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Proposition. (2.5) For every point P , there exist at least two lines through P . Proof. By I-3, there exist three distinct, noncollinear points. Let these be denoted A, B, and C. Consider the line l incident with A and B. Suppose P is incident with l. By I-1, there exists a unique line m incident with P and C. Since C is not incident with l, we have l = m; thus, l and m are distinct lines through P . Now, suppose P is not incident with l. By I-1, there exists a unique line m incident with both P and A, and there exists a unique line n incident with P and B. Suppose m = n. Then m = n is incident with A and with B; i.e., m = n = l. This contradicts our assumption that P is not incident with l. Therefore, m and n are distinct lines; both are incident with P.
Exercise 7.
An interpretation satisfying I-1, I-2: This is a two-point interpretation. Consider {A, B}, the set of points in the model. Let a line be a subset of the points containing exactly two points. We have just one line: l = {A, B}. The points A and B satisfy I-1. The line l satises I-2. I-3 is not satised, since there do not exist three points. An interpretation satisfying I-2, I-3: Consider a set {A, B, C, D}; let lines be given by the elements of the set. Let points be given by subsets of the lines containing exactly two elements. Then the points in the model are: {A, B} {C, D} {B, C} {A, C} {A, D} {B, D}
Thus, each line is incident with at least three points, so I-2 is satised. Additionally, if we consider the points {A, B}, {B, C}, and {C, D}, we see that no line is incident with all three of them, so I-3 is satised. However, since {A, B} and {C, D} have no line incident with both points, I-1 does not hold. An interpretation satisfying I-1, I-3. Let {A, B, C} be the set of points, and let lines be given by the subsets of points {A, B}, {B, C}, {C, A}, and {C}. Then the following are true. I-1 holds, since every pair of points gives a line. I-3 holds, since A, B, and C are noncollinear. However, I-1 does not hold, since the line given by the subset {C} is incident with only one point. 2
Exercise 9.
(a) Points are dots on a sheet of paper, lines are circles drawn on the paper, and incidence means that the dot lies on the circle. I-1 is not satised, because two dots/points do not determine a unique circle/line. I-2 is satised, since any non-degenerate circle drawn on the paper includes at least two dots. I-3 is satised, since three dots marked on the paper with a straightedgeone at each end, and one near the middle of the straightedgedo not lie on a circle; i.e., these points are not incident with a single line. In the absence of more formalized notions of sheet of paper and circles drawn on the paper, this interpretation has the hyperbolic parallel property. Here, it reads as: For every circle l and every dot P not on l, there exist at least two circles through P that do not intersect l. The only objection that arises is of this type: if P is the dot exactly in the corner of, for example, a rectangular sheet of paper, then no circle drawn on the paper contains P . However, since the interpretation is not formalized enough for analysis-style arguments, we take it that the hyperbolic parallel property holds. (b) Points are lines in 3-space, lines are planes in 3-space, and incidence is the usual notion of a line lying in a plane. I-1 does not hold, since, if points P and Q are modeled by lines in 3-space that are skew, then there is no line (i.e., plane in 3-space) that is incident with both P and Q. I-2 holds trivially: every plane contains an innite number of lines. I-3 holds, as in the case of two coplanar lines (here, points) and a third, non-coplanar line that intersects these two in exactly one point (representing a third point that is not collinear with the rst two). None of the three parallel postulates hold, since, if a line (=point) does not intersect a given plane (is not incident with a given line), then there exists a unique parallel plane through that line; but in the case where the intersection of the plane and the line is a point, every plane containing the line intersects the given plane in a line. (c) Same as (b), but all lines and planes pass through a xed ordinary point O. I-1 holds, since any two distinct planes that share a point intersect in a line. I-2 holds, as in (b). I-3 holds. An example of three noncollinear points is given by the pairwise intersections of any three distinct planes that meet in the single point O. The elliptic parallel property holds, since, given a plane (=line), the only points not lying on it (i.e., lines not lying in it) are those lines that intersect the plane at O; any second plane containing such a line must intersect the given plane in a line (=point).
(d) Points are points inside a circle; lines are chords; incidence means a point lies on the chord in the usual sense. I-1 holds: the unique line incident with any two points is a segment of the ordinary unique line containing the two points, with the endpoints of the segment being the lines intersection with the circle. I-2 holds, as any chord contains an innite number of interior points of the circle. I-3 holds, since we can choose any two points on a chord, and a third not lying on the chord. The hyperbolic parallel property holds. If l is a chord, and P is a point not lying on l (even if P is very close to l), there exist an innite number of chords containing P that do not intersect l. (e) Points are pairs of antipodal points on a sphere; lines are great circles; incidence means the pair of points lies on the great circle. I-1 holds, since two distinct pairs of antipodal points determine a unique great circle. I-2 holds: any great circle contains an innite number of pairs of antipodal points. I-3 holds. Given any two points and the line they determine, there exists a point not on the line; thus, the three points mentioned are noncollinear. The elliptic parallel property holds. Given any great circle l and a pair of antipodal points P, P not lying on l, any great circle m containing P and P intersects l: there are no parallel great circles.
Exercise 12.
For the rst part of this problem, see Exmaple 6 on page 60.
For the second part of the problem, consider following argument: By A-3, we know there are 3 non-colinear pionts, call them A, B, and C. {A,B} determines a unique line, which by our assumption contains another point (this point can not be C), call this point D. {B,C} determines a unique line, which by our assumption contains another point (this point can not be A, and can not be D), call the point E. {A,C} determines a unique line, which by our assumption contains another point (this point can not be B, D, or E), call this point F. Now we have lines {A,B,D}, {B,C,E}, and {A,C,F}. C is a point outside {A,B,D}, by the Euclidean parallel property, there is a line passing C that is parallel to {A,B,D}. This line contains two points other than C, and these two points can not be A, B, C, D, E, F (why?), thus must be two new points, call them G,H. B is a point outside of {A,C,F}, there is a line passing B that is parallet to {A,C,F}. This line contains two points other than B, and these two points can not be A-F, and can not be G and H simultanously, so there must be a new point, call it I, and the new line can be choosen as {B,G,I}. A is not a point in {B,C,E}, there is a line passing A that is parallet to {B,C,E}, this line can be choosen as {A,H,I}.
Finally, By A-1, for any pair of points there is a line passing them. We add lines {E,F,I}, {D,F,G}, {D,E,H}, {A,E,G}, {B,F,H} and {C,D,I}. Above we found a model of 9 points and 12 lines. By construction, these points and lines are all neccessory, thus it is the smallest model.