjya
L slroi' (Religion
and Stru,-1ure of Society, 1918),
. Pr'oiskbo1.hdeniyr boga"
Origin of Our God,
"'Mvsli 0 religii (Thoughts on Reli
gion, 1923).

ACADEMY, the first higher t:duca-
tional establishment to be founded
in Moscow, which provided .8
gent:ral education. It was 10
1687 to train priests and av:il ser-
....ants. It also bad function of
combatting freethinlung. was called
unto try heretics and to censor
":ks on spiritual subjects. In 1814
m
SI AVOPIIII .ISM
it was reorgani7ed as the Moscow
Theological Academy and
ferred 10 tbe Trinity and Sr. SCr8J1lS

SLAVOPHILISM, religious-idealist
trend in Russian social thought of
tbe 19th CCnlury (h'on Kircycl'Jky,
Alexei Khomyakot', Konslantin Ak-
sakov, Yuri Samarin), ,:"hich af-
firmed the need for a special path of
development for Russia, different
from thaI of Western Europe. The
Slavophiles started oul first and
foremost from a romanticized con-
ception of the peasant commune as
the fundamental, immutable clement
in tbe RUs''\ian popular way of life.
The Slavophiles ascribed a special
place in their conception of the
socio-historical process to religion,
which, since it allegedly determines
the nature of man's thinking, also
shapes man's social life. The histori.
cal path of tbose peoples who pro.
fess the true religion and, conse.
quently, follow true palterns of
thoughl, had to be the true one. Ac-
cording to the Slavophiles, only
among the Slavonic peoples (ahovc
all the Russian people), professing
the Orthodox faith, wu "living
whoIencss" to, be found, which was
the very opposite of the "reasoned"
thinking of Roman Cotholkism' like-
die tloe principles of
were rooted m the Slavs' social life
(i.e. in the peasant commune). Al-
though there were some J'IOSitivc as-
pects to Slavophilism (the demand
that serfdom be abolished, criticism
oJ tbe OYe!-bureaucratic adminislra_
twe machine of tbe tsarist regime
profouod in!erest in the way of
of tbe RUSSian people and Russ;an
folkJore etc.), moerall it constituted a
conservative trend. The Slavophiles
opposed tbe camp of the revolution.
-
arydcmeX'fals and the foundation of
their world outlook, namely mate'
philosophy. 'fI-
SOBEK, Egyptian god of water and
the Nile's nooding, hringer of ahun_
dance and fertility. The high-point of
the cult (If Sobek was in the 18th and
l<)th cc:nturies B.C. He was repre_
sented IR the form of a crOCodile Or
that of a man with the head of a cro-
codile. Later he came to be identi-
fied with Re and Ammon.
SORORNOST (UNlIT IN FREE_
DOM), term from Orthodox theo-
logy and Russian religious philos.
ophy denoting that in the Church
there lakes place voluntary unity or
as!iembly (Rus\ian "sobor") of indi-
vidual\ on a bac;i\ of love of God and
love for each other. The \pccific fea-
tures of this unity were described in
detail by the Slavophiles (see Slavo-
philism). From their point of \iew,
Roman Catholics exaggerate the im
ptutance of what is general and of
the authority and power of the
Church hierarchy, ignoring the per-
sonal religious crcativity of the faith-
ful, while Protestants concentrate at-
tention on what is individual and fail
In appreciate the real meaning of re-
ligious life as a whole. Unity in free-
dom is allegedly intrinsic only to the
Orthodox Church for it barmon , ,
lOusly brings together the specifi-
cally individual needs of each be
liever and those of the Church as a
whole. Outside "frec" religious tics,
a.nd outside Christian love (i.e. out-
Side. Unity in Freedom) it is im-
POSSible to gain knowledge of Truth
or essence of Man. This idea was
to IRnuence Russian religious phil-
OSophy (Vladimir SoImyt!v,
TlUbetskoy, Nikolai Lossky, Nikolai
lktrl}wv and Olbers) and Orthodox
,
'f
SOCIAl , El'\CYCUCAI.'i OF '1llE PAPACY
teaching: regarding the Church, ac-
cording to whith the doctrines con-
cerning the Trinity or the nature of
Chri .. , as God-made-Man give ex.
pres.<;ion to the all-embracin!1, nature
of the divine lipirit.
SOCIAL ENCYCLICALS OF TilE
PAPACY dn(:umt:nts j\!iued by the
Pope in which are expounded the
basic principles of the social doc-
trine of the Roman Catholic Church
and in which is formulated its posi-
tion regarding property, the
class struggle, revolution and the
State. The rtfst fio(ial encyclical w, Ii
that issued hy Pope Leo XlII and
entitled "Rerum novarum,l (On New
Mattcrs) ('In May 1<11;, whict: is
considered to he one of 'un-
damental documents of RClman
Catholicism on social question. .... It
condemns socialism. gives its seal of
"Ipproval to private pr?pcrty. ,h!'SS
incquality, thr:, 15 "
divinely ordamed Instltut10n ana
propagates class reconciliation; ji
opposes rcvoluticmary and
recommends that workers' organl7a-
tions be set up operating under th(;c
control of the Church. The whole
content of the Encyclical was aimed
against Marxism. To mark the 4!"h
anniversary of the encyci1cll
"Rerum novarunl' on-May 15.
Pope Pius XI issued
eal entilled anno
(In the 40th Year) which
the prinl'iples of "Rl'rum no\'arum_
concerning privall' property,
.md the class struggle, and which. ap'
praved the idea of the corporatulns
that the faM:ist government .of lIaly
bOld tried 10 introdu,c. In Ihls
menl Pius XI analhemalilcd
ism and eommuni\m_ In connccuon
with the 70th anniversary of "Rerum
nO\larum" on May 15, 1%1. yel an-
cncyrlical Wa' n-
IItled ",Mater et (Mot A*
and in which alongside tIT ..
tradlt10nal tcnets found in the &0 al
documents of the Papacy, Ihc'e
were some new clements 10 he rh-
served. ,,'hieh testified to th
changes that had taken place in tl'e
social policy of the Vutican. A d
scription been drawn up of the
changes thai have taken place over
the last 10 years, fnllnwing the puhli-
cation of the encyclical "Rerum no
\larum', in science and technology:
rderent.:e is made to the opening
stag: In he cnnque$t 01 th(
(;:r!wing role of thr Stall in I hI' ;\d
mjlli$tration of thl,; economy and In
the resolution of the s()(-ial prohlems
( . he resent d.;,v Nlme recommen-
datIOn- are m:!d, to the effect that
tht Vtnkil'.g pc.)pL be
\Cnted in uf Ilrgc
nd ml!!:tI. smd th.lt
'he pr100rtivtl of sl<ite property
be bul nolln surh J
way .1 to rducc lh(' amount of pri
vat'!.: prop..-rty on the market, _ A dc
of the dc.'pt'rale phght of
the rrlS.lnts al.')o no
,Aerellcc OJ,ute ta its John
XXITT proposed several measures
aimed ;\1 improving the lot (If the
yet lhc.<;c did not extend
b('wnd a framework. In
11l6! an cncydicaf was hy
John XXIII entitled "Pacem m ter-
.. , (P 'ace in the World) devoted to
ns C dd'
the prot"lkms ()f peace an . lsarma
mcn!. II contains an unquahfied con-
demnation tlf the arms race and sup-
rts the demand that nuclear wta
should be h:mned.: the
"',: . real demands that disputes
I h Id be settled
between states s ou . h ,.
, ,'ons On Marc .v,
through negoh3 I :. , .
1%1 Paul VI puhlished an
cal "populorum rrogrcSSlo
I
'"
SOClI\I. (;OSPIJ.
(The Progress of the Peoples)
dc\'<ltcd mainly 10 proh.lcms of
the devcloping In II arc ',0
tlC found side hy side Wllh the
tional conceptions familiar from ear-
lier social encyclicals, a number of
new ideas. indicating the
of the Vatican from its old course In
certain social questions, for
example, the Question of private
properly. The Roman
Catholic approach IS rCVJcwed here
and then it is stated that the possess-
ion of private property is not an. un-
questionable and absolute ngh.1.
"Alienation" of private properly IS
accepted as admissible when it is in
the interests of the general welfare.
While condemning revolutionary up.
risings.., the Pope at the same lime
admits thallhcy arc a legitimate step
against blatant and enduring ty.
ranny. The Pope called Upon Roman
Catholics to co,operate with all
people of goodwill withoul any ex.
ception. and at the same time he
condemned materialist philosophy
and atheism. In 1981. John Paul II
If...'iued an encyclical entitled kLahn.
rem elerccns" (On Human Labour)
in whieh glohal problems of the
prescnt day are reviewed: in panicu.
lar, reference is made to innation.
unemployment, international Cor.
porations and trade uninn'i; proh-
lems of ecology are mentioned and
certain social evils of capitali!'.m 3rc
critici7ed. In the COurse of 90 years
the Roman Catholic Church has
been taking into aCC(lUnt the
changes at work in the world and in
the wake Ilf this has been inlroduc
109 appropriate amendments in its
s.oci.a.l doctrine.
SOCIAL GOSPEL., d. version of So-
u.al ChriSiianilv which C.trnc into
being In American Prolestan/ism 10
-
thc second half of the 20th eentu
an attempt to resolve social ry

( hnstlan);'atlon. Clrn.ttlonin. .
as .only capaNe
Implementing 10 snClal life the pi .
. I r I "
CIP es 0 true lIy and of hring.
ing aOout the Kingdom of God on
Earth,. in whkh relation.'; between
men wdllx: hased nol on social anta.
gonism hut on mutual love and re.
spect. The Social Gospel Was COn_
?emned .hy as being
IOcompatlble WIth the "free enter_
prise" they advocated, and also be-
cause it narrowed down the concept
of sill to concrete and therefore Sur-
mountable social and moral c\;I,
and, when it came to theology, be.
cause it was permeated by a spirit of
palltheism.
SOCIAL ROOTS Of RELIGION.
See Roots oj religion.
SOCIAL WEEKS. puhlic seminars
organi/ed every now and then by the
Roman Catholic Church in France,
Italy, Belgium, Canada and other
countries, at which topical prohlems
arc in the light of the social
dOctrine of the Vaticoll. These semin-
ars arc u .... ually held once a year and
la.<,t a week. They were first organi7ed
in France in 1(0) and were held an.
nually, each lime in a different town.
Their aim was to propag;Ue the social
doctrine of Romull Catholicism. Each
\eminar was Ut""V{)Il""d to onl"" particu-
lar suhject, for in\lance: "The
of Produ{1 ion and ('a I holic Thl)Ul!ht'
or "Social PT()hkm'i in the
A.llhe present time these w(.ck:t
arc nOI being held on a regular h3S1S.
SO{'(NIA"'iS (frum tht Llllnt/eU
name (If Fausto Soz::'im), SoniOls
fOllowers who founded in Puland a
SOKAGAKKAl
rationaJi!'.t trend in Pmtts(anti.un,
which wa.o; noted for its religiolt\
radicalism. As regardo; the socio-pol_
ilical content of the teaching they
propagated, the Socinia?,,' ideas
could be ICen as representing a COn-
servative wing of the Polish Breth"'n.
The SOOnians were Antitrinitarionl
(i.e. they rejected the doctrine of the
Trinity) regarding Christ not as God
but as human being, who showed
men the path to so/votion and ac-
quired divine qualities .after hi.s res-
urrection. They recoglllzed the Holy
Scriptures as the only source of
dogma. but only when they did not
contradict reason. They also held
that there was no such thing as orig-
inal sin and that therefore rrdmJp-
lion was not necessary. and they reo
jected the Calvinist. of pre-
destination. The philosophical Vlews
of some Socinians constituted what
was essentially latent uism. Wbell
the Socinians were driven out of
land in 1658-1660. they settled m
HoUand. Gennany and England.
whcre they were graduallv absorbed
into other Protestant mO\'ements..
SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION, 0.-
of the brancheo,: {.,f the study of. I
gion. Marxist SOCiology of religton
is a branch of 4the:sm oc"lccrned
with the of religIOn !oS I
. the
erne
genee and th,. way ,
functions lOd away, the na
ture f ts conslltuent elements and
struclure, an'" thl plac and rolr,; cf
religion In . society. _ The un",derl)'l':j
principles In MaTXlSt SOCI' logy
religion were fllrmuillted 10 the
uonrk5 of Marx and and 1:llt"r
"V 1_ - l"llr
cu:ied furtha by 14run
ecncral '!SC
d
.h
xist. for the investigation of social
53'
inclUding religlon.
17tattnalism. Bourge""Jis s0-
CIology of religion took shape II
scientific diSCipline at the tum 0
the century. Max and Emile
Durlchtim were regarded as its
founder.... a1lbough SOme of tbe
principles had already been elabor
ated in the works of CornIe
and Htl"bt1t SJWncer. Two different
trends can be distinguished in the
sociology of religion in the West
the secular and
trend .... whose philosophical hI! S s
idealism in its various fonDS (e.g.
neo-Kantiarumt, lJOsitivum, pfQg-
mtUisrn, phenome ...... ' Jg)'),
SOGLASJYE (Colltoni), a group
the raithfuJ within the RU5.S13I"I 0'-1
movement, which adhere
to one or other of the types of
'ancient Orthodox" wj'h ro-
gard to ritual It CODStitutc:s a SIre
tural unit Ih:.l forms c:.-t of a lawr
formation. yrnumOl1 (R'5.S131'1l
.olk").
SOKA GAKKAI
ACJ.dcmi..-: SocicI)''' a nco-Buddhist
organization in Japan lbl.t WI\"l.
:n 193'- It prc-;Jagates the
bUm1nist and moral )f Budd
hism attempting as II does so to
these \;nrnpatible with the
of modern tr
prolitical arena Sub
'lOCales the "middle p,lth . .;a 1118
. al-;flSffi and peace It has
t\\'1't party Komcito {Cle.tn (Joy
'mment party) that sct up ID
1964 .and vmit;h lis supp<.'1'1
iIed workers and
from Qon:org:ut Soh Gakk41
unall busmessmen. . r
- wn organi7.ations or
rlJso
rt
artio;lie. act.r.itICS
out its own publicaltons.
SOl ...\R 11 II ':ORY 0!-'1111: ORI( _____ _
SOLAR THEORY (n' THE
()RIGIN m' RELIGION, See No"
turistic theory.
SOLOMON. ruler of the
of Israel and J udaca in the period
%5928 B.C., son of DO\1"d. King So-
k'mon succeeded in ccntrali7.ing re-
ligious worship and he buill the
temple to Yahweh in Jemsolrm. It is
however aim stated in the Bible that
Solomon built temples to other gods,
for example, Moloch and Astarte.
Biblical tradition, which presents
Solomon as t he epitome of wisdom,
ascribes (0 him the authorship of Ec-
clesiastes, Proverbs and the Song of
SonKS Scientific research into the
Bible however has demonstrated
that these works were compiled at a
later stage - in tbe Slh, 3rd and 2nd
centuries S.c.
SOLOVt:ISKY MONASTERY,
Russian Orthodox monastery
founded in the first half of the 15th
century on Solovelsky island in the
White Sea. It was the centre for the
Christianu..ation of the north of Rus-
sia. It served as a frontier fortress as
well and played an important econ.
omic role in the life of the North
,
thanks to the salt mines it posses,'.;ed
hunting. fishing and trading
actmtles. Persons macccptable to
the lIarist regime and the Church
were sent into exile there. The
prison in (he mona'-">tery set up in the
17th century was known for the very
harsh condit inns in which prisoncn.
wcre kepi.. This prison was in exist-
cnee till 1903. At the prescnt time
the SoIovetsky Monastery is. a his-
torical and architectural monument:
the walls of the fortress complete
with towers date from the 16th cen.
tury, as do the Refectory and the
Cathedrals of the Assumption and
the Trandiguratinn. The ("h h
h A
" Ure of
t c nnun<:tatlon from the I ,
l(l(h and 17th ccntuflce;. The r. ale
h I
"h'
t c (ana e; \\<It In the territo he
longing to th.e mona.e;tery, Whil1 tin
thc 52 lakes In the area, wcre dug.k
the IMh century. In
SOLOYETSKY UPRISING
167(1), uprising of and tra:
dc!;pcople, run-away serf!;, <;oldier\
from the Strcicts (:orps, suPPOrted
by some of the prieMs and monks
from the SO/O\'Cisky A/Ollostl'f\'
which was an outlet for their spont;':
protest _ op- I
pression and serfJ0m.. I he
hegan as a movement assi'lc1alC<l
with the Old 8c(jc\'cf'S' schism, for
the insurgcnts refuscd to recogniJe
the reforms introduced hy Patriarch
Nikon. In response to this the
authorities decided 10 conftscate
from the monastery "all the patri-
monial villages large and small, its
salt mines and other trading posts.
and its holdings in Moscow and
other cities", but this did not result
in the insurgents' suhmis.sion.
Tmops from the Slrekts Corps sent
out from Moscow were met with
canon ftre at the walls of the Solo-
vctsky Monastery. The large stacks
of food in the monastery enabled the
insurgents to withstand a long siege.
It was at this stage that the so-c.aJled
Sokwctsky sit-oul began. After the
e"ecution of .Stcpan Razin, the Jat
ter's former supporters led by
runaway serf Isachko Voronm,
joined forces with them. By this
stage the upri!.ing had, 10 a signifi
extcnt. l(lS! its religious motiva
ltOn. The insurgents refused to pray
for the Tsar, declaring. th,;tl, thcy_djd
not acknowledN ,itiu;.r gh1 or
tfie new a?d they also drow
out from (heir mllJ!;! the priests who
,
did not ,-.uil their purroscs. The
leaders of the muna,tic rralernily,
who did nut support the pulilieal de-
mands of the majority of the in"ur.
gents, turned their back nn the up.
rising. The betrayal of the mnnk
Feoktist who showed the. a
secret cntrance intn the mona:o-.tery
fortrese;, helped the troop<! tn
takc the monastery. The leaders of
the uprising and many of those who
took part in it werc c"ecutel1 or .it"t
into exile.
SOU)VYEV, Vladimir
Russian religious my:o-.tical philos-
opher, who in hie; works such
"Kritika otvlechynnnykh nacha!
(Critique, of PrincipiI So
18XO), "( htemya 0 bogochclovc-
chestvc" (Readings on
Man lR77-1HH1), "OpravdaOlye
(The Vindication tlf Good,
1897-1899) attempted to create an
all-emhraeing philosophical-cum-
theological teaching, that he refcrred
to as thc "metaphysiC5 of I
Unity". The initial. premise}or.th,s
teaching was the Idea:'\1 l flIfied
Being". the concept of th_c Lrc)tor
and his creation as one (v.1th 'l-
called Universal Soul as the mCdlll(;.
between the two). "Unity" was the m
dissoluhlc integrity of Truth,
ness and Beauty, which, accordl.ng to
Solovyev, eould only be achlc\:cd
through "integral"
was a synthesis of (SCtC
1
-
tiftc), rational (philosophIcal)
mystical
knowledge_ In socil-ty Ihis umtv c.Juld
be achievcC within th" framework,.,1 a
"free theonal'Y' ('he Kingd()m of
. ,1..:
<'" Earth) which ":10 (1
u , . fthe
founded on a hasis of a mcrgmg().
Romall Catltolic and O"}/{'H.lm: ( 1111'

within Ihc framework (ll .1

. h' thlca
cratic rnonaI.,;htS1s1atl In IS C
____53;
principle..; Solovytv proccedc j from
the affirmation of univcru\ r.: I
values compatihlc with "Al..o Uli
<.i()oo to Earth by <.:brL.
ideas wcrc to exert are 1
mnucnce on ph1 J!.-
althe end of the and c rly
20th century as Sf'''Rr'1 and Yr.
gclli Tnlhf'/s/(oy, Srmwm F'Unk. Lev
Karsavin. Pavel FIOrtndry and Ni/(o'Di
Bf'rdyal'v)_
SOMA, 0) intoxicating drink. mad!:
from the som" plant, and
uc;el1 in IOcri{irf_f to thc gud" in
Anl'ientlndia; (1) (Inc (If the in
the Vedic panthcon who wa!'. th
peT'mnilic<11ion or the soma plan'
mJ the mediatOf between j,;(;ic>Ii.:a1
being: lOd mfn :m Earth; he wa." the
god of r erifici.:tl :!r'm In-J saaUice
m g ncral
"SON(' 0'" erc. lC lG.
XlCm induJ( d in the lid Tf' 'a11 -:'
'The 'ogians aUI 'Ite to K1. R So-
iomon and ntcrrrct it a.<; an exprc::.
-, If re proc "=J JOY! h IWI
,()(] and . hosen "1C lp C (In
hutoism), or x'\\,e n <. tist and Jus
hur .. " (II' (nnsna, jl\'\ ad!'::!.:
l;)lltbe (; song- a': ulJl
work ",nne' m thc lrd, ntuT) 6.,..
Scholar. in .. .. tigall1 T !a:
me:-I assume thai tl: 0
SOl gs" is !I ... :lcctijm of Iy.tcal folk-
- wcrc perf()rmcd ,t wcc.t
:nl!,S lull-Of cxhlh 10\', aId
the of the female oody.
call phVSI. 11 b..:auty
fwm Ancient tradltlOl; w::
cnoorl.,nl the author. () t e
'SonS" ()f Sonts' In .. 'lllnl CliO!' Wlth
!'l's \Iew "I !hl: .....(lrIJ, ,nd I! was
<" J ... 111"1 rc liU11' /(flm .
,Imc_, f ", ..
J In,; "'1 ..
,-'IClflv II,Jl:at" I . .h
_, II tLt,; ptx' I
! (' xI IS :u
b I thl: thc13mc IJ ,I
5"
SOO1lISAYER
mentioned even once in its 116
"",
soomSA YER, general term de
nOling tbose who predict the fu-
lure _ sorcerers., oracles, diviners
and fortune-tellers, astrologers., in-
terpreters of dreams and omens.,
"clairvoyants" and so on, who al-
legedly are the recipients of reliable
information about the Cuture by
supernatural means - through signs
from above, mYSlicaJ intuition il-
lumination or ('el'eiation. To sO:Oth-
were special capa-
Cities for foresight, which other
not J>?SScss. They existed
and eXISt In aU tunes and in aU reli-
gions (for example, in the United
States there are approximately
and France nearly 40,000
offiCIally regIStered professional for-
tuoe-teUers).
SOOTHSAYING. See Divination.
SOPHIA (Greek word meaning
"craft", "knowledge" or "wisdom"),
cono:pt or mythologem recurring
lQ mediaeval philosophy
With the conception of
thmgs that fIlled with meaning
IDd harm.OQlously arranged. It was
In the orthodox and mysti-
cal literature of i"ws", aDd Ch '
libM;". _..I ns-
CKptusion in Or-
" ..... scr-_c ch ch
and ic:oo or architecture
Ch ch -patnting. In tbe Western
ur German mystics turned t
the symbol.of Sophia in the
17th .ttnlunes (Jakob Boehm ), '
RUSSIa at the t of e an
idea f . urn the century the
th
was fuodameotaJ to
e teachmgs of Vladimir
Pavel Flexmsky, Ser6Ei
others (see, Sop/Ii%gy), The idea of
Sophia winch admits 01 an endl
range of symbolic interpretati::
was one of the factors COn' -
to appearance of RUSsitnbuting
Bely, Alan Syrn.
Dlok, M8.JOrnlllian V C7.ander
Vyaebeslav Ivanov and
SOPHIOLOGY (from th
words "sophia" meani e. Greek
and "logos" . ng '"wisdom"
meanmg "Word"
"teaching") or SOPHIANISM .or
flucntial movcment in R ......
'h" ...,.,Ian relig
10US p I osophy and theal . .
thought in the late 19th cent ogJca1
third or the 20th
mam representatives were V1dd' I:S
Florensky and
Bu!gakov. The central concept
ph1ology was Sophia-Wi'iodom, whi h
was used by these thinkers to
vcry. different things. It could mean
the !Dner es.."cnce of God (for which
the Gr.eek tcrm was "ousia") and
onc or Its hypostases (the "rourth b _
.of dcity). It could be le
diVldmg hne between God and the
world and one or the two diametri-
cally opposed a"pects of the Univer-
sal Sophia in its earthly aspect
as the organizing
pnnclple or uni.ty-Sobomost (Unity
In the unity of all
mankind, the real embodiment and
of which is provided
by the Chnstlan Church. Sophia is
clthcr prescnted as the complele
world (Co&mos) or as thc ine-
human being (Saint), or
ret a" the idcal raultless organ-
The Sophiologists belicved
I .at a Church, reformed in keeping
With lh.cir ideals, would become a
historical memory, the
", o(han or national and worldwide
cu ture. Russian S h" ., h
develo op 10 ogy. WmC
t" when European civiliza-
was a stale of crisis, repre-
apologa ,kind of refined Chri"tjan
et'CS, the Utopian aim of
SOUL
which was to create an Integrated
culture for the whole of mankind
stemming rrom the authority of a re-
vitali7.cd Church.
SORCERER, a who engages
in sorcery and works charms. Profcs.-
siona1 wrccrers appearcd in early
dan.based society. To them wcre at
tributed a supernatural ability with
the help or spellJ and
and other magic practices 10 in-
fluence the forces of Nature, the will
or men, the and to call forth
cattle plague and natural disastcrs.
SORCERY, harmful witchcraft en-
acted to the accompaniment or
harmful magie rituals and b8!.d on
belief in tbe "evil eye". Ethnogra-
phers note that the social basis or
sorcery is alienation between differ
ent tribes. The practice or attribut-
ing a1l sorts of diseases and deaths to
sorcery carried out by a member v
another tribe is a phenomcnon wide-
spread in all primitive
Sorcery was dcarly one or r.he ways
or fostering primitive animistic c0n-
cepts., in particular. a belief in evil
spirits. See also malic, Jon:ttrr.
SOROKIN. P1tirim (188'l''l68).
American sociologist or RUSSian 1;;:('
traction. He emigrated in 1922 find
in 1931 became a professor al Har
vard University. He claborated an
oonccption or social devel-
opment and he attached primary
importance for (his developmc:nt lO
a system of values. whose
tories were deemed to be certain
individuals and social in!ltitutioos.
According to Sorokin. social re.1lity
a complex hieran.-hy or various
social and cultural systems and sub-
systems, As a ba.<.is for his
of social values Sorok.in lOOk. van-
5J.
ous philO!.Ophica1 .......... L
""dan . Y" ... \WItes.. In ao-
ce WIth which he .
three types of cult ungIed oat
culture, in which UTe:, sensual
senso . man 5 unmediall"
. ry perceptions ptedo
Ideational culture in
tlonal thought 01'".. ..1.. ra-
ide . If-",wlttunates; (3)
a1J.St. culture Ih which mt ..
predominate. The
IStonca1 procc:u .... __ .
So k" . """''"'>lttutes, fTOm
r.o 5 pomt of -new, numerous
of the above-said twit
types ?l !he modern crisis
?f he Imh with tbe cris.i,
In. SCIentific knowledge and materi-
and be p'''''' h;' h .
_ . . '" opes I'" a
tfl.umph of religIOus-idealist culture
HIS include' 'Sociolorv of
Revd.ullOn' (1925), Crisis of Our
Age (1941). A1truisti<. lmo"
(1950),
SOTERIOLOGY l Greet
v.-nrds "soteriou" mearung "deli\ler
ance and "logos" meaning word"
\)f teaching"), tcaching CODC:ettung
sah .. "'tion. which ts to be round i1!.
many religions (BuddhisM, OW
lianity, Islam and others), or tbe
brancb of rhtology concerned 'With
the question or
SOUL (Greek. equivalent -
"psych.e. Latin - .anima'). from the
religiOUS viewpoint the es-
sence or man, a spet"i3.1 entity, the
olppositc of the pbvsic..'l.i, wbkh
shapes Man's life. abilitit.s and per-
sonality. Belief in a soul can be
traad back to a primitive animistic
interpretation of phe
nomena a ... l;1reathing, dreamtng, sha-
dows. death etc. The myth
ing Mao's soul grew up out or naIVe
conceptions of the soul ao;. a smaller,
more delicate copy or shadow of
man and evolved later into the ab-
stract conception of the soul as
SOlJIllt:RN ARABIA, RHJGJON OF
wmething exclusively non-material,
incorporeaJ and autonomous.
main psychologicaJ source of hellcf
in the sow is fear of death. In
religions the idea of the soul . IS
linked with the tcaehing eonccr,!mg
God's gift to Man of a soul birth
and its scparation fro.m s
after death. Immortality IS an. attnb-
ute of the soul, i.e. eternal eJClstcnce
in the world beyond the grave, or, as
in Hinduism for example, the end-
less transm;patioD of souls into
other bodies after death. The doc-
trine of the immortal soul provides
the basis for the system of religious
dogma. ideology and worship. it
meates religious psychology,
gleans from belief in a soul some Il-
lusory consolation, hope for over-
coming death and allaining bliss he-
yond the grave. The religious teach.
ing concerning the soul is of a
marked reactionary social nature,
since it facilitates the spiritual en-
slavement of the faithful. shifting
their attention and will away from
tbe struf81e for liberation from so--
cia! oppression in this world to the
salvation of the soul in the "King-
dom of Heaven". The myth of the
soul also provides the basis for all
religious morality, since it relates all
moral norms to the salvation of the
soul from sin and death. Modern
science conc:enaing Man's mind and
Ui-llions (neurophysiology, psycho-
logy, etc.) firmly rejects
the idea of the soul as an inde-
pendent spiritual essence and con.
firms the thesis., that is part of the
scientific materialist World outlook,
to the effect that consciousneu is an
attribute of highly organized matter.
SOlITHERN ARABIA, RELIGION
OF, term to denote for ea'iy ref.
erence tbe beliefs and cults of those
who inhabited SOUt
Arabia during the 1st mill
c

B C
'h h
nnllJlll
.. at e stagl' \II en slave.oWn'
were laki ng shape th IIlg
The religion of this area had m
crc
.
in with the 8Qb):
mall and Phoelllcion religions. ASf I
cults predominated in it and the
of the was venerated as the SlJ .
preme deit y, who amo.ng certain {)eo-
Arabia was given the
same name as that used by the Baby.
lonians, namely, Sin. Alhtar Was
venerated as god of the morning star
and Shamash as the goddess of the
sun. The priests of this religion, who
owned large tracts of land and who
collected tithes from the people
exerted their influence over aU as:
peets of life in tbat society.
-
SOVIET LEGISLATION REGARD-
ING FREEDOM OF WORSHIP,
norms of Soviet law which define the
concept and content of freedom of
worship and the guarantee of that
freedom, ensure citi7ens the right to
profess any faith and to take part in
its rituals of worship; they also guar-
antee the freedom to hold atheist
convictions and to propagate at-
heism. These norms regulate the so-
cial relations which emerge in oon-
nection with the exercise of the free
dom of worship. The basis of Soviet
legislation regarding ?f
worship are the norms laid down In
the Constitution. The main princi-
ples and tenets of this legislation
were formulated in the decree of the
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
Republic's Count'il of People's
Commis.'iars of January 23,1918 "On
the Separafion of Church and Sfale
and SchOOl and Church".
SOUINI, Fausto Paolo (1539-
16(4), prominent figure in the Rqor-
SPE."ICER
, . n in Italy and Poland, founder
mo 10 .' .
of the rehglUu., movemen.t as
the Sociman.f. lie. u\Cd hl'l
on the !-.pt.al()ng
a:ainst the Chmhan of
the Trillity. by
h
[ lIlnli.firlOlI. Sonlnl s !>truggle
,e ,. ( h / ..
. ., Romoll 'af 0 Icmn pro-
f . /.
, d the advance 0 raflOlla am
mo e .'
and freethmkmg.
SPAS PER..C;;UASION, a trend in tht::
of the .old Belie
which came Inlo helRg at
vers, h I, aJ
d f the 171 century. s SOCI
en 0 . h
asis was proVlded hy t e
out from the general
I of the Bel.popovtsy councils
the .of .. thc
"Kin dom of the Antlchnst on
E tf which would allegedlv de-
ar 'all sacraments. tbe adhere7lts
stroy . . d 'h t " w'
of this trend mamtame a. ' r
impossible to achieve s.alvallon
th soul by wbatever acllons deVOId
o,cthe "grace of God". The)! th
5alvation was only known to the )a
. (Rus'O"lian "Spas") Jesus
Vlour f,
Christ - and there orc I 'O"
f I to put one's truSl in He- m, rey
pray. As a result of the ir :.CJc",
tion of the Russian Orthodox clergy,
sacraments., churches, and
so on, the adherents of this
sian also came to be
Nyetovtsy (from the Russmn n .
. "N") As the Spa" PerSU,I-
meamng o. , .. num.
sion developed, it split mto a d')
ber of smaller (co
ncor
' ,
among whieh W "fe moderate gr0IJPS
h P po
vt sv .lnd ex'
very close to teo. . :' IR
treme groups tbat reJected, y
ofritual.
Do
.') 1 term
SPASY ,"Sa"lour's ,sod' Chur .h
d ,h- R"cc ian orth (1X '
;ISC In , ...,.,. h' h arc
;'or the three IC.. (Russian
.::il.lted wnh tbe SaVlour
'"
"Spas"). Jeru1 Chrisf. The Ii 'Dr
is celebrated on
I (14) and IsOffiuallydescribed he
Commemoration of the Prace '"'"111
with the Holy Life-Giving Tree. Tnc
SOUrce of this fe ....ival can be traced
hack 10 the of carrying the
CTOS$ through the of un tan.
tinnple tQ "ward of{ Panicu..
lar importance attached to this. 'es.
tival, accmding to tradili )n.
n was preci<;(.;lyon this day that Prince
Vladimir had been baplucd in 988.
The second. or Apple Spas.. is. Ihe
name given 10 the fe.\tival eiF the
Transfiguratir>n. and the third, }r
Spas on a Sheet. l\ the fc\tival wh .:\
me image Qf the I "rd Je'>us
not f;!!,ruoned by hand was
from Ed..:ssa Tbl\
is a to l towel
on W"jdl "' , fae )f at'
left its imprint
v: rt-aJ fO"
mula '1.ruch to the ap
pc ill etKio','Td .ith tlk:
)!T"Operty ,,,," b,' ing able .1'.' Influence
natw:!' course of . nt .... Spells
were an intn .. .s.i( p.U1 .)f annen: re l"
. and m'"' . The ... wert'" f t"
...... ' ... .. .
prded as J m.e .lns of averting JJ.SaYo
IllS or Ihem down .Of':
others, ('I he'Ot1ing
'N and q) "n 1n religIOns
?lO$pcn . . ..... . cd ir. the
.)f today they arc pres,.' .
.: nn of curscs and ,crt,lIn praytr. ,
officially they
. d any by the Cur .
-'"""
, ['ie[R. Hrrbert (182).. 1903J
d

SP '. 'tivist philosrphu an
Engh\ h evolutionary thcory, In
a..n'{xate 0 I d he came out
h.IS rheOTY o/fkn,W. He .
in favour () and po5Jtr.'tSt
th:lt "dent(. in their
philosophy \:ome, lof fact lbat
:.I.Cknowkdgeme
n
I
SPI:NGU:R
______ ___ _
the primary cause undc.r1yi?g a.1I James and Salome_ brOUght SWec
h Domena under exanunallon IS sP.ices to the tomb of Jesus On
he:Ood man's grasp, is "unkno--;- thldrd day in
able", Yet insofar as s or er to anomt IS vvoy, but they
mechanistic evolulioDis?l ad.mltted found the tomb empty and inside the
of materialist hiS con- sepulchre sat a young man in a long
replioo was severely enl1ClZCd by while robe who said to them: "Ye
ligious philosopbers and tbeolog.- seck. Jes11.<; of, wbo Was
SPENGLER, Oswa'd (1880-1936),
German idealist philosopher. HIs
most famous work is "Der Untergang
des Abendlandes" (English IransJa.
lion, The Decline of the West, in 2
crUCified. Hc IS men! Hc is not
aDS. here" (Mk. 16:1-8). This meant that
these three women were the ftrst to
Icarn of Christ's resurrection. Des-
pite the fact that the other Gospels
list contradictory evidence COncern_
ing the spice-bearers (St. Matthcw
names only tWO-Mary Magdalene
and "the other Mary'; Sl. Luke
names Mary Magdalene, Joanna and
Mary the mother of James, and St.
John makes reference only to Mary
Magdalene), it is the tradition in the
Church to focus attention on the
version in the Gospel according to
Sl. Mark, The Orthodox Church
aside a whole week (the third aftcr
Easter) for celebration of tbese Gos-
pel figures.
vols., came very
much ofFriednch
Nietzsche. is distin-
of the
the idea of
social progress and contrasted it with
his philosopby of culture, according
to whicb the culture of each people is
clearly distinct from all other cultural
systems (of which there are eight al-
together in the history of mankind).
Each is based On a "primal phenome-
non of culture" which Spengler de-
scribed from his own irrationalist
angle and "philosopby of life".
SPHINX (name derived from the
Greek word meaning "to hold fac:;t"),
mythical creature with a lion's body
and a human head, found first in
Ancient Egypt and then adopted in
Ancient Greece. The Greek myth
tells of a sphinx as a female monster
who dwelt on a rock outside Thebes.
asked Iravt:llers a riddle and killed
th05e who railed to lind the answer.
After Oedipus had answered the
riddle the Sphinx then killed berselr.
SprCE-BEARERS. According to St.
Marie's Gospel. three WOmen _ Mary
Magdalene, Mary the mother or
SPINOZA, Baruch (1632- J(,n),
DUlehJewish materialist philos-
opher. According to
teaching, Nalure, which he
wilh God, is a eternal and In-
finitc of the ca
pacity of extension and thought. Na-
ture is presented as its own cause
which docs not need to be created.
In Naturc, according 10
everything is determmed:
Man, as part of Nature, is also
drawn into the chain of the world's
determinism, which rules out chance
and restricts Man's free will. Spino-
7.a'S materialism was presented in
panthei. .. tic form and it was essen-
tially atheist. In hi ... works entitled
theologico-politicus"
(Theolog.cal'Political Treatise,
I
SPI RfllJl\t, q I RISTlA.
0) and "Ethica' (1677) Spinoi'a
16
7 cd Ihe idea nf a
r:ct rnund in the monothn'\llc
g r the doctrine nf the Imml)r
rc .lgJr the human luul and Ihc con-
tallti the miracle; h.e thr
cep d (or cntlCL'Un cf
(ounal. ,00 h
BOh'e All rc Igwn1 e
the
l
. "hd
I d to he on
dcc arc
ce
and For hIS at-
'gnoran .
I. convictions SplnOl.a was ex.
hClst 'catcd by the leaders of the
commuOl . A
Jcwish religious commuruty In m
sterdam.
SPIRIT (from the Latin
. "breath' or "Splnl"'), a
meaning d or: the
hilosophical concc:pt. en mg
p sub<,antial prinCiple, as op-
non- ,. . I I'
sed to the materia.., natura pnn-
a religious concept denoting a
o one pf m ::
of religfou.t faith. In
Spint WlS the .flfst )On
0, of the WO:;-IO, Belief In tbe
op e -"1 SClC1: tv
Spirit emerged In pnml we
wben men, confr0!1tcd by tbe P:'Al r
of Nature. perceIVed r:tatural ...
nomena ao; and fore. '_
Spirit was identtfied WIth thln?-S
o h 0 ) or seen as c:
IS ISm ',' s \\ere
latter (animilm). Ion .a
drawn between Splnts \,.1 I. .. , S.
, '.. woods. mountain!;.
spnngs, fiver.... h d
birth and
Splrll!; protecting, d
' 0 0 f the Sun an
mune or clan, 0 'b ,If
Moon ele DUI ing the cpoc re
slave-ownmg SO( ifty at!em'jc; v.:: "f
made to fOI mulal!:" V.lTIUUS a ,<
. 'namorcure"
Nature and soclcty I h'losophy of
dbstract form. In the pl. of
Ancient Grece<,; the .. "
pneuma' .... ,t ',reaso
n
.
(mind) and logos In the
thOUght) were rc rt'-
Middle Ages Spthnt :-aJ
sented as something t at a
so
o
before the Earth. Nature IIf CO!.-
mos and had CTeatfd all of thar
Qf nothing. The Modern Era
broUghl forlh theone!; :,f the 'i: :litil,
that reflected the then emergent
trends bourgco's indr.idual.
In modern bourgems then-! !.
the concept. (If Spirit com.tru d \
sometbing quite separate froD' mao
terial reality. Dia/ectical maltrialu,"
rejects the conc;:cpt. of Ihe spiritual as
existing imlcpend nllyof
matter. Thc i, sec' ashe
functi(lD of highly
the (rui: of men'SlOClo "woncal l(.
8PIRJniAL CHRL"rfIANS. )1,...:1 -..:
rome embracmg "':Iovtme ...
within old RI ::.0 dat
ing back In the H rorms. or
%1. The;. m "ements 1 li.!-,{Ion
Tnt" u ,r be ,,'W up 15 al' e-y.1 .
S'. 1'.1 "'10' ht' .....
sooo-po lC.u Fu.- ........
..... ''',' I sooe'" d ....... m l.t
ma. se-o; -e . b h b.
l'IY fcudaJlandowocrs ....'1 . Il.'
. . f the: Ru.m.m Qrr.ltodm
?ht; of the 17tils SPlfltU,J
plil !nlu t&: Doukhobors
d tbe Moll)tantc;. nt
an . 'luaJ Christians wa5 an
of the Sprn 'li to the RIJS'
:)1cssion of oppost 00 _ d
. . Orthodox Churt:h. 11m and
1n the :ttl "f statt" .)\\TlC
forctrh"St on P'
Dh
idel$, tnOVoll
asanls and di
pc . conomi.,,; indeilCnn c
(or thclr .e
d
d 11 bv patri.tTlhal
and less tiC ov.'a] or
. . The 500 -cr- d
traditions. .' I Christians" an
(he term "Splnt,ua ,hal tbl'v advo-
, ofvaucs . ,
the em be nd the (Onfines 01
go far Tile
relig-ous sect a .: to tbelT anll-
o - gavt "OIet nit
Christians . religious conctt'_
reudal prOIe.'.t m derenders of
and spokt' spiritu:U truth',
"eternaL .. J. I cleanse rrom
\\bicb thl'y LD rituals"
the "deadcrung
-
I
SPIRrJ1JI\I.1S\f
They called upon their co-religion-
isiS 10 trusl nol in "external
out in the "internal" law emhodll:d
in the "spirit and "true
conscience of Man . While rCJectmg
any veneration of "idols", they de
manded that Man be respected inso-
far as he was the vessel for the Di -
vine Spirit. They .not
the social order In Tsanst RUSSia,
but also supported a new set of hu-
manist values. This was the result,
first and foremost , of their assess-
ment of the importance of human
reason and Man's activity, the asser-
tion of the individual's worth, Man's
free will, his sense and awareness of
his own dignity, Man's right to his
own individual beliefs, and of the
emphasis on the important role that
moral principles play in men's lives
etc. In the Spiritual Christians'
teaching concerning Man as the "liv-
ing temple", as the "miraculous and
wondrous Divine creation"
(Doukhnbors), as the pos..sessor of
"spiritual reason" (Molokanes), and
in tbe ideas of Man's "inner power",
the "might of his soul" and of future
equality and freedom, the seeds of a
profound humani<;m arc to be found,
that can be accounted for by the fact
that the Spiritual Christians' move-
ment was rOOled. in peasant demo--
cratic The ideals of the Spiri-
tual Christians reflected the social
Utopia of tbe peasant masses albeit
in religion .. guise, aod tbeir dreams
of a classless society.
SPIRfIlJALISM (from the Latin
"spiritualis" meaning "of Ihe
Spiril"), (1) a term used to denote
objective-idealist conceptions. ae.
cording to which the spirit is seen
as the underlying principle of the
world, as a substance Ihat is inde-
peodent of malter. 10 modern irra-
-
movements. \pceial t ill .
phasls IS 1.lId " the I."tc.graled na;.
t ure of bet he .... Pdlflludal which
cannot rc uC'e to t il her
I a<,on
or a elc. All religions
arc splfltua lsi uy definit ion' (2) be"
lief in the life after death
of departed the po:o.s ihilit '
coni act With them thr()uJ
known as mediums.
SpIritualist concepts can be traced
hack to ve ry ancient faiths (sec ani-
mism, and so on). In
the 19th century in the USA there
came into being a mass-scale mysti-
cal movemenl known as Spiritual_
ism, which later was to gain wide
popularity in Europe; it founded its
own societies and put
out its own publications, flooding
the market with its own brand of
"spcciali7-cd" literature. The hold-
ing of spiritualist seances also be-
came popular: these involved table-
turning, fortune-telling using tea-
leaves or coffee-grounds, the
summoning forth of the spirits of
the dead etc. Spiritualist ideas were
the subject of hitter criticism from
natural scientists and materialist
philosophers.
SI. PETER AND St. PAUL, Chris-
tian festival celebrated on JUDe Zf} in
the Roman Catholic Church and on
July 12 in the Orthodox Church (in
the Anglican (1lUrch only Sl. Peter is
rememllCred on this day). This festi -
val is linked with the names of the
two most important who
arc be the first propagators
of Chrll'.han teaching. The Lives of
SS Peter and Paul have been com
in such a way as to ensure thaI
their sclness devotion l'.hould serve
a.n example for tht.: faithful. It wa ..
initially in Rome. whose
BIShops (i,e. tbe Popes) bad de-
I
I
I
I
I
I
SIAIl:. RJ:JJG/os A.'-iDTIU, OI1,.;RCIl
elared 10 be Ihe heirs of
SI. Peler, and it quickly spread fur-
ther afield. Ill'. popularity wa'! cn.
by the raci that it coincided
with in. Ihe agri.
cultural year: In Ru\. .... a thiS wa'S the
beginning of the hay making; in Fin
land, Iceland and Karclia
used to take place len weeks before
Ihis rel'.tival. St. Peter was al"o re-
garded as the palron of fisher-
men.
STARCHESlVO or SPIRIThAL
DIRECTION, RUl'.l'.ian monastic
movement based on the l'.piritual di-
rection by a "Slaret,," (a monk whQ
has achieved a high degree of asceti-
cism and selfless devotion to his
faith) of a novice in ascetic pra(;
tices. This tradition first emerged in
the early 4th century among the
Chrislian monks in Egypt. The spiri-
tual direction (or "nourishment'
presupposed the novice's volunt 'IV
obedience and subordination )f hlS
own will to that of the stan.:ls. th
elimination of his own "'ill. -t w.
imperative upon the Dmice n \l
argue, not to contradict the st. relS.
and to voice all his own thouthts
him. Other monks livi ng in the ,am
monastery and raithful rol11 he sur
rounding arca would reve'-I the a
rets as a "spirit ual father", The prac
tice of Starchcstvo ;l"surcd t h(; con
tinuat ion of the m(""] , nlme of
mind and the world Jt
look and a ...... hok rang\; ,. radii-i ,"<
It consolidated t he religious. soc 11
political influence of tht ( 'hUI, h
over the fai thful. Starchl'-I'Io l p
reared in :.he 4th (:CCllury ill d'l-
hermit ages (J: .'SI\'Il:) to th( . ast \If
the Volga River . Pte mon'ment had
,ahn fi rm root t-.y the latc ISth .lnd
arlv 19th t."c ntury, its main
moter being Schl-ml 4Jchimandrile
, 01
'"
who In 1"191
his of "Phi ;.
calia (known In D
t I b'" L<; O')ro-
a
O
yu Ie )! a of asc !Ii( J
mY'-hcaJ WTlIIng.\ datirg {ron
t e 10 Ihe 51h cenluri:s. "]e
mCKt I.mporlanl ttntre of this. movt
men! In 19thcentury RUSSia was lhe
Optma Hermifage
S!A!E" REliGIOS AND THE
CHt.;RCH. The Slate is Ilc m ' n
1001 of polililal powe In c r times
the state uses a WI It.
tern .of VIews anj ".
ludlng rellg.on. RC'jgi)n :>n e'
(he elements \, lhl SOCI": strUC!IItI;.
II has tbe capacitv 0 au \p 10
pattern. r realty. ...
S' -lo-rl!SlrlTlcal C" lOges rid:> wi
om. tYPe of Stalt; Ihe
mon crt by, hroug; he
con.- titutil'n.,] monar ly and be
b H publil to tea!;. anal
fasc,,: rC-lJTI glrn IS no
only 11 ide b 1 1;0 aJ O":&<JUZ-
_ Churc' '";:-:i!. l...: ,' ,n
rc: Ii h. Stal l
F h. '!I thc po' - t . ' :-cw )f legtu
P;: lon in x-: , y there are t".rc
diffcrt. m llt'gtr . of m.xie m capi '
tali ,t S;-:e: in " hieb there Is
;In )fIiual ! ,. e iom: nanl religion
or 'l . ' be -\ng' lC1"1 ( bl.reh
ID hre ,t BI 'am, Rv "ilJ (I.th
""Ilk C, suo h ' '.mtnes 2*
Spalfo, ard ital Y: hlam in
manl cou:1Ir. If h. Middle Easl,
such-as Iran, Kuw,.il C' C Buddhism
in Thailand elc.); stal l!"s v.hlch cu!'
with recognilion 0
1
a
forma] equality between
and Churcbc:s, wilhout separation 1'1
Church and Slatl; I West Germany,
Austria, Peru, Japan ell ); states III
which the (hur. h Omt 1ally
Jot t {rom State (thr.; l nlted
States, Frall('f" CIt; I. Relations be
I
tween modern and the Churt'h
3re rather complicatcd. They arc n(lt
confined .to opcn und un,
ohcdlence of Ihe
tolhe former. Many Churches 10 re
cent have mlxlified thl'ir
in an attempt 10 demon
strate their indepcndcnce or
power.
vaT'V 10 Ihelr atlltudes to rdlg
decl;ning them
selves soml'times t0 pc emancipated
rrom the Church. The Church (If
loday, although it has lost many of
its privileges and special rights, still
pcrrorms important political. legal
and ideological functions. In the
llSSR ('hurch and State an:
ale, and arc fwm
the Church. The Church only carries
(lut runclions in keeping
with ils dogma, the prerequi.,ites \If
its canons and traditions, bearing in
mind as it dlles so the requirements
of Soviet regarding relig-
ious worship,
STATES OF THE CHURnl. Sec
Papal States or States nfthe Churrh,
I.e, (1R61-1'Y.'7).
Russian ethnographer and historian
of religion. He was exiled to the Is.
land of Sakhalin on account of his
membership of the Narodnaya
Vol)'a (People's Will) organi7alion.
While there Sternhcrg engaged in
the l':tudy of the languages. family
and dome ...tic relationship5 and re.
ligiolU hclicfs of the indigenous pco-
pies. in particular, the Nivkhi ({,ily-
aks), After the 1917 Octohcr Revol-
ution he became one of the leading
figures in Soviet ethnography, mak-
ing aD enormous contribution 10 the
study of the peoples of the Nnrlh.
His main wlJrk was entitled "Pnvo-
b)1.naya rcligjya v wett etnografii"
--
Wrimili\'c in Ihe 1.1f:1l! 0(
Fthno/::raphy, 1'1."\(1)
S!IOIARION or SlJRPl.tCt. See
J
snCllt:RON, psalm or Canl I
. - r' Ice
cnnw\lmg (I many nf Ih{ 1>3
length. the!"e \\.cre
writing .. frnm the Old
later taken a model for
cant ides. The tirst author (If a Mi.
(:hen," wa .. Patriarrh Analoliu<; of
('onst:lntinopk in the 51h century,
STIGI\1.\S or STIGMATA (Greek
word mcaning "t"lrand", "!'itain', or
"mark"), a reddcning of the
hrui .. in!! or c;orr whi('h appears in.
mlunlarilv on Ihe Nxtv of certain
dl'\'(lut in th0SC places
where, according III Bihlicallcgcnd,
('hrist wHunded by the cr{'wn {If
and the nails with which
WI" nucified. The appearance of
!;tigmala was viewed hy the ChUfth
:IS a miracle and hy it to whip
up rcligiuu ... in
which {here have becn changes in
the integumenl under I I'te innuencc
of and auto-sugge"ti(l!]
hur!'ls, imaginary
CIC.) arl' k!'lown 10 medicine and l'an
he c"'pl;tincd hy Ihe fact that evcry
part of Ihe hody linked hy neural
conductors \'i,1 the spinal cord and
In the r<.:H'hral (orlcx.. In
c{lflditinns change .. in Ihr
n{'T'vnuo; wSlcm can c:ive rist, In me
taholie in lissue", which in
their turn e;m reddening or
"welling of the and (lther ahnor
malities. Thi\ mel.:hanio;m underlies
the phenomcnon of stigmata.
"!\'TIMME (lEN. ORTHOOOXII-:"
of the Orthodoxy), monthly
Jnurnal puhliMied in German in East
BC,rlin. It. 15 Ihe mouthpiece of the
Middle b.lropean :>f lru-
Patriarchate. It publi!.hes
on the main of ac
tIVlIII!5 of the Ru.-wan Orlhodo'll:
Churcb and ils exarchates. and abo
serf!1ons arti,de5 (m theologi al
f;uhJcct5. Space: IS aim de'llOl.ed to
oecumcnical qucstioos,
STOICISM, one of Ihe schools '
and Roman philosophy,
Classical Stoid!'om century
B.C.: Zeno of Cilium, Cleanlhes of
As.o;us, Chrysippus) represents a re
viva] of Heraditus' teaching b)ut
fire as the COSmic principle. inter.
preting it, bowever, in the spirit of
theoiogy, prrwtdentialjrrn aod I'ar _
ism as simultane"lusly m.:
Universal Reason (I..qos), f. and
God. In tbe system of Stoic -
which represents a mixture
physics (including tbeology), logics
and ethics., it is the laue" wbic'l ex;;
c-.lpil.;S the predomlOaoJ )OSitlOQ
T le el 'tical principle of StOieISI1"
that man should live "in accordanc.
with tbe laws of Nature" and tbere
fore also :n arcord3.na: .-jtb
which penetrates Lhe whole of Na-
ture determines the ideu c th,
wt.Se man: f;ubm'ssion to fate' amor
fati" 10\ .. of fate), impsss.ivity, , ...
stioence, strict performance: of duty
There were abo two furtber periods
of Stoicism. known as the middle Qr
transitiollal period (2nd-lst century
B.C.) and the late period (ht:!ad
ce:nturies A.D.: S('n('cQ, Epictctus
and MOIr:u 4.urrliu \ ). Stoicism grad,
dally ...ame tn within its
'eaching elements of PlatonISm and,
lS result, its religious-ethical ele
nent C.ilDle gradually 10 the fore and
:ls genel .11 pantheistic thrust came (0
be rep1.u:t:d more .tDd morc by
nlOIIodId.'l:m, Stoicism U1I1uenced the
-
'"
ell 'lle
l
pmeD'l If Chrirtitll1lty
out. 'or mSlam;:c. by b,: ado
of C1cantbes' formula COOl
mg ('00' .. ' h '"
J . . .. In 1m we 1M: "(I
move, and ha\le our bdng"' (d. A(ts
lf the Apostles, 11:28). Fn d
Engels referred to Sen
tbe uncle of Christianity ,M,u'll:. En-
gels, CoIlecJtd Works, Vc 26,
p-I13)_
STR.USS, David Frinlt1cb (180:
1S?<." 'Jcnn;,n Young
...,biIOSOf':.u, h':s1orian c Chn,s.
DanlEy be 1::;' :Ito I.ht; T!lb!flgtrz
SChool, I:mt was D:"')1"C
f an ct.!:... )! iu rLJr. SlD ..ltives n
his C; Jquc )f ll.Iching
Out nd tho: Tata!'7lOt. Hi
"I) I..dlCn J. u" (life of J
1 3: at.":) )c- .Jte und tier neu
('. - IT u'j and tbe Nw
1 lith. Ut 1) I)J' IYI.:-' YerY inDu{-,tial
n the It I!: .{I uss carot LO the
. -:m th' of .!
;;.:,: (" , ,.-:0:) ':h ( 1pt w
l:.istt neal, at' _111i and "'as
, m,thologicaJ in charat r I,
t '..lS1 y..1U of ru.\ lift !!III
(h!"' cD :"nsst of bis works ."as
SOClk'i, ..ha: gC3tier and be
10 tr'I::gioo and pUltbeistic
}hilosopby
STRIBOG, ,he of:h 8Jj Wlni
and MOI'lru In the mythology ci thc
Ancient Sla\1'
S I KlGOI..NIKS. berc.sy wide- pread
In Ncwgorod Ind Pskov in tbe '4th
find cenlurws. rht soc:i.aI c;,lm-
fX,lSition of this mQ'IICtm'.nt
priestg and shaped lIS
popular charal.1cr, The mCNerrn:nt
was led by Dca(oos Karp and Niki
ta, who were e:u:cutcd as heretk"l. I.D
1375. The adherent .. of tbis move
menl questioned me diviDe ongm
I
S48

and nature of the sacrament kno",:"
as the Orden'ng of Priests and on ' ,hIs
basis they rejected the Church hll'r-
archy and also the sacraments of. the
Eucharist, Penance and BaptlJm.
The movement called for the right to
preach to be granted to layme n.
Thus the programme of this move-
ment can be seen as providing paral-
lels witb the urban heresies of West-
ern Europe, since it demanded a
"cbeap Church", the abolition of the
clergy as a spetial corporation and
the transfer of its functions to the
laity, thus anticipating the demands
of the Refonnation.
S11JNDlSTS (from the German
"Stundc" meaning "lesson"), name
used by the [sarisl administration in
Russia and by the Russian Orlhodol(
Church for sedarian trends. that ap-
peared in Russia in 1860s, as a result
of the activities of Protestant pre-
achers in the German settlements in
certain parts of the country. For
Ukrainian and Russian farm-la-
bourers they organized religious dis-
cussions and classes for Bible Study
("'Bibelstundeo"). Stundism became
fairly widespread among peasants
and artisans The StunWsts rejected
the Russian Orthodox Church, its
hierarchy, the sacraments and so on.
At the of the 19th century, the
most radical elements broke with the
Stundists. Moderate groups came to
predominate in the Stundisl mem-
bership, which in the end gradually
merged with the Baptists.
word meaning
dome ), In Buddhism, this was a
type of building whose origins can
be traced back to burial mounds. In
early Buddhism the stupa was used
as a place to store "'sacred objects"
soch as the fll"st eight stupa&, which.
according to legend, .....ere erected
over the or BUddha In I
B ddh
h " at cr
u Ism t c mor.e tYPICaJ kind of
stupa was a mcmonal edifice in h
f
. On
our 0 cert ain events In the history r
Buddhism. The architect uraJ
!urcs of the stupa were dctermined
In each count ry by local
however an obligatory clement Was
the inclusion of a circle or square in
the plan. In Buddhist symbolism the
stupa was held to represent the
Universe and it was usually domed.
SlYLlTES or PILLAR HERMITS
zealots who practised a specific kind
of Christian asceticism, which in-
volved voluntarily condemning
themselves to a solitary life over a
long period on an open platform
erected on top of pillar. The founder
of this ascetic practice, according to
Church tradition, was SI. Simeon
(390-459) from Syr;a. Many
other Christian ascetics followed his
example, in the period between the
5th and 10th centuries.
SlYX, in the mythology of Ancient
Greece, a river which flowed round
the underworld kingdom _ Hades -
and across which Charon ferried the
souls of tbe dead. It was held that an
oath by the water of the River Styx
was sacred for both the gods and for
men and could nol be broken.
SUFFERING, CULT OF, religious-
theological ideas affirming Dot only
that suffering in the lives of men
cannot be surmounted but aL .. o that
suffering is something necessary and
salutary that facilitates salvation. \
The eu!t of Suffering is an extreme
exprC5SJ.on of the poweriessne!'>s of
tbe Oppres.<>ed classes in the ,struggle
first foremost against social op-
pression and at the same time a spe-
cific form for the 1'>urmount_
ing of whi ch does not
touch upun their cau!'.Cs. Ac-
cording to reliRinu", tcaching, the
caufefi or fIIffcrin&..!ie not in the real
condition.:s of mcn's lives }lUI-in- man
himself: in man's {fcsires TBIIQ(J-
hismt or (lruWjsnl..- Chri$-
tianity and Islam). At the same time
suffering is seen as a mean .. of
freeing man from sin, a mean .. of
achieving moral self.improvement
and salvation. The cult of suffering
came into its own particularly vividly
and was given its most detailed ex-
position in the Christian faith. the
central figure of which is the suffer-
ing, crucified God-made-Man
Jesus Christ. Christianity ideali.7.es
suffering, lending it mystique in its
interpretation. The ideas found in
the cult of suffering were embodicd
in asceticism. The cult of suffering
persuaded people it could en-
hance their chances of salvation, if
they meekly endured injustice cuJli-
vating attitudes of passivity md
doubt in their own powc::-s.
SUFISM, mystiCal moveme'ltn
Islam. The name of.be movement ,_
derived from the Arabic "sufi'
meaning "woollen' Initially the
SuflS, i.e. those "clad in a wooUcn
garment", propagated the idc.a of
complete renunciation of
will. Then there grew up a teachmg
concerning mystical luve. using the
symbols of Persian poetry. l.l!er
SuflSm acquired a more speculative
and pant heistic character. re-
taining its quj(rism and pIety. Im-
portant for the c\'()lution of SufIsm
were its components that stemmed
from sources outside Moslem teach
ing. wHh its hermits and
non-orthodox sects excrted I power-
ful influence on SWtSm. The lJIlp3ct
'>.\"
of Buddhism on II also J)QWerful
. stages of Sufi<'m are usually
Identilicd: (1) the Sharia -strict ob-
SCrvance of all the laW! of th! Mos.
lem religion; (2) the T ariqa _ a pc
od of novitiate in the role of a mWi-J
the guidance of an aUlhorit".
tl\C Sufi elder (.fhaikh or pi,); the C;'I-
deavour through prayer and inlen e
meditation, and also ecstatic rites to
wipe out pcrwnal will; (3) the Man.
la - attainment of knOWledge, not via
the mind but via the heart., of the
or the Universe in (jod (the
world being seen an emanatinn of
God), acceptance of the equality of
all religions (equal rays from thl;;
ringle sun), the relative nature of
good and evil; (4) tbt Haqihal
(trulh), - complete identification of
the man \1,.ith knowledge and the
deity. SuftSm was to exert an in.
nuence on all spheres of spU;tu,,! life
In Moslem East religious
dogma, philCC'pby, ethics.. aDd iii
e:-:lure.
SlGGESTION, a pre 'C'1S of bring-
ing psycbologicai innue n(:.c to bell
on one or more individuals so that
they may absorb uncritica11y the in
formation being imparted to Ihem
SuggestioD plaY!' an part
in religion. The most dfect''7
of suggcslion is l'
.1chicvcd durin&-collccllve rellpous
lct i\ity. duri ng \.,
bili tv to suggestion IS A
through the reproduction lIDlta'
lion...,f emotional WOl-
- -
shlp.
SUKK(Yf or FEAST OF T4.BER.
NACLE..'i, a traditional agneu:Jtwai
kstival of tbe Jews.. falls
autumn. In Judoum It was linked
with the legend of the exodus
Jews from Egypt. The 1351 day 0
SU\t1 'RlI\:".:-llABYI_O:\lI\"I RIJ I( iIO ....
festival called Simchat Tnrah (Re-
joicing of the Law). On that sol-
emn processions of worshippers
bearing aloftlhe scrolls of the Torah
arc held in synagogues: laudatory
psalms in the of
also sung on thiS day. The RaM/.t in-
stituted this festival to mark the end
the annual cycle of puhlic read
ings of the Torah in the synagogues:
the reading of Deuteronomy, the
book of the Torah (Pentateuch), IS
complcted and that of Genesis, thc
fIrst book in tbe cycle, commenced.
SUMERIAN-BABYLONIAN RELI-
GION. See Babylonion religion.
SUN WORSHIP, veneration of the
Sun, which numbers among the most
ancient forms of rcligion. At an early
stage man linked the idea of the
awakening to lifc of corn seeds with
the beneficia1 warmth of thc Sun.
Accordingly, sacralization of the Sun
was linked first and foremost with
the development of agriculture. This
was reflected most vividly of all in
the festivals celebrating the rebirth
of Nature. Sucb celebrations in-
cluded the SatumalUz of Ancient
Rome, European carnivals and
Shrove-tidt, the midsummer festival
koown in Russia as Ivan Kupalo,
carol-singing iD December or the
Nauruz (No Ruz) festival celebrated
by tile peoples of .be Near and
Middle East. They are all centred
round four points in the calendar_
tbe aUlllJ!In and spring equinoxes
and the Winter and summer
AI the festivals bonfires were lit and
symbolizing
man s close link wllh the SUD and its
"':'annt
h
; omelett" were cooked.
SlOtt t@gS were seen as symbols of
the Sun and Nature; pancakes and
flat cakes were cooked and so on.
-
Adherents fir ,\fitJrrui.IHl cel'h
the of the "In\-.incihk
on Dccemhl'T 25. which in un
cenlury thl' Chun.:h Iu 4lh
.. rOlf rncd
own n::r.II\-'a {1 the Na(il'it\'
O,"J/. Many diffcrent version,
Sun w(lT:<ohip arc too he found in thc
mythology and reliloUous r
American Tn.dian:<o. In folklore
p!.lpular applied art symholie repTe_
scnlalinn:<o of the Sun arc orten to he
enC(luntered to the prc:<oent day; !lUn
wheels, ring. .. , WTcat.hs, round go-
hlct:<o, gold decoratIOn, firc.bird\,
round wedding loaves etc.
SlJNDAY, the first and most import.
ant day of thc Christian week. on
which is commemorated the legend
of Jesus Christ's resurrection from
the dead. The origins of tbe seven.
day week can he traced back to
Chaldean-Babylonian astronomicaJ
calculations: it wa$ later adopted by
the Jews of ancicnt times who chose
as their day of re:<ot the Sabbath. or
sevcnth day, to mark the completion
of God's creation of the world. In-
itially Christians also used the Sab-
bath (Saturday) as their day of rest.
Later in order 10 dissociate them-
selves from Judaism Chri:<otians
began to take as their holy day the
first day of the week, the day on
which Christ is alleged to have
risen from the dead.
SUNNA (from the Arabic "sunnah"
meaning "rule" or "custom"), the
sacred tradition of Islam. ex
pounded in the Hadith (traditions)
concerning the deed .. and sayings of
the Prophet Mohammed. In Islam
the Sunna is seen as the source
which elucidated and supplemented
the Konm and constiluted the sec-
ond (after the KOT8Q) fundamental
body of Islamic Iaw_ The compila-
SUPERSIIIION
tion of the Sunna caD be Iractd back
to the aecond hair of the 7th and
early Slh ccntwies. Six of
the Hadith-the moM important of
which were compiled by aJ-Bukhtui
(810--870) and Mtl10lcm (811-875)"
are regarded as canonicalo Aside
from the predominantly legendary
material, the Sunna al.o;o contain,
historical data which shed light upon
the evolution of Islam and the po!'i
tion of the various socia1 strata in the
first two centuries of tbe Caliphate.
of the Sunna pro
vided by Moslem theologiaru-. lend it
a more modem flavour than that of
the writin", themselves.
Ca!iJ:tm.. rejt:ued by tbe "s a
rcligjOU$ movement the Sol!nni
no central organization. Bc:twetn t
cnd of the &b and beginning of the
9th century mystical trends began to
emerge within the movc:mect, such
at; Sufi!m, and in the l&b and 19th
centuries puritanical religaous..politi.
cal movemr-nu developed (Wahhabi
mOvtmt'm), and in tbe 19tb and 2Otl'
centuries reformist and rnOOerD!!!
movemenTS appeared.
SUNN', THE. See Sunni.sm
SUNNISM the-: largest of thr two-
main bran'ches of Islarr.
being the otber)_ Those who 1:
knowledge the authority of tb
Sunna-the Sunni (Sunnis. or lli)un-
nites) -live mainly in Asia and
ca (in Pakistan, India,
Indonesia, Mala}'$la Cbma, Afgh'U-
istan, Turkey, Sy:ia, the Lebanon.
Saudi Arabia and :ountnes .)f
the Arabian Peninsula and tbe P,.;:-
sian Gulf, in Jordan, Iran .tn-1 tht
countries of North. East and We'
Africa), also in t;he l Bulg31 :_1,
Yugoslavia, Albama, CYprus and In
the United Stales. The roUowc:rs of
the Sunna came together a .. a mOh' ,
ment in tbe second half ",f 'he 7th
century in Arab13 and h<:twe:n the
8th and the 12th t;cnlunes. Ul tht
of rcligious-pnlitical
In tbl;; Caliphate, this movt:ment
emerged as the
of Islam.fhe Sunm
Holy Scripture the Sunna. IT'I
ti.Q!' ttl thc Koran, 0
the prophet Mi i1iammcd and ( ahph
Ali they venerate 8 number of other
SUPERNAlURAL, THE, .""'l'\hng
to the religious world outlook. tbe
reality beyond the Knees, the oppo-
Site of the real, perceptible world
Religion fantastical crea
tures,. properties and Wxi;lhons
into of veneration and de
c.ares them to be wpcrnaturaJ.
c :mcept f me supernatural em
""aces gr_i
s
, spirits. .ngch, soub.
DllTacie Providcnte etc Rehgl'JD
unparts tu r.:-1. be lx:'ief that ob-
JC:l! ns, aDd people
(pne"lS, mir .lcl.:-workers)
exist. un, a result of a
Ul'm above - 0 be endowed ill
sup.;rrutunl naluTal
Wf"'!".:1 is ee:n .1" bemg dt:rivcd from
h. Starting
from the principle of tb.e matc:W
unity of (he WC'T"ld, M31'X1St atheL"IR
J;.hnf:s 11gb' on the .rue nature of
man's ronce-ptions ofthe supernatu-
ral: religious images tate ac-
c0rding to :1 logkal patlcm
Roots ,if rt'liglOO), and conception.>;
of the natural and the
"d .... "rrontoUS reOectlon <)
pro\, e ..... .. --..1"81
the way elemental ;my 5nct
dominate tbe lives of MeD.
processes
SUPERS'I n ION,
accordance with \\'bid!
X\.-urring in life arc rnanifestat1QllS
5upcrnatur:J forces and omens.
I
,
SURA
Those who officiate in various reli-
gions often use tbis term to embrace
ail tbe beliefs that tbey do nOi ac-
knowledge and which in their eyes
bave DO foundation. Religion and
called every-day superstitions
in omens, prophetic dreams.
lions) have one the same ongu.t:
religious
lions came mlo bemg 10 pnmlhvc
society and "Were born of tbe help-
lessness experienced by our distant
ancestors in their fight against the
forces of Nature.
SURA. See Koran.
StITRA (Sanskrit word meaning
'i.bread". "string of rules"), short ex-
position of Ancient Indian religious-
philosophical teaching in the form of
laconic sayings; a distinctive type of
religious-philosophical literature. In
8rtJhmonism sulras provide practical
guidance based on tbe Vedas, rc-
garding matters of worship and the
way men should behave in life. They
are allegedly divinely inspired. In
Buddhism sutra.'i are part of sacred
canonical collections such as Suna
pUako
SurrANI'ATA (Pall word), part
of the. Sldlapitaka. (or Tripitai<a),
cons's",. of works m verse devoted
to ID """, .... i'M or early Buddhist
ROatil,..
SUI IAPi I AKA. See TripiliJka.
SVAllOG, SVAROZHICH (name
derived from the Indo-European
root -Swanta .. meaning "heaven")
Ancient Slav deily, protector of
beo>onJy n.-. The age of the cull
01 Svarog COIDcides witb the cud of
the Bronu Age aDd the beginning of
the Iron Age (1st milleDDium B.C.).
-
According 10 legend, Svarog Ihr
down or dropped from Heaven
blacksmith's tongs and "men be hIS
to forge weapons". Another r&at!
damental change in the !;ociallif Un_
the Ancient Slavs is also 3S..<;oci
with the cult of Svarog, namelya
th
of monogamous
nage.
SVYATKI. See Chri.ftmasnde or tn
Twelve Days o/Christmas. e
SVY ATOVlT, SVETOVIT, god of
war according to the retigious beliefs
of the Western Slavs.
SWEDEN BORG, Emanuel (1688-
1772), Swedish natural scientist and
mystical philosopher. He wrote a
number or works on mathematics,
astronomy, mechanics and mining.
In his philosophy he initially ad-
hcred to mechaniMic, rationalist
views, but later adopted a stance
close to that or Neoplatonism. In the
1840s he look up mysticism, de
dared himself to be a "clairvoyant"
and began to propagate theosophi-
cal teaching with regard to the pre-
cise correspondence between earth-
ly phenomcna and those of the
"other world".
SWIfT, Jonathan (1667-1745),
Anglo-Irish satirical writer and
well-known political figure. In his
pamphlet "Talc of a Tub" (1704)
he made fun of the religious reud
between the Roman Catholic, Ang-
lican, and Calvini .. t Puritan Chur
ches. His main work "Gulliver's
Travels" (17Ui) is a harsh satire of
the policies of the ruling classes
the morals or the society of his
tnnes. In "Gulliver's Travcls" Swift
presents a salirical pidure of tbe
,
'"
Anglican Church and condemn .... re.
ligious intolerance and anatirum.
"SYLLABUS ERRORUM" (Latin
"Last of Errors"), appcndiJ: (under
the title .. Li .... t of the Main Delu .... ions
of Our Time") to the encyclical is-
sued by Pope Pius IX on December
8, 1964, in which arc enumerated
and condemned socio--political and
religious movements, and scientific
principles that undermine the teach
ing of the Roman Catholic Church
and the autbority of the Papacy. An
anathema is pronounced in particu-
lar upon socialism and
atbeism and the demand for freedom
of conscience, and rationalism. In
1907, under Pius X, another such
uSyllabus" wac; is:r.ued, aimed against
progressive social ... frre-
thinking., the achievements of
science and motkmism in theology.
society develop! and relig-
IOUS become more refined,.
so too does religious symbolism
more With
It 'I belp a aim is a.chieved'
the of a panicu:
lar teaching bemg hidden {rC""l
uninitiated. of
IOUS. .... m are endlcs!: In
Chnrtlanity, a lamb is the symbol o.
Jesus Christ, a.dove Ihe f>ymho\
SYMBOLISM. RELIGIOUS, range
of symbols typical for advanctd re
ligious systems., with the help of
which various abstract concepts Utd
ideas are exprcs.<;cd. Various rna
terial ohjects, as well as verbal ar'll!
depictive signs, may be used rt;
ligious symbols: are of a ntu:.l
character and provide equival nts
or sub!;litutc:r. for sacrej 'cxts.
deities ethic commandments etc tn
early of religion the di ...id!ng
line between ohjects of Vtnerahon
and their substitutes was virtually
non-existent. Any llhjcct of unusual
shape could he regarded hoth .IS a
spirit and the reccploldc tor a
spirit, and as its symh.ol .al (lOC lOti
the same time (scc/rtlShlfm): M.ctal
pendants in the shlpc of btrd- or
mimals on the ,oslume 01 a
man constil ute s;-mhols or . hIS
spirit-helpers and al the So'une tIme
are those spirits themsdws. .<\s
of the Holy SPlllt; ID BUddhism the
Triratna symboli7es tbe Iriad or thl.;
Buddha, the Dhanna and the San
gha or community; in iAmailm,
central to tbe imagery forming p,I1
of tbe "Wheel of Ufe" is the
cock - symbol of tbe make
symbol of evil, and the pig --,;ym00t
of ignorance (the three primary
causes giving reo lun's
cycle of reincarnalion in thC"!IJ
.....orld). The rich nature of rehgnus
symbolism is a distinctive ft !turf' :>f
religious art (painting. arch te lurt,
musu;n particular icons in (hi!.-
t' !!lily md Buddhi<:m {".Jotam C".any
la .... trs of sacral and 1111.:,
IT'..ltion, lliat can be: deCIphered WIth
the help of symbols. text!>
from a variety of rciJgl')DS are
of religious S)"mbc.-lism Som(" sym-
hols ba ....e ,om\! to be VlrtU.J ban-
D!.n the particular religIOn witb
.... thev are ap
plies to the Cr()SS !"oymbol
C'hnstianil'f. the Chakr:t (wbee.
wilh eiWtt spokes) - symhol , ...f
Buddhism; (he- uf
,nJSSed flashes of hghtruntJ . \he
svmoo
l
of Valra'.ana Lamllstn;
the \. Dt mOOD .)f
Islam.
'"

pcared in Palc5tine in the 4th
wry 8.C. and after the destruction
of tbe Temple in Jerusalem by the
Romans (70 A.D.) they began to be
buill in the diospora, where, along
with their religious functions, they
also carried oul the administration
of the Jewish communities. Services
arc held in synagogues and passages
(rom the Toruli are read and com-
mented upon. TypicaJ features of sy-
nagogue huildings arc a rectangular
sbape, with a portico at the en-
trance, behind which is situated the
actual synagogue, divided by rows of
pillars into several naves (3 or 5); by
the east wall stands the A,* o/tlle
ComranI complete with the scrolls
of the Torah and in front of this is a
niced platform from which the
scrolls: arc read. The part of the sy-
oagogue sct aside for women is
usually separated from the remain-
der by a grille. Synagogues may have
rei ...... schools aUached (0 (bern,
ia. Mich the: teaching is usually con-
fined to training children (0 learn
tats from the Holy Scriptures by
........
RJ;!JGIOUS
--
-
SYNCRETISM, ,RnlGIOUS
mergmg. comhmallon of hCI '
d
'i. crage
neous oclnna pnnciple!> and .
"
f ,h . prac_
lees () wors Ip. rcsuhmg fm h
' n h' h . m t e
In uence w Il vanous tcl,'g'
h h
.. IOIl\
excrt on cae ot et m the COurse r
historical development.
stnkmg c.:tamplc of this is provided
by ShmtQlsm.
SYNOD OF BISHOPS (If' TIlE
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH a
consultative organ auached to the
Papacy, set up hy Paul VI in tc-
spon!>c to recommendations made
by the Sccond Vatican Council. It is
convened hy the Pope once in three
year!>. Thi!> Synod discu!\,\es mailers
of significance for the Church, that
have become hurning issues of the
day. Synod decisions arc passed
when voting produces a two-thirds
majority and they begin to operate
after the Pupe has ratified them.
Snme of the mcmhcrs of the Synod
arc elected hy national conferences
of hishops, while others are ap-
pointed by the Pope.
T
TABERNACU: (Christian), in the
Orthodox and Roman Calholic
Churchc!; a IOpccial ho:t, in which are
kept pieces of consecrated bread
(he so-called bles.'>Cd gifts for all
the faithful, who were unable 10 be
present at the Eucharisl.
TABERNACU: (Jt'ftisb), also called
"teut of meeting", portable temple
or shrine of the Jews of old. Accord-
ing to the Bible story, the Taber
nacle was built in accordance with
the model describtd by God to
Mous on Mount Sinai. The Taber
nacle was divided into two parts: the
larger part was the sanctuary and
the smaller was the Holy of Holies.
in which kept the Arlc of the
The Tabernacle prO\idcd
the prototype for Christian churcb
bulldin&',
TABOO (Polyne'tian word), relig
ious-magical prohibition in pre-class
society, violations of which would be
followed without rail by punishment
(illness or death), sCDt down by a
supernatural force, i.c. spirits or
gods. The most highly developed
system of taboos was that to be
found in Polynesia. Specific objects,
words, actions, animals or people
might be the subject of taboos.. but
most frequently of all tbey
various material objects. As toad)'
and its class straliflCll.ion be ,
more advanced taboca also ca- 10
be applied 10 rules of soria' ..
equality, thai begaa to be iQmkd
U &aeros-act. Some .ehQoI he
l'lter codified as 1l0l"TllS or an .udi.
sr.r;tcm. while othc:rs. ton
a grealer proportion, ..
in religion a.'t. prohibi.
tlOns, whose violation was associated
with the concept of lin.
norms of
ordmary law, remforccd by lradi.
tion, that are interpreted a\ religious
(or magical) tab<xn.. whose violation
is punished by gods, lipiritli Of
sort of supernatural force. The ma-
jority of religious taboos (connected
with sexua1 practice, eating. habits.
hunling. production and so on) have
a bio1ogj.cal or social basjc,
as a rule tbey are prc!oColed 'WIth
pseudo-religious trappiDgs.
T ABORrrES, radical demoa.hc
wing of the . The TaOOr1te
Community. 50 caUc:d because it bad
its stronghOld in town
in Soul.hem Bohenna. drew tlS social
support {rom wide strata of the
peasantry, tbe urban pooI".
men, junior some sec:ttoDS
of the lesser notnhty. The rev-
olutionary sections of. the
movemc:at were
TAFSIR
01 God on Earth" as a kingdom or
......... cqualil)'. They rejected 'he
SIItf'IITM'IU or the Church and
Rom.n Calholic paltems or wor
ship: some Taborites even went as
rar as 10 reject all Christian shrines
aad ritC5. 11Ie Picards attempted to
pal their ideas OD equality into prac
tice aDd this led to differences be
t.eCD them and tbe more moderate
sections of lbe Taborite movement,
consisting or prosperous peasants,
junior priests, and wellla-do bur-
ghers. All the bowever,

,_m agam"
lUlU foreign
!he Roman
<lnInh !he P.pncy.
.....,... dividin8.he Ta-
and the Utraq"iSis (or Calix
fUS), the camp of burghers and
L"
_ _mn the Hunite move-
P .... led to opeD war between
.... ia ..... !he T ........ ...,.,
lUlled. 'I'k Teluite lDO'VtiUoeDt and
.. idookv Whe to hive a oonsKlcr-
able iDflucDC% upoo C\'{WS Ie"'ing
..... &f ..... iifiooa.

....
- ...
-
in countries where I lam .
Widespread. S IS
TAl CHEN (1723 1m) Cb'
materialist philosopher. He
of the groups within tbe
cal movement known as Han X
which called for a return to tbe
or the Confucian classic teXIs
edition dating rrom tbe Han
and opposed the Nro-ConfucUmimt
?r the Sung. period. Tai Chen reo
,ected the. Idealist Neo--Confucian
lDlerpretalion or of tbe law as the
bighest principle sent down from
and preceding aU things. He
m.alntamed that Cb'j particles COD.
slUule the material basis or the
world and tbat their movement md
changes in tbem give rise to the per-
petual emergence of life.
TALISMAN (Irom .he Middle
Greek "telesma" meaning "ritual")
an whicb is superstitiouslj
perceIVed 10 possess tbe megie ca-
pacity of bringing its owner happt-
ness, suocsus etc. Belief in talismans
is linked witb "1M: 'aad
/<Iishism. prum -
a colleccion of religious
tr-tises, consolidating the ideologi
col .. d reliai .... legal concepliOllS
of '-01 !he leudal period, ud
thOle rqprding prac:lices of
.&4 -, The written text of the Tal
.... W4$ipled is the 3rd-Sth
_ A.D. ill !he oral rlHm
a.e MIlo bal. much earlier (?geL
111_ B Co) 'I1Ic Tol ... uJ ,op-
- ....... _"' ............
- "' .... -of
.. -te doo Dtq of IJJ4Io-
... dUd
-""-.,... ...
C' ...... -'-......
- "' ...
Jews dating from earlier period ....
The authors of the Talmud elabor
ated a cumbersome system of Judaic
rituals consisting of 248 instructions
and 365 prohibitionc;. In the condi
tions of life of the diaspora
tions ror ritual!; laid down in the Ta1
mud consolidated Judaic;m and pro-
moted the transformation of
mediaeval Jewish communities into
closed religious corporation$ head
ed by Rabbis. Similar aims were pur
sued when norms for religious legis
lation were drawn up for the crimi
nal. civic and ramily law as laid down
in the Talmud. The Talmud is linked
with the activity of the Sopherim (or
scribes), who headed the synagogues
that first emerged in Egypt (3rd cen
tury s.c.) and latcr in other coun-
tries. The Sopherim laid the rounda
tions ror the interpretation of the
Torah, which aJready was. no longer
appropriate in tbe conditions of tbe
diaspora. In thc year 210 A.D. the
head of the <;chool or the Tannaim
(religious teachers), Rabbi Judah
ha.Nasi, gathered together tbe: .....
teriaJ conc;isting or interpretatlOllS
already collectcd, that were lat r to
be known ac; the Mishnah (Hebrew
"instruction"). Later the Mishnah it
c;elf was made the subject of mter-
pretation: these inlerpretaltODS
made up the Gemara, which
together witb tbe Mishnah. fOllned
the TaJmud. This provided a ID05l
unsystematic nicture of tbe reud"
period in the history of Ibe Jews.
and in (Palestinian Tal
or. '!almud Yerushalmi) Jew
l\h lradibon attributes greatcr 1I1l
portance to the Baby\onian Talmud.
the religious inRue.. of
eras and peoples (m,mIy Inln....
Ea."), and of the ruli'If.b'lCdlJ
posed ideas of var ...
schools one! _ ...
with", Jud.;'m it'Clf
epdcDCe A'O dif(erelll
Talmud, 00I" .. 1ed
byIoaioD Talmud,
TAl _lORAH ("Study of the
!orah '), a religious school rOJ Jew.
iSh boys-orphans and children of
the poor-who study the TON2h
(Pentateuch) and thc Talmud. Those
who had completed the at
such !>thools could then elller a
Ye.shi,ah. The Talmud Torah
schook first appeared in the 16tb
century and were u.\Cd by tbe Rabbi!
as a means of ensuring thai young
peopte had a religiou.\ educatlOR.
Jewish leaders in the West attempt
now to revive the Talmud Torah
schook in a SOOitnat modcro.ized
form (Sunday, SumlDCT aDd C"t'Cnmg
classes). presenting theu provWoa
of "Jewish edUCaiton" as aa ...
pennbJe part of Judaism's wm-
today. nc \radii .... emllodicd
10. thrse sd)oh, pea.Mef. willi die
dr. -
".
TAMMUZ
value) and Nrnarikon (the
of a word into parts and drawtng un-
substantiated conclusions after arbi-
trarily interpreting tbe said parts).
TAMMUZ, god of water and fertility
in the religion of the peoples of
Ancient Mesopotamia. personifica-
tion of the agricultural circle. The
cult of TammUl latcr became wide-
spread through the whole of Asia
Minor.
TAN IT, goddess of the Moon. fer-
tility and love in the religion of the
Carthaginians. Tanit was considered
10 be the founder and patroness of
the town of Carthage. She was a
wriaDt of the Phoenician goddess
A.Jtmte. The Greeks identified ber
with Aftemis.
TANNAlM, Jewish religious tea-
chers (row the school in the citv of
YlWCh on the Mediterranean
who iDlel preted the Torah (Pento-
U'Ilch). These commentaries (dating
from tbe 3rd century A.D.) were
bulb of tbe need to adapt liturgical
literllure 10 the needs of the Jews of
the diespoiu. The commentaries of
the lUibu lhe Phari.
- .. die _Edt: lIP the
......
* =til
-. _ within
.,....,.., 11M ''cil CAd !'wed tCllls:
ror ... AivaiIl IeCII these arc the
.. tile V'hnitc lCd'
-_ ......... Oftca ....
IU.T_._ ...
- .... --.. - ......
::'-..:-.r=t =-=. t
-
Hinduism (Shaklism Sh"
Y
' h ' ) " IVals",
I!. nUism and in 8 ddh: .. .,
(Vajrayana). Uindu sects 1l'171
am{lng the members of the I up
CO.ftC.f a.s a
8rahmanmn. A r
ture of. adherence to Tantrisrn
veneratIOn of some natural enc
I
. . rgy
sewa power prmelple, mare
than not a female. one, less Often a
one. IS regarded as a
microcosmos, hiS hody is viewed a
ocing constructed in a similar way
the. Cosmos and from the same ma-
tenal. From the Tantrist point of
view the generosity of Nature is
called forth or intensified by imita_
tion of an acl of impregnation. Tan-
trist ritual!> arc linked with Yogic
practice, with the help of which
man's dormant potential is believed
to be set free.
TAOISM, philosophical teaching in
China in the 4th and 3rd centuries
B.C., on thc basis of which there
grew up in the 2nd century A.D. a
religion which wcnt by the same
namc. Thc principles of Taoist phil-
osophy were clCpOunded in thc book
"Tao Tc Ching" (The Canon of Rea-
son and Virtue), the authorship of
whieh is ascribed to the semi-leg-
endary author Lao Tnt. The main
in this teaching. "Tao", is
dedeied to be the cs.o;ence and first
cause of the world. the source of its
divenity. "Mothcr of all thing.<".
Thia 1& some of natural path,
wIIicb the and aU men must
ute III the of Taoism
....... of and sponta-
discerned_
Idiaioe natural pro-
a&)Mjr.al intcrpre
01 Gods likes
of SII'" Ti
h. ad
the creator of the world., Pan-ku.
The organi78tional structure IIf the
Taol<;t religion i .. based on thr hier-
archical principle. Priest!'> and
monk!'> play an important part in it.
At the beginning of the 5th century
the doctrine and rituals of Taohm
took and it became a state
religion. Under the umhrella of
Taoism, however, there have merged
a large number of distin-
guished by their independent inter-
pretations of theological problems,
dogma, rituals, and various views
with regard to the obligations of the
faithful. <.:haracteri. .. tic of the Taoist
religion L'I a rather eclectic combina-
tion of elements taken from Bu.dd-
hism and Con/uciani.rm, everyday
superstitions, and other
ideas. Taoist priests when preacbmg
ideas concerning the indMduaJ's
search for perfection, suggest to tbe
faithful specific method.s for attain-
ing longevity,. diets and
series of phYSical At
same time, tbey engage In the
ing out of "evil
ete. Taoism has long SIDCC Its
former influence on other religjoos
which became widespread in China.
At the present time the number of
its adherents ls comparatively smaD.
TAREYEV Maxim (11166-1'134),
Rus.'1ian drthodox theologian
philosopher. Unlike scholars speaa-
tizing in PatriJtics .
sentatives of SchohJ,stid.ml t.:e
not regard dogmatic aDd rc,;
ology as sufficient substlDl'''''' of
Christianity. the Wle
theology to be
logy, the main
to suM'antil.e
of MaD II the ..
God, aad ..... to
the priwuroli"
",
!
ARJ
9
A
(Arabic word r:t:a
path. ?' .. its rlgUfl'lli
meaning path to truth .), rnt:'ral.
psythologac:al of stlr.tIIl:
in SUfism. They
of logiCll. ratiorul Cog_
Mlon of the world, llmonirlcation"'
of tbe and tbe flet.h on the part
of a pupil- murid - in keeping with
the behest:;. Qf a mentor (pir, ishtm).
TARTARUS, the nether regions., (be
lower part of the UDdcrworld in tbe
mythology of the Ancient Greek$.
Tartarus was the same disTance from
the Earth as the Earth rrom the
Heavens and it was separated from
the rest of the Earth by a triple layer
of gloom aDd a bronze feDCC with
irOD gates arOUDd which wllirtwiDds
raged eternaDy.
TA11tAGATA (from the SaDskrit
words "tatha" meaning "thus" and
'.. .. "crnt\t"')
"gata" meaDlng come or
an enlightened ODe, ODe who has II-
taiaed perfedtoa-O( pt,. epithet
applied to.Bud4W S \). Muni.
TATIAN (c. 1211-<. 175), Christ;'"
Miter, ODe or the: ChrisIiaD ApoIos;,
ins. ID his work "Oralio ad
(Address 10 the Greeks) he
classical science aod cuitwe. While
slighting Greek philo<nph\: be
the "wis6"Mn oflbe barbanans !
be starves to fHOYC their supenor:zty
to tbe Hellenes
teDert aad dIOI
cIe1dopcd the t chlD8 00 Lo8<>S.:
the kL"'" of
;;: Doy of JudtItm<'d aod __
..
_d aft .. dC'tb,
DIre;.'
TAl1SCHEV, Vuslly
Russ;" scholu. bislonAD,T I!" ___ .
ph
__ ..I statesman.
o er anu
I
TAXI!_
maintaincd that not cvcrything in
hislOry was the work of God, and
that man's contribution should
go unnoticed. had a high
opinion of the SOCIal reforms that
had becn introduced by Pctcr thc
Great. His writings are permeatcd
with religious scepticism and hc was
critical of the Church. although not
cntirely consistent in his criticism.
His main work was cntitlcd "Istoriya
rossiiskaya s samykh drcvneishikh
vremyon" (History of Russia from
Ancient Times).
TAXIL, Leo (rcal name Gabriel-
An'oI .. JopDdPages, 1854-1907),
French writer and public figure,
anticlerical In the 1870s he publish-
ed a number of pamphlets aimed
against the Roman Catholic Cburch.
In 1885 he declared thaI he re-
gretted his fanner anticlerical and
anti-religious activity and that he
was prepared to serve the Church by
exposing Freemasonry as the "syna-
gogue of Satan"'. He put out a num-
ber of books on the monstrous
crimes allegedly committed by the
Ma."iOIlS in league with the Dcvil. His
were rapturously re-
the However, in
1897 be
tivities,
!wehe yean
. . d
tKIG ''''-e- at
own former ac-
that be had
Church. He continued
to anti-religious works,
which .the foUowing are de-
servmg aUenhon: "La Bible amu-
sante" (An Entertaining Bible) and
"Lea _-piles sacrts . " (Holy
Po .. """ apbers).
1EILHARD DE CHARDlN, PIe ...
(18811955), Frcacb pal.eoo,oIogist,
aod theologian. He was
admitted to the Order of JuuiU iD

1m. Hc saw onc of the ma'
poscs of his work to be to In pUr.
confirmation for thc
theory and to rormulate "!;Cic
h
- nille
p cnomcno I,tv ,aimed at .
h d
. ..," \'Illg
t c contra Ichon tlctwccn
d I
.... nee:
an re Igmn. He held that the" t rr
of the Universe" lay at the
tion or all that and that it
sesscd both n:-8tenal ant.l spiritual
aspects descntlcd as "tangential"
(physical, matcrial) and "rat.lial"
(spiritual) energies, and it is precise_
ly "radial" energy, that leads mall
along the path of evolution. The
driving force behind thc develop.
ment of the Univcrse, and the sum
of that developmcnt, is the Divine
Spirit, personified as the Omega
point. The Universe, according to
Teilhard de Chardin, in the COurse
of its movement towards God, i.e. to
the Omega point, passes through the
following stages: the Advent of Life,
Life, Thought and Super-Life. He
saw tbe kcy to resolving the prob-
lems of (he development of the
Universe to lie in Man as the privi-
leged vehicle of evolution, who is in
dissolubly linked with God. He re-
gardcd the life of society as a kind or
variation of a biological process. The
Roman Catholic Church condemned
Teilhard de Chardin's teaching as
modernist, yet his ideas won wide
popularity in the Wcst. His chief
work, "Le ph6nomtne humain'"
(The Phenomenon of Man), was
published posthumously in 1955.
TEKK (also ribat, 7.awiya or khan-
kah), refuge or cell of a hermit,
<tv.:clling of a Sufi dervish. They wcre
built as a rule ncar wcll-known
huge mosques or caravanser
IUS. men living in them usually
lustamed tbemsetve& thanks 10 WQqf,
funds bequealhed by a benefactor,
I
and :thu thanh In from
th.c f;ut.hful .. IIIu<ll1y Sufi fhoiAhr
With Ihe r pupil.. mundf lived n a
tcHc
n:U:OUK.Y (rrom 1m Creek
, Iclcv.. in Ih &1 n
live 'aIm or
'Iogos" mlaning "word
n.r d rcligi';-I! "deali'it
VlCW of the t.I'lmination in Ihl world
of ('xpediency and which Ita ..."
hccn and for tho-:
nf whll!,c 'ltlainmcnt everything
m world arnund Man <lnd
Teleology finds exprcssi<,n
in the anlhrnpomornhil< lion Ir
natural ohjects and pW(;e So, and
the linking of tbc latter w:"" Ihe
operation of the that an:
on imm, n"nl In as-
serting Ihalthe \'IOrh] wa$ cre lied
God in Ihe inte: of M,n
logy comes c1o-_ to olUhropnun
(ri.wn. Tbe idea hal that
exists is cxpcdicn: in e\cy way,
which presupposes thl.;
supcrintdligent crcator, underlie
the teleological evidence or '1C ell-
t-"tence of (, ad !nd """'VI s to sub-
stantiatc cN'Qtionism. Teleology
ellso organil;ally linked with Ihtodrcy
and prrdestinafion. 'idt'lSm
a more up 'o-datc :orm
teleology, using idealist. conccptlm'.S
such a..'i an1t Nr.o-fmali'm
Sciencc and praclit:al, 'tpCricme e'"
plained dcvclopmtnt IR Natur!.; and
society with rcft;rcm'c L(l natuLl)
causes and refuted tdcolOf'Y. Dar-
....;n;.{m revealed Ibc natural charac
ter of expediency, and modern n3lu
ral sdcmc has suilslanli:ltcd that
conccption.
n:u:slo. Btrnardioo
Italian philos.opbcr ,md n3tuul
His main work was 'De
" ,
,
R.rumN-t .
,Ira IUXla rCi'fla Pfl na-
(On the Not"n 'if Thin in
celfdanc with fh ir Own P
Die 15f " T f C1.
.. d fnulld J
a c ny n Naplc!. the ex
pcnm r;' 'n.., ;"al" :l[ Ihe h
nomena If Ihe n tUfill'AI 1..1. He t<
ganlcd malH r ' 10m ,I ing nd
1'O-J the h at Inhere' .. C 1
and C'Jmhallinc cl)ld wac,
al ht 'AIlS th dm1ng prinCiple
l
m
dtrlymg natur, I c ...nlutinn. He
t.le-Ignaledlko p' "1laY,u ....c of life
.,nd J. COQ.\! 'iou::nnis Ii' al jmal ....
nd m;tn all the life ,it' AI.
ht upheld hi Idea If Ihe
um V of r;ving malte .
Ih CXlSte lce "r SUo
nreml" \OUI ':'tatcd by I"'.od, Mle
explaarung the lC 11 'l8t ure ,:>f m n.
TEMPLAR.I; or KNIf.H" T[\t
PUR (from t Latl'
m-ani'g tt'mpl.,.; -). mIltON r.o'lG.!
lit 'Jrda- 01 nde j bv F C k.
i N in; .... , tlcm. '1 1ft.: ,"-
first .and .. hJcn rereJ\"CJ
. r:tme, ':1 31 count ,)f the sile ,)f Ih '
(, r '1_. h-:adQu.:<Jter:: Ibe spot
.. here. ac.cording to kg ... ild. Scolo
lC>..'l'fs Temple bad :.tQ()(] " hiS
Order, toundc:d to defend pdp 1m
and tht qates that had heen won
from dw Mos.Iems hy the eru :'It.lers.
\u"-CCl'dcd in becoming, 10
from thc raithful and gifts
of land and also 10 its involvemt'nllf.
tradr .Ind moncy lending. the mo<;l
jXlwerful rcudal landowner and han
ker of Ih, Middle f .1,1 .)nJ WrSlcrn
Europe. In the 13th century the
l1umhcr of the Trmplars had
reached 15.IXXl On more th:m one
<;,cc.lsion the Papat)' u.<,ed the Order
in its ftght against heresies. and
popul3r upri.sings. AIter the tailun:
or the Crusades, the Templars
tied Ewo.Jpc mainlv in France
ll;MPTAIlON __
-----"-""-'-"-="------
Fearing the growing power of (illn or it!'. In the "I-{
Tcmplars and in an atlcmpt 10 gam of Tenri (Nara PfcfcltUTc)oly
pos.'iCs."ion of the the unl\'C;r<'lly, schnol .. and medical' a
Frencb king. Philip (he FaIT, !'iUC- tahli!.hnu:nh have lx' cn !<leI
cceded in obtaining the of the art' ."'<''' a dPutlli\hing
Templar!'; in 1307 and ha'1ng fa 10 Sht;tIIl'O an a film- .. tudio to
summoned for trial by the InqUl"'- 1'J(,l(.,1 t c propaganda cffnrl.
lion. The knights together with the
head of their Order were accused of
sodomy, blasphemy, as wen as ManJ-
choeum, and burnt at the slake In
1310. The property of the Order was
transferred to the French treasury.
In 1312 Pope Clement V suppressed
the Order of the Templars at the
Council of Vie nne.
TEMPI'AnON. a religious and
mythological motif encountered in
many religions and linked with the
effort by my1hological her(lCs to
c:wcrcome aU possible enticements
plaaod an their way by dark and e ...il
supenaatW'BI forces. In societies
b ped 011. exploitation tales of over
or-"ing templation, and aspirations
towards voluntary IISceticism served
to reconcile the working people to
dIcir djffind' social position.
liN COMMANDMENTS- See

TEPIfILl.IN (pl.). See PlrvIUc/ef'-
or Tephillin. . eJ
ITRA w\lrd). This tyPe nr
Buddhist temple was usually huilt nn
elevated ground. mountains or hilJ\
In order to disseminate Rllddh;,I'111
Japan, decfl'l's were issued Gillin!!;
for the tluilding of Buddhist
in every pro ...incc. orten c1o:<i.l' 10
Shinto foanctuaries. The cenlr,l!
temple. or group of temples, whll'h
enjoyed authority over all the prnv.
indal temples. was situated in the:
capital. In the latc Middle Age:<i.
work began on building "combined"
Shinto-Buddhist tcmples. in the
wake of a bringing together of Shin-
toism and Buddhism in Japan.
TERTIARIES (from the Latin "ter-
tius" meaning "third"), lay brother.
hoods that were affiliated to certain
Roman Calholic monastic orders (e.g.
FIGnciscans, Dominicans and
One of the first such
was instituted in 1221
after he had set
monasteries and coo-
the third kind of Fran
to be established
1Wne "tertiaries" which
'Kcd by other similar
n.e Tertiaries
QoIoao s.,d.-
0.*".
-,wuau
llIFJSM
on queM ions philosophy, theo-
logy, the organl7..a1aon of the Cburch
practical ethia and law.
defended Chri.<,lian relal -
ing to: the wor!d outlook, dogma, and
practical ethiCS. In his polemical
works he criticl7.td (he Gno$/ics,
condemned (he philosophers of the
Ancient World as corrupters and
heretiC$, and he advocated tbe con-
ception of "pure faith", which did
not require any rational evidence
("'II is certain becau.c;e it is im
possible"). TertuJlian opposed aile.
gorical interpretations of the Holy
Scriptures. He fonnu1ated the prin_
ciple of the triunity of the Christian
God and introduced the concept of
the persons. or of the
triuoe God.
TESHUB, a god from the Hw-rian
pantheon, Wh05C cult later became
widespread during the Hittite King.
dom (particularly in the 14th and
13th centuries B.C.). He was wor-
sbipped as the god of storms and de
picted in the form of a bull
TEUTONIC ORDER (derived from
the Latin word "Teutoni" meaning
the "'Teutoos", a tn"be of Germanic
origin), a mUilmy mornutic ordu
founded by the German Ousador at
tbe end of the 12th century and orig-
inally based at the 51. Mary's Hospi-
tal for German Crusaders. (Hence
the full name of the order- Teu-
tonic Knights of S1. Mary's Hospital
Jerusalem.) II was aJ'l"O""d by
the Pope in 1198.. At the beginning
of the 13th ceDlury tbe Order ClI.b--
JisW itself in Northe,stera Europe
and was thus die to impC ..... the
policy 01 f.""! ud
ewpN"ice in the BI'tic tea I ilones
aod tbe: priKeD
US
01
RuS'i' ID tbe: I..".. tbey scucd the
...
Teutonic punucd a policy
of cocrave Germanizatioo aDd
for.ced cooverUon of tbe local popu-
blum 10 Roman Catholicism. Tile
aggressive tactics of the Teutoiiic
Knights gave rue to determim:d re-
on the part of the popula.
bOD of Poland and Lithuania, which
was supported by Russian and other
Slavonic peoples. In J410 PolishLi
thuanian-Russian troops lnflidcd a
crushing defeat on tbe Teutonic
Knights at the Battlc of Tannenberg.
In the 16th century when the RqOT--
mation had gripped the whole of
Prussia, the lands of lhe Teutonic
Knights were secuJ.arized: together
with this wealth the Order lost much
of its miljtary might and plliticaJ in-
fluence. 11K: Teutonic Order erists
to this day as a very small Church or
ganization in West Germany and its
members an: for the most part rep-
fCSCntatives of the arisloaacy.
11tALES OF MllEnJS (c. 625-c.
547 B.C.). pbilooopber 01 Ancien.
Greece. fouader of the MiJesian
School. In his attempts to explain
the divenity of the world around
him be vic; .. ed water as tbe fun-
damental substaDce from whlch all
things proc:eed. Despite tbe fact thai
his teaching rem.aioed DO mort:
a religious-mydto&op;caI concephOD
in view of objective historical condi-
tioas, traces of a primitive materia-
Jist approach to the world are clearly
to be seeD in it, as in his eadePour
to see the "divine" first and foremOSI
in malerial.hings aDd to prcmde aD
expIaDatioD of the 011
ratistk ""inciples, TbIS gJI'reS
ounds for regarding Thales ... be
forc,atber of materialist philosophy.
11IISM (from the Greek
meaning "god"), religious leaching
nUl.MlS
thai recognizes the clCistcncc of a
rsonai, transcendcntal god,
the world .governs II In
ccordance with his will. Thc tcnn
!..as inlroduccd by thc English phil-
osopber Ralph Cudworth (1743).
From the Ibeist point of (h.c
course of events in world history IS
prcdelermined by divi!lc h?vitknct.
UnLiJl:epantheism, IbclSm VIews God
as a !l
eternal prinCIple ClQShng the
world. Unlike deism, theism ac-
knowledges the constanl and dired
dependence of all natural and social
processes on God_
tions are more advanced ID JudO/sm,
Christianity and Islam. Modem theo-
logy brings theism up to date, using
the methodological devices of ideaJ-
isl philosopby and at the same time
distorting data from the natural and
social sciences.
11fEMIS, the goddess of justice in
the mythology of Ancient Greece:.
She was depicted with a bandage
over her eyes, that served as a sym-
bol of her impartiatity_
THEOCENTR/SM, a Ibeological
CODCCption according to whicb God,
interpreted as absolute, perfect
Beiag aad the Supreme Good pro-
vides !be source of an Being and all
Good. Imitation and emulation of
God is then viewed as the supreme
goal and main purpose of human
life, while veneration and service of
God is seen as the basis of morality.
Theocentrism is closely linked with
thrum and also with such of its fun-
darnentaJ principles as creationism
and providentialism.
ntEOCRACY (from the Greek
words "thcos" meaning "god" and
"halos" meaning "power"), a form
of government, under which Pftwc
in the .<;tate in Ihe hands of th'r
head of the and the clergy.
charade:nshc of slave-OWn.
and feudal societies. A
held sway in the 5th-1st centuriCY
B.C in Judaea, where power
the: of the Chicf Priest.
theocratiC statcl> were the caliphates
Omayyad and the Abbasid dy_
nashes and the Papal States, in
which the Pope wiclded both politi-
cal and spiritual power. The prcs-
ent-day Vatican is also a theocratic
state: its head, the Pope, enjoys un-
limited power.
THEODICY (from the Greek words
"thcos" meaning "god" and "dike"
meaning "right", "judgement", "jus-
ticc", hencc "justification of God"),
religious-philosophical teaching, tbe
purpose of which was 10 prove that
the e,;:;stence of Evil in the world
does not rule Out religious concep-
tions of God as Absolute Good_ The
concept of theodicy is fltst en-
countered in the writings of Leibnitz,
who regarded the world as the ""per-
fect creation", and who viewed Evil
al> a blessing for mankind that was
indissolubly linked with Good. In a
number of philosophical systems
Evil appears as something sent down
by God as a Ie. .. ! for men on Earth,
with the help of which their spirit
and their faith in God are streng-
thened. A considerable amount of
attention was devoted to theodicy by
Vladimir Soloryev, who used the
term "agathodicy" Uustification of
Good) for it. Modern theodicy is
c.lost:ly linked with "anthropodicy"
qusttfication of Man) and some-
with "demodicy",
I.e. of a given people or
elhDlc group and its DOD-material
cwtlUe,
v SYMnOl.lC NUM8I:.R5
TIfEOI)ORlJS 01' CYRF.NF. (late
4th century-early 1rd century B_C.),
Greek He driven
out of for hi .. v;cW$ and later
he was loubjectcd to persecution.
the author of a work,
that has not !.urvived, enlitled "On
the Gods", in he rejected the
exi!.tcncc of any deities.
THEOI)OSltJS KOSO! (THE
reprcscnt<.!live .
the RU.'i,sian pca:<;ant-p1cbcian here.,y
in the mid-16th century, a fugitive
peasant who took his m()nastic vows.
In 1551 he began to preaeh the so-
called New Teaching. io which he
rejected the hasic doc ';ncs of (lJris-
tionity: the Holy Trinity, "he dlVUl('
nature of Jesus (hr.st, We rCSl:. :c
tion of the delll te He arpcil a
for universal equ. lily, rcligJ lUS
toleration. h c
and cxploi::,tion. :. 1 53, In c-
lion WIth the AlaM" Bashki.,,: a.'iI,;,
Theodosius KosO! w ..., condl:mn d
10 dcnlh but succceded in cscapng
to Lithuania where h helped ,hap..:
the newlv cmergln[; Poli 1:1- thua-
Ant-ilrinitarian noor. me'!!.l
Antitrini(arians)_ Intorm;:" :"In on _ e
V;l'WS of Tht'odosius the Squl'T!.l
Eyed can t'IC rrom th )0-
C"llIC 11 we. ks of Zi1lo\')' Ot. lISle and
the t1th..:cn'IJly P 'ish wlcr An-
dl7j Weglc sk.
filE O()OSn '" or P[ dIFRY.
11 <t. )II!}I, L,thcr Superior
e K.tcvr,.hv ("'IC,
"-1("'1 I! Y of Ih. .1\C,. l:::.i on. .
t fnUllll: III l:tlW(.iu"!:J.1 slr':-
::I .aslic ruk on 'nl (,r_'k ['lod,.
I: b :.'g:Hded ,<; Ih I.L'iI.:,
11, 'nasll< In I'wd .( .. val Ru IJ.
nU:O(;ONY, ..
. 'ood" ""'j ,,-.mfylOg (he
"llr,m " ... . I'
elemental forces of N- The pic.
tUle of the based 011 3nlmi!\_
lic conceptions (5ee Animism) i<:.
presented in or a chain or di.
vine birth" and The at.
tempt to describe and r.ystemati7.e
the origin and descent of god<..
wen as the linb between certain
Ilcitics, wr- made by the AnClcn
Greek poet Hcsiod (Rth century
B.C.): Got!o with thc help of Ems
brought forth Uranus. Then. mar-
rymg Uranus., txlre a whol
.,lciad of god. ... who personified tJ>\.O
forces of Natun .. , ighting agaitt'il
each other (Cromu and Uranus.,
uu llld Cronu.o; and )n).
THEOLOGI( AL A(".\DrttfY.
<- hur'l Ul5titution r'CMdinc bgh,-r
eiuc ti 1 or the II ,Imo" of b ')
":). .... 1S, e!c :. )('. ,1 dlc;c.
!-:l: Ii ... for p r;]
w ....rk II the h IrC' \f the ,Yo'
"'.". the R. an OTt:' Klux oLhllrl h
wo al. d. ::!lie, in the
Mosc)w lbevl.Jgt.;.l1
fl.':. O."'lY, 1t j il I!- tow= f
vrsk n the Ml >C)W Rt glon an(!
I fh 0 c,c ,) At l<!,
In' B.. :.. prl 'I": L.JUr:;c.
reAM'! n:1I (hl'rt"h h ,"I. a ,hi,.
1 c Jt mv .1tl "i,i;n
L
a thn:c
Yl.1l c 111 E ,lW11,d71n. mill
Yert \'.,n. Th, Rom.n Lathoh, and
, Inc prall St;11ll l 'hurchr5 have
Highc.r the?
L "'icli I, at,o provtdu.l In
., numt>col "I h)
-'' . .. . nJ Ilv Ih.' farul. c . \.:lS.(. . ..
. ., -'0'<' M:,ul.lr unIHr!.lhcs.
,> \.1.
'"
TII BOLOGY
faced when trying to go beyond
Qumbers of ancient ollUlber systems
(3, 7, 10, 12, 40, 60 etc. ), 10 rnyt.ho-
logical explanations for numencal
correlations in Nature (cycles of
natural events), to tbe inability to
understand laws of numbers and
operations with them. and to tbe
mcrical significance of 10
ancient arithmetic. Theologtcally
significant numbers fagurc in one
way or another in alJ religions _and
mystical teachings (Pythagoreamsm,
Gnosticism, Cabbala etc.). A sacred
significance is attributed to the num-
bers 3, 7, 9, 12, 40 and others. These
are coolrasted with so-called dia-
bolical numbers: the unlucky Dum-
ber 13 (that follows on after the
lucky number 12), the Number of
the Beast, or the Number of the
Antichrist 666 (tbe total of the nu-
merical values in the name "Caesar
Nero", written derectively in He-
brew). Theologically symbolic num-
bers provided the basis for owneri-
cal
THEOLOGY, system for the sub-
stantiation and defence of religious
about God, bis qualities.
characteristics and properties, the
""F or proofs for the true nature
of dogma, rclia;ious morality, rules
and DOiibS or day.to-day life for the
r.ithfulllKl the clergy, laid down hy
this or that religion. Theology incor-
proofs ror Supernatural
ongm of the Holy Scnptures, the di-
of holy legends., the
diviDe: C -SCIICC or the Church; and
a nUiit.'Jer of practical disci-
plines linked with the conduct of
senkes. All theological systems are
based on the recognition or a per.
sonaJ God. who created the worki
and rules it according to laws. out.
skIe man's knowledge. The basic
-
philowphical roundation for orr. '
theology in the Chri1'il ian Chur
pro"';ded by the teaching of 11
and ch:.::
han theology was never a hornogc
d
O Th "',
ous octrme. cre ensl Orthod
Protestant and Roman Catholic th:'
ologie!;, to namc hut three. Eaeh
its own specifi c that distin_
guish one system from
NeverthclcM they have a good
in common. A theological system is
understood to embrace a selection
of various theological
each of which expounds various as-
pects of the dogma and cult COn-
cerned. Orthodox theology, for in-
stance, consists of fundamental the-
ology or apologetics, which expounds
and justifies in apologetical argu_
ment with non-believers and mem-
hers of other faiths a certain number
of basic dogmatic theology
demonstrates that the basic doc-
trines adopted by the first two Oecu.
menical Councils are true and di.
vinely ordai ned; moral or practical
theology teaches how the Christian
should behave in his life on earth. in
order that life might become a
means for his attainment or clernal
bliss. Denunciatory or comparative
theology demonstratc!. how Orlho-
do")' is superior to other Chri!.tian
confessions. Then Ihere arc also et-
t'f:Ctin and pa.'itoral theology. shed-
ding light on the practical questions
concerned with the work or priests.
C1CKc1y connected with the latter arc
liturgics (theory of conducting ser-
"';ces), homiletic .. (the branch of the-
concerned with questions re
gardlng the theory and practice of
preaching), Canon Law (the theory
Chureb Law). AI the presenl
theology is going through a
c;nS15 thai finds expression in a rcjcc-
tlOD or tcrtain traditional concepts
lllF.OI..ooy OF IiOPE
and in the appearance of an eRor.
moUA quantity or the mOM contradic-
tory thcnlngical concept.., :<.uch as
cri.tis theology, Dealh-ofGod 1h(()o
lOKI and the of Tn'Oiution.
THEOlAJGY Ot' CUL TIJRE, a
movement in modern Prote:<.tant the-
ology, leading exponent being
Pa.,1 Tiflich. In hi$ works "Sr;te
matie Theology" (1951-1964) and
"Theology of Culture" (1959) he
substantiated the need for dialogue
between the Christian Church on the
one band and !';cicncc and art on the
other, by saying that the autonomy
of culture and the los. .. of ils "relig-
ious" substance was tantamount to
its 11K.. of meaning. The
should endeavour not to rege lerate
lS "cullura1 rudimeQts", but :0 OPe"}
up within the patterns IJ the C J1turt.:
existing independently of .il . '-:-
widest possible ulti
mate meaning, and relationship to
the Unconditiona1. A the "omou.:
(i.e. governed by God) cJlue ()f
sort, that surmounts tbe c :mIra-
diction of life thro\!C:b .. :nmUlllC!:
with the "foun-.lation 'f hemg IS
pre_Died in Ole Theol "'V of ( J1.
lure as a .... 'e r the Kingdc :1
of God"
called upon to change the world and
dominate it; progress finds
ion in the "bumani7.atioo" of the
world, "Which involves the rberation
of the individual within Th\
the hi .. to.-y of human progreu ts
fragment of the hi. .. tory of mar !I. la[.
and therdore believers must
play an active part in the historical
process. The Theology of Develop-
ment repre(:nlli an attemr to justify
from the standpoint 0 Christian
teaching tbe involvement of Chris-
tians in tbe Ktruggle fOT social pro-
gress.
________ _ _____ __ " ___ _
ma.o;.scs. and. the
will only be able to .the . T
social aspirations, theu In
the coming of the Ktngdom of (,od
i. .. revived. The Theology of IJtlpc al
tempts to draw inlo the C?rhit of
Christian c.rc:halology the mvolV('-
menl of the popular mas.'\,cs in
strugle for fundamental SOCial
change. for socialism.
THEOLOGY OF POLITICS. Sec
PoliQcgllhcolOfJ'
11IEOLOGY OF REVOLUTION,
one of tbe movements within the
sphere of "social theology", whose
expooeDts endeavour from the
poiI:I! of view of Christian dogma 10
Jltslify bclicycrs' involvement in the
reroIutionary struggle on the 5idt'" of
the Left forc:cs.liitgcn Mol/monn, a
lheoJogiao (rom West Germany,
dc
fi
os 11tcoIogy of Revolution as
d ,oIngv of Christians who are suC
lerias ,.. figb.mg. The Cb<iSlian
lDOJ'aI ideal is used by the suppor
Ier& oIlhe lbeology of Revolution
die lwi
s
for their cri:t':t. of tbe
order,
of
arc
values, So-
docs nOl
and pro-
qUCShOD a!>
Iile and
ahlt: in thl' ('(,unlrics MI'
In tht: lQ(lO$, The Co ..alln
hlan pnt"st Cumi/ll Torrr tott..
thai revolutionary lilrup,g!c ""Ole
ligation for 3 (,hristian and .an.fIb.
'f h' prte5(
m<;o aT as I at lli the nnly wa .'
thl
o
cunditions ()i:l!ainin.& loda/'r
ltl
man 10 put love fOi hLC, neight or
pra,licc. of
ullon comes out III favour of
ism m; a moral ideal and M>cial, -
I ' h' ".
o ullon as an atolowcal eYenl.
Tlft<:OMAClflSM, a ncr,ative alf.
tude of the individual towards supe;.
natural f()rces. recogni7ed by him as
extant. Theomachism is rOOIed in a
rdu5al 10 accept the "pcrverse"
world. which appears to the tbeoma-
ehist to he incompatible witb the
idea of (inod. (.iod is seen to be the
cause of evil in the world. 'Jbeo.
machism discredit cd the Christian
idea of man's sinfulness as the cause
of the impcrkclions in social rela
tions. Man's guill, allegedly stemm-
ing from original sin. is transferred
by the. theomachists to God. 1\ey
also deny certain aspects of the re-
ligious and ethical ideal, such as hu-
milityand unquestioning acceplance
of suffering, It is no coincidence tbat
tbeomachist ideas often paved the
way to protests from the working
poor against the ruling classes As
the suullUlZQlUJII or society gamed
ground the Ideas of Ihcomachi
sm
In th context of g II
...u .be rogure of.b
I
TnH)PIIANUS Tnt: <'Rf;F:K
(c, 1)4{)1411'). d int.; painter
who w(lfkeJ in meJiilcval RII<;-
,.,iiln TI)f.Wlhn with
Crafl\rnl'n he "cenraled man ... chur
(hcs in ...ari\lU\ town'> in Ru,iia. :and
ahu painteJ i<"un<. and miniaturc'.
Typical uf The(lph,lIlU'" icon' and
arc Ihe in .... pired imap,cs
,11\11 dramatic they <Ire di ....
linRui'ohcd hy the of the
style "lid the clarity of the dtawing.
The paintitw Thl:ophanu ...
:<oct up in Moscow promoted lhe de-
velopment ,r KU$iatl rmc art..
ance of the pos.uh,llly 'If d leet con
lacts with th. supern,tulal forces
from thl: other world
&ophy something "" common '11,;",
5JHritilalirm and o(:ruin \"m t he
U\$ of (;In he hated h.\t:k
n .. :OPIIANY, OJ a sprin liJ'Rl,;
...al in Ancient GreeCe" in hnnoUi
of lh{' hirlh of Apollo: (2) ;\1\ appc,I"
ance of God in visibk form; it hrief
personal manifestation ('If a dClly to
an individual.
O}< KNOWU DGF..
or tht' 'heory (If K.no't'Ot
edge,
TttEOSOPHY th lire..:k
"thco< . god' and
'sophia" mcanmg "w\..-.dom,
literally "kno\\kdF-t III (.ind), rd.
ious philosuphical rC,',3rJ
ing the of direct n
ence of the l.hvine- Wlth th help of
intuilinll and
within the rta(:h of a c;;eJ el Circle of
the "initlale-d', RqlT entati of
Inis muvl:mcnl muallv tr)' 10 P \id
logical jushflc .tlnn fm Ih ir !TooU
ti\ mystical :qx:n'n If k
;. K1" Thc th , II I
OS<lphy i P tt d th
II !:Un pl r t ng.I
II I
to the dim and di.s.tant '.1,
0{ theosophy flf( to be !OlLnd
In Bra/tmanism, BudJJufm and CUD
bolo. Thcowphical ideilS {lCTm.atcd
NC'Jp/alonism and in tlw
Antlcol World, i.\nd in the Middl\
Agc:s Ihey influcRI.:cd thl' sect 01 the
Catha", the Order of the Rosy
ero" .. and Iht, akhcmic;;ts' In
the 16th- 18th tenturie the of
theosophy wI."re ebborated in more
Jctail bv PoracdSlu. Jakob Bothmt'.
S .. et al. Elemcnt .
of theosophy arc also to be found in
the work of l'14u1imlf SoImvn, who
considered theosopby to be the su-
preme wnth i.s of rational and em
pimal knowledge WIth
Thcosophicai to..:as wcrc inten.<oivcly
h ... the 1 hc0500phicaI S0-
ciety (0 nd d m 187 on the 1O...
tive of Helena Blavaluy Ba.<,ed In
itially in Nc:-w York and later In Ma
drll:<, (India) thc c;;ocicty developed
it .. activitil's in man reunlflcs of the
world. Thcll rccov;m7 the
uansmlgti.tUol'I l)f .<;Qui!'. they
propa!!ate of umversal
hrotht'lhood. tolcranlc all
r ..... in cach of them thcre
allctt dly h hidd n a common di
d.
,lIJ ,rllll:SI'!'; ON
in the of God, hence (he
name with which they rho!;c to des
ignalc themselves. They did nol ae
knowledge slavery, rcnounct:d
Jlfoperty. all forms of sen-
sual plcaliurc ,and. preached
ism. The maIO Virtue from thelT
poinl of vicw was abs(inenl'C and in
vicw of Ihis celibacy wa.o; !'.Iriclly ob-
served within the community.
"THESES ON FElJERRAUI",
clc\'Cn theses wrillen by "'"or! Morx in
1845 and Jluhlishcd after his death
by Frrikrick Engels in 18M. Accord
ing to Engels., they were "the firsl
document in which is deposited the
?' brilliaat germ of the new world out-
1Qat.. (Marx and Engels.
Worts in Ihrcc volumes, Vol. Three,
p. 336). The theses provide a concise
(\iiwulation of lhe basic lenets (If
Manisa philosophy: the maicriaiisl
iDtcipict'ioa of bistory and social
CIIIpClicncc. and a (undamentally
DCW view of Man. They identify the
dependence of ideological rhe-
a- ' c
a
, (including on the
all of materiaJlife in society.
IIICICS a critique of
idel;' D and
MIl .....
...
-
-
..........

of '-(x'ial rdalion" (
CoUnted U-,()..t,_ ,\V J /,fa",
4) 'rh
o
h '...,', n, 'i n
- IS meanl I at Ihe Iru'. '. '"
r I
' ... I(lUleta;
o r(' IglOUS (-onception" ('an he
wnlcd only when the M'lCiaJ rei ......
h
' , allons
I al RIve n!i.e In them arc '
!tated, The central prinCiple Invrc<T!he'
I
' II I
n('W r('vo ultnnary world outluok
in Ihe final ..
phlltlsnphc,r!> have only
!hc world 10, vannu,,, ways; the POint
to changt' II" (Ibid" p. 5).
in the mythology of
AnCIL'nt (,reece, nne of Ihe
wife of the mort,,1 and
mother of the hero At the
wedding (If and Peleus the
g(xJde!>s Eris allegedly
threw down the "apple of discord"
which 10010 the Trojan War,
THIELll'KF., Helmut (b. 19<1\),
Cicrman theologian, He is
known ahove all for his works in the
field (If (,hrif>tian ethics. The main
subject of his ethical writings the
hctwcen Ihe individual
and the Stale. Thiclide not
any movement or 5Chool
of Protestant thenlogy, he
aM role of populari7.cr and pre-
..... He is a supporter of sultu
Clui.rtiGnity, the aim of which is 10
help believers lind their hearings in
lhe dlodem world. His ethics arc nOl
so much thcoiogjcaJ as political in
AVlser
11IOMAS A KEMP.S (1100_
"-*a, c. 13fK) 1471), German
I1IIipu W.ller and mystic; Augusti-
N'" *.k The IIQI famous or hii
"LAb. his .. De ImdMIODC ChriU."
hE :.:::.,:
::--... WI W 01 die unlulneF'
9JOIIcLAwm .... to ........ l
'I1n;RlRlJ'
-
. ,
-
Kcmpi'!., only imitation nf the life (If
Chri.\t c:m Man and hring him
tn eternal 'lhi, hunk, wh'lIIe
coincided with the
cal and ,"ucin' r'M,litical nhjectivea I)f
the Church, wa$ widely puhlici/,cd
by the dergy ,of ,many different
Christian dcnommatlOn3.
1110MAS AQUINAS, St. (122S-
1274), Roman Catholic Iheologian,
follower of St. Albertu5 He
was canonized hy Ihe Roman Cath-
olic Church in 1123. He aucmpted
to providc
lion for Chri .. tlan doctrine. ... 10 which
end he !>y.;lemati/ed the main idea1
of Ari!>totlc'!> philowphy and wrote
commentaries on them from the
Christian standpoint, The writings of
St. Thomas Aquina., "how clear
traces of the influcnc;c of Neoplqlon
ism. The synthcsi.'1
and Christianity arnved at by hlDllft-
volved emasculation of the materia-
Ilsi clements of Aristotle's philos-
ophy or the idealist
tenets, The core of SI.
Aquinas' philosophy was the pnn-
ciple of the harmomous balance be-
tween faith and ReL<,on and a1:-
knowledgement or the ract Rea-
son is capable of
existence of God and of
the philosophical argumenls
the of faith". In the eoC)'Cli.
cal ls,<,ucd hy Leo XlII eotalled
"Aetemi patris" (1879) St. Thomas
Aquinas' philosophical system.was
referred 10 as lbe only
ophy of Roman eatholiasm.
m";n works were "Summa 'JbeoIosi-
.... 'J
ca" and "Summ, oootra Ge ... c:a
mOMISM. the dnat
m
.... tre ....
R CaI
L-':- phi. I." h. oman _
rounded by 51 -,-
from whom it toot ill UIBC
-
nm. ad ll.'1 in
Ih flSht against the $Clene 0 Ih
Modern Era, The Reformafion .nd
the revolution .. r""l rll'oC
to cn. .. \.<; In Roman t:atholi, dro
logy as a whole and to the decline i)f
Thomi'Ull. In the second balf of th,
l!/lh century a rcvival of Thomwn
began, whicb look the fonn of "'leo-
lcholasticbm and Nw- Thornbm.
THOR, in Scandinavian mythology,
the god of thunder, alorms and fct.
tilily, son uf Odin and Jorth (E!IJ1h),
flnc of the main Au;'. He wa\ de-
picled as a red-bearded IIWI armed
with a thunder hammer Mjonnir
(which always landed on its target
and returned to Thor of its own at:-
cord), with a belt of strength
iron gloves. Thor was the mam
defcnder of tbe gl.'Kh and men from
giants and mOtWer$, Thor's counter-
pa:r1 among the Germanic people. .. of
conticental Europe was Donar and
Thunor (or 'Thonar) among the
AngIo-Saxoas.
mOTH DI" DHOlTI1, in tbe: mytho-
logy of Ancient Egypt, the god of the
Moon' the scribe -{,( tbe Rods.. hence
the of the sacred boob ud
tbe protector of and
arcbives; also mca5wer of tlll'le and
inventor of numbers and the god of
wisdom and magic:. In the
bailor Oriris at the divine tribunal It
was 1both who recorded the tiDal
verdict after lbe deeds of the de-
erred bad been m F'ed. and ae-
iod him mlO the Under
WJ'ir" 'fhoCh was as .. man
::b the he'" of an lbi.<,. '!bt centre
lor his atIt .... Henoopolis.
11IUItl_IE 01" CENSER. metal
vcssel nn, thr or ,f
chains that is filled 'Wlth smou1dcnng
I
m
llAMAI
coals and incense or arom.alle
suhslanccs. H is used dunng SCIVICCS
in Christian churches.
llAMAT, in the mythology of
Ionia and Assyria, fem.ale bemg
who personified pnmordlal Chaos
or the Great Ocean. She was de
picted in the form of a
dragoo. She was the primogcnttnx of
gods, with whom she subscqucn,tly
engaged in battle. 10 her battlc
Marduk Tiamat was eventually slam
and from her body were then
formed Heaven and Earth.
TIARA, triple crown of the Pope. Its
basic sbape is tbal of an episcopal
mltn!, on lOp of which are attached
three crowns, which perhaps were
de.<;igncd to symbolize the three
roles of the Pope as a judge, law-
giver and priest, although they arc
sometimes seeD to symboli7.e also
the Pope's power over Hcaven.
Eartb and Hell. The crowns are
made of precious metals and dec-
orated with precious stones. The
tiara is topped with a cross. It has
in tbis form since the 14th
century. Pope Paul VI donated his
tiara 10 help the poor and needy and
&ubsequent Popes- John Paull and
John Paul II - renounced the ad of
coronatioo OI)Ihpetety.
TIDINGS OF ZION. See llyinlSy.
TIKHON (1klaviD, Vassily,
1925), Patriarch of Moscow and All
Russia who was elected at the_ l...ocdl
Council of lhe Russian Orthodox
Chun.:h in November lQ17. He
called upon the faithful to overthrow
Sovic.;t power. pronounced an ana
Iwno uJ"'u it, and spokc oul againM
the Decret on the SeptlTtltUNr of
Ouurh and StQte. However, on the
-
cve of his death, in Apr'l
Tikhon signed an address.1
vcrs, in which he t.:aUcd u 0 he.
clcrgy and Ihc faithful 10
loyal support to thc SOvict state, ell
TILLleH, . Paul (1886-1965), Ger_
man-Amencan Protcstant theol .
an. one of the founders of the Tho:'-
[('IN of Cul'"Te. Thc tao:;k of thCOlo;
to Tillich"was to
hsh the lost synthesIs of Christianity
and modern con.o:;ciousncss or cui.
ture, to provide an anSWer to thc
fundamental questions of human ex.
istence. God should be sought not in
the other world., bu in the "depths of
being" of both the World and Man.
Man as he saw him was alienated
from God, from the World and frolIl
himsclf. The goal of history was to
surmount that alienation. The
hringcr of "New Being" that
mounts the alienatiop. i.<; Jesus Christ.
not God-made-Man. hut Man a..o:; he
oUght to be, and in this sense tht:
"divine imagc" cmbodied in Man.
Tillich saw religion a<; the
of culture" and culture as the form
of expression for religion.
TlMIRYAZEV. Kliment (184:\
1920), Russian Darwinian biologist
and public figure. His work followed
in the tradition of progressive natu
ral !.cienec in his country and
ahroad. He propagated and popu
lari:l.cd Darwin's teachings and the
materialist approach to natural
SClcne('s. He made important con-
tributionJ-. tl) Dalwinio:;m in his works
skii ml;tod v biologii" (111('
Hlstnrical Mel hod in Biology) ,wd
"Faktory evolyut'.li'
I Factors of Organic Ev lution). Hf
defended the materiali.OI;.t }.tancl and
oPposcd idealiMD in science and al-
tempts to USc SCientific Jata to
to '1111'. RliRAI. POOR

strengthen religiou'!. faith. He was
one of the fir ...t Ru .....ian men of
learning to come (luI in !>uppnrt of
the new Soviet In a numtx:r of
his work!<. TimiryaJ"l."'V "poke OUI
against attempt:; to science
and religion, demun<;tratlOg the re
aelionary role of dcricali_\m in the
re<;olution of socio'political qucs-
tions.
an,;. reflect thl peTm:1 If II w :tn!'.()1i ,
dation "f an Olympian fl"l" ; ...
throughout the Whole )f Gree 0-
TINDAL, Mattbew (16<;5-1173), rcp-
resentativc of deilm. Ac
cording to Tindal, positivc .. tian
revelation docs not add anythlOg tn
natural religion. that was originally
rcvealed to men by God through
Reao:;on alone, From the dciM point
of view Tindal <;ubjected the Bible to
harsh criticism, particularly the Old
Testament. Hi .. main work (hi
tianity As Old As the Creati ,"
(1730) was regarded as the Bible_)(
rationa1ist deism and had a dcfuu_tc
innuence on the wrtings of Volltllll'
and Halbach,
'1'1'1 ANS, second generation )f go.i.!
in the mythology of Ancicnt l'rw :;::-
the children and sometime" the
grandchildrcn of Uranus (god of the
Sky) and Gaeo of the...
Earth). They all persorufied ele
ments and the forces of Nature: The
general outlinc of the myths linked
with the Titans is as follows: the T,
tans led by Crrmus ovcrthrew thelT
father Uranus; in his turn. Cronus.
was overthrown by his son Zeus. and
therc then began a war (if the Titans
against the new ill
thc Olympians (It fanuly or
headed by Zeus who sellled on
Mount Olympus). The Olympians
eventually conqucred the Titans,
who were then sent dO\\-u to Tarta-
nlS. The myths concerning (he
between the 'Titans and tbe Olymp
TI!"F, flame de
na based (10 the word for"t n"
'dc,;yan. a tax lc ....icd for tho p
port _ of the clergy )T o:nc
chantal>1e purpose :-g 0
tenlh part of an income 0' the faith.
ful (either in mont:y or produce).
rht practice or paying I1thcs ..
found amoDg many in
ancient times_ It is mentioned in Ihl..
Bible and thi .. fact wa.'!. exploited a
pretext for ptil.:Sls to lit
mand that observance of dus eu;tc-
be regardcd a.o:; t!o.'lential. It
tained in fe ldal r:'JrI'"pC and Ru
un':' was Teplac d with )1.1 r
orR1! )f levying money for Ihe p"
kewp of churches and thc suppa:: of
e c"rgy, At the present lime pay
r:: cnt .... tithes is only eompulsory for
members 0 the scct f:lT
whose mf...'; ne comtitUI. the
.ral compoocn;
-- TO THE Rl R.u. POOR. AD Ex
plautioo ror the Pa"Db 01 !'bat
Social.DrmlKiats WaDt _' a
work by Lenin, written to 190, In
this woTk, alotde tht;
d
..... litlcaT ta.\ Lenin
lD ,... . I
t1rC acmands iiie Socia -V\:mocTii I-
Parlv was making with resa:rd to
,j. O,f "The SOCIal
,rfrr.u.
mJ
1 "d nd
Democrats, he ....Tote. 11
that everybody shall have tbe u
and unrestricted right to
religion be pleases ... S or
be
no 'es.tlblishLd' re"fo'0n.
r' and aU Cbur-
('hurch. AU re status in law,
ehes should have eq r . [IS
The the
should be paid ,sab . . but tbe
belong to theU" rehgu:ms,IDOPCY to
State dlould not use state
I
TOlAND
support any religjon whatever .....
(Collecr<d Wot*', Vol. 6, p. 4(2).
Thc.o;e ideas of were later re-
f1eded in Ihe programme docu-
meals oClhe Communist Party of the
Soviet Union.
'I'OIAND, Jo" (161O-IW), Ir;sh
materialist philosopher. He de-
w:1oped a teaching concerning
spaee and and
iDOvcment. In his work "Chnsllamly
NOI Mysterious" (1696) and OIben;,
lie c:riticiml frcnll a deist standpoint
both ...... ad the Church, and
to reveal the human
..... 01 the gods, lh. earth-bound
routs of tbe conceptions of the im-
-.ity oIlhe 5OUI, Id. belOnd lhe
Anne .-I 10 OIL In his "PaDtbeisti-
coa" (1m) lie 1*"4I-gMed the ideas
f1l ___ P"'hjsm and
deIII8CIed die IN mcipk that the
world is mlluial and the Universe is
io&oiIe ad cterDal
-
TOLSTOY, U. (IK28.tQtOJ 1\
writer,. whose wti1intl had ':;
enormous mnucnce nn World tit.
e.rature and the CODlradit-
eharaclcrl1lng a whole era'
the life of Russian society
19(5). Tolstoy is the author of
novels "War and Peacc", "Anna lea
rcnina" and "Resurrection", a
numhcr of novellas, and short
stories. At the same time he was
religious-Utopian thinker,
strove 10 through
moral-religious sclf'lmprovemenl
also -:vr,0le a number of
osophlcal-rehglOus and religious.
ethical works. Tolstoy'S religious.
ethical teaching was proroundly CQn.. )
tradidory, reflccting both lhe stTOl18
and tbe weak sides or the socialaui--
tudes or the peasantry after the
aoolition of serfdom in 1861. On the
one hand, ToL",oy came out With
proround criticism of the RUM;n
Orthodox Church as a hypocritical
instrument "through whiCh cen ...
groups or people seck to bold sway
over others" and demonstrated die
oflhe
)
TOSAPII<Yrn
Lenin pointed out that it reflected
the views of millions of peaunlS,
that Toll'.toy introduced into his
teaching "their nallletf their alie-
nation rrom political life, tbeir mysti-
cism.. their desire to keep aloof from
the world, 'non-resi5tance to evil'.
their impotent imprecations against
capitali.<;m and the power of money"
(Collected Works, Vol. 16, p. 332).
Tolstoy himself resolutely oppoeed
tbe use of his teacbiDg as a new sec-
tarian doctrine (in 1906 be pubti5bed
a brochure entitled "Against ToI-
,10y;sm"J. The social oompoodjoo 01
lbe following Tolstoyism enjoyed
was most varied: apart from mem-
bers of the intelligentsia there were
also peasants, clerks and 'Workers
who had arrived from the counuy.
The Tolstoyam took as their creed
tbe weakesl aspects of the wrUt'1
religious-ethical lear
hi
"8: tc. the
ideas or social passivity. non-vdcA
'sceticis,!" .t!i,jsm, the
ideahzatton of patnar pIIltcnI
of social and family life, INCl;"''O 7
of "uniw:nal 1=" ad f .......
ne". Typical features oIlhe T-.,.
an movemeDl were rdauI to ..,
taxes aDd to do .... ......, tile
organiution of .",de", II CMt-
mUDCS twcd OD .....
aples, work in edua'M' ...
lisbiDg aimed II ......
_lbepeople a .....

sia was OD the rile.
stituted Ut alit)
roNSUU
",
beads of slaves., 'SO as to let tbem
apart from free meta; (2) the pMt at
the head left bare by sIming, whkh
siragle those persons
mhmtarily talr.co a vow 10
devote thc:meives to the lervicc of
God.
TORAH ("Sepber Torah" melDi",
"Book of the law"). Hcbtew n'me
ror PtnlakIKh. For pmf......:. of
wordnp oaIy (t:tt. W1iltr:!l h7 ' d
011 pum
neFil
' Ja'OIk_
lURQlJEMAIIA, TIE h .. (14"20-
1498), Dominican ft" who
beaded the ltaq .. isitioD m sPain He
was the author of the 1.p{ ...
of .. aaicc IDd the p,O(c4wll
OOC"7OO' for die :.-z::: vila
=: U-,:::., t::!" ..
his pcnea!IiDD r#. liD' ..
J .....
____________________ ____ ______________ ___
,-
be
'Iuded in tbe Mishnah. It JudalJm, (:hn',f/iofl'ly, Buddhi.s ...
en me 8'b1:--1 Hinduism and Islam. . . .,
provides the material for I UI,4II cr-

TOI'EMISM (deri\'ed.
word "OIoieman" mearung utcra y
"bis totem" in the language 0.( tbe
North American Ojibwa
one of tbe early forms of
the csvutial feature of
belief in a supernatural relatl<;>DshlP
between groups of human betngs-
dIns tribes or families - and the
aDd plant world. (less
qucady inanjmate objects .lilee
stoacs). A totem is a plant or 8m
maJ
(UK'" oftcD tile I,.....,) perceived to
be a real INC dor. on which the life
... wdI..fJeiD8 of the clan or family
IS whole and each of its members
separately was supernaturally de-
lIerdut ia every way. In Australia
(be apia its of totem ancestors are
tk..... within duuingas
wIIidI on: in holy places,
..... of ...
of concepts
is as follows:
of recurring
(incarna-
TOWER OF BABEL See Bubel,
TRADITIONALISM, a trend in tbe.
ology which rcjct.1s attempts to re-
view religious dogma or s.ocio-rnoral
conccptions of the Church with re.
gard to the development of science.,
changes in social life and the COn-
sciousness of believers. In contrast
to the Modernists, who count on
saving authority .of religion by
abandonmg those of Its conceptions
which looked outdated from tbe
contemporary angle, the Traditiooa.
lists insist upon the eternal and un
changing character of the content of
religious teaching$, fearful lest re-
nunciation of some religious dogmas
might undermine the whole edince
of thelr particular religion. Tradi-
tionalism comes particularly clearly
to the fore during periods of major
social change_ At the beginning of
the 19th century the term "Tradi-
tiooa1ism" was used to denote the
positiOll5 adopted by a group of
French writers (Chateaubriand, de
Maistre and who re-
jected deism and tJlJtic/ericalism. At
the Second Vatican Council (1962-
1965) advocates of Traditionalism
opposed a certain level of demoaat-
izatioD of worship and changes in
tile sorial teaching of the Roman
CIII'dil: Claurch.
-
I
I
I
,
I
I
,
l"RANSHGLRAllO!'l
thai the. 50ul wa.'1 created by God
when the irst man Adam _ wa:<l
created and is then transmitted from
parents to children al I.:onception.
Adhercnts I)f In-
c1uded Tertullian and Lulher.
TRANCE, RELIGIOUS. The term
a state of impaired e'JD-
SClousness and also onc of aloofness.
cc.'>tasy, "clairvoyance", Reference i:<l
made to rcligious trances as the re-
sult of hypnosis or ln
various denominations and variou.,>
worship situations: meditation in
Buddhism, the state of the oracles at
the moment they pronounced their
predictions (ror example. in respect
of the Delphic Oracle in Ancient
Greece, or the State Oracle at tbe
court of the Dalai Lama in Tibet),
the state of mediums in necromancy
and occultism, or that of propbets m
Christianity or Islam.
TRANSCENDENCE (literally "con-
tinuous existence outside the con-
fmes of a given object or pbenome-
na"), in scholasticism, the transition
from the sphere of being in this
world to the sphere of the next
world, lying above tbis one. Another
interpretation of transcendence
proved to be more important in the
philosophy tbat foDowed: movement
beyond the confines of pOSSIble x-
perience, exceeding the possible
scope of buman cogrutloa. K4nl held
that God, tbe soul and immortality
.ere all transcendent. The pt
was used . n modern hiI
nstenualists KJUt I'S
pr cd ranseen cc
ness f uman t
solute. as he traDSlhoD r m ur
-n.' 0 beutg oneself' and MIlTon
85 the transition from an
buman XISl nee 0 he

World existing as a whole to b
the .. is of the modc-s
ence). In its mtaning m gcn ral
tran<;(;Cndence .... ignifics a state that
.... UpeUcnsory, 'Jeyond Utis world,
supcmaturaJ,
ntA.NSFIGURAllON, THE iTbe
Transfiguration ill' Our Saviour
Jesus Christ), one of the. Twelve
Great Feasts of the: Onhodox
Church that is also celebratoo by
Roman Catholics and some Prote
lanlS on August 6 (9) It Ill
stituted to celebrate lhe allegedly
reaJ cyent of the "'trandiguration" {
Jesus Christ (the appearance of tbe
Lord in glory), whicb is dcscnbed in
'be Gospel according to St In
accordance with the Gospel story
one day when Jesus was praymg on a
mountain with his d;soples. his face
was transftgUred, his lobe turned
white and glistening and God's VOIce
came out of the cloud saying: "This
is my belO'V1:d Son. Hear him" (U
9:35). In this way, according to
Christian tradilioD. Jesus performed
one of his greatest miracles, re-.-eaI-
log his divine essence_ The: G05ptI
storv was designed to elevate: Jesus
in the eyes of betievt!f'S, to have him
referred to as tbe Son of God, in the
Lord's own words. The Feast of tbe:
Transfiguration was ins.tituted in tbe:
4tb century. In
the sante
and __
at
mart
S1I
TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS, RFiNCARNA'nON
witb !be date of !be F .... of the
This was how the
dale: of (be Church fc
ast
entered the
p<4_dvaleDdar.
'I1IANSMIGRADON or
RElNCAllNAnoN
PStCHOSIS, coau;pIiOD rem-
cal 11M of the soul, ... It leaw:s
oae body ........... anotber (of a
me. animal. sometimes C\'CD a plant
ar'; inanimate object of the nalural
of a number of philos-
in tbe Ancienl World

the Dew combination al50 dePQda
upon Karma, the sum of aU vittuet
sins of reincarnations.-;:
BuddhL'im only mcarnalioa in h_
fonn is seen as positive. 1'bc ...
stage in tbe chain of ..
Buddhism is Nirvana, Comii"OU to ..
teachings concerning the
tion of souls is the premise tlaat "-
fale of each specific 1iving a-.
depends only on tbe creature
on its deeds in its previous reb;: ...
,
liOns.
TRANSVESTISM, man's
of hi. .. role by to
via the cbange of his dothea
adoptioD of patterns of tIoe
viour of represeatatives die
'te sex. Distioctioas are
tbe follo.iDs
trannestism: theatr .... al
The best, koowD
lrusvestis
m
are

lbe role of the _
TRIBAL GODS, WOR.'iHIP Ot', a
form of religion found in the period
of early da.u-ba.o;c:d society and the
emergence of the Slale. Such wor.
ship was rooted in early religious-
mythical concepts: (1) Imonism, rea.
tures of which some of the god" of
Ancient Egypt retained, e.g. Horus,
who was worshipped in the form of a
falcon at Edfu, the goddess Hathor,
worshipped in the form of a cow in
the nome of Dandarah. and so
on; (2) conccp.ts concerning the
founders of tribal initiation cere
monies or the mythological images
of a hero or tkmiurge likened to
them; (3) the personifications of ce-
lestial or atmospheric phenomena;
(4) worship or ancestors and forefa-
thers. The worship of tribal gods
comes to constitute the poiat of de-
parture for advanced poIyfhrism OD
the ODe band, and ntOrtOtheism OD
the other.
TRlMUR'J'I (from the Sagskrit '"tri ..
mc:,aning "three" and ""m8rti-
, ")' ...
me_nang 101m t 10 nlftMU] A
Buddhism, three bYJlClstr 14 01
single aDd impenooal W!'UIC IN
ciplc-BnIIunGn -e'IMiIlllll tais
three .... "'Klim'" """"-dIe
en ... of tbe Uahaac, MdiP-
Ibe_Dd_ ....
_Ida .... SM_ ... 0..,.
....
monastic \'OWl, the TriDitanCtft
not eat mcat and ren ""'"
property in aU its forms. They wer .
distinguished by their mremc in.
tolerance with regard 10 adherents
of othcr creeds With the approval
of Pope Innocent III tbey actively
supported existing feudal practices.
During the Rtfomulliotl tbere was a
marked decline in the in1lueoce of
tbe TriDilariam aod by the ead of
!be 18th -1IrJ !be Order bad ,;,.
lually ccased to mi. Allbe prete ..
time there are only a few Tli .. it.riu
monasteries still fnI'dM.]"!
TklNITY, according to ChriIti.
conceptions. the Three Perk 7
wbowGod ...
God Ibe s.. ...
SpilL BeW ....
ci', ia. Thee Paw
MY', and
dow as a ,
I
nuODION
the 14th century by SI. Sergiw of
Rodonezh. The tide of /01"1'0 was
granted to the monaslery in 1744.
Belneco tbe 14th and the 18th
turies the Trinity and Sl. Sergtus
Mon.stClJ played aD important role
ill the political life of Russia and
owned large feudal estates. At the
prcseollime tbe residence of the. Pa-
triarch of Moscow and All RussIa, a
theological academy and a seminary
are to be fouad in the grounds of tbe
TRlODlON (a Greek word meaning
tit .. aJIy "tIucc _"I, 6turgical
book ia tho Orthodox Chlln:h.
II of two books: the Lenten
containing canticles and
prayers for Lent, and the Festal
1ftodioa (Pcotecostarion), contain-
iDe .. OM piayas and lections for
IIIe bdAaa &Iter ad the SUDday
... -
"tIucc bas-
-
thc leaching of Buddha in the form 0(
parables and conversations, Which be
allegedly had with his clOSest disci
plcs also collections of lege"':
aphOrisms, poems, commentaries
and on. The Abhidhammapitaka
("Basket of Melaphr;ics") conlPlises
containing. theolotPcaI
interpretations of the basiC prinaplea
of Buddhist dogma. The changes tbat
have taken place in Ihe course of tUnc
in the various editions of the text 01
the Tripitaka make it possible 10
study the way in whicb Buddhism bas
developed at various periods and in
various countries.
TRIPIYCH (from tbe Greek '"trip-
tychos" meaning "having three
folds"). Initially this word was ,"00
for a folding icon consisling of three
parts. At the present time it is wed
for any work of art considing of
three parts, linked by a co+""MIIl
idea or a subjed.
TRITON, in the mytbology of
Ancient Greece, tbe son of Pouidon
aDd Amphilrite, who Jived with the",
ill gold palace on the sea-..... He
.. depicted as a man with a doI-
""1 taiL
Enm (186S-1923),
aod pbiIos-
to_tho
aDd to sub-
function ia
it
,
_
________
--
are made wide usc of at tbe
lime, particularly in West Germany.
TROPARION, "' hhort bymn in
rhythmil;: prose or (:hantcd li.
turgically in the Orthodox Church,
which reveal:'! the csscnCt; of the
eburch or \.:venl bein cel.
ebrated or which lists the of
the sainI ocmg honoured.
TRUBETSKOV. Se'll"1 (1862 1905).
religious philm,l,.lphcr and
follower of Vludimir Solovye\. His
main works are Jevoted to substan
tiation of Christian including
the idea of immortality. He devoted
his a!tention first and to
the elaboration of the law of
"universal eorrelalivity'"', proceeding
from the assertion tbat knowledge
acquires logkal consistency only
when it is tbe consequence of
Universal Reason. or the !'tCcond hy
postasis of Ihe divine Trinity.
TRUBETSKOV, Vrvgoni (1863-
1920), Russian religious philos
opher, follower of Vladimir SoIovyev
who expounded his own philosophi-
cal system in works entitled "Metafi-
zicheskiye predJ;Kllo7.heniya fMJlDa-
niya" (MetaphYSical Assumptions of
Knowledge. 1917), and 'Smyst zhiz-
ni" (The Meaning of Life, 1918).
cording 10 his teaching, the mearu:ng
of life is determined not by mal! and
society, but by "absolute
ness" or the "ali-embraCIng nund
i.e. by Goo. Only Goo const.lt';lles
the beginning and end of evolutIOn,
its basis and PUI pose. Absolute
consciousness' enables knowledge
of truth to bear fruit, and makes
COIlSCIOUSDCSS active. From aD
IbodoK standpoinl
defended Biblical tft.IIOfIUIfI and
t>Id"Md tbe prcseaoe of Evil in the
world with to
will He alM) maintamd that tbe lift:
of society is shaped bo, lim e
Prrwitknu.
TRUE ORTHODOX CHRISTl.\NS
rnX:H). an Orthodox <.Crt WIth
monarchi<.t sYOlpathie'i, whith came
into being in the IQ3(h. after the
decline of a number of
groupings of an openly anti.Soviet
character (Fyodorovtsy.
niki, Krasnodrakonovtsy ct al.).
After declaring the RUJJian Ortho-
dox Churrh which had adopted a
stance of loyally to the Soviet !>tate
lo he the "handmaiden of the Anti
christ", the lcader" of lhe sect pro-
claimed they would follow iMtead
of tbe official Chweh 5 line tbe be
or Patriarch Tlkhon. who hM
been in opposition to Soviet gov
ernment. They advocated self-isola-
tion of the faithful. i.e. that they
should refuse to work in the collec
tive farms and in state
tiOlls, and 3IlD01IItCed lhII _
of the hald WE II Lud ..... thai
the LonI ........... lho.re who
deviated flOW lbc '"true faith or
who co-oper""'" Wdh the -ib.8U'AC
of the AnIKhnst". They ......
paigned for the restoration of the
monarchy ill Rid';' DuriDg the
Second World War, some ,of Ikm
_lied with 'he lasciSt onny
of occupatlOft, associaliog Wltb
lbel se fOiCeS their bopes ror the ...
toratiOD of , capitalist ... ,I' I.
the post war yean the delRl... or
tbe TOeH C(MihiDYi tICS accel-
erated At lhe prestat tllllC \bel.'
ooly _ SlDIU local sroupo of ....
sect 5 roUuwers.
1ll1lE ORTHODOX
(I'OC) a group set up by Wi.t ..
of the Ortbodox c1e'1!)' lor tho figbl
I
!II
TRUE ORnlODOX wANDERINCi alRisnANS
apiIIsI: Soviet power under
Ki eeu of leligioa. Arter eondemn!ng
c:atcsOiL ally the shift of the RUSSIIIlI
GUI!: 64' Ouurh to a 51ance
.., 10 die SoricI lhe
viet of die
ils
10 die
..... of die I. 1928
.ac.pt _ to set up
c:catre to supeMse TOC com-
..... While advocating the idea
dot should he reo
leaden of die
WANIIEIIING
al:nnc
h
cicty and lead a woderi.. ...
Memhen of the sect are
intolerant with regard to aU "';L--""
ligiou.\ pcnuasions. From III
izalional poin' of view the
sists of active members -
and "benefactors" (or
the first lead an undcrgtOl'''"ll
enee and the second
corda.ee wilh lhe IesII
menls and keep seu 'I
bouses, c:c:lIs ud stores of faoda
leader, founder or the Tibet Budd-
hi\!. sect known u the Yellow Hoods
(the Gelug School): it comtituted a
movement within Bruldhism that be-
came known as LmnQism. Tsang-
khapa oombined the teachings or the
SutnU aad TanlrtlS and founded the
"graded path" (or Lamrim) to "en-
ligblenmen'" (Sodhi). depending
upon tbe iDlelleclual Level of those
whom be was teaching In 1409
Taoogkhapa founded a J.am,-
monastery of GaRden. in which be
established a complex religiou.o;, hier-
archy and introduced lavish services.
and which was to become one of tbe
three principal seals or the Gclug
lraditioo.
TSIlIAINKHVRAL (MoogoliaD
word meaning literally
with the Lamas"), service
practice or l..anulism held in t..:4Ml9P
of LuztIng Drot/ptJ. die
founder of that bnnc:h of B uf'';'m.
By die ..... of.....,. ODd raMI
the tcmp&ea the failWul rqc , 2 dille
bad ltCahiw'" they ba1e Flal _
to their ck
4
'-!.lic ............ .
serious sin that ........, .... .
subseqUCDt matHl' cia. ....
TMT..-..o.oI
coutribution to 8iblica1 ami
to iato the history of early
Chnsbaruty. Baur and his
demoaslraled thai. the NnI Tts,j).
rntnt reOects the Iln1ggk: between
the various trcnds aDd IIIOYC.mcnts
within tbe Christian Church. and
tbey shed light on the contradictions
to be round in the GospdJ,
nJRIJAN, man's bclddrcu WOi D by
MosIcPK, Hind and Sjthe
k,-wth of .... b ilL? r Ii 1(+00 cap-
like bas, ..... USSR it is f the
main part oaJy meR'be" 01 the Mol--

TIJRBH (Turkish word),
built OYer a grave or a "''ITch._
... 'ri""E7gp
....

....
lWOPOLD TRlTIll. lUEORY 011
!he _011 of Our LonI lesus
01-'" _ !he '1IrmsjigutrIti0ll
a/iifI, Stniaw iallS Quist, Ihe Na
tMIy of 1M Moth.,. of God, Ihe F.r.l.
_ of lit< Honourable ."d Ufe
GI'MIw Qws, Ibe lIam"';"" of the
_ of God ill tIN Tmopk, aDd
... .-.,..... of lit< Moth<r of
Gad. Ui0l1':l4 irs wbole history
tile a.a.dI 1M cd the se festivals
ID .. cIocbiDc: aDd 10
rirve ideoIo8ical and emo-
infIUeD<e over
'I'WOIOLIl 'I1U1I1I,11II!01lY OF,
.. the
"
irralional and inaCCC!05ibte 10 u.e
philosoph .. , because
God is acquired Ihrough f&ill y,
not cven Iheology should Un tI
!rom .cxa!Riniog u.r:
Ject of 115 InVC5llg3hons.. 1bc pro.
gressive aspect of the twofold ..,..
Ihe,ory .. Ihal it sen:ed 10
rallonahsm and prOVIded .-:
for Ibe righl of IIId
science 10 draw coocllls;.,.., _
contradicted theological COIIItrua-.
tions. This theory retained ita pm.
grcssive significance in Ihe .01'",
Renaissance and at tbe of
the Modem Era. Moolem Bod ClUIo
tian religious leaders opposed ...
twofold Irulh lheory. The
Catho6c Church saw tbis theooy
(be opposi(e to the teaoehing of'ftD.
mas Aquinas with regard to die ...
moay or .....". IIId faith AI'"
"Cleut time theologi.N apIair: de
IAofole! Ir'" teDCI _ .........
of other
Jog IIId the phil".opIIy or ......
0' ..........
'ihillar. 80 85 to ftCOIlliC
ud aace that are .....,_
t..oy compIe-lkWmy opItonotI ..
_'I ;""rt:AJ:tual1ife.
I'/ADDIK
nomena that wcrc not yet under.
Mnnd. His 4:hicf works arc "Primitive
Cuhurc" (1871) and "Anthropo-
logy" (t88I).
lYPF.S OF RELIGION, groups of
religion!> that arc s.ingled out, for
of da!>c;ification, on the
haslS of features they have in com-
mon. Typological ic; uc;ed
for the comparative-historical study
nf significant characteristics or rune-
tinn.c; nf certain religions and the
links that may exist hetween them. 1t
provides mIt a formal. but a
meaningful classification and bring,"
out not only the similarities hctwecn
religions in a particular group and
the features that set thcm apart from
religions in other groups in certain
respects. but alw sheds light on tbe
links existing between relig:ioas of
different types. NonMarxist typcr
paUe.rns start out frO!D a
liglOus-tdeallSf. or metaph)'SICal ID-
terpretation of rcligtoa._ On the basis
of these preoooditions appropriate
arguments for the division or rcIi
gions into various groups are elabor
ated: tbey are classified as 'pagan"
and "revealed", "natural" and "Spiri
tual". "natural" and
"monotheist ..
lime it helps. identify " OrTt""": Il,cncral
MK:ill.historical trends in tll Of)'
of religion.
n'PFS Ot RELIGIOUS -.NO
NON.RELIGIOUS
rencct the s.pccifil: character of
piousnen or an abseD(:e of p1ou!'.-
common for a certain number
of people. They serve a for
identifying various ci<mirlcation
groups. Intrinsic to types are noc.
merely qualitative but also quantita-
tive characteristics. In Soviet social
science it is customary to single out
the following types of religiou.c; and
non-religious individua1s: (1) belie
ver!> whose religious orientation is.
the dominant factor in their Iive5, (2)
believers whose rctipoos orientatiollo
is sobon'lI',...... to cdcr
jJWIMduais waa
ll
el 78 betweea belief
and nonbetief, wbose
or1eotalioo is 001 (4) iDcJvid.
uals who are indifferent to both refi..
gioo ad "heism; (S)
., ..... ,Sj 6) (Q m cal
hk _ (APpo..S.H ..
See R.eliJIIan of
s=p,,,'Ef
the
aadlsrael
I
u
forward. The ide." of the
(ani,,1!!; were rcnedcd In the
emwum (Syllabus of EIIOiS)
UNCI ION, one of (he
tian stICfDmnrls re,,,,
the Ron"", Ctltholrc
man.
In anointing the
and other parts of
of the beti .... r with
chrimr Unci"",
val of ancient
mcks UIOCIaIed
.... "-1
l ~ 1946. which had come ioto
being as a result of the Union of
Ihm-UUwst.
UNIATES, .... hcrcnts or UaiMc re-
ligious IDO\'Cn'CDlI (ICC U"iflk O&ur-
chu)_
UNION
WIioa of
Ub ..
sian to ilIUIullbe Uilion of 8, .l.J.
tovsk aad 10 bring all former l! ' 1 1 1 ~
- L -
par- <5 mto the Ruuian Onbc.
Cbwch.
I
..
uNl1F.D MEIHODISTOfURCH OP11fE USA
Its
Hoase"puts
1,SOO.OOO

COII5Iant nUlL AO('IJfding to r-.
wboec oullook was eleee 10 u.... or
.be PyI"""-'- 'be u.n.,;;
Soul, while animating the WOIId. II
itself to nume.kat
lations
h
.", to a harmoaioua ...
Aristotle, oa the other h .... '
iDcliDi towards
velopc';t folloMng in
footsteps as be did 110,
view of Uaiwnal
of M'O', ..,lIming that
DOl ill a Uaiw:naI Soul
...,. "'ure of .hi.,.
nt smbed as 11
dutism of the tencatrial
tiaI, looked Hpoll
IS rdlcctioa
link between the world of pure
ide" ad p'crceptiblc m"erial 0b-
jects 'ts tile., M:mrdina 10 PlaID,
was IUbordintc to mathem ica!
.. 1oUooabi". aad ..... 1iiODJ. which
arc aho .. triasic 10 COImM: pbc-
nOilelll ... lbe IOUI of man, In
one or other form the idea or the
Uaivenal Soul to be found in
many philosophical teacbinp. ID
S,oklrm the UD;,.,w Soul (an
ethereal fiery SluR' or henme) is
idcatiflCd wilb Nature; ill the phil-
osophical system of the Vedanta the
soul of the world (Bruhman) COD-
stitutes divine reality. Sometimes it
is reduced to ODe of the
pollIces (u, for
Logos in the wrilinp
For GiordDno the
Soul was pri.,.dfb
and life 10 ..
ScItdIInr - ....
a .ad of Ond,
brootPl .. _ 10 ..
N--. ... -tdof ...........
ar'*I..: watk.m b'l'l a ia die
world as a wbcle. 1be otrP-lCpt of
.be Soul plays an ill ......
... role in (lIIGdimir !K>-
,.....,
UNIVERSAl. UNm, central idea
of re1igiws and phibop .
of JIktti .air SoIovyrv and
. . t:'IWl the ODtokJgical
poUlt of y-.... thia rep( lepiC Icnts
the ind;,sol .... uaity of the Ctell.or
aDd mm', immortal soul. I. its cpio
UNIVF..RSB. <X>SMOS
...
the 71h to Ihe lrd ccnturies
lhey were oompieled by ....
15th centuries A.D. They CM
dMded mlo lhe early and ....
anishads. Their maiD PUill'"Ju ..
and,
10
tcacmns
avoidaocc of
and !he idea lhal
the Upaaisbads
10WId 10 lhe .lfecl
life is a sacrirlCe. The
eeming the ""ion
individual self
8mhmtlll (!he
UDderU.. !he
M0ksh4 - 6beralioa
"
lJTRc.lfT, CItURCH OF
theorics of the c1crical school of
Primitive Monotheism has bee. re-
jected by many
URSULINE.'i. the oldest teaching
order of women in the Roman Cath-
olic Chun:h which was founded i.
Italy in 1535 and was aamed after SI.
Ursula. The &isle" devoted their
work t<? JPrls' educ'ioa aDd C4i!y
out reltglOUS prop,.._ .Uik ID
hospitals. The Order baa eocw:'"
and various ia".itutioaa ill m...,.
countries of Western Europe aDd ill
America. AI the cad of the 18th cca-
tury, duringtbe period oftbe French
Revolutioa, tbe Order WE? dis-
banded ia Frw"Ce. bat Iller reiItrO-
d!lCed by N,poIeoa I.
Utrecht (in the At the
beginning or the 18th century it up-
ported lanmti.Jm in the sltUVf")
againq the and the Papao'
For Ibis its Bishop Pc1rUs
Coddc hmo-
d,d
".... ...... d
....., of And ...
Bnlhm ... "" ..
be
....,. .......
__ dnn
IE -- L "-r-
I WI
VIII-
No-
Of
lim, ,...... NItlJm ad B'11
",: 3_
Catholk a..eh V'tc:ar of Christ was
a title .. ". to lhe Pope utd VK8f
I , Ior I. """'!"
In ..... e the IIOI1DaI hlCfarcby II
001: ! nebli"'cd, (2) lD the Church of
1!.,..ncI (Brillin) I de_ II'"
pol"Med IJ(Uish prieil; (3) in tbe
()rthoOOx Church there are van in
di6tdU, eparchiea.. IarJt PII' hi
a ""A,estersn.
VlCJORI.\, UI R_ ..,. ........
the goddesa of victory. oITe
COUDterpart was Nib.
V1ENNE, COUNCIL 01'. See 0mI
.. 231 ktII",a...J Cowadb
hanily. 1918),
khristianskoi titeratury" (The
geDC:e of Christ .... Litcrlltur l Q4(l)
and Rma 1 khnsbanM
(Rome ad EIrIy I'WflCy 1954
VIRGIN MAltY. Sec Ow l.ody.
MutAerO/God.
_f1f_
r.,;m,1l1l
...
ZOOU\11lY
SCI up in 1947 in order to dissemi -
nale politicaJ and scientific knowl -
edge. The members of its governing
body or Board are elected at AlI-
Union rongresse5 for a term of four
years. The All-Union society em-
braces 15 similar societies. one from
each Union Republic. Primary Of-
ganilations of the Society are to be
found al facloty level aDd also within
while-rolJar and educational estab-
lishments. The Society organizes
public lectures. reports, conferen-
ces., seminars and consultations
within aU branches of knowledge.
Scientific-atheist prOIHpnda oc-
cupies aD impcwt.", place in I he
ww" ol tile society. The society has
ill owo reading-rooOlS, planeta-
rillms, scientific and technical infor-
mptjoo c:eatres and centres for Mar-
. h
DSt -C Ism 1bc: society engages in
acti,jI;"" 011 a large scale,
D
7,7 ; _.Id .... ; .....
u_. 'P'
F MIl pub out Dumber of
,oam., such as "Nauh i zhirn"
(s.r:.-",,'e and Life), "ZIIaniye-sila"
(JCM akdp- Is Strength) and
m;giya" (ScieD<C and
wa .. e ... the idea of the I
. . ran
mIgration 0 of the dead t
mals, birds and reptiles look aIb-
An important part in the
of Ihis idea was that played by
belief that reo.:crse could also
happen, a behef whIch lived on Wltil
the lOth (e.g. Iycanthro )
In the polytbel.'itlc pantheon of
class society tribaJ gods were also
venerated in the guise of animals,
who later were to come to provide
sorts of or symbols, i.e. a re-
vered arumaJ would be linked with
an god, whose by-
poc;taslS 11 had at one time been (for
the hind of Altnnu, tbe
JackaJ of Anubis, or ShiVQ depicted
with a bull and a cobra, etc.). Traces
of :roolatry are well-known in 0uiJ.
tianify as well (for cumple, in the
frcquent representations or Ouisr. as
a lamb).
ZOOMORPHISM, the
of real or fictitious '
endow ... ent
- ....
external I .....
antJuopon"""""
or spirits aDd later those
of gods were knt zoomorphic fea
t. es. In Ancient Egypt. for
the god HOtW was de
piCted m tbe fOi 01 of a falcon aDd
the goddess Sdchntet with a 6oness'
etc. The ZOOiOOi pbism of ani-
mtStlc 8Dd theistic images is linked
usually _ f .
veatigc8, 0 totehl&ml.
phMe in the spbc:rc: 01 reJt.
_ d:.-..... the
o -e-"1 at n"g
.. PAIl-
1-<JSI'4A BRADATY
doi.rm rdormed by the prophet Zo.
rolhuJlro (whoow: (ired: name WM
and Middle Pen ian
name His hi<,lori cal ex-
at th!; present lime
no among Mholan. To him
attrlhuted the or the
(,atha, mOM aneient parl or
and Mazdaism's
holy book Ave.<ita or the
(literally "text with
commentaries"). The main idea of
i, thai order in the
world is dependent uJ"Kln the
struggle between Good and Evil
between light and darkness and he:
tween life and death. The emhndi-
mcnt of the positive principle in the
Universe is AhliN MauJo and that
of tbe evil principle is Angra MOl'
nyll, Some trends witlUn Zoroas-
trianism present both of these as
twin SODS proceeding from the fun-
damental principle or aD - Zrvana
Akarana, or limiLiess time, In this
Maa is DOl toy in tbe
wpenor forca. bat aD in-
pm 3 free" 01
cboic:e and UJl- He I' oralt.. K--
tiv!ty t'!"_'P' of
URlvefS3 )U.<itlce, e trace
tbe contradiction bchecn the III>
mads' aad ratak"" or life' the
first is criticized and poeseated as
manifestation of tbe evil in tbe
world, while the second L<i praised
as a manifestation or guod. This
representation stems from the
lasting many centuries between the
rarmers of Ancient Iran and the no-
madic tribes all around them. The
eschatology of Zoroastrianism
maintaim that the hlslory of the
world Ia.\ls for 12,1XX) years of
whtcb 3,000 COn.\lltute the Golden
Age or Abur. Matda. after whidt
there began 3,(XX) years of the
doallnatlOO of Angra Mainyu, how
ever the H'ign of I will nOlt h t
foreve r, Zuroa5lnan'.. ' om
rr r ' ."
leo bhss after d tl 0 the full "
wers Ahura M -;la. an con,
demnahon and all m nn r
ment for thost who I: a;
the Day of Judgemt' "' A h
. , , c alac
feature of thf rlluah M
served by IS woriliip
of . the four de ments of th
l!nlVersc wat er, fir e, earlb and
au. '!"he hu.rial ceremony they ll'iC
to day 15 of highly dislincuve
vancty: corps are plaeed Oft sev.
eraltiers or a .. tower of or
.where th.ey arc ealen by
carnoD-catmg bircl.<i: later the
bones., stripped of nesh, are thrown
inln a deep weU in the ceDtre of the
(()Aef, In this..,. II epuved thai
tbe pncIc:an COl pse does DOl
come into contad with any 01 tlte
"dean- dements. In ZoroaslriaD
tempks an eternal name btu'lS. I.
the pag _as intomy to Zorow.-
ZOSIMA lRADATY ,lite It 'dell,
Ru. ... <ilan Slatemll _ Churcb
leader ill the 1St" celllwy, prol
or Ivan III He was Metropolitan of
Moscow in the peliod 14Q().14Q4, He
eame to be suspected of as a
result of his close associaIioa ..-h
prominent represeDlaUvcs of the
Novgorod.MosctYW htit:S1 I_ 1495 be
'WaS stripped of has oWe aDd
to the Holy Trinity aod St. Sail '