1.
CHRIS ARGYRIS
Psychological Energy Theory
• American business theorist,
Professor Emeritus at
Harvard Business School,
Thought Leader at Monitor
Group.
• Commonly known for
seminal work in the area of
"Learning Organizations".
• Believes that people will
exert more energy to meet
their own needs than those of
the organization.
• Suggests that management
match personnel and jobs by
taking advantage of people’s
talents and interests make
jobs interesting and
challenging, help personnel
satisfy their needs for self-
actualization, and improve
interpersonal relationships.
Immaturity / Maturity Theory
Personality changes
According to Argyris, seven
changes should take place in the
personality of individuals if they are to
develop into mature people over the
years.
• First, individuals move from
a passive state as infants to a
state of increasing activity as
adults.
• Second, individuals develop
from a state of dependency
upon others as infants to a
state of relative independence
as adults.
• Third, individuals behave in
only a few ways as infants,
but as adults they are capable
of behaving in many ways.
• Fourth, individuals have
erratic, casual, and shallow
interests as infants but
develop deeper and stronger
interests as adults.
• Fifth, the time perspective of
children is very short,
involving only the present,
but as they mature, their time
perspective increases to
include the past and the
future.
• Sixth, individuals as infants
are subordinate to everyone,
but they move to equal or
superior positions with others
as adults.
• Seventh, as children,
individuals lack an awareness
of a "self," but as adults they
are not only aware of, but
they are able to control "self."
Argyris postulates that these changes
reside on a continuum and that the
"healthy" personality develops along the
continuum from "immaturity" to
"maturity.
Immaturity / Maturity Continuum
Passive Active
Dependence  Independence
Behave in few ways Capable of
behaving in many ways
Erratic shallow interests  Deep and
strong interests
Short term perspective  Long term
perspective (past & future)
Subordinate position  Equal or
superordinate position
Lack of awareness of self  Awareness
and control of self
This means going from the impatient
here and now, self centeredness, and
dependence to a longer term perspective,
seeing the other's point of view and
having independence with
interdependent responsibilities.
• The lack of interpersonal
competence prevents
maturity and psychological
energy.
• To be effective, managers
should aim for the full
psychological development
of the worker. This means
changing the organization
and the raising the
competence of dealing with
one another.
Application of the Theories in the
Nursing Practice
A nurse with full psychological
development is:
• Active and knows how to
deal well with patients,
knows what to do and how to
do things well; also being
responsible
• Aware and knows how to
control of himself / herself,
thus knows how to do things
right at the right time,
minimizing and/or avoiding
errors.
• Loyal and devoted to his / her
profession and finds meaning
in it.
• Develops his/her personality
and becomes a well-rounded
individual.
• Updates himself/herself with
the new trends in his/her
field.
• Gets along with others and
develop good interpersonal
relationships with them.
2. Henri Fayol (1841-1925)
Management Theory
“Father of the school of Systematic
Management”
French engineer and director of mines,
was little unknown outside France until
the late 40s when Constance Storrs
published her translation of Fayol's 1916
"Administration Industrielle et Generale
".
Henri Fayol's Management Theory
(1) planning,
(2) organizing,
(3) commanding,
(4) coordinating, and
(5) controlling
Fourteen Principles of Management
1. Division/Specialization of labor.
Specializing encourages continuous
improvement in skills and the
development of improvements in
methods.
2. Authority.
The right to give orders and the power to
exact obedience
3. Discipline
No slacking, bending of rules. The
workers should be obedient and
respectful of the organization.

4. Unity of command.
Each employee has one and only one
boss.
5. Unity of direction.
A single mind generates a single plan
and all play their part in that plan.
6. Subordination of Individual
Interests.
When at work, only work things should
be pursued or thought about.
7. Remuneration.
Employees receive fair payment for
services, not what the company can get
away with.
8. Centralization
Consolidation of management functions.
Decisions are made from the top.
9. Adoption of ‘scalar chain’
Formal chain of command running from
top to bottom of the organization, like
military
10. Order.
All materials and personnel have a
prescribed place, and they must remain
there.
11. Equity.
Equality of treatment (but not
necessarily identical treatment)
12. Stability of jobs and positions
Limited turnover of personnel. Lifetime
employment for good workers.
13. Initiative.
Thinking out a plan and do what it takes
to make it happen
14. Esprit de corps.
Harmony, cohesion among personnel.
It's a great source of strength in the
organisation. Fayol stated that for
promoting esprit de corps, the principle
of unity of command should be observed
and the dangers of divide and rule and
the abuse of written communication
should be avoided.
3. William Ouchi’s Theory Z
William Ouchi
 American professor and author in
the field of business
management.
 During the 1970s, when
Japanese-style management was
all the rage, William Ouchi, took
the Theory X, Theory Y concept
one step further: Theory Z. This
is the participative model. Ouchi
was born and educated in
America, but was of Japanese
descent. He visited Japan and
studied their success with team
and participative management
and developed this theory.
THEORY Z
 Uses collective decision making,
long term employment,
monitoring holistic concern, and
use of quality circles to manage
service and quality.
 Theory Z focuses on better way
of motivating people through
their involvement. Organization
and the worker are viewed more
holistically. Through progressive
development, the organization
will be productive and quality
goals will be achieved.
Key Concepts
Collective decision making
  The decision making is collective
but the responsibility for decision
still resides in the individual.
Egalitarianism is a central feature
of type Z organizations. In
egalitarianism in organizational
contexts means that it is believed
that each person can apply
discretion and can work
autonomously without close
supervision. The belief is that
every person can be trusted.
 Ideas pass from manager to
manager for approval.
 Decisions are made by
consensus, only policy and
behavior are dealt with.
Long-term employment
 They rotate employees around
functions. Even though they have
modern information and
accounting systems, they do not
dominate decision making.
 slower promotions and less direct
supervision
Use of quality circles
• Formed when two to ten
employees meet to identify
problems, explore options, and
make decisions. Quality circles
have increased worker
productivity, enhance job
satisfaction and reduced turnover
in addition to solving identifies
problems.
Holistic concern and monitoring
• The organization invests in its
employees and addresses both
home and work issues creating a
path for career development.
Democratic leaders are skilled in
interpersonal relations, foster
employee involvement.
The Japanese Theory Z managers
focus on the four soft S’s of
management:
Staff – workers
Skill – capabilities of organization or
key personnel
Style – cultural style of the organization
or how managers achieve goal
Superordinate goal – guideposts are
determined by personnel
Less attention is given to the hard S’s:
System – mechanism whereby
information circulates through the
organization
Structure – organization
Strategy – plan of action
Assumptions
Theory Z Workers' motivation. The
Theory Z manager assumes that
employees are motivated by a strong
sense of commitment to be a part of
something worthwhile -- the self-
actualization need.
Workers' attitude toward work. The
Theory Z manager believes that
employees will not only seek out
opportunities for responsibility, in fact,
they crave opportunities to advance and
learn more about the company.
What will work with employees: The
Theory Z manager believes that
employees should learn the business
through the various departments, come
up through the ranks slowly, and that the
company will get the best benefits from
that employee by making it possible for
him/her to have "lifetime employment."
The result will be strong bonds of
loyalty.

Differences between American and
Japanese Management Practices
American Organizations
Short-term employment
Individual decision making
Individual responsibility
Rapid evaluation & promotion
Explicit control mechanisms
Specialized career paths
Segmented concern for employee as an
employee
Japanese Organizations
Lifetime employment
Collective decision making
Collective responsibility
Slow evaluation & promotion
Implicit control mechanisms
Nonspecialized career paths
Holistic concern for employee as a
person
Many managers identified some
American companies as following those
practices. The companies identified were
IBM, Procter and Gamble, Hewlett
Packard, Eastman Kodak, and the US
Military. These companies are named
Theory Z companies by Ouchi. They are
companies in USA but follow practices
similar to Japanese companies.
Strategies to Transform the
Organization
Ouchi proposed 12 strategies or steps to
transform a typical American company,
named as type A company to type Z
company.
1. skeptics have to be allowed to
exist.
2. the company should audit its
philosophy.
3. management must be able to
define desired philosophy and be
able to involve company leaders.
4. the company will have to create
both a structure and incentive in
the company.
5. the company will have to
develop some interpersonal
skills.
6. the company must be able to test
themselves and the system.
7. to stabilize employment.
8. to design a system of slow
evaluation and promotion.
9. to broaden the people’s career
paths.
10. start from the top to implement
Theory Z at the lowest level
11. to find areas where employee
participation is allowed in
decision making.
12. to create a sense of family
between everyone.
Application of Theory in Nursing
Practice
There are some aspects of Theory Z that
may be directly applied in nursing
settings – for example, taking
competitors seriously, focusing on the
needs of society served by nursing,
providing long term support for
employees and consensus decision
making.
4. Kurt Lewin
Force Field Theory
Born: Sept. 9, 1890, Mogilno, Ger.
Died: Feb. 12, 1947, Newtonville,
Mass., U.S.
• Famous charismatic psychologist
• “Father of Social Psychology” or
“Father of Social Change
Theories”
 • Lauded as originator of social
psychology, action research as
well as organizational
development
• Well-known for his terms “life
space” and “field theory”
Force Field Theory
• It offers direction for
diagnosing situations and
managing change within
organizations and
communities
• Human behavior is caused
by forces-beliefs, cultural
norms, expectations and the
like- within the “life space”
of an individual or society
a. Driving Forces -forces affecting a
situation pushing in a particular direction
tending to initiate a change and keep it
going
examples: pressure from supervisor,
incentive earnings, competition
b. Restraining Forces -forces acting to
restrain or decrease the driving forces
examples: apathy, hostility, poor
maintenance of equipment
c. Equilibrium -or present level of
productivity / status quo; can be raised
or lowered by changes in the relationship
between the driving and restraining
forces; is reached when: sum of driving
forces equals sum of restraining forces
3-Step Model -can help shift the balance
in the direction of the planned change
a. Unfreezing -involves finding a
method of making it possible for people
to let go of an old pattern that was
counterproductive in some way
Activities that can assist in the step:
• Motivate participants by
preparing them for change
• Build trust
• Recognize need for change
b. Moving to a new level / Changing
-involves a process of change – in
thoughts, feelings, behavior or all three,
that is in some way more liberating or
more productive
Activities that can assist in the step:
• Make employees see that the
status quo is not beneficial to
them
• Encourage to view problem
from a fresh perspective
Refreezing -establishes the change as a
new habit so that it now becomes the
“standard operating procedure; without
it, it is easy to backslide into the old
ways
Activity that can assist in the step:
• Reinforce new patterns and
institutionalize them through
formal and informal
mechanisms including
policies and procedures
Application in Nsg Practice
Nursing is a field that requires a good
deal of adaptation by an individual due
to its many changes and fundamental
processes.
While one can enter into the field of
nursing with their own idea of what
skills are going to be necessary, as well
as with many opinions on how various
situations should be handled, there
always needs to be a good deal of
preparedness for any type of change that
might take place suddenly or over time.
The area of communication is a key
essential, especially if motivating others
towards a new direction is the path that
is underway.
5. Path-goal theory
Robert House
•Joseph Frank Bernstein Professor of
Organizational Studies
•Professor of Management
•Professor in Wharton University from
1988-present
b. Theory
The path-goal theory, also known as the
path-goal theory of leader effectiveness
or the path-goal model, is a leadership
theory in the field of organizational
studies developed by Robert House in
1971 and revised in 1996. This theory
states that a leader's behavior is
contingent to the satisfaction, motivation
and performance of subordinates. It also
argues that the leader engage in
behaviors that complement subordinate's
abilities and compensate for
deficiencies.
The theory was inspired on the work of
Martin G. Evans (1970), in which the
leadership behaviors and the follower
perceptions of the degree to which
following a particular behavior (path)
will lead to a particular outcome (goal).
The path-goal theory was also
influenced by the expectancy theory of
motivation developed by Victor Vroom
in 1964.
c. Highlights of the theory/Important
concepts
•The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
was developed to describe the way that
leaders encourage and support their
followers in achieving the goals they
have been set by making the path that
they should take clear and easy.
•In particular, leaders should:
Clarify the path so subordinates know
which way to go.
Remove roadblocks that are stopping
them going there.
Increase the rewards along the route.
•A person may perform these by
adopting a certain leadership style, based
on the situation:
• Directive leadership: Specific
advice is given to the group and
ground rules and structure are
established. For
example, clarifying expectations,
specifying or assigning certain
work tasks to be followed.
• Supportive leadership: Good
relations are promoted with the
group and sensitivity to
subordinates' needs is shown.
Considering the needs of the
follower, showing concern for
their welfare and creating a
friendly working environment.
This includes increasing the
follower's self-esteem and
making the job more interesting.
This approach is best when the
work is stressful, boring or
hazardous.
• Participative leadership:
Decision making is based
on consultation with the group
 and information is shared with
the group. Consulting with
followers and taking their ideas
into account when making
decisions and taking particular
actions. This approach is best
when the followers are expert
and their advice is both needed
and they expect to be able to give
it.
• Achievement-oriented
leadership: Challenging goals
are set and high performance is
encouraged while confidence is
shown in the groups' ability. This
approach is best when the task is
complex.
II. Application
Clinical instructors are expected to teach
student nurses basic nursing knowledge
and skills since they act as their mentors.
If a student nurse lacks the confidence in
performing a nursing procedure such as
catheterization, the clinical instructor
should first orient the student nurse on
the procedure. He then should
accompany the student nurse as he
performs the task, coaching him now
and then on how to properly do it. After
doing it, the clinical instructor should
evaluate the student nurse’s performance
and compliment him if he did a good job
or tell him in a constructive way that he
still has to improve his skills.
6. William B. Lashbrook
Interactional Work Unit Culture
Levels of satisfaction conceptually
related to work culture are:
• Satisfaction with self on the job
• Satisfaction with job itself
• Satisfaction with coworkers
• Satisfaction with the way one is
managed
Things used to rationalize level of
satisfaction:
• Recognition and rewards they
receive
• Managerial report they receive
• Employee involvement in setting
work goals
• Importance of their jobs
(mission)
7. George Elton Mayo
The Hawthorne effect
• Australian psychologist,
sociologist and organization
theorist
Summary of Mayo’s Beliefs:
• Individual workers cannot be
treated in isolation, but must be
seen as members of a group.
• Monetary incentives and good
working condition are less
important to the individual than
the need to belong to a group.
• Informal or unofficial groups
formed at work have a strong
influence on the behavior of
those workers in a group.
• Managers must be aware of these
‘social needs’ and cater for them
to ensure that employees
collaborate with the official
organization rather than work
against it.
Application
People will be more productive when
appreciated or when watched.
8. Fred Edward Fiedler
Contingency Theory

Austrian psychologist, one of the leading

scientists in industrial and organizational
psychology

His approach departs from trait and

behavioral models by asserting that
group performance is contingent on the
leader’s psychological orientation and on
three contextual variables (group
atmosphere, task structure and leader’s
power position).

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

This theory explains that group
performance is a result of interaction of
two factors:

Leadership style (least preferred

coworker)
Scale asks a leader to think of all people
with whom they have ever worked with
and then to describe the person with
whom they have worked least well. A
high (LPC) score suggests that the leader
has a human relations orientation, while
a low (LPC) score indicates a task
orientation.

Situational Favorableness

Leader-member relations; referring to

the degree of mutual trust, respect and
confidence between the leader and the
subordinates

Task structure; referring to the extent to

which group tasks are clear and
structured

Leader position power; referring to the

power inherent in the leader’s position
itself