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Chemistry: Chemical for consumer

Nama : ahmad naqiuddin bin azli Kelas : 5 maju

Soap and Detergents Introduction


1. Cleansing agent are chemical substance used to remove grease and dirts. 2. There are two type of cleansing agents : a. Soaps b. Detergents 3. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or vegetable oil by saponification. Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consist of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in nonpolar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water. The structure of a soap molecule is represented below: O II CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-C-O-Na+ Non-polar hydrpcarbon chain ionic end (soluble in nonpolar substances) (soluble in water). Detergents are structurally similar to soaps, but differ in the water-soluble portion. Three examples of detergents are shown below. Soap The History of Soap Manufacturing 1. Soap have been used for than 3000 years. It was recorded that the Babylonians were making soaps around 2800 B.C. 2. The Purifying Oils were recorded on Hebrew tablets in 4000 B.C.

3. In ancients time, soap made from the ashes of plants which contain sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is then boiled with the animal fats to produce soap. 4. Ash + Lime (K2CO3) boiled (CaO) (KOH) boiled Soap Caustic Potash

Caustic Potash + Animal Fats

5. In 1861, the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the process to make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium carbonte. 6. This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium carbonate cheaply for industrial uses. Sodium carbonate( often called soda or soda ash) is used for making glass, soaps and detergents. 7. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was noted for his research in the composition of animal fats is composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This discovery contributed to the rapid.

Preparation of soap by saponification 1. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is known as saponification. 2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occuring ester molecules. When fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, saponification occurs and the ester molecules are broken into soap and glycerol. Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis Soap + Glycerol

3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From the chemist aspect, soaps are sodium salt or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule).

4. Some examples of soaps are shown below. a. Sodium palmtate, C15H31COONa b. Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa c. Sodium stearate, C7H35COONa Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptic are added to the soaps to enhance their marketability. 5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in animal fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and mixture of sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained. 6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the reaction mixture. i. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a result, precipitation of soap occurs. ii. The properties of soap depend on: a. The type of alkaline used for saponification b. The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used 7. Soap produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced from potassium hydroxide are soft. 8. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) are used for making soap. The structure of soap molecule 1. When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions and carboxylate ions (RCOO) 2. For example, sodium stearate dissolves in water to form sodium ions and stearate ion. 3. Consist of two parts : the head and the tail. The head is negatively charged and the tail is a long hydrocarbon chain.

4. The head contains the CO ions which dissolves readily in water (hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the tail contains a long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but dissolves readily in oil. Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium palmitate.

Detergents 1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals. 2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on the detergent ion. a. Anionic detergents where head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged ion. Example : R O SO3 Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate) b. Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged ion. Example : R N (CH3)3 + BRc. Non ionic detergents Example : R O CH2CH2OH3

There are two types of anionic detergents : a. Detergent molecule with a benzene ring such as sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate. b. Detergent molecule without a benzene ring such as sodium alkyl sulphate.

Preparation of detergents 1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps. Step 1 : Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid Step 2 : Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.

2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol , CH3(CH2)10CH2OH 3. The detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name) , CH3(CH2)10CH20-SO3-NA+. 4. Sodium alkylbenzene sulphinates were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH, obtained from cracking the petroleum.

Step 1 : Alkylation Alkylation is the introduction of the akyl group to an organic molecule. Step 2 : Sulphonation Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid to form alkybenzene sulphonic acid. Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H, to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid. Step 3 : Neutralisation Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent.

The cleansing of soap and detergent 1. The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical bonding and structure. a. The ionic head (negatively charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oily layer b. The long hydrocarbon tail (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in oily layer. 2. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water because oil ( a covalent molecule) is insoluble in water 3. Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or detergent is added to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease. a. The negatively charged head (hydrophilic) of soap ions or detergent ions dissolves in water. b. The hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent dissolve in the layer of grease. 4. The water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface. This cause by the forces of attraction between the water molecules and the negatively charged heads. 5. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the surface. 6. Emulsifying dirt in water a. Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify oils and grease. b. The process of emulsification breaks large drop of grease into smaller droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplet repels on another because the carry same charge. As a result,the grease is suspended in the solution. c. When the cloth is rinsed with water, the droplet will be carried away. d. The cleaning process become more efficient in the water containing the soap or detergent solution is stirred.

Additives in detergents 1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of additives to : a. Increase their cleaning power b. Make them attractive and saleable 2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cleansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are additives. 3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O1O) a. Sodium tripolyphosphate is used to soften hard water. In the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are removed. b. Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way, muddy dirt can be removed. 4. Whitening / bleaching agents : Sodium perborate a. Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process. When coloured stains are oxidized, the colour will disappear. b. The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are sodium perborate (NaH2BO43H2O) Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to release oxygen (an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action. c. Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches make fabric whiter than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes of the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are removed. d. Beside sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) can also be used as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).

e. Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty stains. However, high concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging to fabrics. These bleaches do not work well on synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics), often causing a yellowing rather than the desire whitening. Also, chlorine causes the dyes on fabric to fade. 5. Biological enzymes : amylase, lipase and protease a. Proteins stains such blood, milk and tomato sauce cannot be removed by ordinary detergents because these type of stains are insoluble in water. b. Biological enzymes in detergent can break down fat and protein molecule in food stains. The fatty acid, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in water and removed during washing. 6. Brighteners a. The brighteners absorb the invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light Brighteners make fabric appear white and brighter because blue light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light reflected on old fabrics can make them look white. 7. Drying agents : sodium sulphate and sodium silicate Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition. 8. Stabilisers a. The function of stabilizers is to prevents the formation of foam. b. In automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump working. So, washing powders for automatic washing machine are made using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying grease, but do not produce foam.

9. Perfumes a. Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

Effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents Advantages of soaps 1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that water does not contain Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions. 2. Soap do not cause pollution problem to the environment. This is because soaps are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that soaps are biodegradable, that is they can be composed by action of bacteria. Disadvantages of soaps 1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium salts. 2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard water. 3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium stearate. 4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example, rainwater containing dissolved acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acid molecular size that are insoluble in water. 5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (head) that dissolves in water. Advantages of detergents 1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard water.

2. The detergents ions (R O SO3 and R SO3 - ) react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salt which are formed are soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active in hard water and lathers easily 3. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner. 4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion is acidic water do not combined with detergents ions.

Disadvantages of detergents 1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are nonbiodegradable, that is, they cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents cause water pollution. 2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of water plants and algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives. 3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the water surface will prevent oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and other aquatic life till die from oxygen starvation. 4. Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life. Food Additives 1. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific purpose such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring the colour of the food destroyed during food processing.

2. Food additives are used to : a. Retard food spoilage. b. Make food taste better or smell better. c. Add colouring to food

Food additives

Preservatives and antioxidants Flavouring agents, stabilisers, thickening agents and dyes

Type of food additives

Example

Preservatives

Antioxidants Flavouring agents Stabilizers and thickening agents Dyes

Sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, sulphur dioxide, sodium suphites, sorbic acid Ascorbic acid (Vit.C), BHA, BHT, citric acid, sodium citrate Monosodium glutamate (MSG), aspartame Gelatin, acacia gum(agar) Azo compounds, triphenyl compounds

Function of food additives: 1. Preservatives: Chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of microorganisms, so that the food can be stored for a long time. 2. Antioxidants : Chemicals that are added to food to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air 3. Flavouring agents: To make food taste better.

4. Stabilizers : Chemicals that are added to enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form emulsion of water and oil. 5. Thickening agents : Chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from becoming liquid. 6. Dyes: Chemicals that are added to food to give them colour so as to improve their appearance.

Effects on health Allergy Carcinogenic Brain damage Hyperactivity : MSG : NaNo2

Medicine 1. Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses. 2. Traditional medicine are medicine derived from natural source such as plants and animals without being processed chemically. Modern Medicine 1. Can be classified as follows: a. Analgesics b. Antibiotics c. Psychoterapeutic drugs Type of modern medicine Analgesics Antibiotic Psychotherapeutic drugs Example Aspirin, paracetamol, codeine Penicillin, streptomycin Stimulants, antidepressants, antipsychotics

Functions 1. Analgesics: a. Medicine that relieve pain b. Sometimes called painkillers. c. Aspirin and paracetamol aremild painkillers whereas codeine is a powerful painkiller d. Analgesics relievepain but do not cure the disease. 2. Antibiotics: a. Chemical that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious organisms. b. Used to treat disease caused by bacteria. c. Not effective against disease cause by viral infection such as influenze, measles or small pox. 3. Psychotherapeutic medicine: a. A group of drugs for treating mental or emotional illnesses.

b. Stimulants is a naturally occuring or synthetic drugs that stimulate the activity of the brain and central nervous system. Example of stimulants is caffeine, amphetamines. c. Antidepressants increases the brains level of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood. Example of antidepressants is prozac. d. Antipsychotic agents does not cure mental illness, but can reduce some of the symptoms to help the person to live a more normal life. Example of antipsychotic agents is chloropromazin.

Reference
1. www.scribd.com 2. Chemistry Form 5 Text Book

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