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"Predictive Role of Physical Education Motivation: The Developmental Trajectories of Physical Activity during Grades 7-9" by Yli-Piipari, Sami; Leskinen, Esko
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Predictive Role of Physical Education Motivation: The Developmental Trajectories of Physical Activity during Grades 7-9
By Yli-Piipari, Sami; Leskinen, Esko; Jaakkola, Timo; Liukkonen, Jarmo Academic journal article from Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 83, No. 4

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Yli-Piipari, Sami Leskinen, Esko Jaakkola, Timo Liukkonen, Jarmo Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport December 2012 Exercise--Educational aspects Exercise--Psychological aspects Student motivation--Management Physical education--Management Physical education--Psychological aspects Secondary education--Management Secondary education--Psychological aspects Educational psychology--Research Educational programs--Management Educational programs--Psychological aspects

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Volume/issue: Vol. 83, No. 4

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In this study we examined adolescents'physical activity (PA) stability as well as individual differences in PA across grades 7-9. In addition, we tested the predictive role of adolescents' self-determination and goal orientations in physical education at grade 6 in relation to their PA development. Adolescents' (N = 812) self-reported PA was measured five times and physical education motivation once. Results revealed a decreasing trajectory of PA, with individual differences diminishing over time. Although boys' showed a consistently higher PA level, gender did not moderate the change in PA. Finally, self-determination and task orientation (boys only) predicted PA levels but did not predict change in PA. Key words: achievement goals, gender, self-determined motivation Numerous studies have shown that physical activity (PA) offers children and adolescents multiple physical and psychological health benefits and contributes to academic performance and learning (Strong et al., 2005). However, it is clear that children's and adolescents' engagement levels in PA do not meet the health recommendations of many western countries (Currie, Gabhainn, & Godean, 2008). Therefore, investigating the development of adolescents' PA patterns along with PA participation antecedents remains one of the most important areas in the sport and exercise sciences.

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2/2/13

"Predictive Role of Physical Education Motivation: The Developmental Trajectories of Physical Activity during Grades 7-9" by Yli-Piipari, Sami; Leskinen, Esko

Several follow-up studies in PA research have used the term tracking, defined as "the relative maintenance of a variable's relative rank or position in a group over time" (Malina, 1996, p. 49). Research has found that PA acquired early in childhood and adolescence tracks into adulthood, indicating that active adolescents also tend to be active adults (Friedman et al., 2008; Malina, 2001; Telama et al., 2005). However, the tracking correlation coefficients found in PA research have typically been weak or moderate (Dumith, Gigante, Domingues, & Kohl, 2011). In addition, numerous studies found a declining trend in PA engagement from childhood to adolescence (Currie et al., 2008; Duncan, Duncan, Strycker, & Chaumeton, 2007; Telama &Yang, 2000; Telama et al., 2005). Interestingly, a recent longitudinal study by Kjonniksen, Yorsheim, and Wold (2008) found different rates of change in adolescents' leisure-time PA across ages 1.'323 years. Although they found a general decreasing trend in leisure-time PA across time, there was considerable individual variation. Similarly, the study by Duncan et al. (2007) found significant individual variation across time in 12-15-year-old adolescents' declining PA growth trajectories. Therefore, we can argue that tracking studies should use statistical methods that capture behavior change as well as individual differences in behavior change. Research on gender differences in PA engagement has reported consistent findings in samples of children and adolescents. Typically, boys were found to be more active than gifts (Cuirie et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2007; Nader, Bradley, Houts, McRitchie, & O'Brien, 2008). However, previous studies did not agree on how gender differences in PA develop across time. For example, a recent meta-analysis examining longitudinal studies of adolescents' PA reported that 22 of 26 studies documented a decline in PA levels across ages 9-18 years, but the role of gender as a moderator was unclear (Dumith et al., 2011). To address this ambiguity, more research on the association between gender and PA is needed. Motivation is considered an influential variable for PA participation (Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000). Self-determination theory (SDT) and achievement goal theory (AGT) are two prominent social-cognitive motivational theories explaining adolescents' participation in PA. In addition, integrating these theories has been recommended to gain a better understanding of motivation in the physical education context (Cecchini-Estrada, Gonzalez-Mesa, Mdndez-Gimdnez, & Fernandez-Rio, 2011). SDT posits that the opportunity to meet three psychological needs--autonomy, perceived competence, and social relatedness--is critical for the positive development of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). According to SDT, the regulation of motivation reflects a continuum comprising different levels of self-determination ranging from amotivation through four different external motivations to true intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). The extrinsic motivation regulations on the continuum are external, introjected, identified, and integrated (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The amount of self-determination is assumed to increase from amotivation to intrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997). SDT also states that an environment satisfying the three psychological needs leads to internalization (i.e., individuals wansfer toward more intrinsic motivation or more autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation). In contrast, an environment that does not nourish such needs contributes to amotivation or external motivation. Several studies revealed that intrinsic motivation, along with self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation, in physical education classes was related to adolescents' general PA (Lonsdale, Sabiston, Raedeke, Ha, & Sum, 2009), adolescents' leisure-time PA (Chatzisarantis, & Hagger, 2009; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Barkoukis, Wang, & Baranowski, 2005), and their decision to enroll in physical education as an optional subject (Ntoumanis, 2005). These results suggest that self-determined motivation in physical education can contribute considerably to adolescents' PA (Cox, Williams, & Smith, 2007; Shen, McCaughtry, & Martin, 2008). In contrast, most of the studies showed amotivation, extrinsic motivation, or introjected regulation to have a weak, or no, relationship with positive PA development (e.g., Lonsdale et al., 2009). According to AGT, competence and the criteria for its evaluation are important dimensions of motivation (Nicholls, 1989). AGT's fundamental tenet (Nicholls, 1989) is that there are critical distinctions between outcomes of task-and ego-involving goals. When a person focuses on task-involving goals, a more adaptive motivational pattern should result, whereas adopting ego-involving goals is expected to result in adaptive motivation only if one's perceived competence is high (Roberts, 2001). Task mastery, personal improvement, effort, selfdevelopment, and learning are significant values for a task-oriented individual (Nicholls, 1989). An ego-oriented person perceives competence when outperforming others and showing superior ability than peers. AGT also postulates that task- and ego-involving goal orientations have an orthogonal relationship; thus, an individual may have different combinations of task and ego orientation (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2001).

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"Predictive Role of Physical Education Motivation: The Developmental Trajectories of Physical Activity during Grades 7-9" by Yli-Piipari, Sami; Leskinen, Esko

In empirical studies on adolescents, task orientation in physical education was associated with increased leisure-time PA (Papaioannou, Bebetsosa, Theodorakisb, Chlistodoulidisa, & Koulia, 2006) and objectively assessed PA levels in physical education (Jaakkola, Liukkonen, Ommundsen, & Laakso, 2008). In contrast, empirical studies on the relationships between ego orientation and PArelated outcomes had mixed findings (Roberts, Treasure, & Conroy, 2007). Some found ego orientation correlated with positive beliefs that ability produces success and perceptions of competence (see review by Biddle, Wang, Kavussanu, & Spray, 2003), whereas others found ego orientation to be either nonrelated or negatively related to positive PA correlates (e.g., Papaioannou et al., 2006). Although it is obvious that self-determination and task orientation have a high positive association with many PA-related variables, it is noteworthy that no studies have been published on how self-determination and achievement goal orientation in physical education predict the longitudinal development of PA. Such studies

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