UNIVERSIDAD AUTNOMA DEL ESTADO DE MXICO

SECRETARA DE DOCENCIA

DIRECCIN DE APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS

UNIDAD ACADMICA PROFESIONAL TIANGUISTENCO

UNIDAD DE APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS UAP TIANGUISTENCO

ENGLISH C2

BACHELORS DEGREE IN PLASTICS ENGINEERING READING HANDBOOK

BY

L.L.I. MA. TERESA AGUILAR SEPLVEDA

CONTENTS
A. Describing simple processes 1. Manufacturing plastics processes 2. What is magnetism? B. Requesting services and asking for help 3. How to register a patent 4. Strategic planning C. Getting to know processes, media and entertainment 5. Computer-aided software engineering 6. Administration of business D. Referring to important objects, inventions 7. Metal Ceramic Composites 8. Systems and Turn-Key Projects E. Getting to know people and giving personal information 9. Ethics: an overview 10. Industrial Design p.13 p.15 p.10 p.12 p.8 p.9 p.5 p.6 p.3 p.4

F. Complaining about environmental issues 11. 12. Development of environmental engineering Property of Plastics p.16 p.17

G. Expressing regrets, stating hypothetical situations 13. 14. Electrical resistance and conductance Rheology p.19 p.21

Reference

p.23

1. Manufacturing plastics processes

1. Plastic Injection Molding Process

Injection molding is one of the main methods by which parts are manufactured from plastic. The first step in the injection molding process is to feed plastic pellets into the hopper, which then feeds the pellets into the barrel. The barrel is heated and contains a reciprocating screw or a ram injector. A reciprocating screw is typically found in machines that produce smaller parts. The reciprocating screw crushes the pellets, making it easier for the plastic to be liquefied. Toward the front of the barrel, the reciprocating screw propels the liquefied plastic forward, thereby injecting the plastic through a nozzle and into the empty mold. Unlike the barrel, the mold is kept cool to harden the plastic into the correct shape. The mold plates are held closed by a large plate (referred to as a movable platen). The movable platen is attached to a hydraulic piston, which puts pressure on the mold. Clamping the mold shut prevents plastic from leaking out, which would create deformities in the finished pieces. 2. Plastic Extrusion Molding Process

Extrusion molding is another method of manufacturing plastic components. Extrusion molding is very similar to injection molding and is used to make pipes, tubes, straws, hoses and other hollow pieces. Plastic resin is fed into a barrel where it is liquefied. A rotating screw propels the liquefied plastic into a mold, which contains a tube-shaped orifice. The size and shape of the tube determines the size and shape of the plastic piece. The liquefied plastic then cools and is fed through an extruder, which flattens the plastic and forms the piece into its final shape. 3. Issues That Arise in the Plastic Manufacturing Process
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A number of complications can arise during the plastic manufacturing process, including burned parts, deformities, surface imperfections and brittle parts. Parts become burned when the molds are not kept cool or if the melting temperature in the barrel is too high. Additionally, if the reciprocating screw becomes jammed or is not rotating fast enough, liquefied resin will remain in the barrel too long and become scorched. Surface imperfections and deformities occur when the surface temperature of the mold is uneven, if the molds are not clamped tightly enough or if the melting temperature is too high. Brittle pieces are formed when not enough liquefied resin is injected into the mold or if the plastic hardens before the mold can be filled. Regular testing and calibration of injection and extrusion molding machines is critical to ensure that the process runs smoothly.

Instructions: Draw a diagram showing one of the processes above and describe it to a partner.

2. What is magnetism?
Until 1821, only one kind of magnetism was known, the one produced by iron magnets. Then a Danish scientist, Hans Christian Oersted, while demonstrating to friends the flow of an electric current in a wire, noticed that the current caused a nearby compass needle to move. The new phenomenon was studied in France by Andre-Marie Ampere, who concluded that the nature of magnetism was quite different from what everyone had believed. It was basically a force between electric currents: two parallel currents in the same direction attract, in opposite directions repel. Iron magnets are a very special case, which Ampere was also able to explain. In nature, magnetic fields are produced in the rarefied gas of space, in the glowing heat of sunspots and in the molten core of the Earth. Such magnetism must be produced by electric currents, but finding how those currents are produced remains a major challenge. Michael Faraday, credited with fundamental discoveries on electricity and magnetism (an electric unit is named "Farad" in his honor), also proposed a widely used method for visualizing magnetic fields. Imagine a compass needle freely suspended in three dimensions, near a magnet or an electrical current. We can trace in space (in our imagination, at least!) the lines one obtains when one "follows the direction of the compass needle." Faraday called them lines of force, but the term field lines is now in common use. Field lines of a bar magnet are commonly illustrated by iron filings sprinkled on a sheet of paper held over a magnet. Similarly, field lines of the Earth start near the south pole of the Earth, curve around in space and converge again near the north pole. However, in the Earth's magnetosphere, currents also flow through space and modify this pattern: on the side facing the Sun, field lines are compressed earthward, while on the night side they are pulled out into a very long "tail," like that of a comet. Near Earth, however, the lines remain very close to the "dipole pattern" of a bar magnet, so named because of its two poles. To Faraday field lines were mainly a method of displaying the structure of the magnetic force. In space research, however, they have a much broader significance, because electrons and ions tend to stay attached to them, like beads on a wire, even becoming trapped when conditions are right. Because of this attachment, they define an "easy direction" in the rarefied gas of space, like the grain in a piece of wood, a direction in which ions and electrons, as well as electric currents (and certain radio-type waves), can easily move; in contrast, motion from one line to another is more difficult. A map of the magnetic field lines of the magnetosphere, like the one displayed above (from a mathematical model of the field), tells at a glance how different regions are linked and many other important properties. Faraday not only viewed the space around a magnet as filled with field lines, but also developed an intuitive (and perhaps mystical) notion that such space was itself modified, even if it was a complete vacuum. His younger contemporary, the great Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, placed this notion on a firm mathematical footing, including in it electrical forces as well as magnetic ones. Such a modified space is now known as an electromagnetic field. Today electromagnetic fields (and other types of field as well) are a cornerstone of physics. Their basic equations, derived by Maxwell, suggested that they could undergo wave motion, spreading with the speed of light, and Maxwell correctly guessed that this actually was light and that light was in fact an electromagnetic wave. 4

Heinrich Hertz in Germany, soon afterwards, produced such waves by electrical means, in the first laboratory demonstration of radio waves. Nowadays a wide variety of such waves is known, from radio (very long waves, relatively low frequency) to microwaves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-violet, x-rays and gamma rays (very short waves, extremely high frequency). Radio waves produced in our magnetosphere are often modified by their environment and tell us about the particles trapped there. Other such waves have been detected from the magnetospheres of distant planets, the Sun and the distant universe. X-rays, too, are observed to come from such sources and are the signatures of high-energy electrons there. Instructions: Draw a mind map to summarize the information.

3. How to register a patent

A good idea is every bit as valuable as a piece of machinery but knowing how to protect it can be much harder. One of the most common ways is to take out a patent. A patent allows you to stop other people from making, using or selling your invention without your permission. It covers a set period of time - usually up to 20 years in the UK - and applies in certain parts of the world. Once a patent is granted it can be bought, sold, or hired like any other asset. You can license other people to use your invention - which can be a valuable source of income. You might consider applying for a patent if youve invented: a new part or an innovative product; a way of making something - for example a new plastic molding technique; new equipment used in an industrial process; a new use for a product.

Does my invention qualify? To qualify for a patent an invention must be capable of being made or used in some kind of industry. You cant patent an idea or theory, a discovery, a work of art or a computer program - although there are other ways of protecting them. An invention must be new and it is vital that you dont make your invention public before applying for a patent. Be careful not to reveal it by mistake - for example by showing a picture of it in a brochure or annual report, giving a demonstration, chatting about it, writing an article or mentioning it in an advert. If youre working with someone else to develop it you may need to ask them to sign a non-disclosure or confidentiality agreement. Your invention must not infringe someone elses patent and must include an inventive step that wouldnt be obvious to someone working in the field. Is it worth applying for a patent? Before you apply for a patent carry out some market research to assess whether the invention has the growth potential to make an application worthwhile. A patent can make sense if you want to buy a set 5

period of time when your rivals wont be able to use your invention. But applying for a patent also means you have to reveal some technical information that you might rather keep secret. How to register a patent The onus is on you to defend your patent and to take someone to court if necessary. Sometimes all you need to do is to send a carefully worded letter: the business may be unaware of the patent or stop once they know theyve been found out. Applying for a patent is time-consuming and can be costly. Making mistakes might mean youre not properly covered or have to repeat the process of application. Its usually best to seek professional advice from a registered patent agent or solicitor. (See The Chartered Institute of Patent Agents website). How to apply for a patent The UK Intellectual Property Office (formally The Patent Office) website gives full details of how to apply in the UK and allows you to apply on-line. Prepare a patent specification which gives a full description of your invention and how it works. You cant make changes once youve filed your application so its vital that you include all the relevant details. It can be useful to submit drawings as part of the claim. You must submit two copies of your specification, together with Patents Form 1/77 Request for Grant of a Patent. You must also pay a 130 fee for a search to check that there is no existing patent on your invention. You then have 12 months in which to: file your claim, that is an exact statement, in English, of your invention; submit an abstract, a brief summary of your invention including all its most important technical features; decide whether to file patents abroad.

If everything goes smoothly the UK Intellectual Property Office will publish your application and you must pay for them to carry out a substantive examination. The application will be published again before - if successful - it is granted. In the meantime you can sometimes put rivals off by printing patent pending on products using the invention or in adverts for the product. Instructions: Using your own words, design a process which people should follow to protect a new invention or product

4. Strategic planning
Strategic planning is the formal consideration of an organization's future course. All strategic planning deals with at least one of three key questions: 1. "What do we do?" 2. "For whom do we do it?" 6

3. "How do we excel?" In business strategic planning, some authors phrase the third question as "How can we beat or avoid competition?" But this approach is more about defeating competitors than about excelling. In many organizations, this is viewed as a process for determining where an organization is going over the next year ormore typically3 to 5 years (long term), although some extend their vision to 20 years. In order to determine where it is going, the organization needs to know exactly where it stands, then determine where it wants to go and how it will get there. The resulting document is called the "strategic plan." While strategic planning may be used to effectively plot a company's longer-term direction, one cannot use it to reliably forecast how the market will evolve and what issues will surface in the immediate future. Therefore, strategic innovation and tinkering with the "strategic plan" have to be a cornerstone strategy for an organization to survive the turbulent business climate. Vision statements, Mission statements and values Vision: Defines the way an organization or enterprise will look in the future. Vision is a long-term view, sometimes describing how the organization would like the world to be in which it operates. For example, a charity working with the poor might have a vision statement which reads "A World without Poverty." Mission: Defines the fundamental purpose of an organization or an enterprise, succinctly describing why it exists and what it does to achieve its Vision. It is sometimes used to set out a "picture" of the organization in the future. A mission statement provides details of what is done and answers the question: "What do we do?" For example, the charity might provide "job training for the homeless and unemployed." Values: Beliefs that are shared among the stakeholders of an organization. Values drive an organization's culture and priorities and provide a framework in which decisions are made. For example, "Knowledge and skills are the keys to success" or "give a man bread and feed him for a day, but teach him to farm and feed him for life". These example values may set the priorities of self sufficiency over shelter. Strategy: Strategy, narrowly defined, means "the art of the general" (from Greek stratigos). A combination of the ends (goals) for which the firm is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get there. A strategy is sometimes called a roadmap which is the path chosen to plow towards the end vision. The most important part of implementing the strategy is ensuring the company is going in the right direction which is towards the end vision. Organizations sometimes summarize goals and objectives into a mission statement and/or a vision statement. Others begin with a vision and mission and use them to formulate goals and objectives. While the existence of a shared mission is extremely useful, many strategy specialists question the requirement for a written mission statement. However, there are many models of strategic planning that start with mission statements, so it is useful to examine them here.

A Mission statement tells you the fundamental purpose of the organization. It defines the customer and the critical processes. It informs you of the desired level of performance. A Vision statement outlines what the organization wants to be, or how it wants the world in which it operates to be. It concentrates on the future. It is a source of inspiration. It provides clear decision-making criteria. 7

An advantage of having a statement is that it creates value for those who get exposed to the statement, and those prospects are managers, employees and sometimes even customers. Statements create a sense of direction and opportunity. They both are an essential part of the strategy-making process. Many people mistake the vision statement for the mission statement, and sometimes one is simply used as a longer term version of the other. The Vision should describe why it is important to achieve the Mission. A Vision statement defines the purpose or broader goal for being in existence or in the business and can remain the same for decades if crafted well. A Mission statement is more specific to what the enterprise can achieve itself. Vision should describe what will be achieved in the wider sphere if the organization and others are successful in achieving their individual missions. A mission statement can resemble a vision statement in a few companies, but that can be a grave mistake. It can confuse people. The mission statement can galvanize the people to achieve defined objectives, even if they are stretch objectives, provided it can be elucidated in SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound) terms. A mission statement provides a path to realize the vision in line with its values. These statements have a direct bearing on the bottom line and success of the organization. Which comes first? The mission statement or the vision statement? That depends. If you have a new start up business, new program or plan to reengineer your current services, then the vision will guide the mission statement and the rest of the strategic plan. If you have an established business where the mission is established, then many times, the mission guides the vision statement and the rest of the strategic plan. Either way, you need to know your fundamental purpose - the mission, your current situation in terms of internal resources and capabilities (strengths and/or weaknesses) and external conditions (opportunities and/or threats), and where you want to go - the vision for the future. It's important that you keep the end or desired result in sight from the start. Features of an effective vision statement include:

Clarity and lack of ambiguity Vivid and clear picture Description of a bright future Memorable and engaging wording Realistic aspirations Alignment with organizational values and culture

Instructions: Talk about the elements included in a Mission and a Vision Statement from a Company.

5. Computer-aided software engineering

Tools Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools are a class of software that automate many of the activities involved in various life cycle phases. For example, when establishing the functional requirements of a proposed application, prototyping tools can be used to develop graphic models of application screens to assist end users to visualize how an application will look after development. Subsequently, system designers can use automated design tools to transform the prototyped functional requirements into detailed design documents. Programmers can then use automated code generators to convert the design documents into code. Automated tools can be used collectively, as 8

mentioned, or individually. For example, prototyping tools could be used to define application requirements that get passed to design technicians who convert the requirements into detailed designs in a traditional manner using flowcharts and narrative documents, without the assistance of automated design software. Existing CASE tools can be classified along 4 different dimensions: 1. 2. 3. 4. Life-cycle support Integration dimension Construction dimension Knowledge-based CASE dimension

Let us take the meaning of these dimensions along with their examples one by one: 1. Life-Cycle Based CASE Tools This dimension classifies CASE Tools on the basis of the activities they support in the information systems life cycle. They can be classified as Upper or Lower CASE tools.

Upper CASE Tools support strategic planning and construction of concept-level products and ignore the design aspect. They support traditional diagrammatic languages such as ER diagrams, Data flow diagram, Structure charts, Decision Trees, Decision tables, etc. Lower CASE Tools concentrate on the back end activities of the software life cycle, such as physical design, debugging, construction, testing, component integration, maintenance, reengineering and reverse engineering.

2. Integration dimension Three main CASE Integration dimensions have been proposed: 1. CASE Framework 2. ICASE Tools 3. Integrated Project Support Environment(IPSE) Instructions: Answer the following questions: a) Whats the text about? b) How does software help manufacturing processes improve?

6. Administration of business
The administration of a business consists of the performance or management of business operations and thus the making or implementing of a major decision. Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives. In some organizational analyses, management is viewed as a subset of administration, specifically associated with the technical and mundane elements within an organization's operation. It stands distinct from executive or strategic work. In other organizational analyses, administration can refer to the bureaucratic or operational performance of mundane office tasks, usually internally oriented and reactive rather than proactive. 9

Administrative functions Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions to meet the organization's goals. These "functions" of the administrator were described by Henri Fayol as "the 5 elements of administration" (in bold below).

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. It maps the path from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in a logical order. Administrators engage in both short-range and long-range planning. Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort among all the elements in the organization (Coordinating). Organizing must take into account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control within supervisory units. Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the positions. Directing (Commanding) is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing is to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis on economic production. Controlling is a function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects potential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This ensures high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes information management, measurement of performance, and institution of corrective actions. Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of the administrative functions, beginning with the implementation of a budget plan through the application of budget controls

Instructions: Draw a chart and describe each of the 5 elements of Administration.

7. Metal Ceramic Composites

The utility of ceramic materials in engineering applications is critically determined by their mechanical behaviour. The most important factor is brittle fracture behaviour depending on the absence of plastic deformation at low or medium temperatures. In contrast to metals, ceramic materials are not able to dissipate energy by plastic zone in the front of the crack tip. There are several methods to increase the fracture toughness by crack shielding, bridging or branching mechanisms. The crack bridging is achieved by reinforcing the matrix by long or short fibres, in particular by SiC whiskers, and also by particle toughening. A special kind of particle reinforcement, namely nanotoughening is achieved by nanoparticles of the size 5-200 nm incorporated into a ceramic polycrystalline matrix. By incorporating metal particles into the ceramic matrix a ductile bridge can be formed and the fracture toughness can be considerable increased. The toughness enhancement if attributed to the plastic work extended in deforming the ductile inclusions. Among the various metallic dispersions used in alumina are molybdenum particles and fibres, nickel-zirconium alloys, chromium Al2O3-Al composites, and titanium carbonitrades. When both metal and ceramic inclusions are added to alumina, the fracture toughness has been observed to be higher than that for only metal particles included. The other possibility of improving the brittle response is toughening in zirconia (ZrO2) induced by martensitic transformation. Dispersion hardening of materials plays an essential role in improving the reliability 10

and reducing the cost of materials used in machine or structural elements. Their distinctive advantage with respect to fibre-reinforced and laminated materials in isotropy of mechanical properties combined with high ductility and strength. A typical example is an aluminum alloy strengthened by Al2O3 ceramic inclusions, now intensively investigated from the perspective of engineering applications. Ceramic coatings constitute a separate class of composite materials. By layering different structural ceramic materials, the fracture toughness can be increased through enhancement of toughening mechanisms, or residual stress effects. Various techniques may induce microstructural gradients within layers or coatings, usually associated with change of grain size. Metal-ceramic composites in the form of an interpenetrating microstructure can be processed by infiltrating metal into a porous ceramic perform. The advantage lies in the flexibility of the microstructure which can be produced, as it is possible to change the metal content and the ligament diameter of the metal. Also, different metals can be infiltrated into the same type of ceramic performs. Depending on the base material one distinguished ceramic-matrix composites (CMC) and metalmatrix composites (MMC). The ceramic matrix composites can be reinforced with ceramic and/or metal inclusions in the form of particles or discontinuous fibres (e.g. whiskers), or layered ceramic coatings or multilayers. The KMM-NoE shall investigate, among other types, metal-ceramic composites with interpenetrating network microstructure like Al2O3/Al (alloys), TiO2/Al (alloys), Al2O3/MexAly (intermetallic compounds). The metal matrix composites (MMC) reinforced with ceramic particles of discontinuous fibres include (i) Ti-based MCC (Ti+SiC or Si3N4) to replace Ti-based superalloys for jet engine fan blades, compressor components, and (ii) Al-based MCC (Al+SiC, TiB2, Si3N4 or Al2O3) for automobile engine blocks. The diamond-like coatings (DLC) on metals constitute another group of metal-matrix composites suitable for medical applications e.g. DLC on Ti-substrate for hip joints. The advantages of metal matrix composites include: Good thermal and electrical conductivity Lower thermal expansion than light metals Moderate density, good strength Decent stiffness and toughness Wear resistance also at elevated temperatures Good damping properties and reliability. The metal ceramic composites provide unusual property combination with advantages over metals and ceramics. These properties can be flexibly tailored depending on application. However, their main deficiencies are the high cost and difficulty of processing.

Instructions: Draw a comparative chart about ceramic and plastics.

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8. Systems and Turn-Key Projects

Post cooling wheel with 30 stations

With its blow molding machines, Kautex Maschinenbau also offers the engineering and supply of peripheral equipment for the automation of all manufacturing steps required to finish the blow molded article. The scope of supply can include fully integrated systems from material preparation to finishing, quality control, filling and palletizing of the finished products. Likewise, manufacturing systems supplied to the automotive industry may include the plastics manufacturing equipment, peripheral equipment for trimming, machining and assembly as well as conveying equipment for the blow molded article. In brief, Kautex Maschinenbau also designs complete turn-key systems and assumes responsibility for their installation and start-up and beyond. Examples include: Automatic loading of inserts, pre-heated if required, into the blow mold or from below into the parison for encapsulation during the blowing process Automatic transfer of the blown article to a deflashing station, automatic deflashing, cutting of additional openings, machining of flanges or sealing surfaces, and automatic welding of assembly components Complete engineering of systems for the production of plastic fuel tanks or drums by a single source, including equipment for post-cooling, deflashing, weighing, leakage testing, labeling, robotic assembly of components or caps and palletizing. High Quality Standard with effective Training worldwide The competence of the customer's operating and maintenance personnel is crucial in order to fully utilize the performance potential and to ensure cost-efficient and trouble-free operation of the equipment. Kautex TRAINING offers basic and advanced courses to the employees of its customers. Training and documentation Even the best performing and most advanced Kautex Maschinenbau blow molding machines are only as good as the personnel that sets them up, operates and maintains them. In addition to a detailed and comprehensible documentation, the competence of the customer's operating and maintenance personnel is crucial in order to fully utilize the performance potential and to ensure cost-efficient, consistent and trouble-free operation of the equipment. For this purpose, Kautex TRAINING offers basic and advanced courses to the employees of its customers. The customer's success is the goal All courses provide a combination of hands-on experience and structured classroom training and are conducted using modern teaching methods and materials. Much emphasis is placed on a systematic approach and the active involvement of each participant is encouraged. A training manual is provided allowing each trainee to keep personal notes during the course. With the modular training concept, Kautex TRAINING prepares the personnel of its customers step by step for an efficient production environment with assured quality and trouble-free operation. In prior consultation with the customer, the exact training needs are determined allowing the trainer to focus on unique requirements of each customer's personnel. Simply put, Kautex TRAINING is practical and effective.

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Training Kautex offers global training focusing on: Optimized machine operation Shortening set-up times Reduced reject rates Process optimization Process technology know-how Preventive machine maintenance programs to increase uptime availability

Instructions: Answer the following questions: a) What kind of text is it? b) What kind of people would be interested in reading this article? What kind of business is Kautex Maschinenbau?

9. Ethics: an overview
The word "ethics" is derived from the Greek word ethos (character), and from the Latin word mores (customs). Together, they combine to define how individuals choose to interact with one another. In philosophy, ethics defines what is good for the individual and for society and establishes the nature of duties that people owe themselves and one another. Most professions have highly detailed and enforceable codes for their respective memberships. Engineering ethics Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics and system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and the ethics of technology. General principles Codes of engineering ethics identify a specific precedence with respect to the engineer's consideration for the public, clients, employers, and the profession. Many engineering professional societies have prepared codes of ethics. Some go back to the early decades of the twentieth century. These have been incorporated to a greater or lesser degree into the regulatory laws of several jurisdictions. While these statements of general principles served as a guide, engineers still require sound judgment to interpret of how the code would apply to specific circumstances. The general principals of the codes of ethics are largely similar across the various engineering societies and chartering authorities of the world, which further extend the code and publishes specific guidance. The following is an example from the American Society of Civil Engineers: Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties. 1. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. 2. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. 3. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. 4. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others. 13

5. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption. 6. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision. Whistleblowing A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the appropriate authority a possible risk to others from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer's directions. According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the failure to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health. In many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the client of the consequences in a forthright matter, and assuring the client takes the engineer's advice. However, the engineer must ensure that the remedial steps are taken and, if they are not, the situation must be reported to the appropriate authority. In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority may not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the duty by making the situation public. As a result, whistleblowing by professional engineers is not an unusual event, and courts have often sided with engineers in such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality considerations that otherwise would have prevented the engineer from speaking out. Conduct There are several other ethical issues that engineers may face. Some have to do with technical practice, but many others have to do with broader considerations of business conduct. These include:

Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors, and contractors Ensuring legal compliance by clients, client's contractors, and others Conflict of interest Bribery and kickbacks, which also may include:

Gifts, meals, services, and entertainment

Treatment of confidential or proprietary information Consideration of the employers assets Outside employment/activities (Moonlighting)

Some engineering societies are addressing environmental protection as a stand-alone question of ethics. The field of business ethics often overlaps and informs ethical decision making for engineers. Instructions: Make up a personal ethics code (as a plastics engineer).

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10. Industrial Design

Industrial design is a combination of applied art and applied science, whereby the aesthetics, ergonomics and usability of products may be improved for marketability and production. The role of an industrial designer is to create and execute design solutions towards problems of form, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development and sales. The objective of this area is to study both function and form, and the connection between product and the user - product as it happens in any other architecture area, being the only difference, that here the professionals that participate in the process are all specialized in small scale design, rather than in other massive colossal equipments like buildings or ships. Architects do not design the gears or motors that make machines move, or the circuits that control the movement (that task is usually attributed to engineers), but they can affect technical aspects through usability design and form relationships. And usually, they partner a whole of other professionals like marketers, to identify and fulfill needs, wants and expectations. "Industrial Design (ID) is the professional service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both user and manufacturer." Design, itself, is often difficult to define to non-designers because the meaning accepted by the design community is not one made of words. Instead, the definition is created as a result of acquiring a critical framework for the analysis and creation of artifacts. One of the many accepted (but intentionally unspecific) definitions of design originates from Carnegie Mellon's School of Design, "Design is the process of taking something from its existing state and moving it to a preferred state." This applies to new artifacts, whose existing state is undefined, and previously created artifacts, whose state stands to be improved. According to the Chartered Society of Designers, design is a force that delivers innovation that in turn has exploited creativity. Their design framework known as the Design Genetic Matrix determines a set of competences in 4 key genes that are identified to define the makeup of designers and communicate to a wide audience what they do. Within these genes the designer demonstrates the core competences of a designer and specific competences determine the designer as an 'industrial designer'. This is normally within the context of delivering innovation in the form of a three dimensional product that is produced in quantity. However the definition also extends to products that have been produced using an industrial process. According to the ICSID (International Council of Societies of Industrial Design), "Design is a creative activity whose aim is to establish the multi-faceted qualities of objects, processes, services and their systems in whole life-cycles. Therefore, design is the central factor of innovative humanization of technologies and the crucial factor of cultural and economic exchange." It is critical to the product development process that the industrial design and engineering aspects of a product are considered simultaneously. This can occur via two methods. The most streamlined method is for the product designer to have an education and/or background that encompasses both industrial design and engineering. Unfortunately, there are very few educational establishments (especially in the United States) that embrace this educational ideology. A survey of engineering and industrial design curricula clearly demonstrates this fault. The other method, which is utilized by most U.S. companies, is to employ or contract with separate teams that focus somewhat independently, with occasional meetings to ensure the primary goals of each team are met or exceeded. The difficulty with the latter process is that there is sometimes a vast disconnect behind the skills, education, and 15

understanding of the two groups. This disconnect can sometimes become extremely cumbersome to the design process, and possibly fatal to the ultimate success of the product. Instructions: Define Industrial design on your own words, and say what elements you would consider when designing a new plastic product.

11. Development of environmental engineering

Ever since people first recognized that their health and well-being were related to the quality of their environment, they have applied thoughtful principles to attempt to improve the quality of their environment. The ancient Harappan civilization utilized early sewers in some cities. The Romans constructed aqueducts to prevent drought and to create a clean, healthful water supply for the metropolis of Rome. In the 15th century, Bavaria created laws restricting the development and degradation of alpine country that constituted the region's water supply. The field emerged as a separate environmental discipline during the middle third of the 20th century in response to widespread public concern about water and pollution and increasingly extensive environmental quality degradation. However, its roots extend back to early efforts in public health engineering. Modern environmental engineering began in London in the mid-19th century when Joseph Bazalgette designed the first major sewerage system that reduced the incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera. The introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage treatment in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities. Environmental impact assessment and mitigation In this division, engineers and scientists use a systemic identification and evaluation process to assess the potential impacts of a proposed project , plans, programs, policies, or legislative actions upon the physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components on environmental conditions.[10] They apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there are likely to be any adverse impacts to water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic impacts, social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts, visual (landscape) impacts, etc. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts. An example of a mitigation measure would be the creation of wetlands in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of wetlands necessary for a road development if it is not possible to reroute the road. The practice of environmental assessment was intitiated on January 1, 1970, the effective date of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in the United States. Since that time, more than 100 developing and developed nations either have planned specific analogous laws or have adopted procedure used elsewhere. NEPA is applicable to all federal agencies in the United States.[10] Water supply and treatment Engineers and scientists work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. They evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses. Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of potable water supply, water is treated to minimize the risk of infectious disease transmission, the risk of non-infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide adequate water 16

pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation. Wastewater conveyance and treatment Water pollution Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to the land through outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such waste into water and convey it from households via sewer systems. Engineers and scientists develop collection and treatment systems to carry this waste material away from where people live and produce the waste and discharge it into the environment. In developed countries, substantial resources are applied to the treatment and detoxification of this waste before it is discharged into a river, lake, or ocean system. Developing nations are striving to obtain the resources to develop such systems so that they can improve water quality in their surface waters and reduce the risk of water-borne infectious disease. There are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. A wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment system consisting of an aeration basin followed by flocculation and sedimentation or an activated sludge system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological nitrogen removal system, and a final disinfection process. The aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by growing bacteria (activated sludge). The secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from the water. The tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more prevalent to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and to disinfect the water before discharge to a surface water stream or ocean outfall. Air quality management Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and combustion processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels. Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, catalytic converters, and various other processes are utilized to remove particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOC), reactive organic gases (ROG) and other air pollutants from flue gases and other sources prior to allowing their emission to the atmosphere. Scientists have developed air pollution dispersion models to evaluate the concentration of a pollutant at a receptor or the impact on overall air quality from vehicle exhausts and industrial flue gas stack emissions. To some extent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes. Instructions: Draw a chart about causes and consequences of pollution. And say how environmental engineering contribute to protect the environment.

12. Property of Plastics

Plastic properties are classified by 5 criteria. The properties mentioned here could be references for plastic selection. However, these properties are subject to change due to temperature or humidity changes. Therefore, it is necessary to account for changes in environmental conditions on selection of plastics. Mechanical properties: Mechanical properties refer to displacement or breakage of plastic due to some mechanical change such as applying some load. Mechanical properties are dependent on the temperature, force (load), and the duration of time the load is applied. It may also be affected by ultraviolet radiation when used outside. 17

Thermal properties: Thermal properties include heat resistance or combustibility. Thermoplastic has a larger coefficient of thermal expansion or combustibility and a smaller thermal conductivity or specific heat than other material such as metals. Chemical properties: Chemical resistance, environmental stress crack resistance , or resistance to environmental change are referred as chemical properties. When a plastic contacts chemicals, there is some kind of change. After having a plastic in contacted with chemicals under no stress for about a week, changes in appearance, weight and size of the plastic are examined. Such changes are referred to as chemical properties. Electric properties: Electric properties are also referred to as electromagnetic properties. Electric properties include insulation, conductivity and electro-static charges. Due to their good insulation property, plastics are often used in electric fields. However, plastics do have a defect; they are easily electrified. Physical properties: Specific gravity, index of refraction and moisture absorption are called physical properties. The specific gravity of the plastic is small, and it varies depending on the character of high polymer , or thermal and mechanical treatment of the plastic. Characteristics of Some Molding Materials Polyamide (Nylon) (PA): Excellent in impact resistance and chemical resistance as well as in electric property and low temperature. It has a higher fusing point, and good thermal resistance. Due to its self-lubricant character, it is often used for bearings of mechanical parts. It is often used for moving parts of machines (bearing, gear, cam) or bolt. Because of its water-absorption character, dimension accuracy may be affected and the material quality may change. So, it needs to be dry enough before molding. Low dissolving (melting) viscosity- watery texture may cause development of flashes. Polypropylene (PP): Lightest specific gravity among all plastics generally used. It has excellent liquidity. Its applied for various gates such as pinpoint gate, direct gate , special gate, etc. No need to dry as it has little water absorption. Molding shrinkage rate changes according to mold temperature. Its often used for extra large molding parts or extremely thin parts Due to its excellent fatigue resistance, it is often used for hinges that are subject to repeated bending. Due to its large shrinkage rate, it may experience deformation if the cooling of the mold is not sufficient. Temperature adjustment must be performed for molding that requires precise dimension. When using the mold that may cause sink marks or holes, injection pressure should be set relatively higher. Molding temperature is usually 40 - 60 .Injection pressure standard is 800 - 1200kgf/ ; however, the highest pressure free of flash is appropriate. The temperature range appropriate for molding is 200 - 300 , and it is better to set up within the higher range. Polyethylene (PE): There are two types of polyethylene: low density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene. Low-density polyethylene is softer than high-density polyethylene. It is excellent for molding. High-density polyethylene has excellent stiffness and impact resistance. Excellent chemical resistance. No need to dry because it does not absorb water. Low-density polyethylene is used for products requiring softness and flexibility. It is often used for complex-shaped plastic or packing material. Low-density polyethylene is also used to improve flow of molding materials. High-density polyethylene is used for cylindrical containers, or for large plastic products such as containers. Higher mold temperature results in the following: molding cycle becomes longer, impact strength is reduced, molding shrinkage becomes higher, and specific gravity increases. Lower mold temperature causes the surface of the plastic to peel off or deform. Higher mold temperature will improve brilliance and appearance of the part. Higher injection pressure will result in uniform temperature of the molten plastic inside the mold. It also enhances the density and strength of the plastic. It is advised to apply low holding pressure after filling the molten plastic.

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Acrylonitrile butadienstylene (ABS): Elastic and unbreakable. Since it is Non-crystalline plastic , it has poor climate resistance. Easy to maintain dimension accuracy, well-balanced material. Relatively easy to perform secondary processing (mechanical treatment or galvanized treatment, solvent sealing, etc.) It is often used for home electric appliances or interior parts. Due to its moisture-absorption characteristics, drying is critical before molding. Otherwise, bubbles or cracks may appear on surface. Thin plastic shapes, where it is hard to fill in the molten plastic, should be avoided. Maintain the mold temperature relatively high, around 60 - 80 to stabilize the temperature. Set injection pressure high as Acrylonitrile butadienstyrene has poor flow. Polycarbonate (PC): High melting point, high melting (fusing) viscosity. Relatively small molding shrinkage rate (0.5 - 0.8%), and not affected by the position of the gates. Does not soften below 150C. Excellent impact strength. It is used for the parts requiring strength or parts subjected to dynamic and severe loads. This plastic needs drying before molding due to its water absorption characteristics; otherwise, appearance or quality may be affected. High mold temperature causes longer molding cycle. Low mold temperature may cause deformation of the part. If injection pressure is too high, the part may deform internally and be easily broken. Mold temperature is appropriate between 85 110C. Higher temperature will lead to better flow and glossy appearance(brilliance). It also reduces deformation of the product. Injection pressure should be set high. Molding temperature should be between 260 300C. Instructions: Draw a graphic organizer to describe the properties of plastic.

13. Electrical resistance and conductance

The electrical resistance of an electrical element measures its opposition to the passage of an electric current; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, measuring how easily electricity flows along a certain path. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S). An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero. The resistance of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it to current through it:

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance R is constant for a given temperature; it does not depend on the amount of current through or the potential difference (voltage) across the object. Such materials are called Ohmic materials. For objects made of ohmic materials the definition of the resistance, with R being a constant for that resistor, is known as Ohm's law. In the case of a nonlinear conductor (not obeying Ohm's law), this ratio can change as current or voltage changes; the inverse slope of a chord to an IV curve is sometimes referred to as a "chordal resistance" or "static resistance".

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Conductors and resistors

A 65- resistor, as identified by its electronic color code (bluegreenblack-gold). An ohmmeter could be used to verify this value. Objects such as wires that are designed to have low resistance so that they transfer current with the least loss of electrical energy are called conductors. Objects that are designed to have a specific resistance so that they can dissipate electrical energy or otherwise modify how a circuit behaves are called resistors. Conductors are made of highly conductive materials such as metals, in particular copper and aluminum. Resistors, on the other hand, are made of a wide variety of materials depending on factors such as the desired resistance, amount of energy that it needs to dissipate, precision, and cost. DC resistance The resistance of a given resistor or conductor grows with the length of conductor and specific resistivity of the material, and decreases for larger cross-sectional area. The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as

where is the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of the conductor measured in square metres [m], (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in siemens per meter (Sm-1), and (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (m). Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current. For purely resistive circuits conductance is related to resistance R by:

For practical reasons, any connections to a real conductor will almost certainly mean the current density is not totally uniform. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires. AC resistance A wire carrying alternating current has a reduced effective cross sectional area because of the skin effect. Adjacent conductors carrying alternating current have a higher resistance than they would in isolation or when carrying direct current, due to the proximity effect. At commercial power frequency, these effects are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as busbars in an electrical substation, or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.

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When an alternating current flows through the circuit, its flow is not opposed only by the circuit resistance, but also by the opposition of electric and magnetic fields to the current change. That effect is measured by electrical reactance. The combined effects of reactance and resistance are expressed by electrical impedance. Instructions: Identify the difference between resistance and conductance. Practice reading the formulas from the reading.

The Characterisation of Casting Wax Rheology

Introduction Investment casting waxes are injected or extruded into tooling cavities to form disposable patterns and related assemblies for subsequent processing in the precision investment casting (PIC) process. The flow characteristics, or rheology, of these waxy materials play a crucial part in determining dimensional and surface quality of the injected part. Traditionally, wax flow has been characterised using a combination of simple viscosity measurement methods and injection trials. Such techniques do provide useful information but can be cumbersome and time consuming to run and tend to generate point data that typically fails to cover the full spectrum of temperatures and shear rates that waxes are subject to in the PIC process. Today, the wax industry has access to powerful computer controlled rheometers that can quickly and accurately characterise the rheology of PIC waxes. This paper examines the pros and cons of the traditional viscosity measurement methods mentioned above and goes on to demonstrate why the author believes a modern computer driven rheometer is the best option for the characterisation of wax rheology. Data is presented illustrating the many uses of such an instrument, including characterising the effect of filler morphology on wax flow, wax rheology at very high and low temperatures and the effect of shear rate on wax behaviour. Viscosity and Rheology Before turning to the various methods used to characterise the flow properties of casting waxes, it is worth spending a little time to explain the differences between viscosity and rheology. Viscosity is a measure of a liquids resistance to flow, i.e. how thick or thin the fluid is. Isaac Newton, the noted British physicist, derived the first mathematical definition of viscosity in the 1600s: Shear stress = viscosity x shear rate Simply put, the amount of deformation or flow exhibited by a fluid is the product of its viscosity and the shear rate or deforming force applied to it. For a given shear rate, a fluid with a low viscosity will flow more readily than a high viscosity liquid. It also follows that knowledge of the shear rate(s) involved is essential when measuring and reporting viscosity data. Instruments that are limited to the measurement of viscous flow of liquids are described as viscometers. Much of the mathematics behind the measurement of viscosity assumes that the liquids under study behave in a linear, Newtonian fashion; the viscosity of a liquid is independent of shear rate, for instance. In the real world, including various investment casting processes, the materials used exhibit more complex behaviours. Filled casting waxes, for instance, are non-Newtonian fluids. They respond to 21

shearing forces with a mixture of elastic, viscous and, possibly, time related behaviours. Rheology is the study of how these complex, real world materials react to stress and a rheometer is a device capable of characterising these visco-elastic properties. Wax Rheology is Important Why are the flow properties of casting waxes so important? Typically, waxes are supplied to the end user in solid form. Obviously, to be of any use at all in the PIC process, they must be melted, or at least softened, and forced into tooling cavities to produce the disposable patterns we are all familiar with. After the solid parts have been assembled and shelled, the pattern and sprue wax components must be eliminated from the shell before further processing steps can occur the waxes are again liquefied (by autoclave or flash firing unit) and gravity is used to drain the molten wax from the shell cavities. In both of these crucial steps, the flow characteristics of the waxes involved are vital. During pattern manufacture, the wax blend must flow into the tool cavity as efficiently as possible, yielding sound, dimensionally accurate, defect free parts requiring minimal hand finishing. Waxes that are too viscous can crack delicate ceramic cores, cause cold shuts, form flow and knit lines, etc. On the other hand, blends that are too fluid can deposit fillers in process equipment and may splash inside the tooling during injection, entraining air. Dewax behaviour is also important. A viscous sprue wax can retard shell evacuation, leading, perhaps, to shell cracking. A low viscosity pattern wax may, as mentioned above, deposit filler leading to potential burn out issues. At the very least, measuring wax viscosity will allow the manufacturer / user to make an assessment of lot-to-lot consistency. At best, rheology data can be used to tailor a blend to meet specific process requirements. So, having established its a good thing to characterise a waxs rheology, how do we go about it? Ideally, we require an instrument that facilitates rheological measurement across the temperature range that PIC waxes are exposed to during processing. In the next section, we look at a variety of techniques and instruments that are used to characterise casting wax viscosity / rheology in the industry today. Instructions: Summarize the information. Include the main idea and supporting information.

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Reference
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4963354_plastic-manufacturing-process.html http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/Imagnet.html http://www.talktalk.co.uk/business-news/features/patent.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_planning http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_of_business http://www.kmm-vin.eu/Research/MetalCeramicComposites/tabid/67/Default.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics http://www.ourcommunity.com.au/management/view_help_sheet.do?articleid=739 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering http://www.nttd-es.co.jp/e-trainer/en/mold/kiso/sample/step8/index8.htm Gebhard Schramm, Thermo Haake GmbH, Kahlsruhe, A Practical Approach to Rheology and Rheometry, 2nd edition, Germany.

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