University of Ljubljana Faculty of Arts Department of English

THE END OF THE PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY

by Jan Hacin

A paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the course Introduction to Academic Writing and Presentation Techniques

Supervisor: Izr. Prof. Dr. Gaper Ilc

Date of submission: 20. 2. 2012

Table of Contents
Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 Abstract-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i 1. Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2. The Ptolemaic dynasty's end: a comparison between the presentation in Gillian Bradshaw's Cleopatra's Heir and actual historical events the background-----------2 3. Cleopatra VII. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 3.1. Mark Antony and Cleopatra-----------------------------------------------------------4 3.2. Cleopatra's death-----------------------------------------------------------------------6 4. Ptolemy XV. Caesarion---------------------------------------------------------------------8 4.1. The possibility of Caesarion being the son of Julius Caesar-----------------------8 4.2. Caesarion's death----------------------------------------------------------------------9 5. Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------------------------12 List of references-----------------------------------------------------------------------------14

Abstract
This paper compares the characters and events in Gillian Bradshaw's novel Cleopatra's Heir to historical facts about the last years and deaths of Cleopatra VII and her son Ptolemy XV Caesarion, the last two of the Ptolemaic dynasty who were co-rulers of Egypt in the time of Hellenization. Historical facts are obtained from several classical texts and modern historical works. The section on Cleopatra discusses her relationship with Mark Antony and the manner of her death. Results show that Cleopatra's relationship with Antony was one of the major causes for the war with the Roman emperor Octavian. By comparing the two versions of Cleopatra's death and the arguments provided for them, we can assume that she did not die from a cobra bite; most likely, she used some kind of poison. The section on Caesarion discusses the possibility of him being Julius Caesar's son, and the reason for his death. Although it is hard for historians to deduce the truth about these matters from various historical sources, it is safe to say that there is a high possibility of Caesar really being Caesarion's father. That he never acknowledged it was most likely because he wanted to avoid negative public opinion. Octavian ordered Caesarion's death in order to eliminate any potential threat of the supposed son of Caesar. Bradshaw's book mostly follows the historical facts, although, concerning Cleopatra's death, it only mentions the story with the snake. It also depicts the Romans' denial of Caesarion as being Julius Caesar's son.

1. Introduction
The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Macedonian Greek royal family, which ruled over Egypt from 305 B.C. to 30 B.C. Their reign began with Ptolemy I. He was one of Alexander's most trusted generals, who divided among themselves the territory of the previous great empire. Egypt was one of the most powerful Hellenistic kingdoms for quite some time, until it fell to Rome's power in 30 B.C. The last two of the family to rule over the kingdom were Cleopatra VII and her son Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Cleopatra had great plans for her partnership with Rome and was able to charm two of the great Roman leaders the dictator Julius Caesar, and the triumvir Mark Antony. She bore children to Antony, and Caesarion was the supposed son of Caesar. The lives of Cleopatra and Caesarion, however, ended tragically, with suicide and murder. This seminar paper compares the fall of the dynasty, as recorded in historical sources, to Gillian Bradshaw's novel Cleopatra's Heir, which proposes the question of what would happen if Ptolemy Caesarion had escaped his death. By comparing the representations of characters and events in this book to different classical texts and modern historical works, the paper focuses on Cleopatra and Caesarion, their last years and the circumstances surrounding their deaths. Section 2 offers the historical background of the events and shortly summarizes Bradshaw's book. Section 3 discusses Cleopatra, her relationship with Mark Antony and her death. It also attempts to answer the question of how Cleopatra really died, which has mystified historians since antiquity. Section 4 focuses on Caesarion, the possibility of him being Julius Caesar's son and the reason for the boy's death. The section ends with a short explanation of what happened to his siblings. Section 5 sums up the paper.

2. The Ptolemaic dynasty's end: a comparison between the presentation in Gillian Bradshaw's Cleopatra's Heir and actual historical events the background
During his short, thirteen years long reign (336 323 B.C.), Alexander III of Macedon carried out an extraordinary military campaign, leading his army across the eastern Mediterranean all the way to western India. He conquered the Persian Empire, which was a previously thought impossible dream of Greek intellectuals. His unexpected death at the age of 32 aborted any plans he may have had and caused four decades of civil war between his generals. In place of the previous great empire was a series of kingdoms ruled by Macedonian dynasties. The history of the Ptolemaic dynasty, also known as the Lagids or Lagidae 1, began in 305 B.C. with Ptolemy I, who controlled the kingdom of Egypt. He secured Egypt's territory and greatly increased its wealth. His ancestors continued his work and, over the decades and centuries, Egypt remained one of the superior Hellenistic kingdoms. In the meantime, however, Rome was clearly becoming the dominant power in the Mediterranean and started suspecting Egypt as one of its potential threats. To strengthen his own position, Ptolemy VIII, in his will, named Rome as his heir and that was a practice later repeated. (Burstein, 2004, p. 1-11) The last Lagid who had power over Egypt was Cleopatra VII. "And yet, she was [not] quite the last." Following the tradition, she made her infant son Ptolemy XV Caesar (the populace called him "Little Caesar" Caesarion in Greek) king and coruler. She claimed he was Julius Caesar's son, although the Romans denied it at all times. Cleopatra's plans for partnership with Rome ended with Caesar's death. Mark Antony, the man she chose to replace him, was defeated by Octavian, Caesar's heir and the first Roman emperor. Octavian did not want the supposed son of Julius Caesar to be a potential threat. When he conquered Egypt in 30 B.C., he wanted him dead and Cleopatra taken prisoner. (Bradshaw, 2002, p. 10) Gillian Bradshaw's Cleopatra's Heir is a fictitious historical novel which poses a question of what would happen if the son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar escaped
1

Ptolemy I was the supposed son of Lagus, a descendant of the Macedonian royal family (Bennett, Lagus, n.d.)

death. The story begins with Caesarion waking up from an epileptic seizure (the disease was the author's invention) after the Roman attack on his camp. Because the disease has been hidden from the public, the Romans think he is dead and he is able to escape unnoticed. On the way, he almost dies of exhaustion but is saved by an Egyptian merchant named Ani, who decides to take care of him, at least until his wounds recover. With his family's cause lost, Caesarion almost abandons all hope, but eventually decides to travel with Ani back to Alexandria in order to receive some help from his mother's supporters, and to see if he can possibly help his siblings. While travelling, he meets with Romans a few times, but manages to keep his identity hidden. Ani and his family eventually grow on him, especially the daughter Melanthe, whom he falls in love with. They reach Alexandria, but after being there for some time, Caesarion has a major epileptic seizure in public. One of the people who notice that is Areios Didymos, a good friend of Octavian, who decides to take the boy to him. Octavian interrogates Caesarion and Ani, and at first still feels that the son of Cleopatra is a potential threat to him, but is eventually convinced to let him go, on one condition: Caesarion must keep his fake identity as Arion and live with Ani's family. The boy accepts this proposal and goes on with his life.

3. Cleopatra VII.
Cleopatra VII, the last Macedonian Greek queen of Egypt, was born in 69 B.C. as the second child of Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos; the identity of her mother is unknown2. We also do not know much about her childhood and teenage years. As stated by Burstein (2004, p. 11), "[s]he suddenly emerges on the historical scene in 50 [B.C.] as a clear-header, resourceful, and, above all, ambitious young queen fully able to match wits with her rivals and to engage the interest of Romans such as Julius Caesar." In Bradshaw's book, Cleopatra is on several occasions described as an intelligent, graceful, passionate, brave, extraordinary woman. When a priest has a conversation about her with Caesarion, he says: "I thought her the greatest and most godlike being I have ever encountered[,]" (p. 202). Even her greatest enemy, the
2

Historians generally assume that Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII's sister and wife was her mother. The geographer Strabo, however, noted that she was illegitimate. (Burstein, 2004, p. 11)

Roman emperor Octavian, highly respects her: "She was an extraordinary woman. Even at the end, as a prisoner. When she was in a room, everyone else seemed to fade. A glorious creature" (p. 418). Plutarch describes the queen's magnificent presence, even compares it to portraits of the goddess Aphrodite. According to him, the way she conversed was charming, persuasive, sweet and stimulating. He also points out her ability to speak several different languages (The Life of Antony, par. 26-27) Cleopatra, as many of her ancestors, identified herself with Egyptian gods, claiming to be the human incarnation of the goddess Isis, mother of Horus, who represents Caesarion. The father of Horus, in this case Julius Caesar, was Osiris, whom the Greeks saw as a version of Dionysos. Roller (2010, p. 116-117) states that Julius Caesar took upon himself divine characteristics even before his death, as did his successor Mark Antony, who called himself the New Dionysos and ordered that others should address him in the same way.

3.1. Mark Antony and Cleopatra

In 41 B.C. Mark Antony, one of the three triumvirs who ruled over Rome, summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus3 for questioning. She charmed him so much that he decided to spend the next winter with her in Alexandria (Plutarch, The Life of Antony, par. 28-30; Appian, Civil Wars, par. 5). In 40 B.C., she gave birth to two of his children, the twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II. Four years later he made Alexandria his new home. After Antony conquered Armenia in 34 B.C., he donated his territory and armies to Cleopatra and her children. He recognized Caesarion as Julius Caesar's legitimate son. Octavian exploited this and launched a fierce propaganda against him, declaring him a traitor of Rome. Antony severed the last link between him and Octavian by divorcing his wife Octavia and marrying Cleopatra. By doing so, he clearly defied

Tarsus was a historic city in south-central Turkey, capital of the province of Cilicia (Wikipedia, 2012)

Octavian and in 32 B.C. both sides started their preparations for war. (Burstein, 2004, p. 29) In Cleopatra's Heir, Caesarion thinks about Antony on several occasions. He remembers him as "a loud, swaggering man, vigorous, crude, and inclined to drunkenness." He does not know what his mother ever saw in the man (p. 283). After their defeat at Actium in 31 B.C., Cleopatra and Antony returned to Alexandria, where they spent the last year of their lives. Antony was most of the time depressed and suicidal. In the meantime, Cleopatra took command of the situation and tried to find a way to save her kingdom. When Caesarion has a conversation with the merchant Ani, he is told that, according to rumours, Cleopatra tried to sail off to the East with all her treasure and "make herself queen of somewhere else", but the ships were burned (p. 43). Roller (2010, p. 142) also claims that the queen planned to hand over her throne to Caesarion and take her troops and money in order to start a life somewhere else, perhaps even in India. Her plans, however, were aborted when Malchos of Natabaea burned her fleet and she was forced to stay in Alexandria. What followed were desertion, treachery and deceit. This does not seem to surprise Caesarion in Cleopatra's Heir, when he asks Ani about the gossip concerning Alexandria. Ani tells him that the Alexandrian army deserted to Octavian without a fight, and they have been doing so ever since it became clear that the war is over; even the Egyptians, who were expected to be loyal. Antony thought that Cleopatra was deserting him as well, and he started to run around threatening to kill her. She was so frightened that she spread a false rumour of her death, which upset Antony so much that he committed suicide. Caesarion is not at all surprised hearing such news, because he has been hearing that story for years (p. 66-67). Roller (2010, p. 145) claims that Antony thought the desertions were all Cleopatra's work. Apparently Cleopatra sent the message of her death to Antony 5

because she wanted to plant the idea of suicide in his mind. She knew he had threatened to kill himself at least twice before and this time, he responded as expected. Bradshaw provides an explanation as to why Antony and, especially Cleopatra, ended their lives so tragically. In the words of Octavian, Cleopatra was mistaken in her view of the importance of public opinion. She and Antony might have survived, if their people remained loyal but everyone deserted them when the war was visibly over. Octavian says that Cleopatra "never cared whether she was hated, so long as she was obeyed". He, on the other hand, cares and hopes to rule longer than her (p. 414).

3.2. Cleopatra's death

Even after her defeat and Antony's suicide, Cleopatra remained a proud queen. Octavian planned to take her back to Rome to march in a triumph, as was the Roman tradition4. She refused to be humiliated, and decided to escape by taking her own life. There are two most common theories about her death. The snakebite theory (Cassius Dio, Roman History: Book 51, par. 14; Plutarch, The Life of Antony, par. 85-86) is the most famous one. However, many historians claim or mention the possibility that she merely took some kind of poison (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 251; Cassius Dio, Roman History: Book 51, par. 14; Burstein, 2004, p. 31-32; Roller, 2010, p. 147-149). In her book, Bradshaw uses only the snakebite theory. A priest tells Caesarion the news of his mother's death: "The queen is dead. [.] They say that she had a serpent smuggled to her in a basket of figs." (p. 193) Plutarch (The Life of Antony, par. 86) claims that no one ever really knew the truth, although he mentions both theories. He said that the snake was, according to the first theory, smuggled in either a basket of figs or a water jar. The other theory is that she carried poison in a hollow comb, which she kept in her hair at all times. And yet, there was no sign of poison on her body, or any trace of a snake found in the
4

The Roman Triumph was the crowning achievement of a Roman general. It was, in a way, a parade of the Roman army, along with captured leaders, slaves and treasure. It was a grand spectacle, but often very shameful for the captured people. (Roman Triumph, n.d.)

chamber, where she died. Some said that there were two slight and indistinct punctures on her arm. It seems that Octavian believed the snakebite story and used the image of a snake clinging to Cleopatra in his triumph. Cassius Dio (Roman History: Book 51, par. 14) is also unsure on the matter and accepts both possibilities. However, he mentions something Plutarch does not. According to him, some people described the poison in her comb as something that "in ordinary circumstances [] would not injure the body at all, but if it came into contact with even a drop of blood would destroy the body very quietly and painlessly[,]" which could explain why there were no signs of it on her body. Burstein (2004, p. 31-32) prefers the poison theory and claims that it is difficult to imagine how a cobra could have been smuggled in to Cleopatra, or how it could have been responsible for the death of her and two of her servants. Roller (2010, p. 147-149) gives several arguments as to why the snake story is probably untrue. First of all, Dio Cassius and Plutarch ignore the fact that the curious basket of figs would have been very large (the Egyptian cobra is several feet long). Second, no source discusses the difficulty of bringing the snake to Cleopatra and getting it to perform exactly as wished. "[I]t would be a complex method of death with little certainty of success." As Roller points out, the story quickly entered the world of poetry and drama either because Octavian believed it or because it was suitably dramatic, and soon started to influence historians such as Plutarch and Dio Cassius. Hlbl (2001, p. 293) claims that the story has metaphorical overtones, the ultimate victory of Egyptian ways over Rome. We can assume that the story with the cobra is false. There are simply too many opposing arguments. We are not even sure whether Octavian himself believed it, even though he used the image in his triumph. It was quite possibly his way of honouring the memory of Cleopatra. They were enemies, nevertheless they respected each other, and people would sooner forget the story with some kind of poison than the one with the famous Egyptian cobra. Cleopatra may have set her goals too high, which resulted in her defeat and death, yet she remains a symbol of womanly power, wits and sexuality.

4. Ptolemy XV. Caesarion

Caesarion was born in 47 B.C. in Egypt as the son of Cleopatra VII and, quite possibly, Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination in 44 B.C., his mother associated him in the throne as "Ptolemy Caesar, [] [Theos] Philopator Philometor []" (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 244) "the god who loves his father and his mother" (Burstein, 2004, p. 22). As Mahaffy states, "Caesarion is one of those figures about whom we should gladly learn more, but about whom history preserves an obstinate silence" (p. 252) He was co-ruler with his mother until 30 B.C., when he was killed by order of Octavian. In her book, Bradshaw inflicts Caesarion with epilepsy, which is mostly referred to as the 'sacred disease'5. As explained in the afterword, it is her attempt to make the character more sympathetic to the reader by giving him a disability, which he has to overcome. We have to consider that there is the possibility of the real Caesarion having such a condition. His supposed father Julius Caesar was, as is known, epileptic and the disease is inheritable (p. 444). Even if it were true, though, history would probably have little to no record of it, as it is not something Cleopatra would want to be known. Epileptic seizures are a frightening sight and, as shown in the book, people in Egypt at that time would see a man inflicted with such a condition as weak and unable to be king.

4.1. The possibility of Caesarion being the son of Julius Caesar

Soon after Julius Caesar's stay in Alexandria in the winter of 48-47 B.C., Cleopatra bore her first son and claimed him to be Caesar's, which is why she named him Caesarion "Little Caesar" in Greek. Caesar never officially acknowledged him, and neither did the other Romans. It would be shameful for him to have an illegitimate son with a non-Roman woman,

This phrase was utilized by Hippocrates in his writings. The term has been encouraged by Greeks who saw people with the disease as beings possessed by gods or a spirit. (Garretson, n.d.)

while his Roman wife Octavia was childless for more than a decade (Roller, 2010, p. 70). Cleopatra's Heir proposes another reason property. When Caesarion has a conversation about his father, he says that the main reason why Romans do not acknowledge marriage or children with foreigners is that they do not want Roman property in foreign hands. He also mentions the law which prohibits any Roman to make a will leaving any property to a foreigner (p. 256-257). Caesar followed this law and denied the rumours of Caesarion in his will (Adams, par. 20). According to some Greek writers, Caesarion had similar looks and other characteristics as Julius Caesar. Mark Antony supposedly announced to the senate that Caesar acknowledged the boy and Caesar's friends knew of this (Suetonius, The Life of Julius Caesar, par. 52.). There were rumours that Caesar was seeking legislation to marry Cleopatra and move the capital of the empire from Rome to Alexandria (Burstein, 2004, p. 21). There is a high possibility that Caesarion really was the only child of Julius Caesar. However, Caesar's position at the time is understandable: declaring he had a son with a foreigner would do him no good; it would only stir up trouble. In all likelihood, he wanted to keep quiet about it, but Cleopatra's repetitive assertions made it harder for him to do so; she had great plans for her partnership with Rome. In late 30 B.C., Antony and Octavian started a propaganda war in which they tried to, on one side, prove, and on the other, reject Caesar's role in this matter. They complicated it so much that, today, it is impossible to know what Caesar's actual response was (Roller, 2010, p. 70).

4.2. Caesarion's death

In Cleopatra's Heir, Caesarion and his group are sent to flee from Alexandria to the port in Berenike6, where a ship is supposed to wait for them and take them somewhere to the East. Caesarion's tutor Rhodon, however, decides that the war is over and that there have been enough lives lost. At one point, he lets the group go ahead without him and goes to the Romans. He takes them to the camp and tries to take Caesarion back to Alexandria. Caesarion responds in shock and almost dies on a spear, while going into a major epileptic seizure. The Romans, without realizing that he is in fact having the seizure, set the bodies of the boy and three other men on a funeral pyre. When Caesarion awakes, there is no one around to notice it, and he uses the opportunity to escape. Later on, he sees the pyre burn from a distance, which, to him, indicates that no one noticed his escape. The real Caesarion was, almost certainly, killed in the summer of 30 B.C. by order of Octavian. Plutarch's version of the story claims that he was sent by his mother into India, passing through Ethiopia. Rhodon persuaded him to go back on the ground that Octavian invited him to take the kingdom. In Alexandria, however, he was put to death (Life of Antony, pars. 81-82.). Dio Cassius provides a different account of his fate: while fleeing to Ethiopia, Caesarion was overtaken on the road and murdered (Roman History, Book 51, par. 15.). Many historians prefer to quote Plutarch's version. (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 253; Burstein, 2004, p. 32; Roller, 2010, p. 150) According to Plutarch, the Alexandrian philosopher Areios Didymos said that "Not a good thing were a Caesar too many". This piece of advice supposedly ended Octavian's deliberations on the matter of how to handle Caesarion when he was brought back to Alexandria (Life of Antony, par. 81). This story is, in the same manner, presented in Bradshaw's book. When Caesarion once again meets Rhodon in Alexandria, he is told that the emperor did consider letting him live, but he was persuaded to do otherwise by Areios. Areios was a philosopher who felt he did not obtain the royal appointment he deserved in Alexandria. He departed for Rome to advise Octavian on Alexandrian issues, and his hostility towards the royal house was quite possibly the reason he advised Octavian to
6

Also known as Berenice or Berenice Troglodytica, an ancient seaport of Egypt on the west coast of the Red Seas, founded by Ptolemy II, who named it after his mother, Berenice I of Egypt. (Wikipedia, 2012)

10

kill Cleopatra's son. Caesarion does not believe Rhodon's story, saying "Octavian probably put it about to deflect criticism from himself []" (295). Bradshaw's book explains Octavian's probable motives for the order of Caesarion's death, when the young emperor has a conversation with the merchant Ani: "Leaving that young man alive would be like defeating an army and leaving it intact with all its weapons and its paychest, [] He is a threat to peace as long as he draws breath." Especially now, if people find out that a king has returned from the dead, it would cause too much trouble. Ani, who has become very close friends with Caesarion, is able to persuade Octavian that the boy is no longer a threat to him. The emperor eventually decides to trust him on the matter and allows Caesarion to live on as Arion, while Ani takes on the responsibility of ensuring he never reveals his real identity (p. 421). As for Caesarion's siblings, Antony's children Ptolemy Philadelphus, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, Octavian says that he will have them adorn his triumph in a respectable manner, then take them back to Rome, where they will be raised by his sister Octavia, Antony's former wife, along will the other children of Antony. Caesarion knows of Octavia's reputation for piety, grace, good behaviour and is pleased with the outcome, although he knows he would miss them, especially the little boy Philadelphus. (p. 431) As evidence shows, Cleopatra's other children were, in reality, raised by Octavia (Burstein, 2004, p. 32; Roller, 2010, p. 150; Plutarch: Life of Antony, par. 87.). We do not know anything of their fate after that, except for Cleopatra Selene, who married Juba II, King of Mauretania in North Africa (Mahaffy, 1899, p. 253; Burstein, 2004, p. 32). According to Mahaffy, Juba was a friend of Octavian, who visited Egypt and was impressed with Cleopatra Selene's beauty and the tradition of her race. Octavian allowed Juba and his wife to take Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus with them to their new African home (p. 253). Burstein (2004, p. 32) adds that their son Ptolemy succeeded Juba and ruled his kingdom until 40 A.D., when he was executed by the Roman emperor Caligula. His death finally ended the long line of Ptolemies.

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Ptolemy XV Caesarion's death was inevitable. Although there is no record of him ever claiming to be the heir of Julius Caesar, or his intentions, he was the figure which needed to be removed in order for the young Roman emperor Octavian to ensure peace. Romans were very proud of their heritage and they despised the idea of a foreigner being the son of the glorified Caesar. They saw Cleopatra as a seductress, who was responsible for Caesar and Antony's miscalculated actions. The population of Ptolemaic Egypt saw the royal family as descendants of the great Alexander; they may have even seen them as godlike beings. As long as even one of them lived, there would be the potential threat of rebellion. Although the dynasty ended in suicide and murder, they were a great line of people, who managed to overcome many desperate situations.

5. Conclusion

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The aim of this paper was to compare the representation of characters and events Bradshaw's novel Cleopatra's Heir to actual historical facts. The conclusions on the topic were made using several classical texts and modern works by historians. Cleopatra was a great woman with powerful presence. She was able to charm two of the great Romans, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Her relationship with Antony and her misunderstanding of the power of public opinion was, however, what ended her reign. The manner of her death has troubled many historians and we will probably never find out the truth, but it is safe to assume that she did not die of snakebite. This story became popular because of its highly dramatic value. The only other rational explanation is that she used some kind of poison, which is quite believable. She might have had a child with Caesar, and this is another subject still debated upon. We can assume that there is a high possibility of it being true and that Caesarion was Julius Caesar's only son. He never officially acknowledged it, though, and even if it were true, his denial is understandable. His acknowledgment would only negatively affect public opinion and cause trouble. Caesar's heir Octavian understood the importance of public opinion and, therefore, ordered Caesarion's death once he conquered Alexandria. The boy was a figure, which needed removing in order to ensure peace. The end of the Ptolemaic dynasty came about tragically, but was expected. Further research on the topic could more closely examine Caesarion and his relationship with Cleopatra, although the resources for such a research would be quite limited. The possible son of two great people is an interesting topic to research.

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List of references
Adams, John Paul. 2010. The Life of Augustus: by Nicolaus of Damascus. http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html (accessed February 19, 2012). Appian. 1913. The Roman History: The Civil Wars. Translated by Horace White. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge (US): Harvard University Press. Bennett, Chris. n.d. Lagus. http://www.tyndalehouse.com/egypt/ptolemies/lagos_fr.htm February 19, 2012). Bradshaw, Gillian. 2002. Cleopatra's Heir. New York: Tom Doherty Associates. Burstein, Stanley M. 2004. The Reign of Cleopatra. Westport (US): Greenwood Press. Cassius Dio. 1917. Roman History: Book 51. Translated by Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge (US): Harvard University Press. Garretson, H. n.d. The Sacred Disease. http://www.innominatesociety.com/Articles/The%20Sacred%20Disease.htm (accessed February 19, 2012) Hlbl, Gnther. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: Routledge. Mahaffy, J.P. 1899. A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic dynasty. London: Methuen & Co. Plutarch. 1920. The Parallel Lives: The Life of Antony. Translated by Bernadote Perrin. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge (US): Harvard University Press. Roller, Duane W. 2010. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford (US): Oxford University Press. Roman Triumph. n.d. http://www.unrv.com/culture/roman-triumph.php (accessed February 19, 2012) Suetonius. 1913. The Lives of the Caesars: The Life of Julius Caesar. Translated by J.C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge (US): Harvard University Press. Wikipedia contributors, "Tarsus," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin (accessed February 19, 2012). Wikipedia contributors, "Berenice Troglodytica," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica (accessed February 19, 2012). 14 (accessed